dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Intellectual property rights (IPR) protect firms from imitation and are considered crucial to promote innovation and technological diffusion. This paper examines the impact of IPR on import sourcing decisions of multinationals. We consider a framework in which multinational firms offshore production of an intermediate good in a developing country. Firms can either decide to import the intermediate from vertically integrated producers, or from independent suppliers. In both cases, offshoring part of the production process embodies a risk of imitation. The model predicts that, under reasonable assumptions, stronger IPR encourage by a larger extent the imports of intermediates through vertical integration. Using U. S. Related-Party Trade database, we find empirical evidence supportive of the positive link between level of IPR and the relative share of imports from vertically integrated manufacturers.
This happens because vertical integration induces larger knowledge spillovers. To empirically examine the role of IPR in affecting the global sourcing decisions of firms, we combine the index of patent protection in  Park (2008)  with data on US intra-firm trade taken from the U. S. Census Bureau's Related Party Trade Database. 1 Our baseline empirical specification considers the impact of an increase in IPR protection on the share of related party intermediate imports, controlling for industry and country characteristics. We find a positive and statistically significant impact of IPR, which supports the theoretical finding that an increase in IPR protection is more valuable for vertical integrated firms. Then we assess the sensitivity and robustness of our results. First, we switch from the 2002 Input-Output industry codes to NAICS six digit industry classification, to include time varying industry variables.
Our approach will then exploit industry-level variations, taking advantage from U. S. Related-Party Trade database made available by Pol Antràs. 6 The dataset provide information on goods transactions across borders within and outside of firm boundaries over the period 2000-2010. This database defines a related party as a foreign counterpart in which the U. S. importer has at least 6% equity. This is lower than the conventional 10% threshold used by the IMF to identify FDI. However,  Nunn and Trefler (2008)  provide suggestive evidence that related party trade is generally associated with one of the entities having a controlling stake in the other entity. In the following sections we present the description of the data, our empirical strategy, and a discussion of the results.
Additionally, using the Wright (2014) methodology, the IO2002 classification can isolate the intermediate input component of import flows. 7 This cleaning should eliminate possible confounding effects for the role of IPR due to the fact that original U. S. product level data combine intermediate input as well as finished goods imports. Data used are for 193 countries and 253 manufacturing industries. One shortcoming of using U. S. manufacturing data is related to the fact that, in recent years, different multinationals have concentrated in pre-production activities such as design and engineering. The presence of "factoryless goods producers", as referred to in  Bernard and Fort (2015) , introduces errors sice the IO tables are not able to capture outsourcing by wholesalers. 8 Nonetheless, this dataset remains one of the most reliable sources of information concerning global value chains.
Capital intensity is separated into expenditures on capital equipment (computers and data processing), and on capital structure (automobile and trucks). Skill intensity is the ratio of the number of non-production workers divided by total employment. R&D intensity is computed as R&D expenditures divided by sales. The underlying data from NBER-CES and Orbis are available on a yearly basis, but others, like specificity and contractability, are not. 10 Therefore, to capture the average buyer in an industry,  Antràs and Chor (2013)  and  Antràs (2015)  use weighted average measures of headquarter intensity. In our benchmark estimation, where we use the Wright (2014) methodology to control for the intermediate input component in trade flows, we rely on those averaged industry measures. Then, as a robustness check we run a similar regression combining time varying industry variables at the NAICS level and BEC classification to identify intermediates, and results do not change.
Robustness and Sensitivity Analysis In this section we run some robustness checks to overcome possible limitations of the analysis. Firstly, we run a similar regression as in equation (  25 ), but this time we keep time varying industry variables. Therefore, we switch to NAICS industry level classification, and then combine it with BEC classification to restrict the analysis to intermediates only. The data are always from U. S. Related-Party Trade database, which is available for 390 manufacturing industries. The limitation of this approach is that the NAICS data are reported based on the sector of the good being transacted, and do not contain information on the sector that is purchasing the good. Our regression becomes: S ict = β 1 + β 2 IP R ct + β 3 X it + β 4 Z ct + µ c + γ t + ict , (26) where S ict is the share of intra-firm trade, defined as the ratio of related-party imports to the sum of related and non-related imports.
This result derives from the fact that we model vertical integration as inducing more knowledge spillover than outsourcing. This makes a vertically integrated firm more exposed to the threat of imitation when IPR are weak. Therefore, stronger IPR encourage by a larger extent the imports of intermediates through vertical integration. Our results are tested using US intra-firm trade from the U. S. Census Bureau's Related Party Trade Database. According to the estimates, an increase in IPR enforcement is more valuable for vertical integrated firms. We also assess the sensitivity and robustness of our results to alternative specifications, such as changing industry classification and introducing differences in the industry-level sensitivity to IPR. Finally, to correct for the potential endogeneity of the strength of IPR protection, we propose a two-stage instrumental variable approach, based on differences in the colonial status of countries and on student migrations.
The ALEAç is available as an online resource 3 with roughly 1,100 maps presenting one cultural or lexical concept each. Data were collected in three phases in 1979, 1981 and after a long break in 1995/96. Informants were chosen in rural places in an age group above 40 with more than half of the participants being 60 years old or above at the time of the interview. Out of this data set (see Table  1 ), a total number of 157 maps were selected because they presented at least one token with a front rounded vowel. These maps yielded 55 types with the mid-front rounded vowel  [ø]  for which 266 tokens could be extracted. A search for the high-front rounded vowel [y] brought about 77 types with 227 tokens. The data were annotated for location and etymon in standard Portuguese spelling, syllable structure (existence or absence of onset and coda), monophthongisation or diphthongisation of the front rounded vowel(s) and its standard Portuguese counterpart, and stress of the syllable in which the front rounded vowel is found.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to deduce from the dataset whether the examples in (  13 ), (  14 ) and (  15 ) were given by individuals who could not read or write or whether spelling does indeed in any way reduce the likelihood of the [o] > [y] process. Similarly irregular cases can be noted for the mid-front rounded vowel [ø] in unstressed positions: (16) [ørˈdũm] SEP urdume [urˈdumə] 'warp thread' map 247 (17) [øˈveʎɐ] SEP ovelha [oˈveʎɐ] 'sheep' map 584 (18) [kɐrøˈʃĩɳɐ] SEP carochinha [kɐrɔˈʃĩɳɐ] 'ladybird' map 981 Neither of these forms has any of the diphthongs like [ow] or [oj] in its standard Portuguese counterpart. Example (  16 ) is especially peculiar because it reopens a vowel that could have been expected to be a closed front rounded vowel [y] as in (  11 ) or (  12 ). Instead, the adjacent stressed vowel [ũ] remains unrounded and is nasalised whereas the unstressed vowel is lowered and fronted, thus differing in two features of the vowel at once while only the feature [+round] is kept.
AbstrAct Objective To assess the budget impact of using ulipristal acetate (UPA) 5 mg to treat women with uterine fibroids (UF) causing moderate to severe symptoms. Design We modelled trends in the number of surgical procedures for symptomatic UF, with and without the use of UPA for preoperative or intermittent treatment and assessed the budget impact of UPA use from the French national healthcare insurance system perspective. setting A French national hospital database (PMSI) that records admissions and relative procedures to public and private hospitals. Participants Women eligible for surgical procedures for uterine fibroids. Main outcome measures Economic impact of UPA treatment. results This study based on observational retrospective data shows that the current use of UPA in its preoperative indication was associated with 5645 fewer surgeries from 2013 to 2015.
Indeed, given the lack of real-world data for this population, theoretical analysis of the benefits associated with intermittent treatment would have been poorly informative. The study population represented about 10% of the estimated total population of women with moderate to severe UF in France (307 000 patients, including women having surgical procedures). The economic benefits associated with the use of UPA in the study population were measured in terms of the impact of UPA on the use of surgery, and compared with treatment costs in order to estimate the budget impact. A counterfactual scenario was used to assess the hypothetical use of surgery in France if UPA had not been available from August 2013. The following two scenarios were then compared with this counterfactual scenario: 1. The current scenario, based on the use of surgery with UPA available in its current marketing situation in France (ie, the preoperative indication since August 2013); 2.
An exploratory scenario modelling the potential incremental impact associated with the reimbursement of intermittent UPA after January 2017 concerning surgical treatment. In this analysis, the benefits of intermittent indication were limited to the possibility of postponement of the surgery after the occurrence of menopause and, consequently, of avoidance of surgery. As the PEARL IV study 10 evaluated the efficacy of intermittent treatment over a 2-year duration of exposure, the impact of intermittent UPA was only assessed in women nearing the menopause (≥48 years old). In all three scenarios, outcomes were estimated from exhaustive real-world data available in French national databases. The perspective was that of the French national healthcare insurance system (Caisse Nationale d'Assurance Maladie; CNAM).
Identification of surgical procedures in national databases The number of surgical procedures for UF was estimated from the database of the French Medical Information System (Programme de Médicalisation des Systèmes d'Information; PMSI), which covers all French public and private hospitals. All hospital stays in a given year are available in standardised discharge reports and are collected in the PMSI database. This database is primarily used for invoicing purposes through a diagnosis-related group (DRG) system by hospitals to CNAM, but it can also be used to assess the number of patients treated per year for a specific disease and the number of hospital stays per patient. This database is used for epidemiological purposes by several public health organisations, such as the National Cancer Institute (Institut National du Cancer).
Hospital stays for UF were extracted from the PMSI database by using the ICD-10 codes for UF, namely D25 (leiomyoma of uterus); D25. 0 (submucous leiomyoma of uterus); D25. 1 (intramural leiomyoma of uterus); D25. 2 (subserosal leiomyoma of uterus) and D259 (leiomyoma of uterus, unspecified). The surgical procedures were selected from the PMSI by selecting the specific codes of the French procedure classification (Classification Commune des Actes médicaux), as shown in table  1.
Starting with the number of surgical procedures that would be done if UPA was not available, ii we estimated that: ► About 31% of these procedures would have involved women aged ≥48 years(analysis of the PMSI database showed that age at surgery was stable over time-figure  2 ); ► Respectively, 20%, 40% and 60% of the surgeries warranted for women aged ≥48 years in 2017, 2018 and 2019 would have been avoided thanks to intermittent UPA treatment, assuming market penetration similar to that observed for preoperative UPA during the first 3 years on the French market. On this basis, the estimated numbers of women who would be prescribed intermittent treatment were 2348 in 2017, 4712 in 2018 and 7093 in 2019. By smoothing those initiations uniformly over the year, the estimated numbers of treatment units reimbursed for intermittent treatment were 10 566 in 2017, 36 466 in 2018 and 64 895 in 2019.
22 Using data from this study, we estimated that the total average cost of a surgical procedure was €2810. In keeping with the societal perspective, the hospital per diem charges, which are supported by the patient, were added to the total cost of the surgical procedure. Those charges depend on the length of the hospital stay and were estimated at €72. In this analysis, total UPA treatment costs were considered, rather than the portion reimbursed by CNAM; ► Indirect costs associated with sick leave: one particularity of the French national healthcare system is partial compensation for sick leave. The national database (DAMIR)  23  gathering all expenditures of the French national healthcare insurance system allowed us to estimate the average daily compensation for sick leave at €31. By taking into account an average 30-day period of sick leave after UF surgery  24  and an employment rate of 92% among women with UF, (Observational epidemiological study realized by Kantar Health for Gedeon Richter, unpublished data) the average cost of sick leave after UF surgery was estimated at €856; ► Duration of exposure during intermittent treatment: based on the PEARL II results showing a maintenance of the effect of UPA on UF size and no return to initial symptoms severity scores 6 months after treatment, and on PREMYA  25  results confirming the satisfaction of both patients and healthcare professionals at least 6 months after treatment cessation, the off-treatment periods and the follow-up period were both extended to 6 months.
There are no comparable pharmacoeconomic evaluations of UPA in the literature. An Italian study  26  compared intermittent use to preoperative use, estimating the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio between the two strategies and the budget impact of intermittent treatment. The authors concluded that compared with former preoperative use, intermittent UPA therapy had a favourable pharmacoeconomic profile and was cost saving for the national healthcare system. Our results are consistent with these findings, as we found that intermittent treatment was associated with more substantial benefits than preoperative treatment in comparable marketing conditions. The budget impact of the preoperative indication reported here is based on real-world data recorded in France at the national level and on conservative economic assumptions.
Too little real-world information is available to address the use of intermittent UPA in routine practice, whereas the impact of preoperative treatment on the use of surgery has been robustly quantified. Analyses of intermittent UPA treatment based on French medical-administrative databases will help answer this question. contributors HF assures that all authors included in the paper fulfil the criteria of authorship, and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria of authorship, but are not listed. All authors have seen and approved the final version of the manuscript being submitted. Each author had the following role: design of the work: HF, OJ, VV, ML, AL, MT; analysis of data and modeling: ML, AL, MT; interpretation of results: HF, OJ, VV, ML, AL, MT; writing of the paper and proofreading: HF, OJ, VV, ML, AL, MT.
strengths and limitations of this study ► Analysis based on exhaustive real-world data available in French national databases. ► Consistent and robust conclusions of the analysis (ulipristal acetate (UPA) is cost-saving), even during sensitivity analysis and considering the worst-case scenario. ► Conservative approach by excluding indirect costs associated with sick leave (which are partially compensated by the French national healthcare system) and by limiting the market penetration of UPA as a presurgical treatment. ► Inflexion point in the number of surgeries seen at the time of launch of UPA, solely attributed to the efficacy of UPA. ► Exploratory scenario for intermittent indication due to the limited availability of real-world data related to the use of intermittent UPA in routine practice.
Research strengths and limitations of this study ► Analysis based on exhaustive real-world data available in French national databases. ► Consistent and robust conclusions of the analysis (ulipristal acetate (UPA) is cost-saving), even during sensitivity analysis and considering the worst-case scenario. ► Conservative approach by excluding indirect costs associated with sick leave (which are partially compensated by the French national healthcare system) and by limiting the market penetration of UPA as a presurgical treatment. ► Inflexion point in the number of surgeries seen at the time of launch of UPA, solely attributed to the efficacy of UPA. ► Exploratory scenario for intermittent indication due to the limited availability of real-world data related to the use of intermittent UPA in routine practice.
25 objective. Images were captured using a single-lens reflex color camera (EOS 650D, Canon). Interferometric Microscopy: Light from a supercontinuum laser (Fianium) was filtered using an acousto-optic tunable filter (Crystal Technology) to transmit a semicoherent beam of 650 nm wavelength with 7 nm spectral width, which was then incident on the sample. A 60X/1. 45 oil immersion objective (Olympus) was used to collect the transmitted light. A τ interferometer unit positioned after the objective created a reference signal by filtering the high order Fourier components of the image, and then interfered the resulting reference signal with the original image in an off axis configuration. The interference signal was recorded on a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) camera (Thorlabs), and refractive index images were obtained by analysis in custom written MATLAB software (MathWorks).
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the  Ministry of Science, Technology and Space , Israel and by  NaBi CNRS-Weizmann  associated international laboratory. The authors wish to thank  Prof. Natan T. Shaked ,  Simcha Mirsky , and  Sharon Karepov  for their assistance in measuring and calculating the refractive indices of FFF-tapes. The authors wish to thank  Omri Heifler  of  Tel Aviv Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology  for his help in AFM imaging.
Natural history collection data are now accessible through databases and web portals. However, ecological or morphological traits describing specimens are rarely recorded while gathering data. This lack limits queries and analyses. Manual tagging of millions of specimens will be a huge task even with the help of citizen science projects such as "les herbonautes" (http://lesherbonautes. mnhn. fr). On the other hand, deep learning methods that use convolutional neural networks (CNN) demonstrate their efficiency in various domains, such as computer vision (Krizhevsky et al.
of the fully digitized collection of the Paris herbarium in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN, Paris, France). In a proof of concept project, we have used a CNN -pretrained on the image database ImageNet (http://www. image-net. org) -in order to identify 4 morphological traits of leaves, using 103,000 herbarium images from 11 different taxa: margin (entire / dentate), leaf attachment (opposite / alternate), leaf organization (simple / compound), plant (woody / non-woody) (see Fig. 1 ) Seventy percent of images are used to train the weights of the model (in a supervised learning process that uses a training set already tagged for the 4 characteristics), 10% are used as validation set to tune the hyperparameters of the model and to avoid overfitting, and 20% are used as test set to evaluate the generalization performances of the final neural network.
The influence of vegetation on slope stability is well understood at the slope level but scaling up to the catchment level is still a challenge, partially because of a lack of suitable data to validate models. We tested the physical landslide model, LAPSUS_LS, which models slope stability at the catchment scale. LAPSUS_LS combines a hydrological model with a Limit Equilibrium Method model, and calculates the factor of safety of individual cells based on their hydrological and geomorphological characteristics. We tested two types of vegetation on slope stability: (i) coffee monoculture (Coffea arabica) and (ii) a mixed plantation of coffee and deep rooting Erythrina (Erythrina poeppigiana) trees. Using soil and root data from Costa Rica, we performed simulations to test the response of LAPSUS_LS to root reinforcement, soil bulk density, transmissivity, internal friction angle and depth of shear plane.
We tested the physical landslide model, LAPSUS_LS  (Claessens, 2005) , to investigate the influence of vegetation on slope stability at the catchment scale. In previous studies using LAPSUS_LS  (Claessens, 2005 (Claessens, , 2006a (Claessens, ,b, 2007;; Keijsers et al. , 2011) , the influence of vegetation (in the form of additional cohesion from plant roots, c minuscule) was included as a parameter but not investigated in detail. In this study, a back analysis of landslides in a given catchment was performed and the c r value was adapted for different vegetation classes to match the observed landslides, but without direct measurements of root density and tensile strength. We chose to test LAPSUS_LS because of its ease of use, the relatively small amount of data required, the possibility to include spatial heterogeneity of data and the use of a standard FoS equation, thus making the model a suitable choice to examine the effect of vegetation on slope stability at catchment scale.
Study area and modeling scenarios To determine the sensitivity of LAPSUS_LS to various vegetation parameters at the catchment scale, soil and vegetation data were analyzed from a site in Costa Rica. The area selected for the study was Llano Bonito, a catchment of 18 km 2 in the region of Terrazù/Los Santos. The area has a humid tropical climate with two different seasons: a dry season from December to April, with little rainfall, and a rainy season from May to November  (Villatoro-Sánchez et al. , 2015). According to  Villatoro-Sánchez et al. (2015) , a weather station located 4 km away, in Carrizales De Leon Cortes, registered an average year rainfall of 2444 ± 409 mm for the period 1990-2006. Site altitude ranges between 1150 and 2200 ma. s. l. The geological formation belongs to the Terraba schist of Miocene age.