dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Conclusions The recent data of high precision from the HERMES and CLAS collaborations allow to better constrain theoretical models and to give a new insight into physical quantities like the production and formation time or the transport coefficient of the medium. We also show that the correlation between absorption and transverse momentum broadening is not negligible and needs careful implementation in models. Future measurements are already planned to progress even further in these directions. At JLab, a new experiment is already approved to run after the upgrade of the beam to 12 GeV using the new ICNFP 2014 04017-p. 5 CLAS12 spectrometer. The aim of this experiment will be to pass a new level in precision and allow the extraction of the production and formation times. There will be also a focus on kaon and baryon hadronization that cannot be explored in detail with current CLAS data.
Participants The sample included 259 children (116 boys, 143 girls) who had responded to interviews at 3-, 4-and 5-years-old. Participants from Melbourne, Australia were recruited in the Children's Body Image Development Study when children were 3-years, by placing advertisements in childcare centres and playgroups. Of 361 families who expressed interest in the study, three declined to participate and 63 could not be contacted or moved before data collection started, yielding an initial sample of 295 children. Participants completed assessments at baseline (Time 1) and at two one-year intervals (Time 2 and Time 3). At Time 2, 16 children (5 %) had moved and therefore were no longer included in the study, resulting in 279 participants at Time 2. No other participants were lost between Time 1 and Time 2.
Data analyses Inductive identification and coding of themes A thematic analysis was conducted, using an inductive approach in which theme identification is driven by the data  [28]. Thematic content analysis allows for the subjective interpretation of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns  [29, 30]. Children's responses were transcribed and entered into a spreadsheet displaying each child's responses to the figure-based questions at each time point. Data from all three time points were coded simultaneously with coders blind to the child's gender and data from different time points intermingled. The coding team included two psychologists specialising in body image and disordered eating (authors 1 and 2), and one researcher in that field (author 3), who identified themes and sub-categories of responses within themes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by  Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior  [grant number  CAPES/COFECUB 653/09 ],  Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico [CNPq Science Without Borders Program , grant number  236754/2012-2 ;  Special Visiting Researcher , grant number  406594/2013-9 ;  Young Talents , grant number  401641/2013-9; CNPq edital 71/2013 , grant number  406594/2013-9 ;  CNPq Universal , grant number  466036/2013-5 ;  CNPq/MS/SCTIE/DECIT  No. 31/2014 -Pesquisas sobre  Doença de Chagas , grant number  467157/2014-6 ], and  Núcleo de Apoio a Pesquisa em Doenças Inflamatórias (NAP-DIN ).
Another approach is to analyze surveillance data at a finer spatial scale than district level. As in Burkina Faso  (2, 10)  and Niger  (11) , epidemics of any serogroup usually are highly localized in few neighboring health centers, whereas most health centers in the district in question remain (hyper-)endemic. District-level incidences are therefore diluted and may hide epidemic activity. Consequently, surveillance at the health center level could detect epidemics earlier and enable targeting of reactive vaccination, making the overall strategy more effective and efficient. Early epidemic detection through surveillance at the health center level could increase the effectiveness and efficiency of response strategies, particularly in the anticipated situation of eliminated NmA meningitis and overall reduced meningitis incidence.
Therefore, during 2002-2012, we evaluated the effectiveness and efficiency of surveillance and vaccine response strategies in Niger using various epidemic thresholds and comparing health area and district intervention. Our analysis was based on surveillance data of suspected and confirmed cases and considered 2 scenarios: the historical situation before PsA-TT introduction (PsA-TT was introduced in Niger in 3 phases: the first in August 2010, the second in November 2010, and the third in October 2011) and a simulation of NmA elimination.
Databases The surveillance data used for this analysis were collected during 2002-2012 in Niger. For national routine surveillance, all health centers in Niger report suspected meningitis case counts each week to health district administration, where data are aggregated to a district case count and forwarded to the national level for reporting (online Technical Appendix Figure  1 , http://wwwnc. cdc. gov/EID/ article/21/8/14-1316-Techapp1. pdf) (12, 13). To analyze response strategies at the health area level, we retrieved the original health center counts of suspected meningitis cases from health district administrations and compiled them in a new database. A health area is a geographic area that encompasses all villages served by the same health center, which is an exclusive association.
We assessed the completeness of this health area database of suspected cases by comparing the resulting weekly district case counts with those in the national surveillance reports. On the basis of the completeness of this health area-level database (online Technical Appendix), we selected 3 regions-Tahoua, Tillabery, and Dosso-for further analysis (Figure  1 ). Together, these regions had 7,648,150 inhabitants during 2012 (48% of Niger's population), 19 health districts (47%), and 373 health areas (51%). Niger used Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine since 2006 but uses no pneumococcal vaccine in the widened vaccine program. Data on confirmed cases came from countrywide surveillance based on PCR  (11). For this surveillance, we requested that all cerebrospinal fluid samples from persons with suspected meningitis in the health centers be sent to the Centre de Recherche Médicale et Sanitaire (Niamey, Niger) for testing by multiplex PCR  (14).
After merging with the study database of suspected cases, we obtained the combined information about suspected and confirmed meningococcal case counts for every health area and week. Using these data, we prepared a database simulating the situation after NmA elimination by excluding all health area years with at least 1 NmA case or without any laboratory information. A health area year corresponded to a health area that appears in the annual reporting file, so that in our analysis health area years represented all the health areas that appear in annual reporting files during the study period. Only 1 NmA case was identified in the study region after PsA-TT introduction. To validate the representativeness of this database for meningitis epidemiology after NmA elimination, we compared the distribution of annual incidences between health areas before and after PsA-TT introduction (Figure  2 ).
These calculations were repeated with the database including NmA to determine whether the situation differed from that simulating NmA elimination. Using receiver-operator curves as previously described  (10) , we chose candidate epidemic thresholds to optimize the detection of annual incidences that are above the 95th or 97. 5th percentiles of health area annual incidences in the databases (online Technical Appendix Figure  3 ). An epidemic was defined as weekly incidence rate in a health area that exceeded the corresponding threshold for at least 1 week. We evaluated 3 strategies: 1) surveillance (including data analysis) and vaccination at health area level; 2) surveillance at health area level and vaccination of the entire district; and 3) surveillance and vaccination at district level.
This assumption might be conservative, in particular because conjugate vaccines will be used for epidemic response against non-A serogroups  (19). We calculated the number of vaccine doses needed per epidemic as the age group 1-29 years of the total population, which was 74% for the study regions according to census data (20); and the total number of preventable cases   (2011). Each circle corresponds to annual incidence in a health area. Dark lines are parts of the boxplot, as follows: for 2003 (complete boxplot), the first line corresponds to the minimal annual incidence of health area, the second line corresponds to the limit of the first quartile, and the third (darkest) corresponds to the median. The space between the second and third lines corresponds to the second quartile. The fourth line is the limit of the third quartile and the last line is the limit of the fourth quartile of annual health area incidence.
PsA-TT, serogroup A meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MenAfrivac [Serum Institute of India Ltd. , Hadapsar, Pune, India]). in the population of interest for 100,000 vaccine doses. To evaluate the sensitivity of our estimates to a longer delay from signal detection to effective vaccine protection, we varied this delay from 3 weeks to 6 weeks. We used the rate ratio test to compare annual incidences assuming that they follow a Poisson distribution. All analyses were performed in R software version 2. 15. 2 (http://www. R-project. org). Maps were created with QGIS software version 1. 8. 0 (http://qgis. osgeo. org).
Descriptive Epidemiology Our study comprised 154,392 weekly health area reports. Among the reports were 14,921 suspected cases, of which 13,620 (91. 3%) occurred during calendar weeks 1-20, corresponding to the meningitis season (online Technical Appendix Figure  2 ). At district level, median AI was 10. 5 cases per 100,000 inhabitants; WIR peaked at 10 cases per 100,000 during most years, and maximum incidences were 50 in Tillabery region during 2006 and 30 in Tahoua region during 2008. At health area level, median AI was 0 cases per 100,000 inhabitants, with a maximum of 1,384 for health areas in Tillabery, 959 in Tahoua, and 777 in Dosso. WIR peaked at 613 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. In the database simulating NmA elimination, median district-level AI was 10. 5 cases (range 0-166) per 100,000 inhabitants; WIR peak was a median of 2 (maximum 50) per 100,000.
Median health area-level AI was 10 cases (maximum 464) per 100,000 inhabitants; WIR peaked at 172 per 100,000. In the database simulating NmA elimination, median district-level AI was 13 cases (range 0-166) per 100,000 inhabitants before and 4 (range 0-41) per 100,000 after PsA-TT introduction. Median health area-level AI was 10 cases (range 0-302) per 100,000 inhabitants before and 9 (range 0-464) per 100,000 after PsA-TT introduction (Figure  2 ). Mean health area-level AI was 21 cases per 100,000 inhabitants before and 26 per 100,000 after PsA-TT introduction (p = 0. 43). The similarity of these numbers suggests that the simulation of NmA elimination based on data before PsA-TT introduction is representative of the situation after PsA-TT introduction.
Evaluation of Strategies In the database simulating NmA elimination, the thresholds providing best sensitivity and specificity to detect AI beyond the 95th and 97. 5th percentiles were, at health area level, WIR of 20 and 15 cases per 100,000 inhabitants, respectively, and at district level, WIR of 4 per 100,000, for both percentiles (online Technical Appendix Figures  3, 4 ). The total number of epidemics requiring a response during the 11-year period in the study area varied from 3 to 15 for district surveillance and from 49 to 233 for health area surveillance. The number of total vaccine-preventable cases varied from 0 to 6 (thresholds 2-7/100,000) with district surveillance and vaccination, from 27 to 213 cases (thresholds 7-20/100,000) with health area surveillance and vaccination, and from 58 to 366 cases with health area surveillance combined with district-level vaccination (thresholds 7-20/100,000) (Table  1 ).
At 6 weeks' delay, health area surveillance and vaccination strategy remained the most efficient (2-5 cases/100,000 doses). District surveillance and vaccination at any threshold failed to prevent cases in a delay of >4 weeks (Figure  3 ). When we evaluated data within the entire database for 2002-2012, including health areas with NmA identification in a year (Table  2 ), the total number of epidemics requiring response varied from 18 to 92 for district activity and from 232 to 844 for health area activity. The number of total vaccine-preventable cases varied less with geographic level than with threshold (overall range 652-3,739 cases). By contrast, efficiency varied more strongly with geographic level than with threshold; health area surveillance and vaccination prevented 21-26 cases per 100,000 doses, compared with 14-16 cases for district intervention.
Discussion Using meningitis surveillance data from Niger during an 11-year period, we estimated that after elimination of NmA from the meningitis belt surveillance and epidemic vaccine response would be more effective and efficient if conducted at the health area level rather than at the district level, as is currently done in most meningitis belt countries. In Niger, health areas typically have a median population of 14,440 inhabitants, ≈20-fold smaller than districts (median 295,200 inhabitants). Although the WHO epidemic response guidelines recommend splitting large districts (>100,000 inhabitants) into subdistricts for data analysis  (12) , surveillance data during the last decade have been analyzed at no higher resolution than district level in most instances. Our analysis confirms that before NmA elimination and before PsA-TT introduction, the district-level strategy yielded good effectiveness and efficiency comparable with health area-level analysis of surveillance data, while it minimized the number of individual events requiring a response.
However, several relatively fixed factors make it challenging to reduce the currently observed delay, such as weekly rhythm of data analysis, storage of vaccines at a central location in a country or even at international level, with corresponding administrative and transport delay, and time required to mobilize vaccination teams. More reactive signal detection in health areas, possibly combined with decentralized vaccine management at the regional level, is therefore an interesting option for improving the impact of reactive vaccination. Our analysis indicated that several hundred cases were preventable during the 11-year period; however, among individual epidemics, a median of near 0 cases were prevented per 100,000 doses, and a maximum of 180 cases were prevented. This finding indicates that in many epidemic health areas, no cases would be prevented by reactive vaccination, but a large benefit would appear in a few situations, probably where the outbreak is longer.
Our analysis overestimates current potential vaccine impact because a proportion of the outbreaks resulted from NmX, for which no vaccine exists. Other assumptions may lead to overestimation or underestimation of vaccine-preventable cases, but regardless, the overall expected impact from reactive vaccination after NmA elimination may be limited. An exception might be a strong increase in the percentage of Nm among suspected cases that result from emergence of non-A serogroups that might increase the effectiveness of any strategy. Bringing data resolution for meningitis surveillance to the health area level would require relatively few additional means: throughout the meningitis belt, suspected case data are collected in health centers and transmitted in aggregate form by districts to the national level so that a lower degree of aggregation would accelerate data availability.
Routine procedures for data management and analysis would need to be slightly modified, but analyses would consist mostly in automated signal detection. Estimates of the referring population usually are available from national census data of villages and health intervention planning. However, several countries may encounter difficulties related to the availability of reliable and up-to-date demographic estimates at health center level. In this case, countries could consider and test other subdistrict resolutions of data analysis. In contrast, substantial efforts would be needed to bring vaccine response to the health area level because bringing response to this level would require decentralization of vaccine management, including prior distribution of vaccine to regions or districts. As a positive side effect, bringing vaccine response to the health area level would further speed up reactive vaccination and thus increase the effectiveness of outbreak response.
When preparing the database simulating NmA elimination, we excluded health areas without any laboratory confirmation in a year, which includes health areas without any suspected cases. That most health areas report at least 1 case per year probably has led to an overestimation of the median annual incidence after NmA elimination. However, this fact does not affect our estimation of effectiveness and efficiency because these health areas would not have contributed to any epidemic signal. Finally, we calculated incidence rates using the 2001 population census data, to which we applied a constant population growth rate, instead of accounting for potential spatio-temporal variations in migration, ethnic factors, and fecundity rate. We believe that the differences we found among surveillance strategies are sufficiently robust to justify revisiting the current surveillance strategies.
By combining routine case reporting and confirmed case incidence at health area level, our database provides a rare opportunity for investigating alternative surveillance strategies around the change in serogroup. Other countries should analyze suspected case incidence after PsA-TT introduction at health center level over the next few years to validate our findings and to inform optimal epidemic surveillance and response strategies. Our evaluation highlights the value of continuous meningitis surveillance over longer periods and at subdistrict resolution and has the potential to guide future recommendations for reactive vaccination. Also, given a possibly limited absolute impact of reactive vaccination, the results recall that improved prevention strategies should be developed to reduce the effects of acute bacterial meningitis in the African meningitis belt, for example using multivalent meningococcal and pneumococcal vaccines in extended target age groups.
Acknowledgments We acknowledge the contribution of all the staff of the  Centre de Recherche Médicale et Sanitaire  and all health centers in Niger who participated in meningitis surveillance, the  Direction de la Surveillance et de la Riposte aux Epidémies , the  Direction des Statistiques , the  Institut National de la Statistique, WHO , and the  United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. We are also grateful to  Jean-François Jusot ,  Abaché Ranoua ,  Adakal Aboubacar ,  Maman Zaneidou ,  Noémie Phulpin , and  Oumarou Alto  for input into the project, assistance with data compilation and creation of health area maps. H. B. M. and J. E. M. contributed substantially to the conception of the work; H. B. M. , I. I. , J-P. M. P. , O. O. M. O. -B. , and A. F. acquired the data; H.
B. M. , J. P. , and J. E. M. analyzed and interpreted the data; H. B. M. drafted the manuscript; J. P. , I. I. , J. M. , O. O. , A. F. , and J. E. M. conducted the critical revision of the work for important intellectual content; H. B. M. , J. P. , I. I. , J-P. M. P. , O. O. M. O. -B. , A. F. , and J. E. M. gave final approval of the version submitted and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. This work was supported by the  Office of International Cooperation of the Principality of Monaco. activities were funded by the  Ministère Français des Affaires Etrangères (Fonds de Solidarité Prioritaire) ,  Sanofi Pasteur, and the Ministère de la Santé Publique du Niger/Fonds Commun. The first health area map was funded by  Cooperation Technique Belge. Dr. Maïnassara  is a medical doctor with a master's degree in epidemiology working at the  Centre de Recherche Médicale et Sanitaire of Niamey.
Data available, new observations and data reduction 2. 1. LOFAR The observations using LOFAR were carried out in the night of October 8, 2011 using the low band antennas (LBA) at 62 MHz centered on B2 0258+35A observed as part of the LOFAR commissioning efforts. 4C 35. 06 is located about half a degree to the north from the phase center. Table  2  summarizes the observational configuration. The data were flagged to remove radio frequency interference (RFI) using the AO flagger package  (Offringa et al. 2012 ) and averaged to a frequency resolution of 192 kHz per channel and a time resolution of 10 seconds per sample. Calibration   (Cornwell 2008). We imaged by selecting the data in UV distance below 20 km, limiting ourselves to stations having satisfactory calibration solutions, avoiding as much as possible calibration errors induced by the ionosphere, while retaining enough spatial resolution.
We have reached an image noise of about 35 mJy beam -1 measured away from bright sources. The size of the restoring beam is 51 × 43. We have checked the flux scale across the final image, by comparing the flux densities of sources in our LOFAR image with their values in existing surveys. Compact sources with S /N > 10 were extracted using the PyBDSM package  (Ramanujam 2007)  and their flux density at 62 MHz compared with the extrapolation from the VLSS, WENSS 3  and NVSS 4  catalogs. The derived LOFAR flux densities were estimated to be accurate to ∼10% level. A check of the positional accuracy of the LOFAR image was performed by plotting the differences between positions of the sources extracted from the LOFAR image and matched sources from the NVSS survey. Again, we used PyBDSM to extract point sources from the LOFAR image.
H I -21 cm and continuum from the WSRT WSRT observations to search for H I in 4C 35. 06 were performed at three epochs (2013 April 8 and 11, June 12) for 8, 7 and 6 h respectively. The observing band was centered on 1356. 8 MHz, the frequency of H I for z = 0. 0464, the redshift of 4C 35. 06. The total bandwidth was 20 MHz, corresponding to a velocity range of ∼4422 km s -1 and was covered with 1024 channels (dual polarization). In order to increase the signalto-noise ratio, four channels were binned resulting in a spectral resolution of 17 km s -1 in the output data cube. The data reduction was performed using the MIRIAD package  (Sault et al. 1995). After flagging, bandpass and phase calibration were performed. The continuum emission was subtracted, using the task uvlin, by making a second-order polynomial fit to the line-free channels of each visibility record.
Spectral analysis Following the work of  Murgia et al. (2011) , we investigate the characteristics of the integrated spectrum of the source and then we turn to the spatially resolved analysis of the spectral index with the aim of getting a detailed handle on the past and present activity history. We have compiled integrated flux density measurements of 4C 35. 06, as shown in Table  3. The flux density values are taken from the literature, or measured from archival images, with comparable sensitivity to the extended emission. They are plotted in Fig. 4  along with our LOFAR flux value. The best power-law fit to the integrated flux density data points has a spectral index of α = -1. 01 ± 0. 02. Although this is not an extremely steep spectral index, it is steeper than what is usually seen in the lobes of radio galaxies (α ∼ -0.