dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Study population The URS Global Study is a prospective, observational, international, multicenter study with data collected on consecutive patients treated with URS over a 1-year period at each participating center. The overall study period was from January 2010 until October 2012. Centers were asked to treat patients according to their local protocols. Institutional Research Board (IRB) or Institutional Ethics Committee approval was obtained by all participating centers before the start of the study. If IRB was not needed, the centers followed the protocol according the rules of Good Clinical Practice. Patients who were eligible for inclusion in the present analysis were those who were candidates for flexible URS for renal stones as a primary treatment or after failure of a previous treatment and aged ≥18 years.
Assessment Data were encrypted and collected electronically through a web-based Web site: www. croesoffice. org and held in a central database at the CROES office. Data included patient epidemiological characteristics, calculus specification, type of treatment, and postoperative outcomes and complications. Stone burden was calculated as the sum of all stone sizes (length × width × 0. 25 × 3. 14159). The classification of a patient being stone free (SFR) was based on the absence of stones or fragments >1 mm. Operating time was defined as the time from the insertion of the endoscope until the insertion of a bladder catheter. Treatment failure was defined as stone still in situ, remaining stone fragments >1 mm, and failed access. Treatment success was defined as a patient free of stones >1 mm.
-We use the daily mean of the ice fraction and atmospheric pressure (either from the data models or the coupled sea ice and atmosphere models) instead of the monthly averaged climatology used in OCMIP-2. -We use a constant reference value (1944 µmol m -3 ) for the virtual fluxes of abiotic radiocarbon, rather than an annually updated average of the surface DI 14 C as suggested in OCMIP-2. This is done to conserve total 14 C in the model (in the absence of radioactive decay). To compute the partial pressure of CO 2 from the abiotic DI 12 C, we require an estimate of surface alkalinity. We follow again OCMIP-2, i. e. , we estimate surface alkalinity (Alk) by scaling the ocean mean alkalinity, Alkbar = 2310 microeq kg -1 with sea-surface salinity, SSS, i. e. , Alk = Alkbar • ρ sw • SSS/S Ref (2) with S Ref = 34.
Acknowledgements. A. Jahn  was funded under the  DOE SciDAC grant Development of an Isotope-Enabled CESM for Testing Abrupt Climate Changes  ( DE-SC0006744 ). We thank  Michael Levy  ( NCAR ) and  David M. Hall  ( CU Boulder ) for software engineering advice,  Matt Long  ( NCAR ) for helpful discussions, and  Heather Graven  (Scripps) for sharing her extensions of the OCMIP atmospheric 14 C, δ 13 C, and CO 2 data with us. We also thank  Guy Munhoven  for serving as editor and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on the discussion paper. NCAR is sponsored by the  National Science Foundation. N. Gruber  and  X. Giraud  acknowledge funding from  ETH Zürich. Computing resources (ark: /85065/d7wd3xhc ) were provided by the  Climate Simulation Laboratory at NCAR's Computational and Information Systems Laboratory on Yellowstone  ( 2012 ), sponsored by the  National Science Foundation  and other agencies.
Acknowledgments The Living Links to Human Evolution Research Centre was funded by a  Strategic Research and   Development Grant  from the  Scottish Funding Council. This research was made possible through  Wellcome Trust  grants  WT094440MA  and  WT098133A  to  A. Whiten. The study was begun while NC was supported by a  Research Fellowship  from the  Fyssen Foundation  and later by a  John Templeton Foundation  grant to AW. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. For their collaboration we thank  Sophie Pearson  and the other keepers, volunteers and store staff at  Edinburgh Zoo , and the researchers and volunteers at Living Links. We thank research assistant  Lisseth Lavajos  for coding the 'body part' analysis.
Using comprehensive administrative data on France's single largest financial aid program, this paper provides new evidence on the impact of large-scale need-based grant programs on the college enrollment decisions, persistence and graduation rates of low-income students. We exploit sharp discontinuities in the grant eligibility formula to identify the impact of aid on student outcomes at di↵erent levels of study. We find that eligibility for an annual cash allowance of 1,500 euros increases college enrollment rates by up to 5 percentage points. Moreover, we show that need-based grants have positive e↵ects on student persistence and degree completion.
If marginal students are of substantially lower average ability than inframarginal students, then need-based grants might have only a weak impact on persistence and degree completion rates. The provision of financial support could, however, improve the learning conditions of all students by allowing them to work less, to be more focused on their studies and to eventually complete a degree. 2 Because the combined e↵ect of these "extensive" and "intensive" margin responses is uncertain, the overall impact of financial assistance programs on student persistence and degree attainment is fundamentally an empirical question. The literature on student aid provides relatively little direct empirical evidence on the impact of large need-based programs on college access and success for low-income students.
In the French context analyzed in this paper, such a phenomenon is unlikely to occur since most higher education institutions are not free to set their own tuition fees. 5 Castleman and Long (2012) also use discontinuities to evaluate the impact of grants on degree completion rates, but they consider a program (the Florida Student Access Grant) which supplements Pell Grants. They estimate the e↵ects of this additional subsidy on student outcomes but not the impact of the initial Pell Grant (i. e. , of some aid versus no aid). Pell Grants tend to reduce dropout rates but the findings are not completely robust to specification. Empirical evidence on the impact of need-based grant programs outside of the US is even more limited and mixed. 6 In these latter studies, the reliance on indirect sources rather than on direct administrative data on grant applicants has typically prevented researchers from exploiting small variations in grant eligibility formulas to identify the programs' e↵ects on student outcomes.
Our paper makes several contributions to the literature on student financial aid. First, we are able to link administrative micro-data on the universe of students applying for need-based grants in French higher education over the period 2008-2010 with data on all students enrolled in French public universities. These administrative data allow us to exploit sharp discontinuities in the assessment formula to estimate the impact of grant eligibility on student outcomes without having to be concerned about student mobility across institutions. Second, our analysis takes advantage of the fact that grant applications have to be renewed every year to estimate the e↵ect of financial aid on applicants' decisions at each level of study, i. e. for those entering college as well as for those who are already enrolled in higher education.
The points estimates are indeed close to zero and non-significant in all specifications. Our final robustness check addresses the possibility that our estimates could not fully capture the impact of grant eligibility on higher education enrollment decisions. In the absence of information on students enrolled in selective higher education institutions in 2008 and 2009, we restricted our sample to applicants who only listed university degree programs among their pre-registration choices. The purpose of this restriction was to minimize the risk of misclassifying applicants who do not appear in the SISE data as not being enrolled in higher education. This type of misclassification would represent a threat to our estimation strategy if a non-negligible share of applicants in our samples ended up enrolling in selective institutions and changed their behavior at the eligibility thresholds.
The availability of supplementary data on the universe of undergraduate students enrolled in selective higher education institutions for the academic year 2010-2011 allows us to address this issue for prospective undergraduate students who applied for a grant in 2010. The bottom panel of table 6 shows that the fraction of undergraduate applicants who only listed university degree programs among their pre-registration choices but ended up being enrolled in other higher education institutions is very small (less than 1 percent). Moreover, the regression results show no evidence of significant discontinuities in the probability of attending such institutions at the various income eligibility thresholds. We are therefore confident that our baseline estimates capture the full impact of grant eligibility on applicants' enrollment in higher education.
Impact on Student Persistence To study the impact of financial aid on persistence, we focus on students who applied for a grant to enter an undergraduate or a graduate degree program and follow their progress through college. Our data allow us to track 2008 applicants for up to three years after their application, and 2009 applicants for up to two years. Figure  6  shows that the college enrollment e↵ect of being eligible for a 1,500 euros allowance is not short-lived, since di↵erences in initial enrollment rates at the L1/L0 cuto↵s are carried over to the following year. We investigate more precisely the e↵ect of financial aid on persistence in table 8, by looking separately at undergraduate and graduate applicants, and by focusing on other dimensions of persistence, such as promotion to the next year level and degree completion rates.
Moreover, our data do not allow examining degree completion e↵ects beyond a three-year window. Table  8  shows that the e↵ects of financial aid on persistence are strong for graduate applicants (columns 4 to 6). Students who applied for a grant in 2008 or 2009 to start a graduate degree program are not only more likely to enroll in college if they are eligible for a 1,500 euros cash allowance (first line of Panel A). They are also more likely to successfully complete all their first-year credits (second line of panel A), to proceed to the next year level (first and second lines of panel B) and to graduate on time (fourth line on panel B). The estimated e↵ects on enrollment, promotion and graduation are of similar magnitude, between 4 and 5 percentage points. These results suggest that the cash allowance component of the BCS grant program is particularly e↵ective at the graduate level, as it increases not only enrollment and persistence, but also degree graduation rates.
6. 7. 8. 9 1 Notes: The circles represent the mean college enrollment (left panel) and the degree completion rate (right panel) of final year undergraduate or graduate applicants, per interval of relative income-distance to the eligibility thresholds. The sample includes 2008 to 2010 applicants entering the final year of a three-year bachelor's degree or the final year of a two-year master's degree. The solid lines are the fitted values from a second-order polynomial approximation which is estimated separately on both sides of the cuto↵. The vertical lines identify the eligibility cuto↵s. Notes: The samples are constructed from the AGLAE administrative dataset, which covers the universe of applicants to need-based grants awarded through the French Bourses sur critères sociaux program for the period 2008 to 2010.
The applicants' percentile rank on the Baccalauréat high school graduation exam was retrieved from the OCEAN dataset covering the period   Notes: The McCrary test is performed separately for each treatment sample. The "fee waiver" sample (column 1) includes grant applicants whose parental income is close to the eligibility thresholds between no grant and a level 0 grant (which consists of a fee waiver). The "1,500 euros allowance" sample (column 2) includes applicants in the vicinity of the income thresholds between level 0 and level 1 grants, where students (who already qualify for the fee waiver) become eligible for an annual cash allowance of 1,500 euros. The "600 euros increment" sample (column 3) include applicants close to the income thresholds between consecutive levels of grant in the level 2 to level 6 range, where the amount of annual cash allowance increases by 600 euros on average.
The SISE dataset covers approximately two thirds of students enrolled in higher education (i. e. , all students attending academic or vocational courses in publics universities), and contain basic information on the socio-demographic characteristics of students, detailed information on the university, name and year level of the degree program they attend, and a binary variable indicating whether they successfully completed the degree. For the academic year 2010-2011, we supplement the SISE data with an extract of the Base Centrale de Scolarité, which includes the universe of undergraduate students enrolled in selective post-secondary vocational education or in preparatory classes to elite schools. Finally, we use the OCEAN data ro retrieve individual-level information about the high school graduation results of applicants to BCS grants, which are converted into percentile ranks for each cohort of high school seniors.
We apply the newly available REDBACK software  (Iaffaldano et al. 2014)  to the newly estimated best-fitting rotations and their covariances in order to estimate noise-reduced rotations and determine the timing of any changes in SWIR plate motion. In order to remain true to the original observations, we tested the fits of all of the noise-reduced rotations against the original observations to guard against solutions that violate the data constraints. Details are given below.
Triple junction locations and test for existence of the Lwandle plate Estimates of rotations that reconstruct the motions of the Nubia, Somalia and possibly Lwandle plates north of the SWIR relative Downloaded from https://academic. oup. com/gji/article/203/3/1495/2594782 by CNRS -ISTO user on 19 October 2021 to the Antarctic plate require a priori information about where the boundaries between the two or three plates north of the SWIR intersect the SWIR. Below, we use our new kinematic data for C1n through C5n. 2, consisting of 3996 crossings of 13 distinct magnetic reversals and crossings of the 17 fracture zones and 18 transform faults that are identified in Fig. 2 (B), to test for an independent Lwandle plate and define the plate geometries necessary for our analysis. Following brief summaries of results from previous studies of these plate boundaries, which were based on analyses of Chron 2A (3.
Noise-reduced rotations from REDBACK We applied REDBACK software to the best-fitting rotations and covariances in Table  2  to identify a less noisy rotation sequence that is consistent with the observations. The poles for the noisereduced rotations (Supporting Information Table  S1  and Fig. 7B ) are grouped more tightly and describe a smoother path than do the best-fitting poles (Fig. 7B ). The noise-reduced rotation angles also change more smoothly than do the best-fitting angles (Fig. 7C ). Both sets of angles clearly indicate that at least one significant change in the rate of angular rotation rate has occurred since 20 Ma. Fits of the best-fitting and noise-reduced rotations to the original data are described next. The kinematic predictions of the newly estimated rotations are presented in Section 4.
Timing of plate motion changes Fig. 26  summarizes results from two tests that we used to determine the best timing of plate motion changes for each plate pair. One is based on our REDBACK software analysis, which reports probabilities as a function of rotation age that one or more changes in the pole location or angular rotation rate occurred within the finite rotation sequence  (Iaffaldano et al. 2014). The other is based on fitting the best-fitting orthogonal component angles with a series of   4  and the noise-reduced stage angular velocities in Supporting Information Table  S6. Blue lines show small-circle fits for the youngest (C1n) opening pole to the actively slipping, transform fault segment of each flow line. A colour legend for the reversal and fracture zone crossings appears below the maps.
Noise-reduced versus best-fitting rotations Given that best-fitting and noise-reduced rotations are derived above for each of the Nubia-Antarctic, Lwandle-Antarctica and Somalia-Antarctic plate pairs, it behooves us to specify which are preferred for future plate reconstructions. We prefer the noise-reduced rotations given in Supporting Information Tables S1-S6 for two reasons. First, the fitting penalties associated with these rotations are only 0. 13, 0. 19 and 0. 04 km for reconstructed magnetic reversal crossings from the three plate boundaries and fracture zone flow lines predicted by the best-fitting and noise-reduced rotations differ insignificantly. The noise-reduced rotations thus fit the original data nearly as well as do the best-fitting rotations. Second, the interval velocities predicted by the noise-reduced stage angular velocities for all three plate pairs vary more smoothly through time than do those predicted by stage rotations determined from the best-fitting rotations.
2006) , which were not available to Patriat et al. The C5n. 2 Somalia-Antarctica finite rotation estimated by  Lemaux et al. (2002)  from 152 crossings of C5n. 2 east of the Bain fracture zone predicts total opening of 148. 4 km near the boundary midpoint (adjusted for 2 km of outward displacement). This differs by less than 1 per cent from the 147. 6 ± 2. 8 km opening distance predicted by our noise-reduced C5n. 2 finite rotation (Supporting Information Table  S5 ). We conclude that our respective identifications of C5n. 2 along the Somalia-Antarctic plate boundary are consistent. Despite this good agreement, the Lemaux et al. rotation pole falls outside the 95 per cent confidence limits of our new pole (Fig. 16A ). We suspect that the difference in pole locations is caused by the additional constraints that are imposed on our rotation by the dense RV Marion Dufresne 135 data  (Cannat et al.
2006)  and by fracture zone crossings east of ∼52 • E. The largest differences between our new and previously published estimates of Somalia-Antarctic motion are for the youngest reconstructions, which span the past 3 Myr. The 3-Myr-average 3 and are located even farther from the noise-reduced pole (Fig. 16A ). We attribute this difference to two factors. The most important factor is the geographic extent of the Somalia-Antarctic data that are used to estimate the rotation. Whereas our rotations are estimated from SWIR data located as far east as the Gallieni transform fault at 52 • E, the earlier estimates were estimated only from data between the Atlantis II transform fault at 57 • E and the Rodriguez triple junction. As an experiment, we re-estimated a Somalia-Antarctica angular velocity from the MORVEL data, but used all of the MORVEL data between the Gallieni transform fault and the Rodriguez triple junction for the estimate.
The resulting Somalia-Antarctic pole moved significantly eastward to the periphery of the 95 per cent confidence region for our new C2An. 3 estimate. The pole location is thus sensitive to the geographic distribution of the observations that are used to estimate the pole. A second factor responsible for the difference between our new C2A estimates and previous estimates is that the recently available, dense magnetic data from the RV Marion Dufresne 135 cruise  (Cannat et al. 2006)  impose useful new constraints on the opening rate and opening-rate gradient between 60. 5 • E and 67 • E.
Uncertainties and need for additional data Estimates of SWIR and global plate kinematics during the Quaternary and Neogene would benefit significantly from improved magnetic and bathymetric coverage of two areas along the ridge, namely, the seafloor just east of the Bouvet triple junction and older seafloor that flanks the 16 • -25 • E spreading supersegment. In both areas, improved mapping of the magnetic reversals older than C5An. 2 and in particular of Chron 6 is critical for improving the reliability of Nubia-Antarctic rotations for times before 11 Ma. Modern surveys of the central third of the SWIR, where Lwandle-Antarctic plate motion occurs, are also needed, particularly east of the Prince Edward fracture zone. Although numerous tracks from older cruises cross this part of the SWIR, their navigation, orientation and magnetic sampling rates are sub-optimal and limit our ability to define Lwandle-Antarctic plate motion.
C O N C L U S I O N S From an analysis of nearly 11 000 kinematic data that sample SWIR plate motions from 20 Ma to the present, we conclude the following: (1) Outward displacement estimated from dense data in 11 areas along the ridge is an unexpectedly large 5 ± 1 km along the Nubia-Antarctica segment of the ridge, but is consistently 2 ± 1 km elsewhere. Adjusted for outward displacement, the SWIR spreading rate pattern differs from that estimated previously, particularly west of 32 • E, where spreading rates are ∼15 per cent slower than previously estimated. (2) Inversions of numerous new observations for reversals C1n through C5n. 2 to test for the existence of the previously hypothesized Lwandle plate indicate that the plate exists at a confidence level much greater than 99 per cent. (3) Magnetic reversal, fracture zone and transform fault data for C1n through C5n.
When methods matter We appreciate Biersteker's comments (1) on our research (2). Moreover, we agree with many of her points so wholeheartedly that our paper addresses them in detail: We devote whole sections in the main text and supporting information to the incompleteness of the Index Translationum, the imperfect quality of the language detector, and the limitations of the Wikipedia dataset, among others. However, besides restating previously acknowledged limitations, Biersteker does not describe how these limitations change our findings. We intuit that her comments stem from a misunderstanding of our methods and would like to provide a few clarifications.
First, we never claimed that our networks are globally representative. We explicitly state on page 3 that "the resulting networks represent patterns of linguistic coexpression not among the entire human population but among the kinds of speakers and texts that contributed to the respective datasets. " The very reason we trace three different networks is to characterize the linguistic patterns of the distinct elites captured by each network. Second, our method controls for the presence of a language in each medium by considering only links that are statistically significant; that is, links that are not explained merely by the number of articles, tweets, or books recorded in the data. Thus, languages with a larger presence in a medium are not necessarily more central. Biersteker asks whether "Winaray [is] more important than Spanish because it has 100,000 more Wikipedia articles?," when in our article, we make the opposite claim: that Spanish is more central than Winaray.