dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Dahl and Wälchli (2016)  and  Dahl (2019)  increased the number of languages with iamitives to 370, using a Multidimensional Scaling Model survey, and other examples derived from Spanish ja 'already' had been found in the L2 Spanish of a Chinese immigrant living in Spain  (Clements 2003: 57). Clearly, it would seem that Singlish already is a typical universal strategy for grammaticalizing the same functions of iamitives as found in other languages. 17 However, as already had been previously observed to carry the functions of a perfective marker (and sometimes, a perfect marker), it may be questioned why such markers need an additional label to distinguish them from perfectives. The lexical source alone does not provide the justification for isolating a new gram-type. The relations between iamitives and perfect(ives) may be seen in  Olsson (2013) , in which 7 main semantic and pragmatic characteristics are seen to be associated with this gram-type, crosslinguistically.
A corpus survey of already 31 In order to investigate the possibility that the past tense is replacing already in Singlish, the aspect marker was first searched in two recent corpora which were compiled more than ten years apart from each other. The International Corpus of English Singapore (ICE-SG) is a small corpus of around 1 million words, constructed in the early 1990s (according to Hiramoto 2015), and containing spoken as well as written data. The first 120 files were used, as they contain the most colloquial spoken data in which the form is more likely to appear; already is not a feature of the standard sub-variety (the written part of the corpus contains mainly Singapore Standard English). The first 120 files of the ICE-SG amount to around 217,000 words, according to  Deuber et al (2018).
The speakers in their data were born between 1899 and 1958, with an average year of birth being 1924, and were interviewed between 1979 and 2008; thus providing a valuable diachronic source for the study of the emerging dialect, reflecting most closely the Singlish of the early 20 th century. In Table  3 , the proportions of completive vs. noncompletive already in the ICE-SG and the Flowerpod corpora are compared with Li and Siemund's data from the Oral History Interviews; this is also compared with the frequencies of completive vs. non-completive already obtained from Teo (2019) based on interviews of 12 Singaporean Chinese and 8 Singaporean Malay speakers: Clearly, there is a steady rise shown in the proportions of non-completives to completive functions, something that Teo (2019) in his study had attributed to the mother tongue languages of each ethnic group surveyed (Chinese and Malay Singaporeans, though he did not survey Indian Singaporeans).
g. elle s'évanouit 'she fainted', renewed by elle s'est évanouie 'she fainted'), in which it is a more periphrastic form that replaces the former synthetic form expressing past tense by affixation. Renovation has been discussed in the contact grammaticalization literature (see  Heine & Kuteva 2005) , but with little reference to the presence of a lexifier as a source for the renewal. The process does not necessarily refer to a post-grammaticalization stage of a grammaticalizing form, but rather to the perpetuation of a grammaticalizing function through different formal means. In the case of Singlish already, the renovation by the past tense follows after what seems like a long period of layering, observed in  Ho and Platt's (1993)  account of past tense marking in Singlish. The layering situation exists in a contact feature pool in which there is continued competition between the substrate languages, the adstrate languages, and the continued presence of a standard lexifier placing controls on what may eventually grammaticalize in the dialect: already would be inconsistent with the lexifier grammar, and it is for this reason that the adverb does not occur directly after the verb as its counterpart could in Chinese languages.
Conclusions The present study supports the earlier study by  Teo (2019)  in showing that there is a gradual narrowing of functional range exhibited by the iamitive aspect marker already in today's Singlish, with the decline of completive functions leaving mainly noncompletives to be marked obligatorily by already. The relative reduction of completive functions is explained by a selective renovation by the past tense, and a convergence towards the standard English lexifier grammar, motivated and assisted by the stigmatization of Singlish in the national language policy of Singapore. However, this type of convergence may also be considered as a form of renewal of an iamitive function in contact grammaticalization, since there is evidence from some Portuguese creoles that similar functions of the adverb ja (meaning 'already') can progress on to become past tense forms.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ABSTRACTS The continuous co-existence in Colloquial Singapore English (Singlish) of the past tense alongside already, an aspect marker expressing iamitive functions  (Olsson 2013) , has not, to present knowledge, received an adequate explanation in terms of diachronic change. The two forms are often seen to overlap in function, but a more intensive survey reveals that only the completive functions overlap, the non-completive functions accounting for the majority of uses in presentday Singapore English. The bias in functions is considered to be the result of a renovation in contact grammaticalization, or a convergence towards the lexifier, often expressed in terms of decreolization in creole languages. The present study considers quantitative data of both completive and non-completive already across four diachronic time periods, concluding that the constant diglossic presence of the standard lexifier since colonization contributed to the convergence shown.
85, p =. 026, r =. 20[. 06,. 33], BF 10 = 6. 83; Kruskal-Wallis test: χ 2 (3) = 8. 50, p =. 037, ε 2 =. 02[0,. 07]). Despite this significant result, Bayes Factor analyses for most comparisons favour the null hypothesis (no differential increase; Baseline-Computer: BF 01 = 6. 07; Baseline-Individual: BF 01 = 4. 48; Computer-Individual: BF 01 = 4. 53; Individual-Group: BF 01 = 3. 44). We question then that the preference learning hypothesis does adequately explain our data. Norm learning. We use the data from the norm elicitation task to test the plausibility of the norm learning hypothesis and to distinguish between norm uncertainty and norm salience. We first compare appropriateness ratings between prosocial and antisocial participants in the Computer condition using a series of Kruskal-Wallis tests (one test for each rating;  Fig 6, top).
Background: Independence is related to the aging process. Loss of independence is defined as the inability to make decisions and participate in activities of daily living (ADLs). Independence is related to physical, psychological, biological, and socioeconomic factors. An enhanced understanding of older people's independence trajectories and associated risk factors would enable the develop early intervention strategies. Methods: Independence trajectory analysis was performed on patients identified in the Unité de Prévention de Suivi et d'Analyse du Vieillissement (UPSAV) database. UPSAV cohort is a prospective observational study. Participants were 221 community-dwelling persons aged ≥75 years followed for 24 months between July 2011-November 2013 and benefits from a prevention strategy. Data were collected prospectively using a questionnaire.
We used PROC MI "multiple imputation procedure" in SAS to manage them. A multinomial logistic regression analysis was performed to analyze the dependence of the explanatory variable and to identify predictive factors. The final model was selected bases on the Bayesian information criterion  [36]. The alpha level was set at 0. 05. Two other classification methods were used to identify trajectories. It is about k-means for longitudinal datasets (Kml)  [14, 15]  and hierarchical ascending classification (HAC). For k-means method, we used the Calinski-Harabasz criterion  [7]  to identify the optimal number of trajectory groups. Calinski-Harabasz criterion combines the within and between matrices to evaluate clustering quality. We used the "Kml" package   [15]. We used Ward's aggregation criteria  [51]  to identify the optimal number of groups for the hierarchical ascending classification.
Limitations This study has several limitations. First, the population small size (221 participants) and the short follow-up duration limit the generalizability of our results. But despite that, the multinominal logistic regression model predicts data with 85% accuracy. The results that we present here give a first idea of the trajectories. As a result, at this stage with the small sample size, our work is a first step but still with an explorative character. To generalize our results, in future research, we plan to assess the patterns observed in other older adult's population monitored within the same as our population or the longer periods, a larger population. Secondly, the functional autonomy of the participants was evaluated using the SMAF. Our results were interpreted using the SMAF independence threshold set by the PRISMA  [38]  and Dubuc  [10]  studies; i.
Data collection We employed a two-wave survey method for collecting the data and testing the research hypotheses. The respondents were graduate students from an institution of higher learning in France. The survey requests were sent to all the students enrolled for the 2019-2020 academic year. Participation in the study was purely voluntary. No credits or rewards were provided for the responses. The first survey was sent to the potential respondents at the beginning of the COVID-19 lockdown in March 2020. Because our study comprised two waves, the second survey conducted two months later in May 2020 was sent only to the respondents who had participated in the earlier survey. Two reminders were sent for both surveys before closing the response collection. During the period of our study, all the students were receiving academic instruction exclusively through ICT tools.
Exams were also conducted using a mix of different digital tools. In many cases, synchronous group presentations were also used for evaluating teamwork. Student assignments were submitted to the instructors either through emails or through the learning platform. We collected data on IT mindfulness, control variables, and demographic variables during the first wave of the survey which was conducted at the start of the lockdown in March 2020. During the second wave of survey in May 2020, we collected data on the experienced techno eustress and learning effectiveness in terms of productivity-inlearning and creativity-in-learning during the entire lockdown period in France from March to May 2020. Because during this period, the teaching was conducted exclusively through online means with no faceto-face interaction, it provided us with a unique natural context where the influence of non-online interaction between the instructor and the students was completely controlled for.
Second, our study uses a two-wave survey method to examine the relevance of IT mindfulness and techno eustress in facilitating online learning effectiveness. Though collecting the data in two phases mitigates methodological biases, future studies can consider using an experimental method to have conclusive evidence for the causal impact of IT mindfulness. In a similar vein, qualitative studies on the subject can help better understand the nuanced processes through which IT mindfulness influences online learning effectiveness. Future studies can also evaluate to what extent IT mindfulness trait perceptions could increase over time when participants continue to exhibit high techno eustress perceptions in online learning or other settings. Third, we tested the theorized model through a unique data set collected during the first pandemic driven lockdown period (from March to May 2020) in France.
Lastly, there are some data on the fuels used for portable grease lamps (mainly from anthracological and chemical analyses). Regarding wood used for wicks, juniper has been identified in the best-known lamp from Lascaux Cave (Dordogne, France), although the possibility that it is Taxus baccata (yew) cannot be ruled out  [24]. Carbonaceous samples from calcareous plaquettes at Lascaux have also been identified: nine were described as an amorphous mass other than wood, two as charcoal from an indeterminate wood, one as a Gramineae (grass) twig, seven as conifer charcoal, four as juniper charcoal, and one as bone  [11, 24]. Other substances were detected by microscopic observation of the lamps from Lascaux Cave, such as wood charcoal ash and a possible amorphous substance related to resin (perhaps from the combustion of wood from a resinous conifer).
Reproduced lighting types Three different types of Paleolithic lighting sources were assessed in eight experiments: five torches, two stone lamps with animal fat, and a small fireplace. Their measurements (size and weight) are summarized in Table  1. More detailed information about the materials in each experiment and their preparation is given in S4 Appendix. Torches: The functioning of five wooden torches has been evaluated in a cave context (experiments 1-5). They were all made from branches of dry juniper wood 1. 2 cm thick that were joined together. This type of structure was chosen because it fits with the archaeological data and the form of the few prehistoric torches that have been preserved (see Section 2. 1). For example, this matches the thickness of the remains of branches that have been found in the caves of Aldène and Reseau Clastres and with the morphology of a Hallstatt torch.
Methodology: Testing lighting systems in Paleolithic caves Different physical parameters associated with the light radiation emitted by each experimental light resource were evaluated during the experimental activities: • Duration: the length of time that the combustion emits luminous flux, that is, the time that the combustion has a flame. To measure this parameter, we used a basic stopwatch that recorded the hours, minutes, and seconds. • Illuminance: the total amount of light received on a specific surface or point from a luminous flux (lumens) relative to the human eye. Its symbol is E, and it is measured in lux (lumen per m 2 ) (Fig  5 )  [61]. This parameter was measured with a model PCE-L335 light meter (S2 Appendix, detailed data on the instruments). Measurements were made at different distances (every 10 cm) from the light source and with a 90˚angle between the fire and the instrument.
R ¼ ðL:Þ=E • Luminance: This is a parameter that connects light intensity with the surface of the source. The concept of "source" is understood in a broad sense, which includes both primary sources (flame) and secondary sources (illuminated on the surface). The latter returns a certain degree of light, depending on its reflection coefficient. The unit of measurement for luminance is the candle per square meter (cd/m 2 ) (Fig  5 ). We have applied a standard reflection coefficient for limestone (40%)  [61] , and its formula, based on illuminance, is as follows: L ¼ ðr EÞ=p We also provide information on the temperature reached by our lighting resource during operation. This parameter was measured using a model PCE-778 infrared thermometer (S3 Appendix, detailed data about the measurement instruments).
This measurement should not be confused with the temperature attained by a fire's flames. Furthermore, this could be used to determine the emitted light's color temperature since the color temperature can be calculated based on flame temperatures and corresponds to the following formula Tk: Tk (degrees Kelvin) = Tc (degrees centigrade) + 273. These parameters allowed us to characterize each light source quantitatively and, based on this, determine its potential and compare them. Besides, the appropriate type of lighting system for each type of underground space was proposed and linked with the different activities carried out at these sites, either the creation or visualization of Paleolithic art or cave exploration, among other possibilities. In this sense, we employed GIS software (ArcScene™ by Arc-Gis 1 ) to recreate and evaluate the potential of quantitative results obtained from the experimental analysis.
Fast transit favored combustion and oxygenated the torch. Oxygenation was also easily carried out by repeated semicircular movements with a certain intensity from left to right. After this action, the illuminance increased from 5 to 28 lux (measured at 20 cm) and 1. 5 to 4. 3 lux (measured at 40 cm) (S4 Appendix, detailed data about experiment 3). In this way, we managed to rekindle the torch on several occasions after its first extinction. We also observed that it was necessary not to over-assemble the components to obtain the torch's rapid oxygenation. The addition of resin was very effective in maintaining an intense flame, although we observed that active combustion (more lighting) was detrimental to the prolonged use of the torch (S4 Appendix, see experiment 2). In contrast, animal fat extended the light's duration since its combustion was slow and did not burn directly due to its impregnation in the wood (Fig  6A ).
Only prolonged use, as well as a particular lithology of the stone, would cause the appearance of combustion traces such as rubefaction  [70]. In this sense, a multi-analytical methodology for the proper characterization of these objects, through the determination of the combustion residue, especially charcoal and soot marks, has been recently proposed  [19]. The lighting data obtained in experiment 6 can be compared with the data published by S. A. de Beaune  [11] , referring to a similar experiment  (number 4: ref. 11, 126-127). The illuminance in that experiment, measured at a distance of 1 m from the flame, was 0. 15 lux. Our lamp had an average illuminance value of 0. 7 lux measured at a 1 m distance from the flame and between 5 and 50 minutes of functioning (S4 Appendix, detailed data about experiment 6).
Bearing in mind the mean values of the intensity of light obtained in our experimentation, Paleolithic lighting systems would provide mesopic vision. This confirms that human visual perception underground was related to color less than to the contrast between illuminated and unilluminated areas and the play of light and shadows. However, some colors could be perceived, as the cones were active, albeit partially. Long-wavelength colors (red, orange, and yellow) would be best perceived in these conditions. Indeed, warm colors would be emphasized, owing to the low color temperature emitted by the light from fires (�1000-3000 K). These were applied through software for spatial analysis (ArcScene™ by ArcGis1) in a Paleolithic cave regarding the radius of action. For this, a virtual 3D model of the Atxurra cave was used, specifically of Sector J, also called the Ledge of the Horses  [64].
Conclusion In this work, the main lighting systems (torches, grease lamps, and fireplaces) used during the Paleolithic period to enter the depths of the caves were qualitatively and quantitatively characterized: their duration, illuminance, luminous intensity, the radius of action of the light, and the temperature reached by the woody fuel were measured accurately. Likewise, each lighting system's characteristic combustion residues were identified to achieve a better identification for the archaeological record. In addition, the luminous data were analyzed through GIS technology and represented within the 3D model of the Atxurra cave, an underground space frequented during the Paleolithic. With this, we manage to illustrate each resource's luminous peculiarities in these contexts and delve into the implications of the characterization of Paleolithic lighting in the archaeological studies of these caves.
funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities (Spain). Besides, the University of Cordoba (JoseLuis Sanchidrian, Economic Unit in Prehistory) has collaborated in the publication of this paper in open access. I. I. 's Ph. D. research is funded by a grant for the training of research personnel (PIF 2019) at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). Lastly, this paper publishes a part of M. M. A. 's thesis. This PhD was financed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sport of Spain (FPU fellowship 2014-2018).
Acknowledgments We want to thank the  Lekeitio Town Hall  for allowing us to carry out this study in the experimental cave. We also want to thank the  Nerja Cave Research Institute , who has left us the measurement tools, and the  Nerja Museum  for providing us with the replica of the lamp used in the experiments. So, our appreciation to  A. B. Granados ,  A. Torres , and  S. Cosano  for their help in the experimental activities. To the end, we thank the authors of the images that make up Fig 1 for permission to publish them.
MATERIALS AND METHODS A systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of ASD in children and adolescents (from 2 to <18 years old) in EU-4 (France, Germany, Spain, and Italy) plus the UK, and the US. This manuscript presents studies reporting the latest prevalence data per country in order to understand the current epidemiological situation of ASD, as well as studies examining the prevalence of ASD overtime. Studies reporting on the prevalence of co-morbidities in ASD were retrieved from a second SLR on the clinical burden of ASD which considered the same population and geographic scope.
Study Selection Criteria This SLR focused on nine co-morbidities of interest: ADHD, anxiety, depressive disorders, epilepsy, Intellectual Disability (ID), sleep disorders, sight/hearing impairment/loss and GI problems  (13). These co-morbidities were selected as they are frequently associated with ASD in our population of interest and correlated with substantial impairment. The selection of comorbidities was then submitted to clinical experts for approval. A broad definition was considered for each co-morbidity as high heterogeneity in the reporting of outcomes was expected. For example, information on comorbid GI syndromes and hearing impairment was mostly based on reported complaints rather than on medically established diagnoses. Studies reporting on prevalence data for these co-morbidities as primary or secondary outcome were included.
Study Review Process Two researchers independently screened the titles and abstracts of identified studies and then full texts, to assess eligibility. Disagreements were resolved by discussion between the two reviewers and decision was made by a third reviewer if no agreement could be found. Information from included articles was extracted into a predefined data extraction template which included study characteristics, target population details and study outcomes. Due to the variety of different study types included and the challenges in comparing study quality, studies were included without assessment of their methodological quality. As the study design, participant intervention and reported outcomes measured varied markedly, this research focused on describing the studies, their results, their applicability and their limitations and on qualitative synthesis.
Prevalence of ASD We retrieved 13 publications reporting on the latest prevalence data for each country (8 studies) at the time the study was conducted and the evolution of ASD prevalence overtime (6 studies). The PRISMA diagram for this review is presented in Supplementary Material 3. Prevalence point estimates were found for each country within our scope and ranged from 0. 38% in Germany to 1. 85% in the US. Table  2  presents the latest estimates found for each country. All identified studies differed in terms of methodology with differences in age groups, geographical scopes and methods to estimate prevalence. Prevalence trends are summarized in Figure  1. Time trends by gender were found in Bachman et al. (20)  and van Naarden et al. (24). No time trends were found for Italy or Spain.