dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Discrimination is based on the fact that the ballistic, or the forward scattered light retains its polarisation, while the diffusive light and ambient light are depolarised to various extents. The experiments discussed below, however, employed intensity modulation. The scene was viewed using the ANDOR Neo sCMOS camera and the data acquisition and real-time processing was performed using the parallel processing procedure described in Supplementary Information. Frames of size 600 × 600 pixels, with exposure time 5 ms were recorded at 100 fps. Shorter exposures could be used when the scattering was less. The first scenario mimics the pilot's view while approaching a runway for landing. In addition to the runway lights, there is a clutter of other sources of light -streetlights, lights in buildings, vehicular lights, etc.
If, however, the illumination (car fog-lights, say) is modulated in intensity or polarisation, and realtime QLD performed on the captured images, these objects can easily be made out, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Models of a tree and an animal, shown in Fig. 4a , were placed in the field of view of the camera. Fog, simulated by the strongly scattering medium described earlier, obscured these from view as is evident from Fig. 4b. However, performance of QLD enables one to see these objects as in Fig. 4c. These images were also obtained in realtime at 100 fps, on processing data acquired over 50 milliseconds. Sharper contrast can be attained by processing over a longer time-series. The same display frame-rate of 100 fps can be maintained; the first processed image would appear after a longer delay from the first acquired raw data frame, though the gap between the last acquired raw data frame and appearance of the first processed image would still be ~5 ms.
Using a Dell Precision T-3600 desktop computer and programming in MATLAB, we have compared the performance of FFT and QLD techniques of extraction of the ballistic photons. For the former, the FFT func- 2 gave the image with the ballistic component that retained modulation at frequency ω i , i. e. ,Fig. 1c. In the case of QLD, the quantity ω ω = ∑ + ∑ • • R j k I j k t t I j k t t ( , ) [ [ ( , , ) sin( )] [ ( , , ) cos( )] ] s s is s s i s 2 2 1/2 was evaluated for each pixel, (j, k), with the values of sin(ω i t s ) and cos(ω i t s ) being read from pre-calculated arrays. The 2-d plot of R(j, k) gives the image due to the ballistic photons (Fig. 1d ). Both calculations were performed for the same set of recorded frames, and for the same length of time series. Estimation of Contrast-to-noise-ratio.
The extraction output indeed exhibits both the contribution of the signal extracted from the main link (after compensation of φ B ) and the residual noise of the secondary link, the latter limiting the noise rejection at short term. In Fig. 4  is also shown the noise floors for both the main link (pink diamonds (f)) and the extraction output (grey stars (e)), which limit the long-term stability. The latter is mainly attributed to thermal noise on uncompensated fibre paths, due to imperfect length adjustment and thermal stabilisation in the extraction optical set-up, or in the interferometric measurement set-up. Finally, the accuracy of the frequency transfer was evaluated by calculating the mean value of the end-to-end beat note frequency offset. Following  [4, 22] , we estimate its statistical fractional uncertainty as the long-term overlapping Allan deviation at 20000 or 30000 s of the data set.
Acknowledgments We acknowledge  Christian Chardonnet  and  Saïda Guellati-Khelifa  for stimulating this work and  Giorgio Santarelli  for fruitful discussions. We also acknowledge  A. Kaladjian  and  F. Wiotte  from  LPL  for technical support. We acknowledge funding support from the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche the Agence Nationale de la Recherche  ( ANR  blanc  LIOM 2011-BS04-009-01 ,  Labex First-TF ANR   10 LABX 48 01 ) and  IFRAF-Conseil Régional Ile-de-France.
The Milky Way's dwarf spheroidal (dSph) galaxies are among the best targets for the indirect detection of dark matter (DM) from annihilation (resp. decay) products. The expected gammaray flux depends on the so-called 'J-factor' (resp. 'D-factor'), the integral of the squared DM density (resp. DM density) along the line-of-sight. Using a large number of simulated dSphs, we define an optimized Jeans analysis setup for the reconstruction of the DM density with stellarkinematic data. Employing this setup, we provide estimates of astrophysical Jand D-factors for twenty-two Galactic dSphs, including the newly discovered Reticulum II. We finally identify several criteria that may indicate a contamination of a kinematic dataset by interlopers, leading to unreliable astrophysical factors. We find that the kinematic sample of Segue I, one of the closest dSph, might be affected by this issue.
Contamination of stellar-kinematics The various tests mentioned above were undertaken on contamination-free mock dSphs, i. e. for which all the stars in the samples were dSph members. However, real stellar-kinematic datasets contain also foreground contamination from the Milky Way, which has to be separated from the bona fide members of the dSph. The conventional approach to handle these interlopers relies on the arbitrary definition of some threshold separating members from outliers (sigma-clipping method, see e. g. [33] ). Here, we focus on the expectation-maximisation (EM) algorithm  [34] , which gives more precise information in the form of membership probabilities P for each star of the sample, and we test the reliability of J-factors estimates for various contamination levels. We generate thousands of mock data sets that each sample mixtures of three simulated stellar populations tracing a gravitational potential dominated by DM.
The first population represents bona fide members of a dSph galaxy. The second represents contamination from a tidal stream in which the dSph may be embedded, as may be the case if the object formed as the satellite of a more massive dSph that was more easily disrupted by Galactic tides  [35]. The third represents contaminant stars in the Galactic foreground (see  [36]  for a precise description of the mock datasets). We then run a Jeans analysis on these mock dSphs, either using all the stars and weighting their contribution to the likelihood by their P values (Eq. 2. 4), or selecting only the stars with P > 0. 95. We find that: • contaminated dSphs tend to show a large fraction of stars with ambiguous membership status (0. 05 < P < 0. 95, left panel of Fig. 1 ); • stellar contamination can cause a large J-factor overestimation, up to several orders of magnitudes (right panel of Fig.
PoS(ICRC2015)1176 ranked according to their median estimates. We find UMi and Draco to be the most favoured targets in terms of magnitude and robustness of their J-factors. Using contaminated mock dSphs, we also identify several characteristics of stellar-kinematic datasets suffering from foreground contamination, for which estimates of the J-factor can be unreliable. Such data sets tend 1) to have a large fraction of stars with ambiguous membership status and 2) to give very different J-factor estimates depending on how we treat these ambiguous stars. These characteristics are observed in the kinematic sample of the 'ultrafaint' dSph Seg I, for which astrophysical factor estimates should therefore be regarded with caution.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the " Investissements d'avenir, Labex ENIGMASS " and by the  French ANR , Project  DMAstro-LHC ,  ANR-12-BS05-0006. MGW is supported by  National Science Foundation  grants  AST-1313045 ,  AST-1412999. This study used the  CC-IN2P3 computation center of Lyon.
The n-body integrator was initialized with the positions and velocities of the system bodies (parametrised by osculating astrocentric asteroidal orbital elements, see Table  A. 1), at a given reference time, t ref = 2 456 979. 5 BJD TDB. The reference time t ref was chosen immediately before the first K2 transit, which is close to the moment containing most of the dynamical information. This means that we used two n-body integrations initialized at t ref , one that was integrated forward in time until the last PFS data point in 2015, and a second one that was integrated backwards in time to the first observation of CORALIE in 2010. The physical parameters of the model are the bodies' masses and radii, the orbital parameters at t ref , and the limb-darkening coefficients for each photometric instrument.
Acknowledgements. We thank  C. Hellier , who kindly sent us the EulerCam transit data,  R. Mardling  for discussions about dynamics,  T. Fenouillet  and  Y. Revaz  for their assistance with the computing clusters used in this work, and  L. Kreidberg  for her Mandel & Agol code. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the  NASA Science Mission directorate. This research has made use of the Exoplanet Orbit Database and the Exoplanet Data Explorer at exoplanets. org. Simulations in this paper made use of the REBOUND code which can be downloaded freely at http://github. com/hannorein/rebound. Part of these simulations have been run on the Regor cluster kindly provided by the  Observatoire de Genève. JMA and XB acknowledges funding from the  European Research Council  under the  ERC Grant  Agreement n.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank  Anthony Ashmore ,  Mirela Babalic ,  Michela Petrini ,  Carlos Shahbazi ,  Charlie Strickland-Constable ,  Orestis Vasilakis  and  Daniel Waldram  for insightful discussions. This work was supported in part by the  ERC  Starting Grant 259133 ObservableString, and by the  P2IO LabEx  ( ANR-10-LABX-0038 ) in the framework Investissements d' Avenir  ( ANR-11-IDEX-0003-01 ) managed by  Agence Nationale de la Recherche.
The primary objective of the study was to prospectively estimate the difference between the radiation doses, measured by two operational EDs, received by the palm side of the proximal (first) phalanx (P1) of the index finger [Hp (0. 07) P1 ] and that received by the distal (third) phalanx (P3) of the same finger [Hp (0. 07) P3 ] during a manual drawing into a syringe of a 18 F-FDG dose. The secondary objectives consisted of studying the impact of radiopharmaceutical characteristics and demographic data on the Hp (0. 07) P3 /Hp (0. 07) P1 ratio.
Participants The study participants were ten NMTs, all right-handed, who have worked regularly in 18 F-FDG preparation in the NM departments of the Bordeaux University Hospital and the Côte Basque-Bayonne Hospital, each employing five study subjects. Taking into account that whatever the used hand (dominant or non-dominant), the gesture is realized identically, because of the hot cell layout and the kind of device used. All participants signed an informed consent before enrollment. Demographic data were collected from each participant.
07) P3 /Hp (0. 07) P1 ratio. All statistical analyses were performed with SAS software, version 9. 3 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). We had performed several preliminary studies that verified a good ED reliability. Operators routinely perform the manipulation sequence almost identically regardless of their handedness, except in the last step of the study sequence when the right and left hands were interchangeably used to fit the three-way stopcock-Y-connector combo onto the syringe. Therefore, the hand used in that last step was included as a potential explanatory variable in the mixed-effects linear model.
Results The study was carried out between September 2012 and February 2013 with ten participating NMTs (eight females and two males) with a mean age (standard deviation (SD)) of 33. 1 [±9. 7] years, all right-handed. Their mean (±SD) seniority in the NMT profession and at the PET/CT station was 130. 1 [±125. 5] months and 61. 9 [±23. 2] months, respectively. A total of 287 paired measurements were carried out. Twenty measurements were fraught with incidents and 16 of those were excluded from the final dataset (15 at Bordeaux and 1 at Bayonne). The incidents leading to the exclusion from the analysis had been caused by either human errors consisting prematurely stopped measurements or were technical in nature, such as dosimeter breakdown or failure necessitating repair or replacement. Thus, the final analysis dataset comprised 271 valid measurements (137 at Bordeaux and 134 at Bayonne).
In the former experiment, we used an incident photon energy hv ¼ 26 eV with a De ¼ 5 meV photon energy resolution. To determine the parity of the bands, the experiment was performed in both p and s photon polarizations. In the former case, the incoming electric field, perpendicular to the photon momentum, lies within the scattering plane defined by the photon momentum and by the photoelectron momentum. In the latter case, the electric field is perpendicular to the scattering plane. In our geometry, the p polarization forms an angle of 45°with the ab-plane when at normal emission, while the s polarization is parallel to this plane. In the experiment conducted at SOLEIL, the photon energy was 100 eV and the photon energy resolution was De ¼ 10 meV. Ab initio calculations. The ab initio calculations have been carried out in the GGA-DFT framework with the Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof functional, implemented in the Quantum ESPRESSO package  29.
The plane-wave cutoff is 120 Ry for the wave function and 500 Ry for the charge. A 8 Â 8 Â 8 electron-momentum grid and a Methfessel-Paxton smearing of 0. 01 Ry are used in the electronic integration during the self-consistent loop. Further calculations with a 16 Â 16 Â 16 electron-momentum grid and tetrahedra interpolation have been performed for a more accurate determination of the Fermi level starting from a previously converged 8 Â 8 Â 8 self-consistent electron density. For band structure and Fermi surface calculations, we carried out a Wannier interpolation of the ab initio band structure by means of the Wannier90 (ref. 31) program on a N w ¼ 4 Â 4 Â 4 electron-momentum mesh by including all Ni d and S p states in a 11 eV energy window, which allows to obtain highly accurate interpolated bands.
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge financial support provided by the  University Pierre and Marie Curie  under the ' Programme emergence ', by the  EU/FP7  under contract  Go Fast  (Grant No. 280555 ) and by ' Investissement d'Avenir Labex PALM'  ( ANR-10-LABX-0039-PALM ). The computational resources used for this work have been provided by the  GENCI  under Project No. 096493. We are grateful to  B. Baptiste  for the single-crystal X-ray diffraction measurements.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank  A. Buras ,  M. Knecht ,  H. Sadzjian  and  G. Senjanović  for interesting and useful discussions. LVS acknowledges funding by the  P2IO LabEx  ( ANR-10-LABX-0038 ) in the framework " Investissements d'Avenir"  ( ANR-11-IDEX-0003-01 ) managed by the  French National Research Agency (ANR).
Acknowledgments This work was supported by the  NSF  grants  DMR-1312750  and  CCF-1117911 ,  ANR-13-IS04-0008-01  "  COMAG " and  Partner University Fund 'Novel Magnetic Materials for Spin Torque Physics', and European Project  ( OP2M FP7-IOF-2011-298060 ) and the  Region Lorraine.
An example shadowgraphy image taken 250 ps after the irradiation of a 100 nm target with LP is shown in figure 1(b). A clear cone like structure is seen on the shadowgraphy, and processed interferometry shows a significant reduction of the electron density along the laser-axis. Such a plasma distribution was typical of all the foils in this thickness range. We note that this differs from previous optical probing performed on thin foils driven by radiation pressure on Vulcan Petawatt, which show typically isotropic expansion from the focal region  [28]. Examples of proton beam profiles are shown for CP and LP with d 5 0 = -100 nm in figures 2(a)-(d) (full datasets are available in the supplemental data). For E=4 MeV, the beam is dominated by an annular ring with divergence angle 20 > . This ring structure was characteristic for all polarisations and thicknesses.
Efficiency determination Reconstruction efficiencies have been measured with the tag-and-probe technique using electrons from Z boson decays. This allows getting (η ,p T ) dependent measurement with a lower bound on electron E T of 15 GeV. Below this threshold, efficiencies are taken from simulation with a 2% (5%) uncertainty in the barrel (endcaps). Between 15 and 25 GeV, efficiencies are varying from 95 to 99% with an uncertainty of 0. 5 to 2% and they are reaching 98-99% with 0. 5% uncertainty when E T >25 GeV. Figure  1  shows the evolution of the reconstruction efficiencies as a function of E T (integrated over η ), using 2011 and 2012 data and simulations. There is an overall improvement of 5% with the new track reconstruction used in 2012 that can reach up to 7% for the lower E T region.
Calibration overview The new calibration has been derived using the complete run I data. It can be decomposed into several steps (some of which are applied only to data, the rest both to data and simulation), starting with the measurement of the energy deposit in the EM calorimeter. To a large extent, this new procedure is taking advantage of the longitudinal segmentation of the EM calorimeter. There is indeed three longitudinal layers (named strip, middle and back layers) with different η,φ granularity and a presampler (PS) for |η | <1. 8. This is shown in Figure  2 , where a schematic drawing of the interaction of particles is made with the EM calorimeter in two different region of pseudorapidity. The EM cluster properties and additional information from the ATLAS ID are linked to the true electron and photon energy in simulated samples using multivariate analysis (MVA).
One of the purposes of the scalar magnetometer (ASM) is to provide the necessary absolute magnetic data to calibrate the vector magnetometer (VFM). For this an approach similar to that adopted for the previous satellite missions Ørsted and CHAMP was foreseen (c. f. Olsen 2003; Yin and Lühr 2011) since those missions carried equivalent instrumentation. However, soon after launch of Swarm it became clear that the magnetic field vector measurements on all three spacecraft were contaminated by unforeseen disturbances which could not be captured by the traditional in-flight calibration methods referred to above. Furthermore, the disturbances show systematic variation which could impact or map into scientific investigations based on Swarm magnetic data. The light blue symbols in Fig. 1  show time series of the scalar residuals, which are the difference, F = | � B VFM | -F ASM , between the modulus of the VFM data, | � B VFM |, and the magnetic intensity measurements, F ASM , taken by the ASM instru- ment.
We document the adopted Iteratively Reweighted Least Squared (IRLS) estimation approach that includes a truncated singular value decomposition (SVD) approach to solving the inverse problem. The results obtained for Swarm Alpha, based on data covering the period from launch (22 November 2013) until end of June 2015 (i. e. 19 months), are presented in "Results of model estimation for Swarm Alpha" section. Application of the scheme to data from the satellites Bravo and Charlie resulted in similar levels of residual improvement and statistics, and the estimates of the Sun-driven disturbance δ B Sun show generally simi- lar behaviour and structural features as found for Swarm Alpha, although there are also some differences. Finally, "Conclusions" section summarises the findings and provides perspectives regarding further improvements of the method.
Results of model estimation for Swarm Alpha The model described above is estimated for Swarm Alpha using data from the beginning of the mission (22 November 2013) until June 2015. Figure  1  shows the final scalar residuals, i. e. the residuals after application of the model (after "calibration and correction") of the VFM measurements (in green), as a function of time together with the residuals of the un-corrected but re-scaled vector field measurements, i. e. � B VFM + δ � B Sun , in light blue; these data illustrate what can be achieved with the traditional scalar calibration methods. Note the excellent reduction of the scalar residuals achieved by the model; the Huber weighted rms of the residuals drops from 963 to 168 pT. Table  2  provides the corresponding numbers for Bravo and Charlie.
Conclusions We have established a predominantly empirical model for the calibration and correction of the magnetic vector field measurements of the three Swarm spacecraft. The model is based on detailed studies of the observed scalar residuals between the measurements of the absolute scalar magnetometer, ASM, and the modulus of the measurements of the vector field magnetometer, VFM. The model has proven to be quite robust as more data are incorporated into the estimation of the model  Future evolutions of the model presented here are foreseen to include changing the model of the temporal evolution of the VFM sensitivity from B-splines to an exponentially decaying function. Analysis of δ B Sun also indicates that this vector is generally confined to a few, distinct directions which may be incorporated in future models.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank  ESA  for establishing and providing support to the  ASM-VFM Task Force  with the aim of investigating the source of the scalar residuals observed in the Swarm magnetic measurements and developing a correction scheme. We would also like to thank this  Task Force  for its work in characterising the behaviour of the magnetic disturbance and for many fruitful discussions and inputs for this work. In particular, we would like to thank  Peter Brauer  from the VFM instrument team for detailed discussions on the modelling and on the characteristics of the VFM instruments. Two anonymous reviewers are thanked for their comments that helped to improve the clarity of the manuscript. This paper is the IPGP contribution 3761.
Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by the LUCIFER experiment, funded by  ERC  under the European Union's  Seventh Framework Programme  ( FP7/2007-2013) / ERC  grant agreement n. 247115, funded within the  ASPERA 2nd Common Call for R&D Activities. We are particularly grateful to  M. Iannone  for its help in all the stages of the detector construction, to  M. Guetti  for the assistance in the cryogenic operations and to the mechanical workshop of LNGS (in particular  E. Tatananni ,  A. Rotilio ,  A. Corsi , and  B. Romualdi ) for continuous and constructive help in the overall set-up design.
Experiments The first measurement was performed in 2012 at the Oslo cyclotron. A deuteron and a 3 He beams at 15 and 24 MeV energies, respectively, were impinged on a 99. 5% isotopically pure 238 U target of 260 μg/cm 2 thickness, deposited on a 40 μg/cm 2 C layer. The experimental setup coupled the CAC-TUS  [7]  NaI(Tl) array for gamma detection, the NIFF PPAC  [8]  for fission fragment detection and the SiRi silicon telescope array  [9]  for the ejectile detection and identification. A detailed description of the setup and of the data analysis can be found in  [10] [11] [12]. A new dedicated experiment was performed in April 2015 at the Orsay TANDEM accelerator, with the aim of obtaining increased statistics, an increased precision in the excitation energy and in the fission and gamma emission probabilities.
Acknowledgement We would also like to express our gratitude to  A. Moro  and  J. Lei , and  B. Morillon  for performing deuteron break-up, and optical model and TALYS calculations, respectively, and for fruitful discussions. This work was supported by the  University of Bordeaux , the  European Commission  within the 7 th Framework Programme through Fission-2010-ERINDA (Project No  269499 ) and CHANDA (Project No  605203 ), by the  European Atomic Energy Community 's 7 th  Framework Programme  under grant agreement number  FP7-249671  ( ANDES ) and by the French national research programs GEDEPEON and NEEDS.