dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The measures are drawn from the provisions in the GATS as well as a host of free trade agreements. In addition trade policymakers, analysts and scholars have been consulted when developing the list of measures. 2 he STRI database records the presence or absence of specific policies. Each entry is documented by a reference and web-link to the source, which must be a document with legal force. Thus, the database captures de jure regulations and is not survey-based. It is compiled by the OECD Secretariat based on a set of guidelines to make sure that the policy measures are interpreted the same way across countries and different legal systems. To further strengthen the accuracy of the information, the governments of all the countries covered by the STRI database verify and peer review the data.
Only corrections of factual errors are considered in the review process. A complex pattern of free trade agreements and investment treaties is a challenge for the creation of any trade policy database as trade barriers may vary considerably across trading partners. However, it turns out that with the notable exception of the European Union, FTAs rarely offer new market access or national treatment beyond the actual policies that apply on a most favoured nation (MFN) basis in services (Adlung & Roy, 2005; Geloso Grosso et al. , 2015; Lamprecht & Miroudot, 2018;  Miroudot & Pertel, 2015). The STRI database therefore reflects MFN regulations currently in force. For EU countries, it reflects the trade barriers facing third countries, while a complementary database and indicators reflecting intra-EEA openness have been added (Benz & Gonzales, 2019).
The policy measures in the STRI regulatory database are organised under five policy areas: | 3 BENZ Et al. • Restrictions on foreign entry include information on foreign equity limitations, foreign investment screening, restrictions on cross-border mergers and acquisitions, and regulations on cross-border data flows, among others. • Restrictions on movement of people include information on licensing of professions, entry visa quotas, economic needs tests and duration of stay for foreign natural persons providing services as intra-corporate transferees, contractual services suppliers, or independent service providers. • Other discriminatory measures include discrimination of foreign services suppliers as far as taxes, subsidies and public procurement are concerned. • Barriers to competition include information on anti-trust policy, government ownership of major firms and the extent to which government-owned enterprises enjoy privileges and are exempt from competition laws and regulations.
As for telecommunications, financial services are governed by one or more regulatory and supervisory bodies. Asymmetric information is also a justification for regulation in the professional services, and most countries have specific laws governing entry to and conduct of legal services. The three sectors thus represent the diversity of regulatory frameworks captured by the STRI database. Table  2  depicts the sector-specific measures in telecommunications. Most are under the barriers to competition heading and reflect the network features of the sector. Thus, pro-competitive regulation is considered necessary in the sector when there is an incumbent with significant market power (SMP). Starting with the 1998 WTO Basic Telecommunication Agreement and accompanying reference paper, obligations to ensure that operators from other countries have access to and can interconnect with public telecommunications networks are included in most trade agreements which cover telecommunications.
Regulatory transparency There is a legal obligation to communicate regulations to the public within a reasonable time prior to entry into force There In the interest of space, some measures have been combined into one row. * The raw data for these three measures are taken from the World Bank Doing Business Indicators (Djankov et al. , 2002). Source: OECD STRI database. T A B L E 1 (Continued) BENZ Et al. that only licensed lawyers form, own or control law firms, prohibitions related to commercial association among professionals and hiring of locally licensed lawyers, as well as localisation requirements for professional liability insurance. Legal services are typically highly regulated through professional bodies that issue licenses, monitor conduct of professionals and set and uphold professional standards.
Results for the commercial banking sector are shown in Figure  4. Scores range between 0. 13 and 0. 52 with an average of 0. 24. Out of the 46 countries in the database, 16 countries restrict the establishment of foreign bank branches, 12 countries impose more stringent requirements to grant a license to foreign-owned banks than domestic ones, and eight countries restrict cross-border bank mergers and acquisitions. Lastly, 17 countries require at least one member of a commercial bank's Board of Directors to be a national or permanent resident, among which nine countries impose this condition on a majority of the Board. Analysis based on detailed answers for each individual measure reported in Table  7  reveals that restrictions to the cross-border transfer of personal data are most strongly correlated with the STRI score for this sector, indicating that such policies are frequently observed in more restrictive economies.
Also, discriminatory licensing criteria, restrictions on lending to non-residents for domestically licensed banks, and the application of quotas or economic needs tests in the allocation  of licenses are good evidence for an overall restrictive regulatory regime for commercial banking services. Legal services are among the most restrictive sectors in the STRI database, with an average score of 0. 39, displayed in Figure  5. The sector is completely closed to non-EEA foreign competition in Poland and Luxembourg, while the lowest score in the sector is 0. 15 in Australia. Market access for foreign suppliers is largely determined by the requirements for obtaining a license to practice and the activities reserved for licensed professionals. Most countries restrict the ownership of law firms to locally qualified lawyers, often coupled with requirements that the majority of the board (or equity partners in the case of partnerships) and the manager of law firms be locally qualified.
| Regulatory heterogeneity Based on the full set of measures included in the STRI database, it is possible to calculate indices for regulatory heterogeneity. These indices are bounded between zero and one, with a score of zero if all measures are answered identically in two economies and a score of one if all measures are answered differently. 6 Table  9  reports the seven most similar pairs and the three most heterogeneous pairs of economies for legal services, telecommunications and commercial banking. For telecommunications and commercial banking, the most similar regimes are dominated by European countries. This is not surprising, given the legislative competences of the European Union in these sectors. However, the  6  Nordås (2016) presents a more detailed description of the methodology and results.
, 2017). 7 ith a full set of STRI indicators for 6 years, which overlaps with time series of bilateral services trade data for 3 years, the problem of identifying the trade effects of services trade restrictions has eased as our regression results in Table  10  suggest. It reports the results of standard gravity regressions for total services trade for a panel of all countries included in the STRI database for the period 2014-2016. The first column depicts a baseline with the standard gravity variables and year fixed effects. The second regression introduces an interaction term between the STRIs and FTAs and adds country fixed effects both for exporters and importers. 8 The third regression follows van der Marel and Shepherd (2013)'s approach. The standard gravity variables take the expected sign and are in line with other gravity analysis of services trade.
| CONCLUSION Compared to the vast empirical literature on the determinants and impact of merchandise trade, little is known about the movers and impact of trade in services. Lack of comparable information on trade and policy-determined barriers to trade in services largely explains the relatively sparse literature in this field. This paper has presented a rich database on regulations affecting trade in services. It captures barriers to cross-border trade, movement of people, foreign establishment, competition policy issues and regulatory transparency in most services sectors in addition to regulatory heterogeneity between country pairs. The STRIs are available annually from 2014 onwards. The database and indicators document large differences across countries and sectors as far as trade restrictions are concerned.
Sector-specific measures, legal services Restrictions on foreign entry Equity restrictions applying to not licensed individuals or firms domestic law, international law Commercial association is prohibited between locally and not locally licensed lawyers; and between lawyers and other professionals Prohibitions on hiring locally licensed lawyers Board of directors: majority or at least one must be licensed professionals: domestic law, international law Manager must be a licensed professional: domestic law, international law Localisation requirements for professional liability insurance Restrictions on the movement of people Nationality or citizenship required for Licence to practice: domestic law, international law Prior or permanent residency is required for Licence to practice: domestic law, international law Domicile required for Licence to practice: domestic law, international law Laws or regulations establish a process for recognising qualifications gained abroad Foreign professionals are required to take a local examination Foreign professionals are required to practice locally for at least 1 year Foreign providers have to completely re-do the university degree, practice and examination in the domestic country: domestic law, international law A temporary licensing system is in place Other discriminatory measures Use of foreign firm names is restricted Barriers to competition Fee-setting: mandatory minimum and/or maximum fees Fee-setting: recommended minimum and/or maximum fees Source: OECD STRI database.
Trade data are from OECD. stat, the standard gravity variables from CEPII and the STRIs are the GDP-weighted geometric average STRIs for all sectors. The GDP weights are calculated as the average for all countries included in the OECD STAN database for 2014. The regressions are run using the Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood estimator. Robust standard errors clustered on country pairs are reported in parentheses. ***, ** and * indicate statistical significance at a 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively.
F Sector-specific measures, legal services Restrictions on foreign entry Equity restrictions applying to not licensed individuals or firms domestic law, international law Commercial association is prohibited between locally and not locally licensed lawyers; and between lawyers and other professionals Prohibitions on hiring locally licensed lawyers Board of directors: majority or at least one must be licensed professionals: domestic law, international law Manager must be a licensed professional: domestic law, international law Localisation requirements for professional liability insurance Restrictions on the movement of people Nationality or citizenship required for Licence to practice: domestic law, international law Prior or permanent residency is required for Licence to practice: domestic law, international law Domicile required for Licence to practice: domestic law, international law Laws or regulations establish a process for recognising qualifications gained abroad Foreign professionals are required to take a local examination Foreign professionals are required to practice locally for at least 1 year Foreign providers have to completely re-do the university degree, practice and examination in the domestic country: domestic law, international law A temporary licensing system is in place Other discriminatory measures Use of foreign firm names is restricted Barriers to competition Fee-setting: mandatory minimum and/or maximum fees Fee-setting: recommended minimum and/or maximum fees Source: OECD STRI database.
Trade data are from OECD. stat, the standard gravity variables from CEPII and the STRIs are the GDP-weighted geometric average STRIs for all sectors. The GDP weights are calculated as the average for all countries included in the OECD STAN database for 2014. The regressions are run using the Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood estimator. Robust standard errors clustered on country pairs are reported in parentheses. ***, ** and * indicate statistical significance at a 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively. ** (0. 744) -4. 243*** (1. 234) FTA -0. 166 (0. 158) -1. 306* (0. 525) 0. 243* (0. 104) Common land border -0. 163 (0. 157) 0. 204* (0. 101) 0. 178 (0. 108) Common language 0. 777*** (0. 147) 0. 335** (0. 115) 0. 406*** (0. 118) Common colonial 0. 111 (0. 151) 0. 094 (0. 12) 0. 08 (0. 121) history Same country 0.
Introduction to Intrinsically Disordered Proteins (IDPs) The discovery that intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), i. e. , functional proteins devoid of stable secondary and/or tertiary structure, are ubiquitous and widespread in the protein realm has triggered a paradigm shift in biochemistry  [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]. Like Copernican revolution, this call to a dramatic change in the way proteins should be looked at has engendered some resistance in the scientific community. This intellectual reluctance is probably tied to the difficulty of integrating/reconciling the notion of structural disorder with the overwhelming examples of well-structured proteins deposited in the protein data bank (PDB). Paradoxically, however, the development of the field of structural disorder has benefited from the spectacular development of structural biology, especially in the post-genomic era.
The scenario is, however, even more complex, as exemplified by recent studies showing that the conformational responsiveness of IDPs to charge clustering is modulated by additional sequence features, such as the proline content  [29]. The high conformational heterogeneity that typifies IDPs  [30] [31] [32]  prevents their structural characterization by conventional high-resolution approaches and, rather, requires the combined use of multiple, complementary approaches that enable IDPs to be described as conformational ensembles  [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39]. The peculiar sequence properties of IDPs have been exploited to predict protein disorder and have led to the development of numerous disorder predictors and/or metaservers  [40] [41] [42] [43] [44]. Several databases gathering information about protein disorder have been developed in the last decade, including DisProt (the largest repository of manually curated intrinsically disordered regions-IDRs, for which disorder has been assessed experimentally)  [9, 45] , MobiDB  [46] , DisBind  [47] , FuzDB  [48] , and Protein Ensemble Database  [35, 39].
Phase Separation in Protein Systems Phase separation has recently emerged as a ubiquitous principle of cellular organization, underlying many biological processes, the list of which is growing rapidly  [89, 92, 95, 96, [110] [111] [112] [113]  (Figure  2 ). According to the PubMed database, almost 3000 scientific articles have contributed in the last decade to highlight the physiological and pathological relevance of LLPS, which was found to occur in the cell cytoplasm, in the nucleoplasm  [88] , as well as in vitro for many purified proteins  [114]. The growing interest towards LLPS has fueled studies aimed at gathering information on proteins undergoing LLPS in a structured and knowledgeable manner, while providing a wide range of information on the biophysical driving forces, the biological function and the regulation of these systems.
These efforts have led to the development of dedicated databases  [115] , such as PhaSePro (https://phasepro. elte. hu) [116]  and LLPSDB (http://bio-comp. org. cn/llpsdb/) [117] , two manually curated repositories, based on experimentally verified cases of LLPS. Schematic phase diagram of a colloidal system (e. g. , a polymer in water) displaying an upper critical point (filled red point), above which no de-mixing occurs. According to polymer concentration and external stimuli (temperature, pH, ionic strength, etc. ), the system consists in a well-mixed, single phase, or two separated phases. The diagram illustrates the coexistence or binodal curve (green) and the spinodal curve (dotted brown). The region in between the binodal and spinodal curves (light-green region) can correspond to metastable, supersaturated solutions.
These efforts have led to the development of dedicated databases  [115] , such as PhaSePro (https://phasepro. elte. hu) [116]  and LLPSDB (http://bio-comp. org. cn/llpsdb/) [117] , two manually curated repositories, based on experimentally verified cases of LLPS. In analogy with the systems explored by classical physical chemistry, cellular LLPS causes homogeneous solution of macromolecules to separate into two phases. Liquid droplets form, which are enriched in condensed biomolecules and surrounded by a "diluted" phase, depleted of those components [93,  99, 101]. As long as a genuine liquid nature is conserved, polymer molecules can diffuse within the dense phase and between the dense and diluted phases  [101]. It is mesoscopically evident that the de-mixing occurs rapidly and dynamically, in response to concentration changes of some cellular components, or to environmental stimuli, which ultimately result in changes of molecular interaction affinity.
153 h -1. We perform simulations for the period 2007-2013 using anthropogenic Hg emissions for 2010 (1) of 1,875 Mg/y. Prescribed fluxes of natural and secondary Hg 0 reemissions from soil and seawater are generated depending on Hg concentration in soil, soil temperature, and solar radiation for emissions from land and proportional to the primary production of organic carbon in seawater for emissions from the ocean  (37). Additionally, prompt reemission of Hg from snow is taken into account using an empirical parametrization based on the observational data  (44) (45) (46). Total net evasion of Hg 0 from natural terrestrial and oceanic surfaces varies from 3,050 to For the dataset of altitudinal Hg II variability, we compiled northern hemisphere midlatitude (30-60°N) aircraft Hg II data from the literature, with observations made by dual-channel oxidized Hg difference methods  (17, 54, 55).
Gaseous oxidized Hg II observations made by KCl-coated denuder methods  (56)  were multiplied by 1. 56 following ref. (57)  for typically observed denuder Hg II loss under free tropospheric conditions  (55, 57). Gaseous oxidized Hg II (loss-corrected) and particulate Hg II in the Brooks et al. (56)  study were summed to yield total Hg II. The unique, but uncalibrated, stratospheric mean Hg II observations by  Murphy et al. (58)  were anchored to the Slemr et al. (59)  mean Hg II observations for December-May (30-60°N). All available aircraft Hg II data were subsequently binned for 1-km altitude levels, and mean and SDs are shown in SI Appendix, Fig. S8. For the dataset of vertical Hg 0 distribution, we used data from two simultaneous aircraft measurement campaigns in northern Europe. The European Tropospheric Mercury Experiment (ETMEP) measured vertical profiles of the Hg 0 concentration inside the planetary boundary layer and the lower free troposphere in an altitude range of 500-3,500 m (60).
The measurements were performed with two collocated Tekran instruments (2537X and 2537B). These were both operated with upstream particle filters and one (2537B) with an additional quartz wool trap to remove oxidized Hg species  (54, 61). The experiment was timed in a manner that the data are comparable to observations from the Civil Aircraft for the Regular Investigation of the atmosphere Based on an Instrumented Container project which measured total Hg and Hg 0 in altitudes from 6,000-12,000 m using a Tekran 2537A  (62, 63). Data Availability. All study data are included in the article and SI Appendix.
(6)00Mg/y for different tests that is comparable with 3,370 Mg/y of net Hg 0 emission estimated by Horowitz et al. (6). The first 6 y of the period are used for the model spin up to achieve steady-state Hg concentrations in the troposphere. The model results are presented as annual averages for 2013. The dataset includes annual mean measurements of Hg 0 , Hg II , and Hg II wet deposition flux in 2013. Geographical location of the measurement sites is shown in SI Appendix, Fig. S7.
CLIMAHAL) and the  Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO)  / Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER)  (Projects  CTQ2017-87054-C2-2-P ,  RYC-2015-19234 , and  CEX2019-000919-M ). This work was supported by the  Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Spain. A. F. -M. acknowledges the  Generalitat Valenciana  and the  European Social Fund  (Contract  APOSTD/2019/149  and Project  GV/2020/ 226 ) for the financial support. J. C. -G. acknowledges the  Universitat de València  for his Masters Scholarship. M. J. acknowledges funding by the  Swiss National Science Foundation  (Grant  PZ00P2_174101 ). The ETMEP measurements as well as ground-based measurements of the GMOS network were funded by the  EU   FP7-ENV-2010 project (GMOS , Grant Agreement 265113). J.
(6)00Mg/y for different tests that is comparable with 3,370 Mg/y of net Hg 0 emission estimated by Horowitz et al. (6). The first 6 y of the period are used for the model spin up to achieve steady-state Hg concentrations in the troposphere. The model results are presented as annual averages for 2013. The dataset includes annual mean measurements of Hg 0 , Hg II , and Hg II wet deposition flux in 2013. Geographical location of the measurement sites is shown in SI Appendix, Fig. S7. Hg 0 and Hg II Observations. The dataset of ground-based Hg 0 , Hg II , and Hg II wet deposition observations used in this study is based on the compilation of observations published in Travnikov et al. (29). It contains observations from the Global Mercury Observation System (GMOS) monitoring network (47, 48), the EMEP regional network (49), the Mercury Deposition Network of the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (50), the Atmospheric Mercury Network (51), and the Canadian National Atmospheric Chemistry Database (52, 53).
Information from manuals In addition to information drawn directly from historical sources, for the investigation of blazes and their connection to weather and climate we made use of existing collections in manual-like literature, as it has been done by  Zwierlein (2011)  for Early Modern history, who evaluated the respective sections of the German and Austrian "Städtebücher"  (Keyser 1939 -1974 , Knittler et al. , 1968 -2001). For most of the cities included, there is a list of historical blazes -unfortunately often without information about severity or causes, and always without references. Nonetheless, this huge database is a unique source of information, especially for the statistical evaluation of blazes and their potential connection to droughts. The "Städtebücher" are a widely trusted and highly used standard reference for medieval urban history, making its use legitimate.