dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Data splitting The sensitivity of an FFT increases with the length of the input dataset. However, combining the full ANTARES livetime data into a single dataset is not feasible due to computational limitations and due to the requirement for certain properties, such as background stability and PMT efficiencies, to remain approximately constant for accurate sensitivity calculations. To address this, the proposed approach involves dividing the full time series into smaller, equally sized sub-datasets representing periods with consistent data taking conditions. Power spectra are then calculated for each sub-dataset and averaged to obtain a final spectrum. This process of splitting and averaging results in a loss of sensitivity, determined by the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the length of the sub-datasets.
The SNR is determined as the ratio of the signal and background intensities,   and   as described in section 4. The analysis of a large dataset with known distribution of the Fourier power spectrum demonstrates this sensitivity loss, as is shown in figure  2. For SNRs larger than a certain threshold, approximately 10 -5 , a significant loss of sensitivity occurs. However, this loss typically affects regions where the p-value is already very low, and therefore, it does not significantly impact claims of discovery. For lower SNRs, the loss of sensitivity is negligible as both the single FFT and averaging FFT approaches are unable to differentiate between signal and noise.
Data filtering To identify signals in a dataset dominated by background, a common approach is to compare the observed data with the expected behavior assuming the dataset consisting of only background. This comparison involves deriving a test statistic from observable quantities, such as the Fourier power spectrum, and comparing its value with the corresponding distribution for the background-only case. However, representing experimental data with a simple mathematical model is often challenging, and simulations are typically used to derive these distributions. In this analysis, simulating the background is not possible due to the lack of an accurate model for the behavior of bioluminescent activity, which is a significant contribution to the background in ANTARES rates. To address this challenge, the "Red Noise Filter" (RNF) is applied.
5 R , that is, up to where UV measurements are just above the interplanetary (i. e. , noncoronal) contribution in the UV band observed by Metis (3 × 10 7 photons cm -2 s -1 sr -1 ,  Kohl et al. 1997, horizontal  dashed line in Fig. 1b ). This height therefore represents the observational limit for the detection of the UV Lyα corona. Immediately evident is the greater noise level of the Metis UV observations compared with those in pB. In order to extend the UV profile to lower heights, down to 1. 5 R (blue dots in Fig. 1b ), a similar averaging was performed over a full-corona map reconstructed from the UVCS synoptic observational program during Carrington rotation (CR) 1910 (i. e. , from June 01 to  29, 1996). Even if the two datasets refer to periods 25 years apart, belonging to the activity minima of solar cycles 22 (UVCS) and 24 (Metis), the radial trends seem to reconcile relatively well (within uncertainties), although the intensities measured by Metis are slightly higher than those of UVCS in the range 3.
Acknowledgements. Solar Orbiter is a space mission of international collaboration between  ESA  and  NASA , operated by  ESA. D. T. was partially supported by the  Italian Space Agency (ASI)  under contract  2018-30-HH. 0. L. A. , G. P. Z. , and L. -L. Z. acknowledge the partial support of a  NASA  Parker Solar Probe contract  SV4-84017 , an  NSF   EPSCoR RII-Track -1  Cooperative Agreement  OIA-2148653 , and a  NASA   IMAP  grant through  SUB000313/80GSFC19C0027. P. H. was partially supported by the grant of the  Czech Funding Agency  No. 22-34841S. The  Metis program  is supported by  ASI  under contracts to the  National Institute for Astrophysics  and industrial partners. Metis was built with hardware contributions from  Germany  ( Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie  through the  Deutsches Zentrum für Luft-und Raumfahrt  e.
Target selection, observations, and data reduction Our targets were extracted from the Milliquas v7. 2 catalog  (Flesch 2021 ) by selecting systems far from the galactic plane (b > 20 deg), with spectroscopic redshifts z > 0. 5 and that lead to having at least one bright line (Hα or Hβ) inside one of the near-IR bands used by OSIRIS, that is 0. 85 < z < 1. 11, 1. 28 < z < 1. 85, and 2. 03 < z < 2. 65. All sources were selected through the GMP method by having values of ipd_frac_multi_peak 1  above the threshold of ten  (Mannucci et al. 2022). We examined the archival ground-based spectra used to classify the systems. Most of the spectra come from SDSS DR16  (Lyke et al. 2020) , with significant contributions from 2QZ  (Croom et al. 2004 ), LAMOST  (Jin et al. 2022) , and many others (see the list in the Milliquas catalog).
Acknowledgements. We thank the referee for constructive comments that helped improving the manuscript. AC acknowledges support from  NSF   AAG  grant  AST-1412615 ,  Jim  and  Lori Keir , the  W. M. Keck Observatory Keck   Visiting Scholar program , the  Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation , the  Heising-Simons Foundation , and  Howard  and Astrid Preston. GC, FM, AM and EN acknowledge support by  INAF Large  Grants "The metal circle: a new sharp view of the baryon cycle up to  Cosmic Dawn with the latest generation IFU facilities ". GC, FM, AM, EN, PS, CC and CV acknowledge support by  INAF Large  Grants "Dual and binary supermassive black holes in the multi- messenger era: from galaxy mergers to gravitational waves " ( Bando Ricerca Fondamentale INAF 2022 ). GV acknowledges support from  ANID program   FONDECYT Postdoctorado 3200802.
We report on a comprehensive analysis of simultaneous X-ray polarimetric and spectral data of the bright atoll source GX 9+9 with the Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) and NuSTAR. The source is significantly polarized in the 4-8 keV band, with a degree of 2. 2% ± 0. 5% (uncertainty at the 68% confidence level). The NuSTAR broad-band spectrum clearly shows an iron line, and is well described by a model including thermal disc emission, a Comptonized component, and reflection. From a spectro-polarimetric fit, we obtain an upper limit to the polarization degree of the disc of 4% (at the 99% confidence level), while the contribution of Comptonized and reflected radiation cannot be conclusively separated. However, the polarization is consistent with resulting from a combination of Comptonization in a boundary or spreading layer, plus reflection off the disc, which significantly contributes in any realistic scenario.
2009). In this paper, we report on the spectral and polarimetric analysis of GX 9+9 with simultaneous NuSTAR and IXPE observations. We also discuss numerical simulations specifically developed for the source. The IXPE polarimetric data have been recently presented by  Chatterjee et al. (2023) , together with AstroSat non-simultaneous spectral data taken in 2020. However, the NuSTAR capability to detect the reflection component and the simultaneity with IXPE give us the possibility to relate the polarization properties to specific spectral components with good confidence. The paper is structured as follows. In Sect. 2, we describe the observation and the IXPE and NuSTAR data reduction. In Sect. 3, we report on the analysis of the spectral and polarimetric data. Section 4 is devoted to the discussion of the results and the summary.
1 ). We produced cleanedlevel two event files using standard filtering criteria with the dedicated ftools (v6. 31) tasks 1  and the latest calibration files (CALDB 20221021) and response matrices (v12). The Q and U Stokes spectra produced by the instrument pipeline are in the FITS format, and associated with an ancillary response matrix and a modulation response function (namely the product of the effective area and the modulation factor). The joint spectropolarimetric analysis of the Stokes parameters can thus be carried out with standard techniques and software tools. We extracted the Stokes I, Q, and U spectra from circular regions with a radius of 120. We did not subtract the background, following the prescription by Di  Marco et al. (2023)  for bright sources. However, we verified that background subtraction does not significantly alter the results, especially the polarimetric measurements.
NuSTAR NuSTAR  (Harrison et al. 2013 ) observed the source with its X-ray telescopes on Focal Plane Module A (FPMA) and B (FPMB), with a net exposure of 38. 5 ks simultaneously with the first half of the IXPE exposure. We produced cleaned event files with the dedicated nupipeline task and the latest calibration files (CALDB 20230208). In the case of NuSTAR, the background is not negligible at all energies, and therefore we performed background subtraction as follows. For both detectors, we extracted the background from a circular region with a standard radius of 1. 22, while we set the source radius at 2 following a procedure that maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio  (Piconcelli et al. 2004 ). We rebinned the spectra with the standard task ftgrouppha, implementing the optimal scheme by  Kaastra & Bleeker (2016)  with the additional requirement of a minimum signal to noise of 3 in each bin.
Data analysis GX 9+9 is known to exhibit complex long-term X-ray variability  (Kotze & Charles 2010) ; however, as of 2009, the light curve of the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI;  Matsuoka et al. 2009 ) has shown a rather constant baseline and small amplitude variations  (Asai et al. 2022). The MAXI light curve spanning one year between 2022 January 26 and 2023 January 26 is shown in Fig. 1. The X-ray flux is quite stable, while the hardness ratio (HR) shows variations by a factor of 2 on timescales of roughly 1-2 months. In Fig. 2  we show the NuSTAR light curve of the source, together with the HR. The NuSTAR hardnessintensity diagram and the colour-colour diagram are shown in Figs. 3  and 4 , respectively. Some spectral variability is apparent for a short interval at the beginning of the NuSTAR exposure.
The NuSTAR spectrum As a first step, we assessed the spectral properties of the source by fitting the NuSTAR data in the 3-30 keV band. In all of our models, we have included interstellar absorption (tbabs model in xspec;  Wilms et al. 2000) , with a column density fixed at 3 × 10 21 cm - 2   (Iaria et al. 2020 ) because the energy band does not extend to low energies where absorption is strong, and thus the fit is not very sensitive to this parameter. We started by fitting the NuSTAR spectrum with a standard two-component model composed by a disc multi-colour black body (diskbb in xspec;  Mitsuda et al. 1984 ) and a Comptonized spectrum (comptt in xspec; Titarchuk 1994), including a cross-calibration constant between FPMA and FPMB which is found to be 1. 006 ± 0. 001. However, we find a discrepancy between the FPMA and FPMB spectra at low energies (3-4 keV), with the FPMA flux being significantly larger.
Discussion and conclusions We investigated the X-ray spectro-polarimetric properties of the bright atoll NS-LMXB GX 9+9 using IXPE and NuSTAR data. The polarimetric measurements are in agreement with those reported by  Chatterjee et al. (2023) ; however, those authors fitted non-simultaneous AstroSat data with a two-component model that does not include reflection. The NuSTAR spectrum shows the presence of a Fe Kα emission line, and a reflection component is needed to properly fit the data (see also  Iaria et al. 2020). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first detection of a relativistically broadened iron line in this source. The reflection component is likely to play a significant role, as we argue in the following. Similar to the case of Cyg X-2  (Farinelli et al. 2023) , we only find an upper limit of 3-4% to the disc PD, which, because of the source inclination, did not allow us to ultimately derive tight constraints about the properties of a scattering atmosphere above the surface where the quasi-thermal spectrum is emitted  (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973; Page & Thorne 1974).
Acknowledgements. We thank the anonymous referee for carefully reading the paper and for useful comments that improved the manuscript. The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) is a joint US and Italian mission. The US contribution is supported by the  National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)  and led and managed by its  Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) , with industry partner  Ball Aerospace  (contract  NNM15AA18C ). The Italian contribution is supported by the  Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, ASI)  through contract  ASI-OHBI-2017-12-I. 0 ,agreements  ASI-INAF-2017-12-H0  and  ASI-INFN-2017. 13-H0 , and its  Space Science Data Center (SSDC)  with agreements  ASI-INAF-2022-14-HH. 0  and  ASI-INFN 2021-43-HH. 0 , and by the  Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF)  and the  Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) in Italy.
Data and Simulations In this paper, we use BK maps that use data up to and including the 2018 observing season, referred to as the BK18 maps. In particular, we focus on the two deepest maps: the 150 GHz map from BICEP2 and Keck Array data, which achieves 2. 8 μK-arcmin over an effective area of around 400 deg 2 , and the 95 GHz map from BICEP3, which achieves 2. 8 μK-arcmin over an effective area of around 600 deg 2. These two data sets with the lowest noise levels are the most interesting for studying both the cosmological and instrumental effects related to the distortion fields. We construct an apodization mask that downweights the noisier regions of the T, Q, and U maps. For the polarized Q and U maps, we use a smoothed inverse variance apodization mask similar to that used in BK-XIII.
In Figure  6 , the constraint derived from our data is seen to be between the constraints from WMAP TT and Planck TT. The noise level of the t reconstruction in the BICEP patch is roughly the same as the reconstruction from the Planck TT estimator. However, Planckʼs wider sky coverage significantly reduces the overall sample variance. According to  Gluscevic et al. (2013) , the lower limit on the duration of reionization Δz  0. 4 obtained by EDGES  (Monsalve et al. 2017 ) can be translated to A τ  0. 1, so only a narrow allowed band remains.
Cosmic Birefringence The two physical processes that can lead to anisotropic cosmic birefringence, parity-violating physics and PMFs, produce the predicted power spectra given in Equations (  11 ) and (12). These are both of the form () += aa L LC 1 constant     (Carron et al. 2022) ; the BK18 B-mode power spectrum measurement (BK-XIII) using the same data set; and the previous measurement from the lensing potential reconstruction using BK14 data (BK-VIII). Bullet points denote constraints from the lensing potential auto-power spectrum, and squares are used for measurements using CMB two-point functions. In standard BK analysis, the overall polarization angle is adjusted to minimize the observed TB and EB power spectra. After this self-calibration, the polarization maps lose sensitivity to a uniform polarization rotation but are still sensitive to anisotropic rotations.
Consistency Checks and Null Tests In this subsection, we discuss consistency checks and jackknife null tests for the three distortion fields ( ˆ)( ˆ)( ˆ) tak nnn ,, that have been used to derive science constraints. We want to emphasize that the BK18 data set has passed a comprehensive set of data validations (BK-I; BK-III; BK-XIII), most importantly, the jackknife null tests on the EE/BB power spectra. In the next section (Section 6), we study all of the distortion effects in Equation (1) as systematics checks, providing further evidence that the BK18 data set has systematic effects controlled below the level of statistical uncertainty. In this subsection, we focus on demonstrating the robustness of the reconstructed distortion field spectra with different analysis choices and present some additional null tests for the three distortion fields being used to derive science results.
Effects of Point-source Contamination The brightest point sources at the frequencies relevant for CMB observations are flat-spectrum radio sources  (Battye et al. 2011). Since these point sources are brighter at lower frequencies relative to the CMB spectrum, the 95 GHz data set is much more affected by point sources in the distortion field analysis. We estimate the effect of point-source contamination in the distortion field analysis by injecting simulated point sources from a preliminary catalog obtained by private communication with the SPT-3G collaboration. The fluxes are taken from preliminary SPT-3G 95 GHz data and are, on average, 2. 5% polarized with an approximately exponential distribution. The T, Q, and U fluxes are converted to equivalent CMB temperatures and added to the pixels closest to the location Figure  12.
These are then added to the apodization mask by injecting Gaussian divots with 0°. 5 width at the 20 locations. In Table  5 , the χ/χ 2 PTEs for the real data, with and without the point-source mask, for the TB estimators are listed. We find that the point-source mask is necessary for the BICEP3 95 GHz data to pass the distortion field systematics tests but does not affect the BICEP2/Keck 150 GHz data much. In BK-XIII, Appendix F, it is estimated that the polarized flux from point sources may produce a bias on r at a level of ≈1-3 × 10 -3. While small compared to our present uncertainties, point-source contamination and its mitigation will become more important in future analysis, and the TB quadratic estimators can be a powerful diagnostic tool. In Appendix E, we discuss the reasons why TB quadratic estimators are sensitive to polarized point sources, derive estimators that are even more powerful for detecting point sources, and compare the performance of the different estimators at point-source detection.
We will now investigate whether the distortion field quadratic estimators can detect any spurious signal if we do not perform the differential gain and pointing deprojections. With the data products available on disk, it is simple to add the components that are filtered out by the deprojections back in and construct maps without deprojection. We then perform the same χ/χ 2 distortion field systematics tests by comparing the observed ĈL DD with the simulations. In Figure  16 , the BICEP2/Keck 150 GHz maps spectacularly fail the d 1 , d 2 , and q systematics tests without differential pointing deprojection. On the other hand, the BICEP3 95 GHz maps have much lower differential pointing and do not see much of a change in the reconstructed spectra when differential pointing deprojection is turned off.
Readout electronics were supported by a Canada Foundation for Innovation grant to Note. The results of TB estimators are derived with the point-source mask applied; therefore, the PTEs from d 1 to q are identical to the "with PSM" case of Table  5. The global PTE for the most extreme χ/χ 2 PTE (0. 002 here) is 0. 08. Figure  15. Distributions of the distortion systematics test χ and χ 2 PTEs in Table  6. Grantland Hall, and Hans Boenish. We thank all of those who have contributed past efforts to the BICEP/Keck series of experiments, including the BICEP1 team. We also thank the Planck and WMAP teams for the use of their data and are grateful to the Planck team for helpful discussions.
Coulomb breakup cross sections at LO We now execute the CCE code with the LO 18 C-n potentials of Sec. 3. 1. 1 As explained in Sect. 2, the interactions between the projectile constituents and the target are simulated by optical potentials selected from the literature. The reasons for this selection, and its effect on our calculations, will be discussed in Sect. 4. Figure  2  gives the direct CCE resultsviz. without data -for the five values of the Gaussian range σ considered in Sect. 3. 1. The breakup cross section plotted 1 An open-access version of the fortran code "Chaconne" has been developed for the TALENT school "Effective Field Theories in Light Nuclei: from Structure to Reactions"  [21]. The program, a user's manual, test input file, and the corresponding output, can be downloaded from the school website, see the documents attached to the lecture on nuclear reaction theory in the third week of the school https://indico.
Sensitivity to the binding energy The binding energy quoted in the most recent atomic mass database  [24]  exhibits a rather large uncertainty: S n = 0. 58± 0. 09 MeV. To gauge the influence of this observable on the calculations, we repeat breakup calculations using LO Halo-EFT 18 C-n potentials fitted to the lower (S n = 0. 49 MeV) and upper (S n = 0. 67 MeV) end of this 68% confidence interval. We consider σ = 1. 5 fm for this test. Figure  5  displays the results folded with the experimental resolution and fitted to the data by rescaling the CCE calculation. The ANCs hence obtained differ significantly from the one quoted above: C 0s1/2 (S n = 0. 49 MeV) = 0. 62 ± 0. 02 fm -1/2 and C 0s1/2 (S n = 0. 67 MeV) = 1. 02 ± 0. 03 fm -1/2. This shows that the ANC and binding energy are strongly correlated, as one would expect from the LO Halo EFT relation  [11, 34 ] C 2 0s1/2 (S n ) = 2 2μS n h2 1 + O 2μS n h2 σ ( 14 ) We note that, while the strict scaling fo the ANC-squared at LO is with √ S n , the higher-order terms indicated in Eq.
Acknowledgements This project has initiated as an exercise during the  TALENT (Training in Advanced Low Energy Nuclear Theory)  sum-mer school on " Effective Field Theory in Light Nuclei: from Structure to Reactions ", which took place at the  Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz (JGU, Germany ) from 25 July to 12 August 2022 [21]. The interesting results obtained by the students led PC to complete their initial calculations and DP and PC to compile the results in this manuscript. The school has been funded by the  Mainz Institute for Theoretical Physics (MITP)  and the  International Office of the JGU , which we thank for their support during the school. We also thank the teaching assistants  Thomas Richardson  and  Martin Schäfer  for their help during the exercise sessions. In addition, this project has received funding from the  Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft  within the  Collaborative Research Center   SFB 1245  ( Projektnummer 279384907 ) and the  PRISMA (Precision Physics, Fundamental   Interactions and Structure of Matter) Cluster of Excellence.
It has also received support from the  US Department of Energy  (contract  DE-FG02-93ER40756 ). J. H. was supported by the  US Department of Energy  grant number  DE-FG02-95ER40934. N. Y. was supported in part by the  National Science Foundation  under Grant No. PHY-2044632. P. C. acknowledges the support of the  State of Rhineland-Palatinate.
Observations and Data Analysis Observations were taken with the NOEMA interferometer under project W21ED in March 2022. The receivers were tuned at 81. 2 GHz in the lower sideband (LSB). The CO(6-5) emission line from the quasar host galaxy is redshifted to the LSB, while the CO(7-6) line lies in the upper sideband (USB), so the bandwidth covered by the correlator PolyFiX enables detection of both lines in a single frequency tuning. Amplitude and phase calibration were done on the quasars J1012+232 and J0953+254, and LkHa101 (0. 2 Jy) was used as flux calibrator. Calibration and imaging was performed using CLIC and MAPPING within the GILDAS software. 13 The continuum visibility tables at two representative frequencies in LSB and USB were derived using the task uv_filter within MAPPING to filter out a spectral region 400 MHz wide around the emission lines, and uv_continuum.