dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Bulk rock composition Bulk rock compositions for samples collected in this work were commercially obtained at ALS Global labs Ireland, using their "Complete Characterization Package" (see details at https://www. alsglobal. co m/en-au/services-and-products/geochemistry/geochemistry-testing-an d-analysis/whole-rock-analysis-and-lithogeochemistry). In addition, we compiled a database of published rock compositions drawing primarily on data by  Anhaeusser and Robb (1983a) ,  Westraat et al (2004)  and  Clemens et al. (2010). Existing analyses do not always report trace elements and the final database (Data Repository, Item DR1) includes new analyses, mostly of the Heerenveen batholith, and 289 from the literature. In total, we have 28 analyses from the Boesmanskop, from the Mpuluzi, and 152 from the Heerenveen intrusions.
U-Th-Pb isotope analyses Uranium, thorium and lead isotopes were analyzed using a Ther-moScientific Element 2 sector field ICP-MS coupled to a Resolution M-50 (Resonetics) 193 nm ArF excimer laser (ComPexPro 102F, Coherent) system at Goethe-University Frankfurt (GUF). Data were acquired in time resolvedpeak jumpingpulse counting / analogue mode over 466 mass scans, with a 20 s background measurement followed by 21 s sample ablation. Laser spot-size was 19 µm for unknowns and the standard zircon OG1, 33 µm for the standard zircons GJ1 (primary standard), and 40 µm for the standard zircon 91500. The results of the standard zircon measurements obtained during the different analytical sessions are shown in Data Repository, item DR2. Sample surface was cleaned directly before each analysis by three pulses pre-ablation.
The 204 Pb content for each ratio was estimated by subtracting the average mass 204 signal, obtained during the 20 s baseline acquisition, which mostly results from 204 Hg in the carrier gas (c. 230-350 cps), from the mass 204 signal of the respective ratio. For the analyzed sample the calculated common 206 Pb contents was mostly <0. 5% of the total 206 Pb but in very rare cases exceeded 4% (Data Repository, item DR2). Laser-induced elemental fractionation and instrumental mass discrimination were corrected by normalization to the reference zircon GJ-1  (Jackson et al. , 2004). Prior to this normalization, the inter-elemental fractionation ( 206 Pb*/ 238 U) during the 21 s of sample ablation was corrected for each individual analysis. The correction was done by applying a linear regression through all measured, common Pb corrected ratios, excluding the outliers (±2 standard deviation; 2SD), and using the intercept with the yaxis as the initial ratio.
4 ± 0. 4 Ma  (Wiedenbeck et al. , 2004) , 337 ± 0. 37  Ma (Sláma et al. , 2008) , and of 3465. 4 ± 0. 6 Ma  (Stern et al. , 2009). The data were plotted using   -11-8). (e-i) : Mpuluzi : (e). Main homogeneous megacrystic granite of the Heerenveen batholith, here with a small microgranular mafic enclave. (f). Leucogranite II (scale bar is about 1 cm). (g). Intrusive breccia of a dark Augen granodiorite (Aug) brecciating a syenogranite (SG) with early pegmatites (Peg). Scale bar is about 1 m. (h). Augen granodiorite. (i). Syenogranite. Photos f-i come from a large outcrop (the Eagle High locality) mapped in details by  Sonke (2006) , C. Campbell and A. Kisters (unpub), further described in  (Moyen et al. , in press )), and from which samples MP-11-2 (syenogranite), MP-11-3 (Augen granodiorite) and MP-12-01 (pegmatite) were taken.
Lu-Hf isotope analyses Hafnium isotope measurements were performed with a Thermo-Finnigan NEPTUNE multi collector ICP-MS at GUF coupled to the same laser as described in the U-Pb method (Resolution M-50 193 nm ArF excimer laser). Round or rectangular laser spots with diameters or edge lengths of 33-40 µm were drilled with repetition rate of 5. 5 Hz and an energy density of about 6-7 J/cm 2 during 55 s of data acquisition. All data were adjusted relative to the JMC475 of 176 Hf/ 177 Hf ratio = 0. 282160. Quoted uncertainties are quadratic additions of the within run precision of each analysis and the reproducibility of the zircon standard GJ1 which ranged between 0. 0048% and 0. 0070% (2SD) during the different analytical sessions (Data Repository, item DR3). Accuracy and external reproducibility of the method was verified by repeated analyses of reference zircons GJ-1, 91500, and Plešovice, which yielded 176 Hf/ 177 Hf of 0.
In the core of the Mpuluzi batholith, published databases (unfortunately often lacking facies or outcrop descriptions:  Anhaeusser and Robb, 1983a; Murphy, 2015)  reveal the presence of scattered occurrences of chemically similar rocks, perhaps corresponding to the "veins" mapped in portions of the Mpuluzi batholith by  Anhaeusser et al. (1981). In the Nelspruit batholith, similar rocks form a discrete intrusion, the Hebron pluton  (Anhaeusser et al. , 1981; Cornwright et al. , 2008). All of this is suggestive of late, syn-plutonic dykes injected into the partially consolidated magma reservoir, and possibly undergoing fragmentation into microgranular mafic enclaves  (Barbarin, 2005). The dark granitoids mostly have 60-65% SiO 2 , and variable characteristics summarized in Table  1. They define several series ranging from a low-K 2 O, slightly peraluminous series to a high-K 2 O, metaluminous series, and in most diagrams (Fig.
Acknowledgments This publication has been long overdue, as it is based on data acquired many years ago. It would have been an honour and a pleasure to discuss our findings with Alfred Kröner, who in addition of being a great geochronologist, was also extremely knowledgeable on the geology of the BGGTa place very close to his heart, and where he conducted field work until his last days. Unfortunately we left the opportunity slip, and the best we can do now is to offer our contribution to this Special Issue commemorating his achievements. We thank  L. Robb  and  J. Payne  for helpful and constructive reviews. This work has been financially supported by several  CNRS/INSU  grants (PNP and CESSUR). JFM's stay at Monash is supported by the  Australian Research Council  grant  FL160100168. This is IRP BuCoMo contribution  A6  ( 2020 ).
The Maldives, with one of the lowest average land elevations above present-day mean sea level, is among the world regions that will be the most impacted by mean sea-level rise and marine extreme events induced by climate change. Yet, the lack of regional and local information on marine drivers is a major drawback that coastal decision-makers face to anticipate the impacts of climate change along the Maldivian coastlines. In this study we focus on wind-waves, the main driver of extremes causing coastal flooding in the region. We dynamically downscale large-scale fields from global wave models, providing a valuable source of climate information along the coastlines with spatial resolution down to 500 m. This dataset serves to characterise the wave climate around the Maldives, with applications in regional development and land reclamation, and is also an essential input for local flood hazard modelling.
Global Wind-Wave Datasets We have used the CAWCR Global wind-wave data set that is freely distributed through the CSIRO data server  (Hemer et al. , 2015). This set, generated with the WaveWatch III wave model  (version 3. 14, Tolman, 2009)  in a common 1 • × 1 • resolution global grid, consists of a hindcast, historical runs (late twentieth century), and projections for the twenty-first century. The hindcast has been forced with surface wind fields from the NCEP CFSR  (Saha et al. , 2010)  and covers the period from 1979 to 2009 with a temporal resolution of 1 h (this simulation is referred to as CFSR hereinafter). The historical runs and projections were generated using the output fields of 8 different CMIP5 models (ACCESS1. 0, BCC-CSM1. 1, CNRM-CM5, GFDL-ESM2M, HadGEM2-ES, INMCM4, MIROC5, and MRI-CGCM3), covering three different time periods with a temporal resolution of 6 h: historical runs for  1980-2005; and projected waves for mid-(2026-2045)  and late-(2081-2100) twenty-first century.
The projections for mid-and late-twentyfirst century were run under two different emission scenarios, RCP4. 5 and RCP8. 5, although we will use only the latter. A detailed description of the wave climate dataset can be found in  Hemer et al. (2013). Global wave models are used to characterise the presentday and future projected changes of wave climate around the Maldivian archipelago, with emphasis on the extreme wave climate. Return levels of Hs for a set of prescribed return periods are calculated by fitting the top 1% waves to a Generalised Pareto Distribution. Given the coarse spatial resolution of the model configuration, we do not expect the small islands as the Maldives to be accurately represented by these global simulations. Given that the wave fields are modified by the presence of the islands (see for example Supplementary Video 1 from Amores and Marcos, 2019), the global fields must be downscaled in order to be usable for practical purposes.
The process of land reclamation was started on April 16th, 2019 (https://edition. mv/news/10159) and finished almost 5 months later, on September 5th, 2019 (https://edition. mv/news/12266; see Supplementary Figure  1 , to see the construction process on June 15th, 2019). Secondly, information on the local bathymetry and land elevation is available and allows to simulate the wave propagation. A bathymetry around the island was generated by combining measurements on the reef flat performed by the Maldives Transport and Contracting Company, who was in charge of the design of the land reclamation project. We completed these data with reef slope measurements taken during a field trip on February 2018 (using a single beam echosounder). Our measurements included a total of 10 profiles across-slope separated around 200-500 m between them as well as several along-slope transects.
This resolution permits to model wave propagation at the scale of the archipelago. Although it is not accurate enough to perform local assessments inside an atoll, it provides, instead, the necessary boundary condition for the forcing. The full data set is provided at the Zenodo repository under this doi: 10. 5281/zenodo. 3886273. Figure  6  shows the results for the 100-year return level of the four directions over the entire domain, sorted by decreasing H s. Note that the spatial patterns of different return levels will be the same for each wave direction and only the magnitude changes. Due to the limited resolution of the GEBCO topobathymetry (∼ 1 km), an accurate representation of the islands and the inner part of the atolls is not feasible. Thus, the atolls have been considered as whole entities.
The regionalisation has resulted in a major product of the present work: a valuable data set of extreme waves along the Maldivian coasts with spatial resolutions down to 500 m in the points nearest to the coast. The data set is published at doi: 10. 5281/zenodo. 3886273. The output of our regionalisation provides quantitative information on extreme waves, in the form of return level curves, at the regional scale in the Maldives and for the first time. This dataset is useful for coastal engineering studies, for feeding local coastal models of flooding hazards and for planning land reclamation and other regional developments. It also serves to compute the inundation potential at every location and for every incoming swell direction, that depends on wave energy, H 2 s • T p , in line with the "response approach" discussed in  Sanuy et al.
e. , local topo-bathymetries). Our study thus advocates for improved monitoring systems and data collection to reduce uncertainties and better inform final users. We have generated a valuable regional wave data set that fulfils the purposes of characterisation of the wave climate in a sparsely observed area. This dataset, in combination with detailed local information (e. g. , high-resolution topobathymetries), serves as a milestone for informing adaptation policy and Maldivian decision-makers facing the challenge of adapting to rising sea-levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful to  Dr. Aurélie Maspataud  for her support with bathymetric data and  Dr. Fernando Méndez  for advice on numerical wave modelling. We thank the  Ministry of Environment , the  Environmental Protection Agency , the Maldives Transport and Contracting Company and  Water Solutions  for their support during the field trip and data collection. AA is grateful to  M. A. Blázquez  for his support and comments during the preparation of the manuscript.
Some of them not only offer a single set but an ensemble of possibilities such as those computed by the Air Force Data Assimilative Photospheric Flux Transport (ADAPT) model, (see e. g. Arge et al. , 2010; Arge et al. , 2013). The ADAPT maps are global magnetograms of the photospheric magnetic flux and are produced using data assimilation techniques along with a magnetic flux transport model (see  Worden and Harvey, 2000). Each ADAPT map has different realizations of the status of the photospheric magnetic field at a certain time. Selecting among so many magnetograms is a challenging task that is often done arbitrarily. In this work, we present a novel technique that it is designed to automatically test the reliability of the different realizations of the ADAPT maps. The developed method is based on a comparison of the global models of the solar atmosphere with the location of streamers in synoptic maps from white-light (WL) observations.
WL-derived magnetic sector maps can then be compared to sectors measured directly in situ. In order to compare one year of data in a convenient way we bin the data in Bartels map format. Such maps are shown in Figure  6   Data are color-coded in blue (and red) for positive (and negative) polarities. Figure  6  brings out a good correspondence between in situ and WL derived Bartel's diagrams with very similar sector structures, with 76. 5% of matching polarities for STEREO-A and 77. 3% for ACE. This shows that, overall, the SMB location offers a good estimate of where polarity inversions should occur at the Sun and therefore the relevance of the presented technique to provide additional constraints to global coronal models.
APPLICATIONS The presented metric can be of interest for many direct applications. In this section we present preliminary works that illustrate several of these possibilities. comparison between the acquisition of data by PSP along its orbit and the updating of the WL Carrington map as new coronagraphic data becomes available. Regions where in situ magnetic reversals do not match exactly the location of the SMB are often resolved a few days later when the WL map has been updated locally. From a broader perspective Figure  7  also illustrates the relevance of WL synoptic maps to provide a context for understanding solar wind properties measured in situ at PSP, such as the electron density (see e. g. Rouillard et al. , 2020c; Griton et al. , 2021).
Improving Sun to S/C Connectivity Estimates Coronal and heliospheric models are essential in the context of SolO and PSP science because they allow us to estimate the possible origins of the solar wind plasma measured in situ at those spacecraft or connect energetic particles to potential accelerators at the Sun, (e. g. flares, shocks). A web-based service tool has been put in place by the Solar Orbiter Data Analysis Working Group (MADAWG) to provide support to SolO operations  (Rouillard et al. , 2020b). This tool, called the Magnetic Connectivity Tool, is directly accessible to the public at this website 1. Forecast and past magnetic connectivities among many observatories such as PSP, SolO, BepiColombo, STEREO, and ACE are available via this web interface. Different magnetograms, coronal and heliospheric models can also be specified by the user.
CONCLUSION We introduced a novel automated technique that provides an important constraint to coronal and heliospheric models based on the exploitation of WL observations. WL images from the LASCO C2 coronagraph are processed and converted into synoptic maps called Carrington maps, which are dynamically updated as new images are available. Features of interest such as the SB and the SMB are automatically identified by an algorithm. Future applications of this technique will include other vantage points including data from STEREO, SolO, PSP and the Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH). Reducing the initial synoptic maps to these two simple geometric elements allows us to perform direct comparisons with coronal models. Therefore a metric has been defined to quantify these comparisons with a score that allows us to assess automatically the quality of the models with respect to WL observations.
FUNDING AK acknowledge financial support from the ANR project SLOW_SOURCE (ANR-18-ERC1-0006-01), COROSHOCK (ANR-17-CE31-0006-01), and FP7 HELCATS project https:// www. helcats-fp7. eu/ under the FP7 EU contract number 606692. The work of AR, NP, VR and MA was funded by the ERC SLOW_ SOURCE project (SLOW_SOURCE -DLV-819189). The IRAP team acknowledges support from the French space agency (Centre National des Etudes Spatiales; CNES; https://cnes. fr/fr) that funds the plasma physics data center (Centre de Données de la Physique des Plasmas; CDPP; http://cdpp. eu/), the Multi Experiment Data & Operation Center (MEDOC; https://idoc. ias. u-psud. fr/MEDOC) and the space weather team in Toulouse (Solar-Terrestrial Observations and Modelling Service; STORMS; https://stormsweb. irap. omp. eu/). This includes funding for the data mining tools AMDA (http://amda.
In France, flooding is the most common and damaging natural hazard. Due to global warming, it is expected to globally exacerbate, and it could be even more pronounced in the European Alps that warm at a rate twice as high in the Northern Hemisphere. The Alps are densely populated, increasing exposure and vulnerability to flood hazard. To approach long-term evolutions of past flood occurrence and related socio-economic impacts in relation to changes in the flood risk components (i. e. hazard, exposure and vulnerability), the study of historical records is highly relevant. To this aim we analyze the newly constituted database of Historical Impacts of Floods in the Arve Valley (HIFAVa) located in French Northern Alps and starting in 1850. This database reports for the first-time flood occurrences and impacts in a well-documented Alpine catchment that encompasses both a hydrological and societal diversity.
g. description of the event, time, extent, damages caused etc. ). However, historical approach allows a social and spatio-temporal contextualization of the data  (Giacona et al. , 2017) , making the reconstruction (date, impacts) of major flood events possible  (Barriendos et al. , 2003 (Barriendos et al. , , 2019) )  and attesting the social apprehension of the phenomenon  (Gil-Guirado et al. , 2016). Numerous historical databases were built to document past flood occurrence and magnitude, such as the Prediflood database  (Barriendos et al. , 2014) , and some, as the database from  Thoumas (2019) , allow to analyze the climatic fluctuations. In contrast to these latter databases focusing on hydrological events, some databases collected the socioeconomic impacts of floods such as the APAT database  (Lastoria et al.
, 2006) , the press database on natural hazards and climate change from  Llasat et al. (2009) , the database of high-impact weather events in Greece from  Papagiannaki et al. (2013) , the EUFF database  (Petrucci et al. , 2019)  and the SMC-Flood database  (Gil-Guirado et al. , 2019). Some databases stand out as the participative flood database ORRION  (Giacona et al. , 2019)  or the database built by the RISC-KIT project  (Garnier et al. , 2018)  which aim to develop methods and management tools and discuss the trajectories of vulnerability. Floods, as natural hazards, are physical phenomena naturally occurring and can, when certain conditions are met, cause harm to societies. They can be interpreted as a social construction  (Beck, 1992)  since exposure of human activities and social vulnerability play a large role in the severity of the impacts.
Flood impacts databases, constituted from historical records, can be considered as the expression of society's concerns, risk perceptions (fear, https://doi. org/10. 5194/nhess-2021-169 Preprint. Discussion started: 18 June 2021 c Author(s) 2021. CC BY 4. 0 License. habit) and values (based on reported impacts). The recording of flood impacts, or the failure to record them, provides a subjective measure of the events that were considered worth reporting for various reasons across historical periods. Flood impacts result from the interaction between the natural phenomenon and the dynamics of exposure and vulnerability. As vulnerability we understand the inclination to damage of various exposed goods, activities or people constituting a given territory  (Leone and Vinet, 2006). We consider the vulnerability as a dynamic system articulated to numerous physical and societal factors  (Antoine, 2011).
This system can evolve in time and space  (Cutter, 2003). Major natural disasters, such as floods, are often displayed as unforeseeable events whereas the historical facts give evidence of the contrary  (Garnier, 2016 (Garnier, , 2019 ). Yet the society's vulnerability may increase as the past disasters are forgotten, leading to a "society of risk"  (Garnier, 2019). Historical approach allows to explore the trajectories of hazard and vulnerability in response to changes in climate, land use and flood risk management  (Gil-Guirado et al. , 2016). The present paper introduces a newly constituted database of flood impacts of the Arve River and its tributaries (Northern French Alps). The database called "Historical Impacts of Floods in the Arve Valley" (HIFAVa) covers all impacts caused by hydrological events that occurred since 1850.
3. 1. Collecting data from historical archives. A first historical study has been carried out to draw a flood chronicle of the Arve valley between the 18 th and the 21 th century, with a particular focus on the hydro-meteorological circumstances of the flood events  (Mélo et al. , 2015). As sources are more abundant over the last 165 years , this period was defined as the studied time frame of the HIFAVa database. Only events mentioned in at least two sources were integrated in the database. Since 2015, data have been further collected to complete the preliminary dataset from  Mélo et al. (2015). Information on floods and related impacts has been collected from various sources. Primary sources range from handwritten archives like municipal acts to departmental archives (e. g. reports of the Préfecture and of town councils).
Secondary and tertiary sources are respectively made of published documents (newspapers, reports, books) and pre-existing databases. The database of historical records providing a chronological and synthetic layout of the data is composed of (Table  A1 ): Manuscript materials: -Most of the manuscripts are kept in the departemental archives (Archives Départementales de Haute-Savoie: ADHS) (Conseil départemental de la Haute-Savoie, n. d. ) or in the municipal archives (Archives municipals : AM) of the towns of Chamonix, Cluses and Bonneville. The departmental and municipal archives also contain records older than the Savoy annexation by France in 1860. The records can be private or from a public institution. Printed materials: -Articles of scientific journal and books used in this study have been published since 1914.