dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Geodetic data and velocities We process the GPS data using the methodology described in  Symithe et al. (2015)  using the GAMIT-GLOBK software package  (Herring et al. , 2010)  to obtain a position-velocity solution expressed in the International Terrestrial Reference Frame  (ITRF, version 2008)   (Altamimi et al. , 2011). To optimally tie the solution to the ITRF, we combine our regional solutions with global daily solutions of the global International GNSS Service (IGS) network. Our Caribbean-wide solution contains 375 sites, of which 236 are located in the NE Caribbean. To ensure reliable tectonic interpretation, we only retain episodic sites that have been observed at least four times and continuously recording ones that have at least 2. 5 years of continuous measurements. We then visually inspect the velocities and manually remove outliers on the basis of their agreement with nearby stations.
Acknowledgments Jean-Franc  ¸ois Stephan triggered many of the ideas discussed in this paper. The campaign GPS data used in this study were collected as part of the '' CANAPE'' (CAribbean North America Plate Experiment ) project with support from the '' Direccion General de Mineria '', the '' Instituto Cartografico Militar'', the ''Colegio Dominicano de Ingenieros, Arquitectos y Agrimensores'' (CoDIA) , and  Holasa S. A. in the Dominican Republic, and from the '' Bureau des mines et de l'energie '', the ''Direction de la protection civile'', the ''Centre national de l'information geo-spatiale'', and the ''Facultedes sciences de l'universited'E ´tat'' in Haiti. We used all publicly available continuous data from various providers, in particular the '' COCONet'' (Continuously Operating Caribbean Observation Network , coconet.
Acknowledgements. We are grateful to  M. Heap  for editing the manuscript. Useful comments from an anonymous reviewer together with comments and discussion with  Massimo Moretti  greatly contributed to the improvement of the manuscript. We are indebted to the following (partial) funding sources: the Bavarian grant  THESIS (GAD) , the  German Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft  grant  KU2689/2-1  (GAD and UK), a  Research Professorship (LMUexcellent ) of the Bundesexzellenzinitiative and an advanced grant from the  European Research Council-EVOKES (DBD). Edited by:  M. Heap.
The pycnometer porosity measurements are included as part of the standard suite of moisture and density data (MAD) collected shipboard by physical properties scientists. For our analysis, we As a conservative approach, we assume an uncertainty for porosity values of ±4. 5%, the maximum 1 sigma uncertainty we measure between different porosity measurement techniques. In addition, the rock physics analysis ignores any log data where porosity values either exceed 75% or are below 25%, as these values are likely spurious [e. g. ,  Hamilton, 1976].
Constraining Leg 340 Sediment Mineralogy and Sand-to-Mud Ratios General knowledge of the clay-to-sand ratio in the sediment matrix is important to accurately develop a rock physics velocity model since the velocities of shallowly buried marine sediment consisting of 100% hemipelagic clay or 100% quartz-rich sand differ by approximately 10% for V p and nearly 50% for V s  [Hornbach and Manga, 2014]. We constrain sediment mineralogy and, from this, elastic moduli, using detailed core descriptions painstakingly assembled for each drill site by shipboard scientists on Leg 340 that are cross checked with X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis using the program RockJock11  [Eberl, 2003]. The core descriptions provide as high as centimeter-scale resolution of basic mineralogy and average grain size defined using the international organization for standardization (ISO) phi scale at each hole where leg 340 scientists obtained cores.
g. ,  Frey-Martínez et al. , 2006]. Our analysis therefore suggests that the slide at site U1399 is a young feature that may likely be deforming today. Additional analysis combining sediment stratigraphy with sediment age will further assess the timing and mode of deformation of these slides. The concept of pressure-driven small-scale strain and creep-like deformation in marine sediments and submarine slides is not novel [e. g. ,  Mountjoy et al. , 2009]. Lee and Chough [2001]  used their analysis of high-frequency seismic data to suggest that submarine sediments may deform in this manner and, in some instances, represent a precursor to larger-scale slope failure. Similarly,  Gardner [2010]  and  Shillington et al. [2012]  propose strain-induced pore pressures as a dominant deformation process in deepwater sediments and debris flow aprons.
Acknowledgments All data used in this study are openly available at the IODP data portal (http:// www. iodp. org/access-data-and-samples)and the  IODP-USIO  log database maintained at  Columbia University 's website (http://iodp. ldeo. columbia. edu/DATA/). Additionally, all coring samples for Leg 340 are available at the  IODP Texas A&M University Core Repository. This work was funded by the  National Science Foundation ,  Integrated Ocean Drilling Program.
(2012)  showed that the unmeasured small-scale rainfall variability, i. e. occurring below the typically available resolutions of 1 km in space and 5 min in time, may have a significant impact on simulated flows, with the impact decreasing as the drainage area of interest increases. A similar study was undertaken by  Gires et al. (2014a) , but this time using a fully-distributed model of a small catchment in Paris; similar results were obtained, but the fully-distributed model displayed higher sensitivity to the resolution of rainfall inputs. More recently,  Bruni et al. (2015)  analysed the relationship between spatial and temporal resolution of rainfall input, storm and catchment scales, urban hydrodynamic model properties and modelling outputs. This was done using high resolution (100 m/1 min) rainfall data provided by polarimetric weather radar and a semi-distributed urban drainage model of a subcatchment in Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
The impact of varying spatial-temporal resolutions of rainfall input on hydrodynamic model outputs was analysed in the light of storm and catchment characteristics. Based upon these results, current research needs and future work are discussed. The paper is organised as follows. In Section 2, the pilot catchments, hydrodynamic models and radar-rainfall datasets are introduced. Methodologies for selecting relevant spatial-temporal resolution combinations and characterising spatial-temporal characteristics of the nine storms events are explained in Section 3, as well as methodologies used for feeding the rainfall inputs into the hydrodynamic models of the pilot catchments and for extracting and analysing the hydrodynamic modelling results. Results are presented and discussed in Section 4, followed by conclusions and recommendations in Section 5.
The data used in the present study were visually inspected to ensure that the effect of contamination by undesired echoes was minimal. Rainfall estimates from IDRA were initially available in polar coordinates at temporal and spatial resolutions of 1 min and 30 m by 1. 8°(i. e. radar beamwidth), respectively. However, to facilitate handling of the data, it had to be converted from polar to Cartesian coordinates. In this work, data were initially mapped to a regular grid of 100 m by 100 m; this is therefore the finest spatial resolution used as input for the urban drainage models in the present study. From the available IDRA dataset, eight storm events recorded between 2011 and 2014 were selected for this study. The selected events correspond to the most intense events recorded during these years and can be considered characteristic of North-West Europe.
, 1997). Higher-resolution fully-distributed models, implemented and calibrated using high resolution datasets, are likely to be more sensitive to the spatial resolution of rainfall inputs and may therefore require sub-kilometric resolution rainfall estimates as input  (Schertzer et al. , 2010; Gires et al. , 2014a,b; Pina and Ochoa-Rodriguez, 2014; Ichiba et al. , 2015). Despite the dominant effect of temporal resolution, the hydraulic results show that there is a strong interaction and dependence between the spatial and temporal resolution of rainfall input estimates. As such, in order to avoid losing relevant information from the rainfall fields, the two resolutions must be in agreement with each other. For example, the hydraulic outputs associated with rainfall inputs at 1000 m/5 min resolution display a better performance than those associated with 100 m/5 min ones.
Future research should focus on gathering high resolution rainfall datasets alongside high resolution local urban runoff records and implementation of higher resolution urban drainage models, which enable a better assessment of the added value of high resolution rainfall data and models. Further work is also needed to better understand factors affecting model sensitivity to rainfall input resolution, including storm spatial-temporal characteristics, as well as catchment and model characteristics (e. g. slope, degree of imperviousness, presence of control elements, spatial homogeneity/heterogeneity, amongst others).
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the support of the  EU Interreg IVB NWE programme  to the  RainGain  project (www. raingain. eu),which made this international collaboration possible. The first author would like to thank  Thames Water  and  Torbay Council  for providing urban drainage models of  Cranbrook and Torquay Town Centre , respectively. Thanks are also due to Innovyze for providing InfoWorks licences to researchers at  Imperial College London  and  KU Leuven. Co-authors from  KU Leuven  would like to acknowledge the support of the  Research Foundation-Flanders  (FWO) as well as the  PLURISK  project for the  Belgian Science Policy Office. Co-authors of TU Delft  would like to thank  City of Rotterdam  for providing hydrodynamic models of 3 of the city's districts. Co-authors from École des PontsParisTech are grateful to the  Chair Hydrology for Resilient Cities of École des PontsParisTech  endowed by VEOLIA, for its financial support.
Long-term observations of reactive gases in the troposphere are important for understanding trace gas cycles and the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere, assessing impacts of emission changes, verifying numerical model simulations, and quantifying the interactions between short-lived compounds and climate change. The World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) program coordinates a global network of surface stations some of which have measured reactive gases for more than 40 years. Gas species included under this umbrella are ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). There are many challenges involved in setting-up and maintaining such a network over many decades and to ensure that data are of high quality, regularly updated and made easily accessible to users.
Since 1989, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) program provides a framework to support long-term consistent measurements of atmospheric constituents. The GAW framework constitutes: (a) a sound institutional base committed to long term measurements; (b) agreement on standard measurement techniques and procedures; (c) the provision of unambiguous, stable, and high-precision calibration methods and calibration standards; (d) guidelines for quality control and assurance, and (e) the provision for archiving and distributing the data for its ongoing use in atmospheric research. Measurements of atmospheric constituents are not performed by GAW itself, but are typically collaborative programs carried out by national hydro-meteorological services, research institutes, and universities.
Reactive gases are one of six focal areas in WMO/GAW. The others are stratospheric ozone, greenhouse gases, aerosols, precipitation chemistry (now renamed to total atmospheric deposition), and UV radiation. The focal areas are complemented by the GAW urban meteorology and environment (GURME) project, and two expert teams on World Data Centers and on Near-Real-Time Chemical Data Transfer. GAW seeks to "reduce environmental risks to society and meet the requirements of environmental conventions, strengthen capabilities to predict climate, weather and air quality, and contribute to scientific assessments in support of environmental policy through maintaining and applying global, long-term observations of the chemical composition and selected physical characteristics of the atmosphere, emphasizing quality assurance and quality control,  [and]  delivering integrated products and services of relevance to users.
" (WMO, 2007a). This article describes the surface-based observational network of reactive gases within GAW and its underpinning scientific and data management activities. While the strategy of GAW extends beyond surface observations and increasingly seeks their integration with airborne and satellite measurements, the program originated from the build-up of a global network of background stations, and these still remain the backbone and the unique feature of GAW. Figure  1  presents an overview of the GAW network with respect to reactive gases. The network consists of "Global", "Regional", and "Contributing" stations. The designation of a station as "Global" or "Regional" depends primarily on the breadth of measurements performed (see http://www. wmo. int/pages/prog/arep/ gaw/join_GAW. html) and should not be interpreted as a label that would characterize the representativeness of the station's measurements.
Although almost all "Global" stations are indeed far away from local pollution sources, this is also true for many "Regional" stations. In addition to the GAW "Global" and "Regional" stations, several stations with measurements organized under other national or regional programs also contribute to the GAW network of surface observations. All of the 30 "Global" stations and a large number of "Regional" stations measure at least some reactive gases, but there are many "Regional" stations (not depicted in Figure  1 ) which focus on other thematic areas (Table  1 ). Information about all stations in the GAW network can be obtained from the GAW Station Information System (GAWSIS; http://gaw. empa. ch/gawsis/). Open access to GAW reactive gases data is provided through the World Data Center for Greenhouse Gases (WDCGG) hosted by the Japan Meteorological Agency in Tokyo (http://ds.
data. jma. go. jp/gmd/ wdcgg/). Some historical surface ozone observations can be found at the World Ozone and UV Data Center (WOUDC; http://www. woudc. org). Data from contributing networks normally are available from the programs' respective databases. The availability of such data through the GAW World Data Center may be limited. This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 outlines the general quality assurance and control principles which are adhered to across the entire GAW program. Section 3 describes the reactive gases addressed by GAW activities, including: (a) motivation for observations with a brief summary of past changes, (b) recommended measurement methods and quality assurance practices, and (c) the existing network of observations in the GAW program. Section 4 discusses the current status of the GAW reactive gases data archive, and section 5 highlights some research applications of GAW reactive gases data.
The paper ends with some concluding remarks and an outlook to the next phase of the GAW program (section 6). The majority of the authors of this paper are current and previous members of the GAW Scientific Advisory Group on reactive gases (SAG RG), who are advising on priorities and implementation of activities of the program. Furthermore, they establish links between GAW and other regional and global monitoring and research networks, promote the use of GAW data and seek communication with data users. The GAW measurements and central facilities are supported by national funding from WMO member states and the program is managed by the WMO/GAW secretariat in Geneva.
They may also provide a link to the CCL reference if stations are unable to obtain the reference standard from the CCL directly. Each data provider is requested to maintain the link to the CCL reference as close as possible, to have the fewest possible number of intermediate standards between the primary standard and the station standard. Central Calibration Laboratories have been established for ozone and monoterpenes at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, Gaithersburg, USA), CO at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, Boulder, USA), and various non-methane volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL, Teddington, UK). CCLs for oxygenated VOCs and NOx are currently in the planning. World Calibration Centers exist for O 3 and CO at Empa, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Switzerland, VOCs at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research/Atmospheric Environmental Research (KIT/IMK-IFU), Germany, and NO x at the Research Center Jülich, Germany.
Examples of WCC quality assurance audits are shown in the sections on CO and VOCs below. Timely data submission is an important aspect of quality management, because it allows for the data to be used and assessed by experts from the SAG RG and the scientific community. Submission of reactive gases data to the World Data Center for Greenhouse Gases in Japan is expected to occur within one year after measurement. Unfortunately, not all stations in the GAW network adhere to the principle of timely data submission. Therefore, the SAG RG is currently increasing their efforts to help the data providers to overcome difficulties with the data submission procedures. Staff at the Japanese Meteorological Agency support data submitters with data formatting, calculation of averages, and specification of metadata.
Descriptive information on the station and the measured parameters should regularly be updated in GAWSIS High quality observations can only be performed by well trained personnel. To address this dimension of quality assurance a dedicated training program for station personnel has been established. The GAW Training and Education Center (GAWTEC; http://www. gawtec. de) is based at the Environmental Research Station Schneefernerhaus in Germany. Dedicated 2-week technical training courses are held for GAW station operators, primarily targeting junior personnel from developing countries. Generally two training courses per year are given covering selected GAW thematic areas. The courses cover measurement techniques, lab courses, theoretical background of atmospheric physics and chemistry, and data handling and interpretation.
The majority of the lecturers are experienced experts and scientists from the GAW community. Since GAWTEC was established in 2001 more than 280 persons from 58 countries have been trained. GAWTEC helps not only with knowledge transfer but also facilitates international networking between the operators of GAW stations. Other elements of the GAW quality management framework are the Quality Assurance/Science Activity Centers (QA/SACs). These are being established to perform network-wide data quality and science-related functions. Some QA/SACs already provide technical and scientific support and training to ensure adequate data quality and they complement the SAG RG activities in promoting the scientific exploration of the data.
The current recommended principle for measuring ozone is the UV absorption method. Prior to the commencement of GAW, surface ozone measurements were made using a variety of potassium iodide wet chemical and ethylene chemiluminescence ozone analyzers. It is desirable that these records be incorporated into current analyses, and often this is done. However, potential differences between the UV absorption method and earlier methods are not well characterized. The absence of comparisons between older and more modern surface ozone measurement techniques is a substantial limitation to reliably reproduce multi-decadal trends in tropospheric ozone. Hourly data from the WDCGG archive were averaged to monthly mean values, months with less than 67% coverage were excluded, and a 12-months running mean was applied with the condition that at least 8 months had valid data.
Panel a shows ozone series from the Northern Hemisphere, and panel b shows data from the Southern Hemisphere. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene • 3: 000067 • doi: 10. 12952/journal. elementa. 000067 Some key events in the development of GAW surface ozone observations are recorded in Table  3. Guidelines for the measurement of ozone at GAW sites were developed in the GAW report no. 97  (WMO, 1994)  and revised and expanded in the GAW report no. 209  (WMO, 2013). The Standard Reference Photometer at NIST has been adopted as the primary standard for the network (see section 2). The WCC for ozone has conducted 78 site audits in the GAW network since 1996. Audit results up to 2008 were reported by  Buchmann et al. (2009). A comprehensive analysis of the consistency of long-term ozone records is under way in the Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report (TOAR; http://www.
igacproject. org/TOAR) initiative. Because ozone cannot be stored without decomposition, the standard for ozone measurements is its absorption cross-section at 253. 65 nm. This absorption cross-section was determined by  Hearn (1961)  and adopted by the International Ozone Commission (IOC) in 1984. Subsequent studies supported the results (e. g. Viallon et al. , 2006). Recently, two independent groups have produced new data on ozone absorption cross-sections  (Gorshelev et al. , 2014; Viallon et al. , 2015). Application of these new data will increase the reported tropospheric ozone mole fractions by approximately 2%. The change will have implications for global radiative forcing estimates and air quality regulations. This illustrates the importance of ongoing development of accurate primary standards for the GAW program.
, 1981; Holloway et al. , 2000; Monks et al. , 2009; Granier et al. , 2011). Typical atmospheric mole fractions of CO range from 30 to 300 nmol mol -1 , with southern hemispheric values generally lower than northern hemispheric values. Anthropogenic emissions in the mid to high northern latitudes lead to increasing concentrations through early spring. The summertime seasonal minimum is largely driven by the seasonal maximum in the OH mixing ratio. A reasonable coverage of continuous CO observations is available since the mid-1990s (Table  1 ), although similar data gaps exist as for surface ozone. CO measurements at GAW stations provide very good coverage in the Northern Hemisphere where continental and global scale programs are established in the USA/Canada, Western Europe and China. Laboratories in the Southern Hemisphere collaborate with partners from the Northern Hemisphere to maintain measurement programs to define CO distributions in the Southern Hemisphere.
Hohenpeissenberg (Germany), and Lisbon (Portugal) commenced measurements with the UV absorption method in 1971. Surface ozone measurements at the NOAA observatories Barrow (Alaska), and Mauna Loa (Hawaii) began in 1973, and South Pole and Samoa followed in 1975. Data from 24 additional stations in Australia, Canada, Japan, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Bermuda, and Barbados commenced during the 1980s. After GAW was initiated in 1989, the number of stations in the global network of surface ozone measurements grew rapidly. Data from 64 stations are available for the year 2000. Presently, according to GAWSIS, surface ozone is measured at 157 GAW stations worldwide. Unfortunately, not all of these data are being submitted to the data center regularly. The WDCGG dataset is complemented by various regional networks who maintain their own data archiving and distribution centers.