dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Results Twenty patients were enrolled in the study. The main characteristics of these patients are presented in Table  1. Table  2  provides hemodynamic data of patients. Seventy-four microvascular sets were performed by nurses (3. 7 ± 1. 0 mean ± SD measurements/patient). After acquisition of a video, the bedside analysis by the nurses of real-time MFI and TVD required less than 3 minutes. For technical quality of the nurses' videos, the Microcirculation Image Quality Score was 2. 07 ± 0. 86 (mean ± SD). There were no significant differences between the nurses' real-time and the physician's delayed MFI evaluations (Fig. 2 ). In fact these two values were strongly correlated (R 2 = 0. 84, p <0. 0001). Comparisons made using the Bland-Altman method showed good agreement between the nurses' real-time MFI and the physician's delayed MFI (Fig.
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements to the MICRONURSE teams composed of:  Camille Nicolaï ,  Mélanie Flores ,  Elyne Laville ,  Lynda Leonard ,  Julien Rumé ,  Sarah Belange ,  Adrien Gracia ,  Thomas Tcheriaux ,  Nora Thomet ,  Garance Laouenan ,  Guillaume Falcoff ,  Benoit Robin ,  Severine Tissières ,  Raphaelle Thion ,  Sarah Lamy  and  Catherine Ayfre.
C A N D I DAT E S E L E C T I O N We selected candidate quasar lens systems from the imaging and spectroscopic data of SDSS-III/BOSS. The SDSS uses a dedicated 2. 5-metre telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico  (Gunn et al. 2006 ). The SDSS imaging data uses five (ugriz) broadband filters and has a limiting magnitude of r ∼ 22. 5, which were used to select various targets including quasars for spectroscopic observations  (Ross et al. 2012). The SDSS-III/BOSS survey uses an upgraded multi-object fibre spectrograph which can simultaneously take spectra of 1000 objects with a resolving power R ∼ 2000 and a wavelength coverage of 3600 < λ < 10 400 Å  (Smee et al. 2013). We largely followed the procedures established in the SQLS for the lens candidate selection process. In the SQLS, however, there were also image separation and flux ratio limits for constructing a complete lens sample for statistical studies.
In SDSS-III, constructing a well-defined statistical sample is much more challenging because of the complex nature of the quasar target selection  (Ross et al. 2012). Thus, we first adopted a simple approach of applying the SQLS-like selection criteria and then choosing the best lens candidates by visually inspecting the SDSS images of all of the resulting lens candidates. Below we describe these procedures in more detail. The selection method for the underlying SDSS-III/BOSS spectroscopic quasar sample is presented in  Ross et al. (2012)  and  Pâris et al. (2014). Currently all of the BOSS data are public, and the quasar catalogue we used is available at http://www. sdss. org/dr12/ algorithms/boss-dr12-quasar-catalog/. From the spectroscopic quasar catalogue, we selected quasar lens candidates using a method similar to SQLS, in which morphological and colour criteria were used to select lens candidates from the object catalogue.
DATA : O B S E RVAT I O N , R E D U C T I O N A N D A NA LY S I S Our follow-up observations consist of imaging and spectroscopic observations. We first attempt to obtain follow-up images for the good lens candidates, and conduct follow-up spectroscopic observations only when the follow-up images show evidence for gravitational lensing. However, it was not possible to follow this strategy strictly due to observing constraints. In some cases, we obtained follow-up spectra before we conducted imaging follow-up observations. Among these systems, those with clear differences in the spectra were thus not observed with imaging. Since the spectroscopic observations are very informative for confirming or ruling out the lensing hypotheses of the candidates, below we first present the complete spectroscopic follow-up results for the best 55 candidates, and then present imaging follow-up results for confirmed gravitational lens systems.
We performed relative photometry of the lenses by comparing them to nearby stars with known SDSS magnitudes. First, we used the software from Astrometry. net  (Lang et al. 2010 ) to determine the orientations of the images and the positions of the stars, except for SDSS J1458-0202 and SDSS J1452+4224 where the astrometry was determined manually. For every lens in every band available from the imaging, we measured the fluxes of about a dozen stars using SEXTRACTOR  (Bertin & Arnouts 1996). The zero-points were determined by comparing the SDSS magnitudes to the fluxes of the stars. Owing to the differences between the SDSS filters and those used for the follow up observations, we had to apply appropriate filter conversions to the fluxes. We adopted the conversions from  Jester et al. (2005)  and Lupton  (2005, unpublished)  which are available at https://www.
M A S S M O D E L L I N G We created mass models for the 13 spectroscopically confirmed lens systems with the modelling software, GLAFIC  (Oguri 2010). The redshifts of the quasars and the lens galaxies were taken from Table  1. For those systems with no lens redshifts, we adopted a fiducial value of z l = 0. 5 (∼peak of the redshift distribution of typical lenses e. g. see Fig  3 ), as a lens redshift is required in the estimate of the velocity dispersion. We assumed that the mass distribution of the lens galaxies is isothermal. More specifically, we either used the singular isothermal sphere (SIS) or ellipsoid (SIE) model for the lenses. Parameters such as the mass, ellipticity and the position angle (θ e ) of the lens model and the true (unlensed) position of the lensed quasar are allowed to be free.
Quad fraction All of the 13 confirmed quasar lenses are two-image quasar lens systems. At galaxy scales, we expect about 15-20 per cent of the lenses to be quadruply imaged for the BOSS quasar lens sample with i 20-21  (Oguri & Marshall 2010 ) which means we should expect two or more quad lenses in our sample. There are several possible explanations for the lack of quad lenses in the BOSS quasar lens sample. First of all, the BOSS quasar target selection selects only point sources to increase its efficiency  (Ross et al. 2012) , whereas small-separation quad lens systems are often classified as extended sources in the SDSS  (Oguri et al. 2006). Indeed, all the four small-separation ( θ < 2 arcsec) quad lenses discovered in the SQLS (see  Inada et al. 2012 ) are found to be classified as extended sources in the SDSS data set.
Based in part on data collected at Subaru Telescope, which is operated by the  National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. Use of the UH 2. 2-m telescope for the observations is supported by  NAOJ. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the  W. M. Keck Observatory , which is operated as a scientific partnership among the  California Institute of Technology , the  University of California  and the  National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the  W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of  Mauna Kea  has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the  Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness  through Grants number  CICYT DPI2014-51844-C2-1-R  and by the  Regional Government of Aragon  and the  European Social Fund. This support is gratefully acknowledged. CIBER-BBN is an initiative funded by the  VI National R+D+i Plan 2008-2011, Iniciativa Ingenio 2010, Consolider Program ,  CIBER Actions  and financed by the  Instituto de Salud Carlos III  with assistance from the  European Regional Development Fund. The support from  Dr. J. A. Fatás , from the  Royo Villlanova Hospital Surgery dept. , Zaragoza, and also from  E. Estopiñán  and  M. A. Varona , from the  Aragon Institute of Engineering Research of the University of Zaragoza , who carefully developed the realistic rendering, is gratefully acknowledged.
Plasticity of white matter tracts is thought to be essential for cognitive development and academic skill acquisition in children. However, a dearth of high-quality diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data measuring longitudinal changes with learning, as well as methodological difficulties in multi-time point tract identification have limited our ability to investigate plasticity of specific white matter tracts. Here, we examine learning-related changes of white matter tracts innervating inferior parietal, prefrontal and temporal regions following an intense 2-month math tutoring program. DTI data were acquired from 18 third grade children, both before and after tutoring. A novel fiber tracking algorithm based on a White Matter Query Language (WMQL) was used to identify three sections of the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) linking frontal and parietal (SLF-FP), parietal and temporal (SLF-PT) and frontal and temporal (SLF-FT) cortices, from which we created child-specific probabilistic maps.
We used a novel automated atlas-based tracking algorithm based on a White Matter Query Language (WMQL) that allowed precise and consistent delineation of fiber tracts in each individual  (Wassermann et al. 2013). Individual fiber tracts were then used to construct population-specific probabilistic maps for each tract, from which we extracted mean fractional anisotropy (FA), a quantitative measure of white matter organization which is influenced by changes in integrity  (Beaulieu 2002; Basser 1995). This approach allows comparisons of the exact same tract within and between individuals in a manner robust to errors in the fiber tracking of each individual  (Hua et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2010). Notably, the accuracy of this automated technique has shown to be comparable to manual labeling  (Wassermann et al.
2013) , but is less timeconsuming and allows easier replication. The main advantage of the WMQL framework is the elimination of the operator-specific intra-and inter-subject inconsistencies in tract delineation. These inconsistencies have been argued to be a major source of variability in tractographybased studies  (Zhang et al. 2010). Previous efforts to perform tractography-based longitudinal studies tackle this problem with semi-automated methods  (Lebel and Beaulieu 2011) , which are user intensive and difficult to reproduce. WMQL, a freely available tool, 1  provides an innovative solution to this problem combining a publicly available parcellation of gray and white matter regions  (Desikan et al. 2006 ) with tract descriptions written in a well-defined query language, thus tackling the operatorbased variability in tractography delineation and providing clear means to reproduce the tract-extraction process and the statistical analyses.
For the analyses presented here, we focused on behavioral data from the first two addition and two subtraction runs that were available for analyses. The arithmetic problems were presented horizontally in green lettering on a black background. Half the math problems were correct (e. g. , 3 ? 4 = 7), and the other half deviated from the correct answer by ±1 or ±2 (e. g. , 3 ? 5 = 7). Only single-digit problems were included, and problems with 1 or 0 were excluded. In the addition task, the larger operand was equally likely to appear in the first or second position. Each trial started with a fixation asterisk for 0. 5 s. The arithmetic problem was presented for up to 9. 5 s, during which the child had to make a response. Participants used a response box to indicate ''1'' if the problem was correct and ''2'' if the problem was incorrect.
DTI tract analysis To reliably identify the SLF components across children at multiple time points, we used an atlas-based procedure that segmented fiber tracts in each subject's native space based on the WMQL  (Wassermann et al. 2013). This technique allows the automated extraction of tract-specific measures from the whole-brain tractography of each scan in each person without the need to manually delineate the tracts  (Hua et al. 2008). Fiber tracking was performed in individual space, similar to manual tractography, yet the approach had the advantage and precision of using a query language that involves precise specification of (1) the tract endpoints, (2) the anatomical structures that the tract traverses through, and (3) the position relative to other anatomical structures  (Wassermann et al.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by grants from the  National Institutes of Health  ( HD047520 ,  HD059205 ,  HD057610 ,  MH074794 ) and the  Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO)  ( 446-12-001 ). The authors thank  John Kochalka  for his help with data analyses and  Nikos Makris  for his help with white matter anatomy. Demian Wassermann  was partially supported by grants from the  National Institutes of Health  ( R01MH074794 ,  R01MH092862 ).
Mizar Mizar * is a formal system of general applicability, based on classical logic and the Jaskowski system of natural deduction  (Trybulec 1993, Naumowicz and Korni lowicz 2009). A proof is a Mizar script, that is checked by the system. The primary goal is that the proofs be close to the mathematical vernacular, so that mathematicians may easily use it. The language is thus purely declarative. This makes the proofs longer but somehow more readable. The Mizar Mathematical Library is huge: 9 400 definitions of mathematical concepts and more than 49 000 theorems, that have been accumulated since 1989. Mizar is also used for teaching purposes. The logic is based on the axioms of the Tarski-Grothendieck set theory (an extension of the Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory). All objects are sets, and specific ones can be called integers or reals.
PVS and NASA Library PVS ‡ is a formal system based on classical higher-order logic  (Owre et al. 1992). Contrarily to the LCF approach to provers, PVS has no small kernel, but a large monolithic system containing the checker and many methods of automation. It heavily uses predicate subtypes and dependent types  (Rushby et al. 1998) ; the TCCs (type-correctness conditions) are proof obligations generated by the PVS typechecker, for example to prevent division by zero. PVS is primarily written in Common Lisp and the user interface is built on Emacs. There is a user-written file for the specification which is typechecked. The proofs are done interactively and stored in a separate file that describes a sequent-based proof tree. There is also a script mode called ProofLite that can be used to get an offline behavior similar to other systems.
HOL Light HOL Light ¶ is a formal system based on classical higher-order logic with axioms of infinity, extensionality, and choice in the form of Hilbert's ǫ operator  (Harrison 2009). It follows the LCF approach with a small kernel written in OCaml  (Harrison 2006). The basic inference rules may be composed and methods of automation are available. The user may also program its own methods of automation. HOL Light was almost entirely written by Harrison. However, it builds on earlier versions of HOL, notably the original work by  Gordon and Melham (1993)  and the improved implementation by Slind. Its formalization of real analysis originated in HOL88  (Harrison 1998)  and large parts of it were ported to HOL Light, HOL4, and Isabelle/HOL. Motivated by the Flyspeck project  (Hales 2012) , the HOL Light library of real analysis was later generalized into a formalization of Euclidean spaces while keeping the same construction of real numbers  (Harrison 2013).
HOL Light This formalization originated in HOL and then served as the basis for the standard library of HOL Light  (Harrison 1998). Rather than using fully-featured sequences of rational numbers, it is based on nearly-additive sequences of natural numbers. The predicate is_nadd characterizing such a sequence x is given below, with dist the function returning the distance between two natural numbers. (In HOL-like languages, ? denotes the existential quantifier, while ! is the universal one. ) In truth, this predicate characterizes nearly-multiplicative sequences, which is equivalent. It amounts to saying that the sequence x n /n has a limit and this limit ℓ satisfies ∀n, |x n /n -ℓ| < B/n. This allows one to construct nonnegative real numbers from natural numbers only. Order <<= is defined as follows.
Methods of Automation For the sake of usability, formal systems come with various methods designed to reduce the amount of proofs or intermediate lemmas a user needs to write to formally verify a theorem. For instance, systems implementing a declarative style of proofs, e. g. Mizar, will try to automatically instantiate sequences of theorems so as to find the deduction steps for going from a user assertion to the next one. Since it does not provide a proof script language, ACL2 provides the same kind of automated instantiations. In all of these provers, developers of formalizations may have to prepare databases of facts for the systems to choose from. Some systems also provide decision procedures, possibly incomplete and nonterminating, that a user can apply to complete a proof branch. For instance, they may perform propositional and first-order resolution, BDD-based simplifications, Prolog-like proof search, normalization according to rewrite systems, SMT solving, and so on.
Real Arithmetic First, let us have a look at methods dedicated to proving properties on rational and real numbers. This section is not meant to be exhaustive, especially as systems like HOL Light and Isabelle/HOL are generous when it comes to decision procedures. Instead, it is meant to give an overview about the capabilities of various systems. Note that systems may also provide some help in manipulating expressions. For instance, in PVS, the Manip arithmetic package  (Vito 2003)  does not aim at automatically solving goals but at an easy handling of both equalities and inequalities. This set of algebraic manipulation strategies allows one, for example, to easily move terms from one side to the other or to cancel terms. There is no heavy automation here, but a practical handling of equalities and inequalities that comes close to pen-and-paper manipulations.
Background: Poor information privacy practices have been identified in health apps. Medical app accreditation programs offer a mechanism for assuring the quality of apps; however, little is known about their ability to control information privacy risks. We aimed to assess the extent to which already-certified apps complied with data protection principles mandated by the largest national accreditation program. Methods: Cross-sectional, systematic, 6-month assessment of 79 apps certified as clinically safe and trustworthy by the UK NHS Health Apps Library. Protocol-based testing was used to characterize personal information collection, local-device storage and information transmission. Observed information handling practices were compared against privacy policy commitments. Results: The study revealed that 89 % (n = 70/79) of apps transmitted information to online services.
In respect of privacy, the accreditation approach adopted by the Health Apps Library is to require developers to declare any data transmissions made by their app and, in this case, to provide evidence of registration with the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO), the UK body responsible for enforcement of the Data Protection Act (information obtained via Freedom of Information request). Registration entails a commitment to uphold principles of data protection and is a requirement under the Act for individuals or organizations processing personal information. Thus, while substantially relying on self-declaration, it is clear the expected intent, and the assumption that might reasonably be made by app users, is that apps accredited by the NHS Health Apps Library will comply with UK data protection principles concerning information privacy.
For apps that required user accounts, app-specific credentials were generated. Diaries and logs were completed by supplying clinically-plausible information. In a small number of cases (n = 2), apps offered mechanisms to request support related to the app purpose, such as a telephone call-back to receive more information about a particular service. A further six apps incorporated user experience feedback forms. To avoid misleading potential recipients of either support requests or feedback, we annotated simulated information used to exercise these functions to indicate its status as a test communication that should be discarded and not acted upon. Recognizing that such flagging might act as a potential source of bias if data handling were altered as a result, these activities were performed at the conclusion of the testing process and once other aspects of app behaviour, data collection and transmission had been characterized.
Data entry and mobile-device storage assessment Types of data that could be entered through the user interface of each app were coded (data types listed in Additional file 1: Table  AF1 ). At the conclusion of the evaluation period, data stored on each test device were transferred to a research computer for examination. File management software  [24, 25]  was used to copy user data files and app-specific data caches. Files were inspected to catalogue the types of content being stored for each app, and to identify any mechanisms used to secure data, for example encryption. Because assessment was not performed with the involvement of developers, we only had access to storage at the device level, and were unable to assess data stored in online services.
Data transmission assessment To capture data transmitted by included apps, we reconfigured local network infrastructure so that a copy could be obtained without interrupting the flow of communication, a form of eavesdropping known as a 'man-in-themiddle' attack (Fig. 1 )  [26]. The advantage of this approach was that it required no modification to either apps or online services that might have affected the process of data exchange and bias interpretation. We combined an existing open source software tool  [27]  with custom scripting and back-end database to capture and store all traffic generated during the test period. By making a simple configuration change to the operating systems on each test device, we were able to intercept encrypted communications in addition to unsecured traffic (principles explained in Additional file 1: Figure  AF2 )  [28].
To identify potential authorization problems, we reset session state information and replayed intercepted data requests to see if developer or third-party systems would return user data without first requiring suitable authorization. Manual inspection of transmission also identified one instance where messages incorporated parameterized database queries potentially susceptible to malicious modification through SQL injection. To confirm this possibility, we modified an existing request to return data associated with a second, simulated user account. During vulnerability testing we did not attempt to modify or delete data, nor did we access data belonging to user accounts not under our control.
Policy review We systematically assessed the content of privacy policies associated with each app. We searched in-app documentation, app store entries and related websites. All documents that self-identified as a privacy policy were included in analysis. We also located privacyrelevant text forming part of other policy documents, for example terms and conditions, disclaimers, and appstore marketing text. We developed a coding schema based on guidance produced by the UK ICO  [30]  concerning requirements established by the Data Protection Act 1998 (see Additional file 1: Table  AF4 ). The schema was used to assess coverage of data protection principles, for example disclosure of primary and secondary uses of information, the intent to physical information confidentiality measures, and mechanisms for accessing, modifying and deleting personal information.