dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Fama and French (1992, 1993)  posit that the performance of managed portfolios and individual stocks should be evaluated by comparing their average return with the average returns of benchmark portfolios which have similar sizes and book-to-market characteristics. Cahart (1997) introduced an additional momentum factor and analyzed the spread in the best and worst-performing. The Cahart (1997) four factors model is widely used in mutual fund markets. return and market index return data from the CRSP database. As information noise is more difficult to control in long event windows and because there was no reason to believe that, in the given contexts, information is revealed to investors more slowly than normal or leaked out before the event, we used a three-day event window during which we calculated the cumulative average abnormal return.
05 or lower. For the Fama-French time series models, only the Generalized Sign Z test was available and a minimum significance level of 0. 05 was accepted. The results support Hypothesis 1 which suggested that the market positively reacts to the announcement of CEIs. As a robustness check, we analyzed whether the stock market reacts significantly differently to different types of CEIs  (Gilley, et al. , 2000; Jacobs, et al. , 2010). We examined the three different sub-samples of CEIs in our dataset: (1) CEIs concerning a firm's inputs, (2) CEIs concerning a firm's throughputs, and (3) CEIs concerning a firm's outputs  (Shrivastava, 1995a (Shrivastava, , 1995b)). However, we did not find any statistically significant results that suggest that different CEI types trigger different reactions by the stock market.
Study Our study Gilley, et al. (2000) Halme & Niskanan (2001) Jacobs, et al. (2010) Klassen & McLaughlin (1996) Number of 183 71 64 417 162 events Number of 71 Not specified 10 340 96 firms Number 26 16 (by two-digit SIC 1 22 (by unique two-digit NAICS 14 of unique code) code); 63 (by unique three-digit industries NAICS code) Sample firms Announcements Any announcement Announcements of Any announcement (i. e. , no Any announcement and sample by Fortune 500 (i. e. , no criterion to Finnish forestry industry criterion to select firms) in three (i. e. , no criterion to process firms in the Factiva select firms) in the firms in the daily major business wire services, select firms) in the press database Wall Street Journal Helsingin Sanomat the 10 most widely circulated US NEXIS database of (2002 to 2008) (1983 to 1996) (1979 to 1996) daily newspapers, and leading newswire services European daily newspapers (1985 to 1991) (2004 to 2006).
This paper investigates whether a search engine's ordering of algorithmic results has an important impact on website traffic. A website's ranking on a search engine results page is positively correlated with the clicks it receives. This could result from the search engine accurately predicting the websites relevance to users. Or it could result from users merely clicking on the highest ranked links, regardless of the website's relevance. Using a unique dataset, we find that a website's rank, not just its relevance, strongly and significantly affects the likelihood of a click. We also find evidence that rank influences CTRs partly by controlling access to the scarce attention of users, but primarily by substituting the reputational capital of the search engine for the reputation of individual websites.
Using a unique dataset of individual search behavior we show that there is indeed a strong positive correlation between the rank of a website on a given Search Engine Results Page (SERP) and the probability that an individual will click on that website. Although part of this correlation can be explained by the predicted relevance of the website, there is a substantial direct causal impact even when this is taken into account. We find that being at the top of the ranking in the algorithmic search results has a large statistically significant causal impact on the odds of receiving a user click, and that moving the website from rank 1 to rank 2 on the same page decreases the odds of a click by between one third and two thirds depending on the specific search undertaken. We concede that no one statistical method completely eliminates endogeneity concerns;  1  We use the term website to describe the search result hyperlink and associated domain name that when clicked takes a user to the webpage associated with that hyperlink.
2 Search engines display two types of results, often called paid results and algorithmic results. Our analysis focuses on algorithmic results which are results ranked based on how relevant the search engine believes them to be to users (rather than based on payments from the website). however, our results are robust and all evidence points to very high economic significance of the algorithmic rank  3. We proceed as follows. In section 2 we describe the data selection process and provide summary statistics for our dataset. We also describe the nature of the search engine algorithm and provide descriptive evidence about the determinants of ranking. In section 3 we demonstrate econometrically the impact of ranking on the probability of clicking on a website. Section 4 investigates the contribution of reputation and conspicuousness to enabling page rank to influence click probabilities.
Query term selection Microsoft Corporation provided us with access to the database of the Bing log files. All search engines store data from user sessions in detailed logs. The Bing logs contain recorded observations for each of the millions of Bing user queries, including for each query: a record of the date and time; all websites that were displayed on the SERP generated from the search; each website's position on the SERPs; and which websites were clicked. For each website that appeared in a set of search results, we know at what rank it appeared in each view and whether it was clicked on during that view. In order to isolate the impact of website relevance from that of page rank, we need query terms where the website relevance to the user query remains reasonably con-stant during the time period of study, while the ranking of websites varies (even if only slightly).
Finally, query terms which arise from non-uniform intent across users are also un-suitable. One example is the query "eclipse". Based on the websites displayed on the results page, this search has at least three possible intents: to learn about a solar or lunar eclipse, to find information about a software known as Eclipse, and to search for one of the Twilight Saga books with this title (a teenage vampire romance novel). Thus, we manually sorted through an extensive list of queries, and found only four query terms that were suitable for our purposes. In alphabetical order these are: "free movies", "fun games", "phone numbers" and "sports". 4.
Once the set of websites to be displayed in the SERP is determined, they are ranked using natural language techniques, static rank 6 and user behavior data, such as prior website traffic and prior CTR. This obviously raises a concern about reverse causality: it may be previous CTR that determines ranking rather than ranking determining future CTR. Based on discussions with the engineers who provided us with the Bing data, we believe that at the time of our study ( 11/1/2010 -1/31/2011), and for our selected query terms, the Bing algorithm relied on website CTRs calculated over long prior periods of time, and was refreshed only occasionally. As we illustrate further below, fluctuations in the CTR over short periods of time do not seem to be a determinant in Bing ranking for the query terms selected.
Conclusion We have shown in this paper that when a website appears in a high rank on a Search Engine Results Page it has a substantial and highly significant positive causal effect on the probability that a user will click on the website. We have done so using a unique data set that allows us to abstract from the fact that search engines determine rank partly by predicting the likely relevance of websites to user needs. We have shown that this estimation is robust to possible concerns about the endogeneity of page ranking. We have further provided evidence suggesting that rank influences CTRs primarily by substituting the reputational capital of the search engine for the reputation of individual websites. However, there is also some evidence that conspicuousness plays a role as well, implying that one of the assets that search engines deploy is access to the scarce attention of users.
Study 3: having fun during a race increases the choice of a healthy snack In this observational field study, we hypothesized that runners who perceived themselves as having fun during a race would be less likely to compensate from their physical exertion by choosing to eat a hedonic, less healthy snack after the race. Consistent with the first two studies, we predicted that if they had fun, they would not feel the need to reward themselves through food consumption. Procedure This study was conducted during a real race: ekiden race, which is a marathon, ran in a relay of six runners completing distances of 5, 10, or 7. 195 km. We collected data at the finish aid station interviewing runners who finished their part of the race. When participants were leaving the station, they were invited to fill in a paper and pencil survey about their perception of the race.
The International PNH Registry is a worldwide, observational, non-interventional study collecting safety, effectiveness, and quality-of-life data from patients with a confirmed paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria diagnosis or detectable paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria clone, irrespective of treatment. In addition to evaluating the long-term safety and effectiveness of eculizumab in a global population, the registry aims to improve diagnosis, optimize patient management and outcomes, and enhance the understanding of the natural history of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Here we report the characteristics of the first 1610 patients enrolled. Median disease duration was 4. 6 years. Median granulocyte paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria clone size was 68. 1% (range 0. 01-100%). Overall, 16% of patients had a history of thrombotic events and 14% a history of impaired renal function.
Therapies included anticoagulation (31%), immunosuppression (19%), and eculizumab (25%). Frequently reported symptoms included fatigue (80%), dyspnea (64%), hemoglobinuria (62%), abdominal pain (44%), and chest pain (33%). Patients suffered from poor quality of life; 23% of patients had been hospitalized due to paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria-related complications and 17% stated that paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria was the reason they were not working or were working less. This international registry will provide an ongoing, valuable resource to further the clinical understanding of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. (Clinicaltrials. gov identifier:01374360) study, spontaneous, long-term remission was observed in approximately 15% of patients. 4 n 2007, eculizumab (Soliris ® , Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
3  The natural history of PNH is highly variable and has previously been investigated by retrospective analyses involving relatively small patient populations. 4, 6, 18, 19  The burden of disease from the patient's perspective has not been previously documented. The International PNH Registry was implemented to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of eculizumab, to gather comprehensive data on the natural history of PNH and the management of patients with PNH, and to evaluate the clinical symptoms and outcomes of the disease in order to better understand its progression and variability on a global scale. The longterm aim of the registry is to improve diagnosis and therapeutic strategies, optimize patient management and outcomes, enhance knowledge of pregnancy and related issues, and better understand the natural history of the disease.
In this first publication of data from the International PNH Registry, we report on the cross-sectional analysis of demographic and clinical characteristics of patients enrolled through June 30, 2012, and describe disease-associated morbidities commonly experienced in patients with PNH. In addition, we also report initial findings from a subset of patients who had completed base-line study questionnaires relating to impacts of the disease on various measures, including QoL, symptomatology, and employment status.
Data collection Data captured in the registry include patients' demographics, medical and treatment history, comorbid conditions, PNH clone size, disease characteristics and outcomes, symptoms, PNH-specific treatments, PNH-related events, morbidity (including myeloproliferative disease, other malignancies, and infections), mortality, pregnancy (maternal and fetal outcomes), patient QoL, and health resource utilization. Clinical data captured include lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels, hemoglobin levels, transfusion requirements, thrombotic events (identified using major adverse vascular event categories), physician-reported renal dysfunction, and other laboratory data. Specific information collected for eculizumab-treated patients includes dosage and dose adjustments, meningococcal vaccination status, infusion reactions, reasons for treatment discontinuation, and outcomes associated with discontinuation.
Patient medical information and study questionnaire data are collected at study enrollment and every six months thereafter. The patients' questionnaires are collected at study enrollment and during routine office visits close to the 6-month follow-up time window and include QoL data based on the validated Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy (FACIT)-Fatigue  20  and European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire version 3. 0 (EORTC QLQ-C30)  21  instruments, common PNH symptoms, use of health care resources including hospitalizations, work status and time lost from work due to PNH, and treatment satisfaction.
1% of patients were receiving anticoagulation therapy, 18. 7% immunosuppressive therapy, and 8. 3% pain medication; approximately 25% of the patients were being treated with eculizumab (Table  1 ). At the time of analysis, completed base-line patients' questionnaires relating to symptoms of PNH, QoL, and work were available for 856 of the 1610 (53%) enrolled patients. Due to the observational nature of this study, the number of patients contributing data to each assessment was not consistent. In addition, as eculizumab reduces hemolysis and prevents release of LDH, patients who had received eculizumab at any time in the 12 months prior to enrollment were excluded from all data summaries assessed by LDH levels. A graphical summary of the number of patients included in each assessment, along with the criteria defining each subpopulation, is provided in Online Supplementary Figure  S1.
PNH symptoms Of the 856 patients for whom self-reported symptom data were available (i. e. patients with a base-line questionnaire), a total of 799 patients (93. 3%) reported at least one symptom associated with PNH. The percentage of patients reporting common symptoms associated with PNH in the past six months is shown in Online Supplementary Figure  S2. Commonly reported symptoms included fatigue (80%), dyspnea (64%), headache (63%), and hemoglobinuria (62%), and 38% of male patients had experienced erectile dysfunction. Although fatigue was the most frequently reported symptom, 91. 4% of patients (782 of 856) reported at least one symptom other than fatigue, whereas only 2. 0% of patients (17 of 856) reported fatigue and no other symptoms. Although each of the common PNH-related symptoms were reported in all categories of clone size, patients with clone sizes 50% or over reported significantly more hemoglobinuria, dyspnea, abdominal pain, scleral icterus, erectile dysfunction, and dysphagia (Figure  3A ).
Discussion As of June 30, 2012, the International PNH Registry had enrolled 1610 patients from 5 continents, with completed patient questionnaires at enrollment available for 856 patients. Collection of outstanding data, as well as new recruitment into the registry, is ongoing. The current analysis evaluated the base-line characteristics of the enrolled population and investigated the burden of disease in terms of symptomatology and clinical outcomes. As the questionnaires completed at enrollment are largely concerned with the patients' medical history, much of the data are retrospective. However, these base-line data are an important foundation for future analyses on prospectively collected data. Assessing data from an extensive population is important, particularly for rare conditions, as the disease course can vary significantly among patients; at enrollment our population has an age range spanning almost 100 years, a disease duration of less than one to 47 years, and granulo-cyte PNH clone sizes ranging from less than 1% to 100%.
This is not surprising given that abdominal pain and chest pain have been associated with a greater risk of thrombosis and mortality. 27 NH has wide-ranging effects on patients' lives. The symptoms associated with the disease have serious consequences and are frequently devastating; one-quarter of PNH patients in the registry had been hospitalized and one-third had missed work due to PNH. Approximately one in 7 patients were not working or worked less due to PNH. This large, global PNH registry of patients observed in clinical practice will continue to prospectively evaluate disease burden and the long-term natural history of PNH and treatment outcomes. The breadth and diversity of the registry provides an excellent basis for investigating research questions that may not be answerable from a single institution or country, and the registry has the additional advantages of collecting both clinical and patientreported data and collecting these data both at enrollment and prospectively.
Data Availability: The authors confirm that, for approved reasons, some access restrictions apply to the data underlying the findings. The data cannot be publicly available due to legal and ethical restrictions from the French Authority (Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertes). Data are from the ANRS EP42 CHIC study. Requests for data use can be made to the Scientific Manager of the study (Moı ¨se Desvarieux at md108@cumc. columbia. edu) or a representative from the Agence nationale de recherche sur le sida et les hepatites virales (Sandrine Couffin-Cadiergues at sandrine. couffin-cadiergues@anrs. fr). Funding: This study was funded by the Agence Nationale de Recherche sur le Sida et les Hepatites (ANRS grant 2007/303 to MD) and Sidaction (grant  AI 20). AB was awarded a postdoctoral fellowship from the Agence nationale de recherche sur le sida et les hepatites virales.
Acknowledgments We are grateful to the patients. We acknowledge  Ludivine Laurans ,  Lydie Houssou  and  Marie-Christine Rincon  for their respective technical assistance for quantifying inflammatory and metabolic markers;  Manuela Sebire ,  Alina Ciuchete ,  Loi ¨c Desquilbet ,  Nelly Desplanque , and  Catherine Lupin  for participant recruitment, management, and data collection;  Dr. Ju ¨rgen Tredup ,  Dr. Pauline Campa ,  Dr. Diane Bollens ,  Dr. Be  ´nedicte Lefebvre,  Dr. Marie-Caroline Meyohas ,  Dr. Jerome Pacanowski ,  Dr. Zineb Ouazene ,  Dr. Gilles Raguin ,  Dr. Phillippe Tangre ,  Dr. Laurent Fonquernie , and  Dr. Karine Lacombe  for stellar patient recruitment;  Sandrine Couffin-Cadiergues  and  Marcia Trumeau  for administrative assistance.
We undertook whole exome sequencing (Supplementary Table  1 ) in three patients (F102, F163 and F259) with a clinical diagnosis of AGS, based on neuro-radiological criteria and an upregulation of cerebrospinal fluid interferon activity and / or interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) in peripheral blood (Supplementary Table  2 ), all of whom screened negative for mutations in TREX1, RNASEH2A, RNASEH2B, RNASEH2C, SAMHD1 and ADAR1. Having excluded common polymorphisms listed in publically available databases, we noted that all three patients carried a single rare variant (Arg720Gln in F102, and Arg779His in both F163 and F259)(Table  1 ) in IFIH1, encoding a cytoplasmic helicase that mediates induction of an interferon response to viral RNA  11. We then screened IFIH1 in other TREX1, RNASEH2A, RNASEH2B, RNASEH2C, SAMHD1 and ADAR1 mutation-negative patients with a phenotype indicative of AGS, and in patients with a variety of neuro-immunological features in whom we had recorded the presence of an interferon signature in peripheral blood in the absence of apparent infection (Supplementary Tables  2  and 3 ).
In this way we identified a further five probands heterozygous for a rare IFIH1 variant (Arg337Gly in F237, Arg779Cys in F376, Gly495Arg in F524, Asp393Val in F626 and Arg720Gln in F647). In total we observed six rare variants in eight probands, with two pairs of unrelated probands each sharing the same substitution (Arg720Gln and Arg779His)(Fig. 1 , Supplementary Fig. 1 ). All mutation-positive probands were born to non-consanguineous parents. The identified variants of interest were confirmed on Sanger sequencing, and were considered likely pathogenic on the basis of species conservation (Supplementary Figs. 2  and 3 ), the output of pathogenicity prediction packages (Supplementary Table  4 ), and absence from the NHLBI ESP database of more than 13,000 control alleles and an in-house collection of >300 exomes.
Unlike the variants reported in that study, all of the mutations described here are missense substitutions conferring a gain of function, and none have been documented in the NHLBI ESP database. To date, none of our IFIH1 mutation-positive patients have developed T1D. Studies of the AGS-related proteins TREX1, the RNase H2 complex, SAMHD1 and ADAR1, suggest that an inappropriate accumulation of self-derived nucleic acids can induce type I interferon signaling  24, 25. The finding of IFIH1 mutations in the similar context implicates the aberrant sensing of nucleic acids as a cause of immune upregulation. The observation of enhanced baseline and ligand-induced type I interferon signaling by all six mutant alleles is consistent with our observation of increased interferon activity / ISG transcripts in every mutation-positive individual tested.
Exome sequencing Genomic DNA was extracted from lymphocytes from affected individuals and parents by standard techniques. For whole exome analysis, targeted enrichment and sequencing were performed on 3 μg of DNA extracted from the peripheral blood of three individuals (F102, F163, F259). Enrichment was undertaken using the SureSelect Human All Exon kits following the manufacturer's protocol (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and samples were pair-end sequenced on either an IlluminaHiSeq 2000 or SOLiD platform. Sequence data were mapped using BWA (Burrows-Wheeler Aligner) against hg18 (NCBI36) human genome as a reference. Variants were called using SOAPsnp and SOAPindel (from the Short Oligonucleotide Analysis Package) with medium stringency (Supplementary Table  1 ).
Gene expression analysis Total RNA was extracted from whole blood using a PAXgene (PreAnalytix) RNA isolation kit. RNA concentration was assessed using a spectrophotometer (FLUOstar Omega, Labtech). Quantitative reverse transcription PCR analysis was performed using the TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems), and cDNA derived from 40ng total RNA. The relative abundance of target transcripts, measured using TaqMan probes for IFI27 (Hs01086370_m1), IFI44L (Hs00199115_m1), IFIT1 (Hs00356631_g1), ISG15 (Hs00192713_m1), RSAD2 (Hs01057264_m1) and SIGLEC1 (Hs00988063_m1) was normalized to the expression level of HPRT1 (Hs03929096_g1) and 18s (Hs999999001_s1) and assessed with the Applied Biosystems StepOne Software v2. 1 and DataAssist Software v. 3. 01. For each of the six probes, individual (patient and control) data were expressed relative to a single calibrator (control C25).