dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Recharacterizing Lowland Maya Environments The Maya Lowlands encompass various wet and dry tropical environments, characterized by high vegetation density and biodiversity, abundant though seasonally variable rainfall, high sensitivity of soils to erosion, and high ecological dynamism. Although the 1970s saw some appreciation for environmental heterogeneity, new datasets of vegetation, soils, hydrology, and surface geology have since revealed an even busier assortment of dynamic land and water resources. Although these variable habitats had implications for agricultural development, they were not as highly limiting as was first assumed. Research since the 1990s has revealed more affordances in the landscape and fewer limitations than previously thought. As in other tropical agricultural zones  (Fausto and Neves 2018; Heckenberger et al.
Integrating botanical datasets is also a complex endeavor (Morell-Hart 2019), especially given the complexity and tempo of different kinds of investigations and the paucity of scholars to carry out certain types of analyses. Analyses of botanical remains are time consuming. Results of these analyses often make their way into appendices instead of the main text when they arrive long past analyses of other types of data. Promisingly, however, scholars are revisiting old studies and folding them into new interpretations by robustly integrating datasets using GIS, among other techniques (e. g. ,  Farahani et al. 2017a, b). One area that is particularly ripe for such integration is the pairing of soil enrichment studies and paleoethnobotanical analysis. This includes the interpretation of stable carbon isotope enrichment studies of soils that equate C4 signatures with maize cultivation.
Although we are unable to control for specific taphonomic processes across the Maya Lowlands, we offer a few brief suggestions to build a more robust dataset for the region and to help answer agricultural questions specific to particular locations and time periods. We suggest the systematic collection of at least one liter of unscreened sediments for processing to retrieve floral and faunal remains; regular screen collection and curation of botanical items; early consultation with botanists, ecologists, and paleoethnobotanists to maximize sampling strategies and recovery; and leaving artifacts and human teeth unwashed where possible or selecting a subset for future microbotanical or chemical analyses. We recommend that all such efforts be undertaken with prior knowledge of which sorts of analyses will best reveal targeted taxa (Fig.
The old models have been found wanting under the scrutiny of new datasets. If we take the documentary evidence at face value, then we inherit the dominant perspective from de Landa. De Landa's documentation was written in 16th century Spain and organized according to core principles of Spanish cuisine: based on staple grains, pulses, and domesticated animals, the use of plow agriculture, and with the occasional inclusion of key fruits and nuts. In writing about Maya lifeways, "Their principal sustenance is maize," de Landa noted in his 1566 document  (Tozzer 1941, p. 34). When scholars mine historic accounts, such as those of de Landa, in search of analogs for ancient lifeways, maize is modeled as the cornerstone of subsistence for over 2000 years, and maize-cropping practices are seen as relatively homogeneous across time and space.
Past to Future Archaeological research on ancient agricultural systems has contributed greatly to understandings of ancient societies, where researchers have taken an ethnoecological perspective and considered the longue durée. We hope this broad review of new evidence provides scaffolding for the next step: spatio-temporal analysis of the arrival and development of key cultigens and practices at the regional level. But beyond documenting the particulars of ancient societies, what might be some contributions of archaeological studies to contemporary agricultural practices and governmental policy directives, both in the Maya Lowlands and elsewhere in the global tropics? Archaeological datasets have been interpreted for contemporary narratives in three primary ways: preserving "timeless values," revealing cautionary tales, and actively strategizing for the future.
Introduction This paper stems from a nascent international calculus database that we, the authors, manage, which currently has 14 national reports 1  of calculus at three levels: school; beginning university; and teacher education. In considering how to document similarities and differences in the reports we discussed our three countries (England, France and Sweden) and noted differences in approaches with special reference to the limit notion; our work on this led to this paper, which is guided by the following research question (RQ) and two follow up questions  (FQ). The data analysis reported in this paper is directed towards addressing RQ. The paper also develops a methodological approach to addressing RQ and the Discussion section reflects on this approach. RQ With regard to limits, what similarities and differences exist in the three countries at each of the three levels? 2 FQ1 What does our response to RQ say about similarities and differences in the calculus taught in the three countries? FQ2 What are the implications of our study for teacher education? The paper is structured as follows.
School With the exception of state schools in Peru, calculus is taught in high schools (HS) in every country mentioned above (and in our database) but it is not taught to all students in this category; to whom it is taught depends on the programmes offered (we do not have space to provide details). Törner et al. , (2014)  make an historical claim that three periods exist in the evolution of school calculus curricula: The first period started at the beginning of the twentieth century and lasted until the start of the 1960s when modern mathematics appeared. The second period was dominated by the modern mathematics approach and lasted until the beginning of the 1980s. The third period is traced from the beginning of the 1980s to the present. (p. 550). The first period offered informal approaches to calculus.
For universities we focus, for reasons of space, on a Mathematics degree in one researchcentred university in each country, as the logos for scholarly knowledge of limits is most likely to appear in such universities/degrees; we selected universities which we were familiar with. At the level of teacher education, we describe the main national trajectory/ies and supplement this, as appropriate, with details concerning specific teacher education programs or initiatives. At the HS and university levels, data collected included: curricula documentation, for instance, syllabi; textbooks used or recommended; mathematical tasks given to students; and, final examinations. At the level of teacher education, we examined national guidelines which specify requirements for teacher education (general guidelines for all teacher education and, where they existed, specific guidelines for high school mathematics).
Discussion We discuss RQ, FQ1 and FQ2 and then consider methodological implications for of the nascent international calculus database. With regard to RQ, significant differences appear at the level of HS. In E HS , in Calculus, a local praxeology related to the notion (though not the definition) of the limit of a function is developed but apparently only as a basis for future work on differentiation and integration. In S HS , in Relationships and change, this same local praxeology is also developed but with local praxeologies for θ 1f and θ 5. These local praxeologies exist within a regional praxeology RP(Θ f ). In F HS , in Analysis, there is a more complete RP(Θ f ) with local praxeologies mainly related to θ 0f and θ 1f , but also with θ 3f , θ 5 , θ 6ff ; there is also another RP(Θ s ) with local praxeologies related to θ 0s , θ 1s , the specific θ 2s , θ 3s and θ 6fs with connections between the two regional praxeologies.
We now consider implications for the nascent international calculus database. This study is a first step in a larger project to compare calculus around the world. We employed our methodology on our three countries with a focus on the limit notion: the methodology seems robust and flexible enough for comparing calculus education. First, the REM, built on HS punctual praxeologies and completed with universities approaches appears adequate for interpreting vignettes via ATD analysis, with only slight modifications. It is reasonable to think that adding more countries will require only minor modifications to this REM on limits but that considering other calculus notions will lead to new REMs. Second, the vignettes, constructed to enable interpretation using ATD, have been checked by experts; we believe that they reflect well the actual situation in each level and country.
It was statistically demonstrated that larger fragment classes contained only the most frequent species, whereas most species, and all rare species, are represented only in the smallest fragments. Material excavated and records kept during the Backwell campaigns at Border Cave are stored at the Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. By way of reference, a list was compiled of several species occurring near Border Cave between 2016 and 2019, and the anatomical characteristics were recorded according to the IAWA (International Association of Wood Anatomists) code from the InsideWood database  (Wheeler et al. , 1989; InsideWood, 2004aeg; Wheeler, 2011)  and from published references  (Kromhout, 1975; Ilic, 1991; Neumann et al. , 2000; Jansen et al. , 2002; Ruffinato and Crivellaro, 2019).
In addition, charcoal reference collections are held at the Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand  (Allott, 2005; Chikumbirike, 2014; Lennox, 2016; Scheel-Ybert, 2016). Each charcoal specimen was pressure-fractured in order to obtain the three anatomical planes for observation: transverse, radial longitudinal and tangential longitudinal. The anatomical features were observed by means of light microscopy, utilising an Olympus SZX 16 stereomicroscope magnified up to 110 times, an Olympus USB camera and Soft Imaging Solutions software. Anatomical details were studied in greater detail by means of an Olympus BX51 reflective, polarised light microscope magnified up to 600 times, and Olympus Stream Essentials image analysis software with Extended Focal Image (EFI) capability was used.
Quantitative analysis methods Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was used to compare the woody taxa identifications from charcoal in the 10 Border Cave members using Palaeontological Statistics, PAST 3. 23 software  (Hammer et al. , 2001; Hammer, 2019). The PAST module uses the same algorithm as the Decorana software  (Hill and Gauch, 1980). DCA is commonly used in paleoecology. In studies of plant ecology it can suggest the progression of plant communities over time. Correspondence analysis and principal coordinate analysis are particularly useful for dealing with large quantities of data, especially in cases of presence-absence data, for example plant species, or semi-quantitative data, such as rare, moderately present or abundant specimens. Such analyses allow for ordination of both fixed points like stratigraphic layers, and variables, for example plant taxa.
The taxa are grouped into the four broad types of vegetation based on plant habitat that have previously been discussed, that is, forest, closed woodland, bushveld and open woodland. The horse-shoe curve produced by correspondence analysis is straightened out by Decorana, enabling a comparison between values along a relatively horizontal line. Two of three axes are plotted, increasing from zero along the x and y axes. The scale is even and increases incrementally, not logarithmically or exponentially. The lines link similar values in the four groups. The position of each woody taxon (data row) is plotted once; Eigen values group woody taxa and the Border Cave stratigraphic members. The hulls represent correlations between plant habitat (determined by groups of woody taxa) and members  (Hill and Gauch, 1980; Bloem et al.
, 1993; Hammer et al. , 2001; Cruikshank, 2016; Hammer, 2019). In the case of Border Cave where continuity and overlap in plant taxa are likely through time, the Decorana module in PAST offers potential to identify trends, for example recurrent ecological associations not detectable through a simple analysis of the data. Naturally, interpretations suggested by the Decorana need to be assessed using ecological insights and local knowledge about a particular environment.
Our findings do not support this hypothesis since dry Member 1 WA is replete with innovative artefacts (d  'Errico et al. , 2012; Villa et al. , 2012). In   These data support our earlier suggestion that a mosaic of habitats probably occurred near Border Cave during the occupation of Member 6 BS as well as during other periods. Thus, the results of the detrended correspondence analysis support the intuitive observation that mosaic vegetation communities had a longstanding existence in the area. Overall the vegetation record at Border Cave appears to have been stable through time. Notwithstanding this, forest and closed woodland patches may occasionally have occurred as part of a mosaic alongside bushveld and open vegetation. A varied vegetation mosaic was also suggested from archaeobotanical research at Sibudu  (Wadley, 2004; Allott, 2006; Sievers, 2006; Bamford, 2021; Zwane and Bamford, 2021a).
Acknowledgements SJL would like to express her gratitude to  Prof. Marion Bamford  for botanical advice. The  Evolutionary Studies Institute (ESI)  provided the necessary instruments. The field research was made possible by funding to LW and LB from  National Research Foundation (NRF) African Origins Platform  grants (# 98827  and # 98824 , respectively). The  NRF  provided funding to LW for SLJ's postdoctoral fellowship in the  ESI. The NRF does not necessarily agree with conclusions reached in this paper. LB was funded by a  National Geographic   Explorer grant  ( NGS-54810R-19 ) and  DSI-NRF   Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences grant  ( CEOOP2020-1 ). FD's work is supported by the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the  Horizon 2020 program  ( QUANTA  project, contract no. 951388 ), the  Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence funding scheme, SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE) , project number  262618 , the  LaScArBx research programme  ( ANR-10-LABX-52 ), the  Talents Programme  [grant number:  191022_001 ], and the  Grand Programme de Recherche 'Human Past' of the Initiative d'Excellence (IdEx) of Bordeaux University.
Introduction Across many studies, greater income inequality has been associated with lower average wellbeing, whether wellbeing is measured as depression, anxiety, health, life expectancy, trust, or a number of other outcome variables  (Lous & Graafland, 2022; Verme, 2011; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009 , 2010). Pickett and Wilkinson (2015)  have argued that this association meets typical epidemiological criteria for causality: It is consistent across many datasets, dose-responsive, and not obviously the result of confounding variables. However, even granting the association causal status, there are multiple pathways by which inequality could affect average wellbeing  (Lynch et al. , 2000; Truesdale & Jencks, 2016). Demonstrating that the association is consistent, dose-responsive, and not the result of confounds does nothing to reveal the relative importance of these different causal pathways.
Such tests are only possible with multilevel datasets where measures of individual-level income and well-being, and population-level income inequality, are all available. The results of such multilevel studies, of which there are many, are often described as mixed (see,  Lynch et al. , 2004 for review). In some studies, the effect of inequality remains statistically significant after control for individual income  (Fiscella & Franks, 2000; Kennedy et al. , 1998; Shi & Starfield, 2000) , suggesting insufficiency of the individual income mechanism, whilst in others, it is attenuated to non-significance  (Bobak et al. , 2000; Kahn et al. , 2000; Mellor & Milyo, 2002). However, comparison of statistical significance is a poor method for judging the importance of the individual income pathway. In multilevel models, the statistical power to detect significant associations at the higher (country or state) level is determined by the number of sampling units at that level.
Dataset and pre-registration The publicly available EQLS dataset (2011-2 wave) was obtained from the UK data archive. Although this project involved secondary use of existing data, the data pipeline and planned analyses were preregistered at https://osf. io/4ruap. The EQLS dataset consists of responses from 43,636 individuals from 34 European countries. Six countries (North Macedonia, Ireland, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey) lack a Gini coefficient provided in the original dataset. In the main paper, we use the Gini coefficients provided, and hence the analysis covers 28 countries. In parallel, we obtained independent Gini coefficients dating from around the time of the EQLS for all 34 countries, from the World Income Inequality Database  (Gradin, 2021). We repeated the central analysis for all 34 countries using these Gini values, as reported in Supplementary Analyses, section S3.
Individual income Respondents self-reported monthly income. This is reported in the dataset in three ways: converted into euros at prevailing exchange rate; converted into purchasing power parity (PPP) equivalent euros; and adjusted per capita for household size. The correlations between the three income measures were >0. 94. We used the PPP adjusted variable. Nineteen cases had reported monthly incomes of less than three euros. We excluded these cases as they cause negative logarithms.
Analysis strategy Data were analyzed using general linear and linear mixed models in R (R Core Team, 2021), with random intercepts for country where appropriate. Continuous variables were scaled for analysis, and hence all coefficients reported for continuous variables are standardized. Models are specified in Results. The presence of diminishing returns in wellbeing relationships with income was assessed by comparing AIC between models predicting wellbeing with income, or with the log of income. Although our focus is on parameter estimation rather than statistical significance, we refer to "significance" where p <. 05. Analysis code is available at https://osf. io/cg27n/. Below, we present our planned analyses first for life satisfaction as the outcome variable, then for self-rated health.
03, 95% CI -0. 10 to 0. 03, p =. 345; Figure  2c ). Thus, this decomposition suggests that the association between income inequality and health is substantively (around 68%) due to individual income effects, with any remainder due to psychosocial and other processes. Dichotomising self-rated health, rather than treating it as continuous, produced almost identical conclusions (Supplementary Analyses, section S1). The alternative simulation approach also led to the same conclusions regarding the role of individual income effects (Supplementary Analyses S2). Using the World Income Inequality Database Ginis and the wider set of 34 countries, the negative association between income inequality and health was not significant to begin with, though it remained the case that any negative trend was abolished by the addition of individual income (Supplementary Analyses S3).
, 2000; Kahn et al. , 2000; Sturm & Gresenz, 2002; Truesdale & Jencks, 2016). The residual association after adjustment for individual income was in the same direction as the unadjusted association, but weak, as is typical  (Kondo et al. , 2009). Indeed, in the present dataset, we could not reject the hypothesis that the residual association was null at conventional significance levels. We note, however, that the degree of attenuation by adjustment for individual income may differ by the scale of sampling unit used (e. g. , countries, states, census tracts;  Soobader & LeClere, 1999) , and differ for different demographic groups  (LeClere & Soobader, 2000). The robustness of associations between income inequality and health may also differ between the USA and Europe  (Lynch et al. , 2004).
We should also note that in the expanded set of 34 countries analysed in the supplementary analyses (section S3), the negative association between income inequality and health is not significant even in the unadjusted analysis. The expanded set of countries includes Kosovo, Macedonia and Turkey, countries that are poorer and have younger populations than the 28 countries considered in the main paper. Thus, this finding is a reminder that the performance of Gini as a single predictor of average health, even without adjustment, will depend on the extent to which the sampling units are comparable in other ways. Layte (2012) , using a related dataset to the present one, concluded that what we are here describing as the public services pathway made no contribution to the association between income inequality and mental health.
The first approach consists in using individuals to extract information from such a specific material. Resorting to human understanding is often seen as the best solution to capture meaning, especially when the tasks are complex. For a long time, researchers have thus annotated text according to a precise coding scheme. More often than never, they used assistants to help them. Starting with Lazarsfeld and  Berelson's (1948)  hand annotation of swaths of newspaper articles in the immediate post-WWII era, they have long outsourced this grueling work. In the last decade, scholars have turned to supervised machine learning to analyze vast corpora of texts 3. The procedure consists in labeling a small sample of data in order to "train" an algorithm. Once this classifier is deemed to be good enough ("test"), it is used to annotate a much larger dataset  ("prediction").
Data and indicators For this analysis, we used a dataset of articles published in the French daily Le Monde. Created in 1944, Le Monde is a highbrow daily that rapidly became the reference newspaper. We assumed it would be a good test case, as it has long resisted the use of this strategic language, but reluctantly adopted it at the close of the 20th century  (Kaciaf 2005). From the complete archives of the newspaper, we selected articles about politics, from 1945 to 2018. Our dataset has over 60,000 articles, and close to 39 million words. Taking cues from the literature in the sociology of journalism, we designed two indicators. • Task 1: Policy / Politics. For each sentence of the article, we try to determine whether it evokes the content of a measure, its effects, and more broadly any action outside of the political sphere ("policy"), or if the sentence is only about the action of politicians, the strategy they use, the inner workings of the political field ("politics").
The experiment To compare the quality of the annotation produced by a model trained by an expert (the social scientist) to other types of annotators, we designed an experiment that features three groups. They represent the main three options available when text annotation is usually carried out. • The Social Scientist. She is an expert in her field. She has extensive knowledge about the topic at hand, she may have designed the indicators and written the code sheet. Her time is limited, as she can at best dedicate a few dozens of hours to annotate a dataset. In this case, two of the authors carried out one task. • Research assistants. Skilled, but not expert, individuals. They are often hired by the researcher who wants to do the analysis and may get to know her and her research. Their time is also limited, but less than that of the social scientist.