dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
In this section we focus on comparisons of data with various predictions. Differential cross section measurements are performed both for t t and single top quark production in the t -and tW -channels. In general all the MC predictions agree well with the data, with a well-studied exception the differential cross section of the top quark transverse momentum, p t T. For the latter case, almost all MC predictions tend to be harder than the data as a function of p t T. This has been observed by both experiments in different t t decay channels and at s = 8 and 13 TeV  [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]. The same trend is also seen in the single top t -channel at s = 8 TeV by the ATLAS experiment  [16] , although it is noted that the NLO+NNLL prediction describes the data better than the MC predictions which are typically at NLO accuracy.
The ambiguity between the jets and the leptons is resolved by defining m minimax bl = min(max(m b1,l 1 , m b2,l 2 ), max(m b1,l 2 , m b2,l 1 )). The study demonstrates that the various prescriptions describe the unfolded normalised differential m minimax bl cross section reasonably well  [21]  and the prediction that naturally incorporates the interference effects describes the data best. This can be seen from Figure  3. With more data it will become possible to constrain certain interference models and hence steer future model tuning and development. Differential cross section measurements are also used to study the underlying event in t t events  [22]. In that case, the normalised differential cross section is measured as function of the multiplicity and kinematic observables of charged-particle tracks.
Some initial studies on the jet fragmentation in top quark events have been performed at the LHC  [27, 28]. These studies show that the different fragmentation models adequately describe the proton collision data collected at s = 7 or 8 TeV. However, it is also clear that with more data the sensitivity will be significantly larger, which will allow constraining the fragmentation parameters in the near future. Another interesting study is the differential cross section measurements of so-called jet-pull observables  [29]. These observables are sensitive to the colour connections between the partons produced in the collision. The observables are measured at s = 13 TeV for the lepton+jets t t decay channel and for two dijet systems, i. e. the jets from the hadronic W boson decay and the two b-quark jets from the top-quark decays.
Both the ATLAS and CMS Collaborations measured this quantity using data collected at 7 and 8 TeV. The inclusive and differential results obtained by both experiments in the lepton+jet channel have been combined  [55] , but the statistical uncertainties in the high m t t region still limit the achievable precision. While the amount of t t events produced through q q annihilation is smaller at 13 TeV than at lower centre-of-mass energies, the large amount of data, especially in the boosted regime, permits to study the charge asymmetry more profoundly. The charge asymmetry is measured in the lepton+jets channel using a fully Bayesian unfolding method to correct for detector and acceptance effects simultaneously in the resolved and boosted topologies (see Figure  4 )  [53]. The methodology allows to constrain the larger systematic uncertainties in situ.
The t t t t topology also features high jet multiplicity and high b-jet multiplicity as well as high overall energy that could be quantified with a large value for the scalar sum of the transverse momenta of all reconstructed objects in the event. These observables are used in multivariate techniques to separate signal and background and enhance the sensitivity. The ATLAS Collaboration obtains an observed (expected) significance for the t t t t signal of 2. 8 (1. 0) standard deviations  [68]  by combining the two final states. The latest result from the CMS Collaboration uses an extended dataset in the multilepton channel reaching 2. 6 (2. 7) standard deviations  [69]  for the t t t t process above the background-only hypothesis. More data will allow the observation of this process at the LHC, although we might have to wait until the end of the LHC Run 3 in case the SM prediction is correct.
Perspectives During the LHC Run 2 (2015-2018) an amount of proton-proton collisions corresponding to about 150 fb -1 has been collected at s = 13 TeV. Currently, many of the Run 2 measurements use only a fraction of the collected data (36 fb -1 ). During the LHC Run 3 (2021-2023) 200 fb -1 is expected to be collected at s = 13-14 TeV. This means that by the end of Run 3, O (10) times more data will be available compared to what is used for the measurements today. This has two implications. First, some rare processes will potentially be observed for the first time at the LHC, e. g. the t t t t process, leading to potentially new insights or constraints on beyond the standard model processes. Second, the uncertainty on all top quark precision measurements will be limited by systematic effects.
A perspective of HEP from precision measurements or precision as a perspective: finding the next energy scale This series of articles is published at a time when a significant part of the analyses based on the LHC Run II data have been delivered. A new scalar particle consistent to date with the SM BEH boson has been discovered and no other new particle has been observed. Particle physics is therefore at a turning point of its history: there are compelling arguments that physics beyond SM must exist but we have not found a direct sign of its existence. Since there are no theoretical guidelines to infer the new physics energy scale, the balance is now towards building experimental facts. As shown in the "Top-quark physics at the LHC" and "Higgs Physics" articles of this Compte-Rendu, the amount of produced particles already allow rather precise measurements of the heaviest fermion of the SM and of its unique spin-0 boson.
B1. Description of the alignment tests At first, both the mechanical and radiation isocentres of the linear accelerator were verified, typically using a Winston-Lutz test. Geometric alignment, that are congruencies of the kV x-ray isocentre and the MV treatment beam isocentre was then tested checked as follows: kV and MV planar images acquired with OBI or treatment beam were repeated for various gantry, collimator and couch angles combinations, and compared with the reference DRRs derived from the CT data (imported and created into the Eclipse TPS). After that, the accuracy of OBI imaging system was verified: a volumetric CBCT scan was acquired in order to obtain the deviations of the OBI imaging center from the radiation isocentre. The images were also used to evaluate the jaw-defined field width with combined gantry, collimator, and couch rotations, and to verify any mechanical sag, image distortion or gravity effect on beam width.
C. Results of the tests for the clinical situations and field size assessment The results for the clinical situations using the CBCT and kV-kV verification method (N=276), as well as the MPC results are shown in Figure  5 (N=10). Mean corrections obtained by registering CBCT images to planning CTs were within 0. 6 mm with a standard deviation of ±0. 1 mm. The isocentre size measured using the MPC was within 0. 4 mm. The MV and kV MPC shifts were within 0. 2 mm for the considered data collection period. Errors on field size were recorded and are shown in Figure  6. An error smaller than 1 mm was obtained for 97. 7% of the 324 data points. The maximum reported error on field size was 1. 4 mm for open field and 0. 9 mm for MLC shaped field. The positioning accuracy of each MLC leaf and jaw is shown Figure  7  for both MPC and "ISO Cube" tests.
Acknowledgements. We are grateful to  Eero Vaher , who pointed out the error in Eq. (B. 10) and the vector products. This work presents results from the  European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the  Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the  Gaia MultiLateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www. cosmos. esa. int/gaia. The Gaia archive website is https://archives. esac. esa. int/gaia.
Patrick Michel  acknowledges funding support from the  French space agency CNES , from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under grant agreement No  870377  (project  NEO-MAPP ), and from  Academies of Excellence: Complex systems and Space , environment, risk and resilience, part of the IDEX JEDI of the  Université Côte d'Azur. S. S. acknowledges funding from the  JSPS Core-to-Core Program "International Network of Planetary Sciences. "Wladimir Neumann acknowledges support by  Klaus Tschira Stiftung. Open  access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. 10. 1029/2020JE006519.
Finally, the middle and the upper clusters, corresponding to l6=+2 and l6= -2, respectively, were also assigned. Like before, intensity alternation due to nuclear spin statistics and the Loomis-Wood representation of the spectrum in the AABS package were extremely helpful in progressive extension to higher J values. A total of 1463 lines of the l6=0 component and 2924 lines of the l6=±2 components (22≤J"≤49 and 55≤J"≤99) have been thus assigned and fitted. With the energies of the l6=0 levels being pushed down by the q22 resonance, these fall into local resonances with both l6=+2 and l6=-2 levels due to other vibration-rotation interactions, such as q12 (∆k=±1, ∆l=m2), but also higher-order f42 (∆k=±4, ∆l=m2) and f52 (∆k=±5, ∆l=±2) interactions. In addition to this, resonant crossings between the l6=+2 and l6= -2 levels due to the f14 interaction occur for several low K values, as shown in Figure  3  with the reduced energy plot of the whole system of rotational levels of v6=2.
Results and discussion For fitting the experimental frequencies, a conventional Hamiltonian of a symmetrictop molecule has been used, the matrix elements of which are given in Appendix A. For the least-squares fitting, using the SIMFIT program  [17] , the data were given statistical weights proportional to the inverse square of their estimated uncertainties. The present work is based on a huge set of rotational data. Part of the observed transitions would be further split by the hyperfine quadrupole interactions due to the three chlorine nuclei with nuclear spin 3/2. The detailed description of the tensorial coupling techniques allowing to construct the nuclear quadrupole part of the Hamiltonian, for any number of nuclei of spin ≥1, can be found for instance in Refs. [18, 19]. This tensorial coupling mechanism is implemented in the SPFIT/SPCAT program package  [20] , which was already used for studying the HFS of the J=1←0 and J=2←1 transitions in the ground vibrational state of CHCl3  [21].
Remerciements 45 Les auteurs remercient  Ahmed Batti pour avoir facilité l'accès à la clé du logiciel de traitement des images satellitaires. Ils remercient aussi le Bureau d'étude en gestion environnementale et sociale (BEGES COWATERSOGEMA) pour l'accès à la connexion Internet et Tutu Rutaha Abakonzi Yves pour avoir facilité l'accès à la zone  d'étude. Les auteurs témoignent leurs reconnaissances aux deux relecteurs anonymes pour leurs commentaires qui ont contribué à l'amélioration la qualité du manuscrit originale.
, 2019). La dernière phase négative a pris place entre 1965 et 1994. L'évolution de l'activité des ouragans extrêmes (115 noeuds au moins) décrite ci-dessus s'inscrit bien dans le cadre de cette oscillation multi-décennale puisque le nombre décennal maximal des deux dernières phases actives  (19 pour 1955-1964, et 22 pour 1995-2004 ) correspond au moins au double de celui de la dernière phase négative  (neuf pour 1975-1984, et huit pour 1985-1994). Le tableau 2 met en évidence une activité plus importante des ouragans de toutes catégories (1 à 5) lorsque l'AMO est en phase positive. Tableau 2 -Répartition des ouragans selon l'intensité et la phase de l'AMO Sources : à partir de la base Hurdat, de la ré-analyse de l'intensité des ouragans faite par les auteurs, et de  Knight et al. (2005). l'interprétation des statistiques figurant dans les bases de données au regard des cycles naturels pouvant exister.
Cela signifie que la perte de définition de l'oeil peut être compensée par une convection renforcée autour de ce dernier dans la techniquede Dvorak (1984). Sur la période 1978-2018, notre réanalyse a permis de recenser 65 ouragans des catégories 4 et 5 contre 67 dans la base de données du Hurricane Center deMiami (Hurdat, 1945-2018 ; NHC, 2019), soit une différence marginale. Ainsi, il a été possible de déterminer un premier groupe d'ouragans obtenu par des observations d'avions (1945 à 1977), et un second groupe analysé avec l'imagerie satellitaire sur 41 années (1978 à 2018). Malgré un certain manque d'homogénéité entre les deux échantillons mentionnés ci-dessus, l'Atlantique Nord est le seul bassin océanique du globe où il existe 74 saisons cycloniques pour étudier les variations de l'activité des ouragans extrêmes.
, 1991). Cette mesure, qui a été certifiée par le bureau météorologique américain de l'époque, reste le record de plus basse pression observée sur un territoire américain. Cet ouragan a été estimé à 160 noeuds (295 km/h) par des ingénieurs compte tenu des dégâts très importants subis par certaines infrastructures. Dans la base Hurdat (1945-2018), Allen (1980) représente l'ouragan le plus intense de l'Atlantique Nord avec des vents estimés à 165 noeuds (305 km/h). Il devrait bientôt faire l'objet d'une ré-analyse par le National Hurricane Center de Miami. En effet, Camille (1969) avait aussi des vents de 165 noeuds dans la base de données avant d'être rétrogradé récemment à 150 noeuds.
Remerciements. Nous sommes très reconnaissants à MM. Keith Cressman et Hichem Dridi qui ont mis à notre disposition les données acridiennes du Tchad sans lesquelles cette étude n'aurait pu être réalisée. Nous remercions la FAO à travers la Commission de lutte contre le criquet pèlerin dans la région occidentale (CLCPRO) ainsi que son secrétaire exécutif, M. Lémine Hamouny, pour avoir financé ce travail.
Introduction 1 La possibilité offerte par la télédétection spatiale d'observer de façon continue la surface de la Terre a permis de créer de grandes bases de données dont l'exploitation fournit des informations sur l'état des ressources naturelles, des écosystèmes locaux et de leur évolution. Dans les régions soudaniennes soumises à des changements socioenvironnementaux rapides  (Alexandre et Mering 2019 ; Fayama et al. , 2020) , le suivi de l'occupation du sol est capital pour établir un diagnostic et mieux comprendre les causes de la modification du couvert végétal et ses conséquences. À ce titre, les cartes d'occupation et de changements du sol constituent de véritables outils de planification et d'aide à la décision surtout en matière de gestion et de préservation des ressources naturelles et des écosystèmes.
La cartographie de l'évolution de l'occupation du sol durant la période étudiée a confirmé les résultats déjà connus selon lesquels l'amélioration des conditions pluviométriques depuis la fin des années 90 a bénéficié aux formations de mangrove. Par contre, très loin d'un constat d'une progression globale du couvert ligneux sur terre ferme, c'est l'importance des déboisements le long de la frontière entre le Gambie et le Sénégal durant la période récente qu'a mis en évidence la carte des changements. La reproduction de la démarche décrite ici pourrait permettre à l'avenir d'alimenter une base de données relative aux comportements spectraux des principales formations végétales de la région et de participer ainsi à un suivi régulier des paysages Sénégambiens. 9. Les logiciels de Télédétection (ici Idrissi) limitent en général à 15 ou 16 le nombre de classes demandé par l'opérateur en sortie de la classification par K-moyennes.
Il est décrit comme étant une mosaïque de couverture terrestre des routes, des rivières, des établissements humaines, des sols défrichés, champs cultivés et des forêts secondaires et primaires  (Molinario et al. , 2020). Pour cela, l'optimisation de données a nécessité l'exploitation de plusieurs bases de données cartographiques :  Congo basin forest cover monitoring 1990-2000  (Hansen, 2008)  Les principales opérations telles que la superposition des données (couches) ; la création de vecteur (création d'une zone tampon et d'une grilles) ; l'analyse de raster (l'extraction de la zone d'étude « RNSA + ZT de 50 km 2 », reclassification par table, histogramme zonale, statiques des zones) et la mise en page ont été réalisées avec le logiciel QGIS version 3. 10, et exécutées conformément à la plus récente guide de l'utilisation (QGIS, 2020).
Remerciements Nous exprimons notre gratitude à l' Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD France) pour l'Allocation de Recherche de Thèse au Sud (ARTS)  accordée par le truchement de l' Unité Mixte de Recherche Espace DEV, maison de la télédétection de Montpellier. Nous remercierons également l'Université Félix Houphouët Boigny (UFHB)  pour l'encadrement scientifique à travers le programme doctoral  Changement Climatique, Biodiversité et Agriculture Durable (CCBAD) via le Centre d'Excellence Africain (CEA). Nous remercions l'Université Officielle de Mbujimayi  pour toutes les autorisations de sortir accordées.
Data collection The SES approach to landscape necessitated both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected during two extended missions: a three-month field visit from July to October 2016, and a second, six-month visit from May to November, 2017. Although we sought to produce a multidimensional analysis of the landscape using geomatics tools (GIS and remote sensing), qualitative data were also collected through field observations and exchanges with local populations. GIS analyses are possible without field studies, but we concur with  Langlois (2008)  that such analyses require immersion in the field, and by extension, should be situated in their specific social and environmental contexts.
Qualitative data We employed qualitative social sciences methodologies, notably interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and participant-observations concerning ecological knowledge. We used a place-based approach to understand the social ecological contexts that people inhabit and to illuminate how they influence and are shaped by places where they live  (Fleuret et al. , 2019; Adams, 2017). These data constitute part of a social and physical geographical analysis, using GIS and remote sensing. Eighteen focus group discussions (FGDs) in nine out of ten villages in the study area were conducted. We did not conduct FGDs in Makaa village because its small population could not support such discussions. Single-gender FGDs brought together eight to ten men or women between 18 and 90 years old.
Geographical data Two types of geographical field data were collected. First, GPS landmarks were collected to characterize land units and landscape structure. A second set of GPS landmarks documented human activities in Bodzuna village during participant-observations. Both types of geographical data concretized the qualitative data collected during FGD workshops. Two methods to collect landmarks relating to land units and landscape structure were deployed. First, surveys were carried out in sites of interest, defined by their heterogeneity. This heterogeneity was revealed in a pixel-oriented classification of a 2016 Sentinel-2 satellite image, at 10 meters accuracy. All landmarks were georeferenced using a GPS device. Each survey therefore corresponds to a homogeneous space within a radius of 30 meters around the GPS landmark, so that it could be used on Sentinel-2 satellite image and ensure a margin of error.
Botanical data Botanical data were collected in the Etio language and written using Lingala pronunciations during participant-observations and geographic data collections. These collections were premised on informants' knowledge of abundant herbaceous, tree, canopy-dominant, and pioneer species pioneer species. WWF and MMT agents experienced in conducting botanical inventories assisted with botanical identification. We also relied on a catalog of the more important species based  Pennec et al. 's (2016)  study.
This selection thus accounts for variations of plant biomass with high spatial resolution  (Frampton et al. , 2013)  for calculating the NDVI (vegetation index)  (Vancutsem et al. , 2009)  and for separating shrub savanna into two classes (Figure  3 ). Another control test entailed using the GPS point data set of a vegetation census performed in 2013 in part of the study area. This census compared classes obtained through the land cover map with those obtained in the field through a vegetation census (51 50*50 meters plots), categorized forest types according to canopy, soil and herbaceous stratum  (Pennec et al. , 2016).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the entire  Mbou-Mon-Tour team  for their hospitality and support. Sincere thanks to the  European Space Agency (ESA)  for making the Sentinel-2 satellite images freely available. Finally, we are most grateful to all local participants in this study for their hospitality and knowledge, and especially to Miller for his daily support in the forest, the director Mamy for accommodating us at his home, and to the professor Pitshu and the director Claude for their translations during the focus groups, individual interviews and informal discussions.
Le grand amphithéâtre de l'Institut (ou du Centre) de Géographie, le « 191 rue Saint-Jacques », porte le nom d'un homme qui a fondé l'AGF en 1920 et créé le  Bulletin en 1924 , Emmanuel de Martonne (1873 -1955) , qui fut dans sa vie scientifique un géographe physicien et un géomorphologue  [Broc 2010 ]. L'analyse rétrospective permise par l'extraordinaire base de données que constitue le BAGF de 1924 à nos jours révèle ce qu'a été la géomorphologie, ce qu'elle est devenue, et suggère des pistes pour que les reliefs terrestres et leurs dynamiques retrouvent la géographicité qui leur est encore parfois contestée. Alors que l'humanité est confrontée à une crise environnementale qui se décline à toutes les échelles de l'espace géographique, les géomorphologues peuvent apporter à la communauté des géographes, et, au-delà, à la société tout entière, l'illustration que les groupes humains organisés sont devenus les premiers agents de transformation de la toposphère  [Haff 2003 , Hooke & al.
1960-1980 "MORE OF THE SAME BUT DIFFERENTLY" At the beginning of this period, a series of studies resulted in a comprehensive development proposal (CIDE [Development Studies Interdisciplinary Board]), and the creation of the statistics and analysis government offices (DIEA [Agricultural Statistics Office], DINACOSE [Livestock National Office], NAC [National Meat Institute]), which continue today to make Uruguay a country that is distinguished by the availability of data related to the functioning of its society and dynamics. These years were marked by a violent social crisis, including the installation of a civil military government in 1973. With regard to an agrarian policy, a general withdrawal of the State from direct economic activities, e. g. cereals storage, slaughterhouse administration, was noted.
Remerciements Les auteurs remercient les membres des Départements des forêts du  Tamil Nadu et de Pondichéry pour l'autorisation de travail sur le terrain, l'Institut Français de Pondichéry et l'Agence Française de Développement  pour la subvention de recherche et le soutien logistique de ce travail (projet RUSE). Les opinions exprimées dans cet article sont celles des auteurs et ne reflètent pas nécessairement celles de l'IFP ou de l'AFD. Nous remercions également les personnes interrogées, les scientifiques locaux,  Adrien Selles  ( BRGM Hyderabad ) pour nos échanges relatifs à l'hydrologie du site dans le cadre du projet WaterPondy, les ONG et les usagers locaux, qui nous ont toujours très bien accueillis.