dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
More over, we have come across a number of unclassified signs (in GORILA these are referred to with a question mark in the context where they ap pear and are not included in the standardised sign list), which we have labelled as such and are searchable in the database for further contextual analysis. In SigLA we use the questionmark for signs of doubtful read ing or unreadable (instances where traces of a sign are visible, but the sign can not be recognised). Also in this case, all instances of unreadable signs across the whole corpus can be viewed. The visualisation of the data as described above is displayed when viewing the document in sign view, illustrated in fig. 1. In addition to this setting, the document is also available in word view, showing coherent signsequences (words). Here only the syllabograms forming a word are highlighted (leaving aside logograms, transactionsigns and numerals): hovering on a sign selects the word it belongs to and clicking on such word allows the user to see other occurrences of the selected word across the corpus (and its relative position on each document for comparative purposes).
Searching the Database SigLA allows users to search the corpus by providing three types of searches: (i) sign search: search for sign occurrences, (ii) word search: search for signsequences, (iii) document search: search for specific doc uments. SigLA supports searches of signs (simple or in composition) or words. Some examples are given below. -Sign search: The sign search function allows users to look for a sign of their choosing either across the whole Linear A corpus or within a customisable subset of evidence. The end result of such search could be either palaeographical charts showing all the occurrences of the sign sought for in isolation for comparative purposes (as in fig. 2 ), or its contextual occurrence and position on complete documents with the occurrence of the sign highlighted.
By way of example, let us take simple sign A 302 (): by using the nomen clature A 302+ in the sign search box and running a search, we can view all attestations of composite signs having A 302 as one of their constitutive components (fig. 4 ). -Word search: Let us assume we wanted to view all attestations of the word kuro (understood to mean 'total') within the Linear A corpus. By running a word search we end up seeing all contextual occur rences of kuro, as illustrated in fig. 3 , showing all attestations on the documents from Haghia Triada (but in the database all sites are dis played). This viewing setting is also useful to carry out comparative analysis of the position of the same signsequence over different doc uments so as to get insights into the meaning of Linear A words (our knowing the meaning of kuro is more of an exception than the rule).
Ad Maiora: Future Improvements As it stands, the database is still under construction, although all the main features have already been developed in this first version. We are currently working towards implementing the database with a number of additional features, described in what follows. In order to ease reading and interpretation of the Linear A documents displayed in the database, we are planning on adding a full translitera tion of each inscription by using (approximate) phonetic values (based on comparison with Linear B, see discussion in § 2). At present such translit erations have only been made available by John Younger in his website 'Linear A Texts and Inscriptions in Phonetic Transcription and Com mentary'  (Younger, 2000). Younger's transliterations are based on Go dart and  Olivier (1976 Olivier ( -1985)) , and are often improved with his own read ings.
In fact, at present there is no 'Handbook' of Linear A, where to learn all the basics to interpret an inscription and situate it in its broader archaeological and historical context. The addition of photographs of original documents remains a most cherished desideratum for the time being, as contingent upon copyright Fıgure 6. Properties for document  Fıgure 7. Properties for words permissions. We wish SigLA (or any alternative similar database) will one day host highresolution (ideally 3D) images of Linear A documents for more thorough and accurate firsthand inspection of the documents' palaeographical and pinacological features.
However, we are severely lagging behind with respect to Linear A. Third, in the long term the database will also display information about the physical appearance and manufacture of the Linear A docu ments included, such as erasures (already searchable on SigLA), pres ence or absence of ruling lines to guide writing, presence of word dividers, density of writing on the writing surface as well as textual arrangement, size comparison, presence of cuttings (if a tablet was cut after being inscribed). All this data will give us key information about the tablet manufacture process as well as the editing of the text itself. Last but not the least, all these features, taken all together, shall en able us to carry out a more sophisticated and thorough palaeographical comparison for the evaluation of (the degree of) palaeographical simi larities and differences both across sites and within a site, with the pos sibility for each and every user to narrow down their analysis to specific features by customising their own dataset based on their very own re search interests.
This unique research tool, and the ensuing pathways it shall enable, will help shed light on all above areas of investigation, which are still terra incognita to a great extent. The database, in fact, shall allow us to make the most of the existing evidence, to overcome the limits set by traditional print corpora and to push combinatory linguistic and palaeo graphical research a step further. It is our hope that SigLA will make a significant contribution to the field by proving a useful openaccess interactive tool allowing researchers more accurately to look into the palaeographical, epigraphic, pinacological, as well as linguistic features of the Linear A writing system of Bronze Age Crete. Progress and ad vancement in these areas will be a major achievement for the study of the Linear A script, the Minoan language, and the cultural backdrop within which the civilisation inhabiting Crete and the Aegean islands flourished in the Late Bronze Age.
The Digitisation Process A key difference between traditional transliteration and the Andika! ap proach is that the process begins with typing out the manuscript it self instead of typing out a transliteration of the manuscript. The lat ter step is not required, because the transliteration (indeed, several transliterations-see 3. 5) can be generated automatically from the re typed manuscripts. The process is summarised in Figure  5. notated with notes, alternate readings, corrected transliterations, etc. , and a translation can be added, as in Figure  8a , keyed to the first word of the line. This allows the development of a full critical apparatus for the text. In Step 4, the textual material in the database can be exported in PDF format, with various options for text layout, text colouring, line numbering, translation position, etc.
Beyond the Manuscript Storing manuscript text in a database, as Andika! does, opens up some interesting possibilities. As noted earlier, one important sideeffect is the easy creation of concordances and indexes. If the wordstores for a number of different manuscripts are combined (in effect, creating a searchable literary corpus), we get a multiplier effect: we are working across manuscripts instead of within them. Such a corpus would, for instance, allow scholars to: -study character usage and spelling conventions, which may help clar ify the genealogy of particular manuscripts; -trace the occurrence of particular words and examine vocabulary us age in general, which may identify particular schools or authors; -analyse textual features such as syntactic structure, which could be useful in researching diachronic and synchronic variation; -consider the usage of fixed expressions (formulae), which may give clues about the process of composition and recital.
Zhao, 2013, p. 76). Ac cording to the framework of writing systems developed by  Gelb (1952, pp. 190-194) , Dongba script should be categorized as a semasiogra phy used as an identifyingmnemonic device, which is undergoing the change into phonography. The present study focuses on a crucial first step to digitize Dongba script: the construction of a font database of Dongba glyphs. The au thor provides an indepth analysis of the Dongba radicals which lays a foundation for a font database. A font database includes a comprehen sive collection of Dongba glyphs and sets up a semantic index that can be compared to radicals in Chinese characters.
The Development of Dongba Digitization EDongba is the first keyboard for typing Dongba pictograms  (2001) (2002) (2003) (2004) (2005) (2006) (2007) (2008) (2009) (2010) (2011) (2012) (2013) (2014) (2015) (2016) (2017) (2018) (2019) (2020). This keyboard can input Dongba pictographs through either se mantics or Naxi pinyin. Chinese and English translations of each Dongba character are embedded into the system. The lexical database of E Dongba is based on  Fang and He (1981). 5 The Dongbafont implemented in EDongba includes 1,561 Dongba hieroglyphs and 661 Geba scripts, along with 50 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) characters for the Naxi language. Several other attempts to type in Dongba pictographs were produced (see in Table  1 ). Among the five patents, three depend on semantics and two on the shapes of the characters.
These keyboards aim at enabling users not knowing much about Dongba pictographs to type in these characters. The action of typing in Dongba pictographs according to their meanings involves the issue of translation. To keyin Dongba pic tographs according to the composition of the characters requires a de tailed analysis of several aspects of each character (components, strikes, crossing points, etc. ), which could also be challenging. Besides the virtual keyboard, several designs of Dongba script were published opensource, e. g. , 遊トンパ, 遊トンパ年賀  (Kojima, 2002 (Kojima, -2004)). They are selfdesigned fonts in TrueType format, together with a char acter table displaying limited graphs (215, which is about one tenth of the inventory of Dongba pictographs). 6 s a foundation of a keyin system, a database of the characters needs to be settled.
The Unicode encoding project aims at providing an inter provide an explanation of how some characters can combine 8. The proposal of 2014 remains the same as the 2011 one, with a supplementary file about the modern use of the Dongba script. The comments on N4043 (2011) re main the same as the ones in N3965, issued in 2010 (cf. N4060). 990 Duoduo Xu L2/18-321  (2018)  the repertoire of 1188 characters omitted many commonly used ligatures (onomastics); the records of polyphone and poly morphic characters; three popular methods of combination of Dongba graphemes: combination of two ideograms attaching phonetic grapheme to a logograph adding a morphemic grapheme indicating the colour of the object L2/  19-173 (2019)  what twodimensional model will be used to present the script 3. A Semantic Index for a Dongba Script Database.
Karlgen, 1931, p. 49; Needham, Lu, and Huang, 1986, p. 191) , which provided lexicographic guides to the Chinese characters of nineteen semantic categories. While  Rock (1963)  and  Rock (1972)  collect lexicons rather than characters. As for a font database, Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字 (completed in 100 AD by Xu Shen) could be a model. In this dictionary, 9,553 Chinese characters (and other 1,163 variants) are categorized into 540 sections according to their major semantic components. The same categories are then cata logued according to the similarities of their forms. The semantic order has been chosen partially due to the fact that the pictographic Dongba script consists of logographs. The characters with related meanings share the same graphemes, which are comparable to radicals in Chinese. A Chinese radical is a graphical component of a character "giving in a very general way something of the meaning of the character"  (Chao 1948: 104-105).
20. "Rice" is a homophonic word of "to feed; human". The differences spotted in the two sets of radicals depend partially on whether to include the ligatures in the radical system or not, and are partially due to the format of the sources quoted for the elicitation of radicals. At the current stage, the author elicits repetitivelyused liga tures as radicals for the semantic index of the Dongba Script database. Moreover, it is possible to highlight some features of these radicals help ing to understand the early stages of logographic writing systems. First among them is the variety in the form of a glyph. A word may be written through several variants. The word "rainbow" can be either written through a pictogram , or , which is with an additional com ponent "ground" () to indicate the location of a rainbow.
Thanks to its visual evo cational power, it is the system most used by educators around the world; however, in the absence of a ductus-a defined procedure speci fying the number of strokes, the direction, and the sequence for draw ing the various symbols-writing SW is much more complex than read ing SW. Moreover, this makes it difficult for linguists to obtain inter annotator agreement as well as the ability to query the vignettes in a database. However, apart from the drawing of SW by hand, there is also online input software (SignMaker 4  ) available and the system has been coded under the Unicode standard since 2010.
Automatic Transliteration in Wikimoldia 4. 1. Operating Modes For the automatic transliteration of Romanian into Cyrillic letters ac cording to the principles described above, the PHP script slava37md2 was published in GitHub in August 2018 (https://github. com/slava37md2/ wikimoldia). It contains 361 paragraphs or 9,807 characters with so called assignment operators for all letters of the Romanian alphabet, as well as for <k>, <q>, <w>, <x> and <y>, each separated into upper and lowercase letters-the rules for upper and lowercase are iden tical for the Latin and Cyrillic writing of Romanian. A very short readme file contains an explanatory description in English and Russian: "Script translits romanian (latin) to moldovan (cyr) characters Скрипт переводит румынские буквы в кириллицу. Можно переводить интернет страницы.
In chemistry, for example, element symbols are represented by Latin letters indepen dently of the writing system of a language. In Wikimoldia, however, "H 2 O" changes to "Х 2 О". For Roman numerals at least, a number of in structions has been preserved to prevent nonsensical transliteration. An incorrect abbreviation is pointed out in the forum for the script in GitHub (https://github. com/slava37md2/wikimoldia/issues/2): due to the posi tional phonetic realisation of the Romanian grapheme <c> (cf. Fig. 5 ), an error occurs in the abbreviation of 'centimetre' (Tab. 4). Another special case of Romanian, which cannot be fully resolved in automatic transliteration, is homography, i. e. , words that are spelt the same but pronounced differently. These include infinitives with the vocal ending i (Tab.
However, even though paragraph separa tion rules are universal (separation of paragraphs is related to separation or linking distinct ideas), we can notice that the number of paragraphs slightly differs when translating from one language to another. This difference can be explained by the separation of linguistic and extra linguistic elements in the translation process. 11. Lederer developed this process for interpretation and for written translation. through reading the entire text and analyzing the intentions of the au thor before reexpressing those intentions in a TL. This includes vocab ulary, segmentation, and punctuation (though the latter is not specifi cally mentioned by Lederer). By applying Lederer's theory to the translation of punctuation marks, they will be considered as not only signs associated with a function, but also as holders of cognitive complements that are constructed in the language system and that are part of the reader's background knowledge.
18) [AB]+[CD] nouns 財務大臣 /zaimudaijin/ Finance Minister [[money + duties] + [big + retainer]] 土地家屋 /tochikaoku/ land and buildings [[soil + earth] + [house + roof]] [AB]+[CD] VN 大学改革 /daigakukaikaku/ university reform [[big + learn] + [modify + reform]] 意気消沈 /ikishōchin/ depressed in spirits [[mind + spirit] + [extinguish + sink]] Constructing Databases of Japanese 3 and 4Kanji Compound Words 605 [AB]+[CD] AN 利用可能 /riyōkanō/ usable [[benefit + use] + [can + ability]] 単純明快 /tanjunmeikai/ simple and clear [[simple + pure] + [bright + pleasant]].
Constructing Databases of Japanese 3 and 4Kanji Compound Words 611 even though it was not amongst the top ten for 3KCWs. It occurs in 16 4KCWs, such as 非製造業 /hiseizōgyō/ nonmanufacturing sector [un + [make + create + business]] and 非喫煙者 /hikitsuensha/ nonsmoker [non + [consume + smoke + person]].
Acknowledgements I wish to express my deepest gratitude and respect to  Yannis Haralam  bous and his colleagues for organising and delivering the Grapholinguistics in the 21st Century 2020 conference in the challenging time of COVID19 pandemic. My sincere gratitude also goes to the programme committee and anonymous reviewers for giving me the opportunity to present an earlier version of this study. Special thanks are due to the participants to the conference, too, for their insightful questions, comments and sug gestions. Finally, I am deeply grateful to  Martin Neef  for his construc tive feedback on the present attempt to investigate the adaptability of his Modular Theory of Writing Systems.
Acknowledgements Piers Kelly Fıgure 7. Tabulation of the three registers of of Naasioi Otomaung Fıgure 8. Table of Naasioi Otomaung signs Acknowledgments Distance fieldwork is simply not possible without generous coopera tion from a whole team of helpers. I owe the largest debt to  Steven Tamiung  with whom I have communicated from the beginning. I have also been indirectly assisted by  Peter Karatapi  and  Maryanne Karat  api. Other helpers in Bougainville were Kiwi linguists  Jason Brown  and  Keith Montgomery. Brown  asked questions on my behalf and elicited examples. In Australia I was supported by  Ruth Spriggs ,  James Tanis ,  Nick Bainton ,  Gordon Peake  and  Masa Onishi. In other places I received input from  Piet Lincoln ,  René van den Berg ,  Conrad Hurd  and  Phyliss Hurd. Julia Bespamyatnykh (Jena, Germany ) did the original tracing of  Naasioi Otomaung  letters and  Siva Kalyan  ( Canberra, Australia ) has now developed an Otomaung font 1.
Acknowledgements We wish to acknowledge the funding support for this project from  Nanyang Technological University  under the URECA Programme. We also wish to acknowledge the support and help from  Dr Xu Duo  duo at  Nanyang Technological University, School of Humanities, His tory Programme , as well as  Mr Hu Man Keat  and  Ms Yu Ying Yao  un der the  Nanyang Research programme (NRP)  at  Nanyang Technological University.
( 18) [AB]+[CD] nouns 財務大臣 /zaimudaijin/ Finance Minister [[money + duties] + [big + retainer]] 土地家屋 /tochikaoku/ land and buildings [[soil + earth] + [house + roof]] [AB]+[CD] VN 大学改革 /daigakukaikaku/ university reform [[big + learn] + [modify + reform]] 意気消沈 /ikishōchin/ depressed in spirits [[mind + spirit] + [extinguish + sink]] Constructing Databases of Japanese 3 and 4Kanji Compound Words 605 [AB]+[CD] AN 利用可能 /riyōkanō/ usable [[benefit + use] + [can + ability]] 単純明快 /tanjunmeikai/ simple and clear [[simple + pure] + [bright + pleasant]].
(11)tructing Databases of Japanese 3 and 4Kanji Compound Words 597 While only attested as an Aaddition to 38 A+[BC] 3KCWs within the database list, 非 /hi/ negation also attaches to nouns, adjectival nouns and verbal nouns, as in(11)respectively. (11) 非人情 /hininjō/ inhuman [negation + [person + feelings]] 非合法 /higōhō/ unlawful [negation + [fit; suit + law, rule] 非公認 /hikōnin/ unauthorized [negation + [public; official + acknowledge]] 未成年 /miseinen/ not of age [not yet [become + age]] 未解決 /mikaiketsu/ unresolved [not yet + [unravel; solve + decide; fix]].
Constructing Databases of Japanese 3 and 4Kanji Compound Words 611 even though it was not amongst the top ten for 3KCWs. It occurs in 16 4KCWs, such as 非製造業 /hiseizōgyō/ nonmanufacturing sector [un + [make + create + business]] and 非喫煙者 /hikitsuensha/ nonsmoker [non + [consume + smoke + person]]. , as noted earlier, only 非 /hi/ nega tion features within the top ten most frequent Aadditions for 4KCWs,.
Growth Annual diameter growth (ΔD j,t ) for adults and saplings is computed as: ΔD i;t ∼N β 0;s þ β 1 D i;t þ β 2 ∑ j¼1 N i;t D j;t dist i; j þ β 3;s JMn t þ β 4;s P t ; σ 2 g ! where i indicates individual, s species, and t year; N i,t the total neighbors of i in year t; D j,t the DBH of neighbor j; dist i,j the distance between i and j; JMn t the minimum January temperature; and P t the precipitation. The β's are estimated parameters, with σ g 2 representing the error term. Seedling behaviors in SORTIE-ND are usually based on diameter at 10 cm height. As our data were recorded by height bin without diameter, we created four size classes: 0 (new seedlings); 1 (> 2 years old but < 10 cm); 2 (10-50 cm); and 3 (50-140 cm). Transitioning to the next size class is a Bernoulli process: logit θ i;t À Á ¼ β 0;s þ β 1 BA t þ β 3 JMx t þ β 4 P t where θ i,t is the probability of transitioning; BA t is the total adult tree basal area in a 10-m radius; and JMx t is the maximum July temperature.
Hindcasting We ran 20 simulations using historical climate sequences for three 1 ha USGS plots -POFLABMA (1999-2014), and  BBBPIPO and UPLOG (1997-2013)  obtained from the California Basin Characterization Model (CA BCM) model, which downscales 800-km-scale global climate data to 270 m  (Flint et al. 2013a). Initial plot maps used coordinates and 1997 or 1999 DBH of adult trees in these plots replicated 9 times in a 3 × 3 array (Appendix 1, Fig. 7 ). The buffer "ring" of replicated plots compensates for edge effects. To create a seedling map, we calculated the 1999 density within seedling subplots of classes 2 and 3, which are less affected by year-to-year variation, and replicated this density across the whole plot. We then compared the tree density and basal area for each species in the central square to measured values.
(2016)  used an entirely different approach, correlating growth rings with climate, grouping sites according to their climate responses, calculating vulnerability indexes based on projected climate change and local growth responsiveness, and using this to forecast changes in growth under different scenarios. We considered various other individual-based modeling approaches  (Bugmann 2001) , including FORCLIM  (Bugmann 1996 ), FORSKA et al. 1993) , JABOWA  (Kienast 1991) , and PPA (Purves 2008). However, FORCLIM uses cohorts to describe trees of the same species and age rather than fully treating them as individuals; the source code was also difficult to find. FORSKA does not track individuals under 1-cm DBH. The most recent JABOWA code was not available without purchase, and the model does not track seedlings and treats each canopy as covering an entire patch.
PPA is a SORTIE descendant that includes physiological responses but does not track demography on as fine a scale. SORTIE-ND offered high accessibility with the ability to download old model behaviors and upload novel behaviors for other users to access; a history of success with applications to multiple forest types; and pre-existing behaviors that were relatively simple to modify for the type of forest demography data we had available. Moreover, the Battle lab at UC Berkeley is developing SORTIE-NDcompatible tree-shrub competition behaviors (personal communication) that could be combined with our future studies.