dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
and 16. 2 kPa (Solea 4 Conservation Physiology • Volume 4 2016 Research articleTable 1 : 1 List of the parameters incorporated into the database alongside each reported critical oxygen level value Species and origin Stock acclimation Sample characteristics Experimental method Results Statistical analysis Comments and reference Family Holding time Sample size Respirometry type Oxy regulating or Statistical Comments conforming method Genus Acclimation temperature Mean mass BMR/RMR/SMR/MMR M O 2 method P crit calculation Reference Species Acclimation salinity Mass SD Determination method Critical P O 2 determination SMR Year Origin P O 2 units Mass SEM Swimming speed Critical P O 2 range Corresponding Author Latitude and longitude Acclimation P O 2 Mass range upper Hypoxia method Critical P O 2 SD DOI Acclimation pH Mass range lower Rate of hypoxia onset Critical P O 2 SEM Full citation Acclimation time Mean length P O 2 set-point time Critical P O 2 units Diet Length SD Minimal P O 2 Air breathing threshold Energy content Length SEM P O 2 unit Common P O 2 units Ration unit Length range Salinity upper Ration size Length range Temperature lower Photoperiod Life stage pH (light:dark) Feeding regimen Sex P CO 2 Last feed Photoperiod (light:dark) Access to air Abbreviations: BMR, basal metabolic rate; DOI, digital object identifier; MMR, maximal metabolic rate; M O 2 , oxygen uptake rate; P CO 2 , partial pressure of carbon diox- ide; P crit , critical oxygen level; P O 2 , partial pressure of oxygen; RMR, routine metabolic rate; SMR, standard metabolic rate.
A vertically-variable pattern of temperature and windshear minima and maxima associated with Jupiter's Quasi Quadrennial Oscillation (QQO) is observed at the equator in both datasets, although the contrasts were more subdued in 2014. Large-scale equator-to-pole gradients in ethane and acetylene are superimposed on top of the mid-latitude mechanically-driven maxima, with C 2 H 2 decreasing from equator to pole and C 2 H 6 showing a polar enhancement, consistent with a radiatively-controlled circulation from low to high latitudes. Cold polar vortices beyond ∼ 60 • latitude can be identified in the upper tropospheric and lower stratospheric temperature maps, suggesting enhanced radiative cooling from polar aerosols. Finally, compositional mapping of the Great Red Spot confirms the local enhancements in PH 3 and aerosols, the northsouth asymmetry in NH 3 gas and the presence of a warm southern periphery that have been noted by previous authors.
However, instruments to exploit this spectral range are absent from future missions to Jupiter, including the upcoming Juno spacecraft. In this study we report on a regular programme of spectroscopic mapping observations from NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF), aiming to match and surpass the capabilities of previous spacecraft thermal-IR observations to provide a new database for investigators studying Jovian climate, dynamics and chemistry. Our aim is to bridge the observational gap in IR spectroscopy between the Cassini and Juno epochs  (2000 and 2016, respectively). Multi-wavelength imaging in narrow-band filters covering the 5-25 µm spectral range (including those from the Galileo photopolarimeter-radiometer instrument,  Orton et al. , 1996)  have proven highly effective in constraining atmospheric temperatures at discrete pressure levels, and data amassed over several decades have revealed: (i) tropical variability associated with stratospheric wind and temperature oscillations (analogous to Earth's quasi-biennial oscillation,  Orton et al.
, 1981; Griffith et al. , 1992; Carlson et al. , 1992; Sada et al. , 1996; Conrath et al. , 1998; Simon-Miller et al. , 2000) , although sparse longitudinally-resolved coverage was available and has been used to investigate the Great Red Spot  (Griffith et al. , 1992; Sada et al. , 1996; Simon-Miller et al. , 2002; Read et al. , 2006a)  and the spatial distribution of water ice sig-natures  (Simon-Miller et al. , 2000). Only the spectral maps of Cassini/CIRS between December 2000 -January 2001 can claim to have provided near-global coverage by sweeping its detectors from north to south to generate multiple maps over approximately two weeks. The Cassini datasets have provided us with tropospheric and stratospheric temperature maps  (Flasar et al. , 2004a; Li et al. , 2006) , distributions of the disequilibrium species phosphine (PH 3 ,  Irwin et al.
, 2004; Fletcher et al. , 2009a Fletcher et al. , , 2010b)) , distributions of ammonia, the key condensible in Jupiter's upper troposphere  (Achterberg et al. , 2006) , cloud opacity  (Wong et al. , 2004; Matcheva et al. , 2005; Fletcher et al. , 2009a)  and stratospheric hydrocarbons  (Kunde et al. , 2004; Nixon et al. , 2007 Nixon et al. , , 2010;; Zhang et al. , 2013a). Temporal variability of temperatures was observed during this close flyby  (Flasar et al. , 2004a; Li et al. , 2006) , but no orbital mission has ever provided a long-term database to study this fourth dimension. The best hope for characterisation of the variability of the thermal and chemical environment is therefore ground-based spectroscopy, albeit limited to regions free of terrestrial contamination (the M, N and Q bands near 5, 10 and 20 µm, respectively).
, 1997; Bezard et al. , 1997). IRSHELL was retired in 1994 as a successor, TEXES (the Texas Echelon Cross Echelle Spectrograph,  Lacy et al. , 2002)  was developed as a visitor instrument for the IRTF. TEXES has been previously employed to trace the fate of HCN and H 2 O related to the Shoemaker-Levy 9 impact  (Griffith et al. , 2004; Cavalié et al. , 2013)  and to determine Jupiter's ammonia isotopologue ratios  (Fletcher et al. , 2014). The current programme of TEXES spatio-spectral mapping is described in Section 2, and the development of a data reduction and spectral inversion pipeline for TEXES data is described in Section 3. Having established the methodology, we present global spatio-spectral maps of Jupiter's temperatures, tropospheric disequilibrium species and condensible volatiles, tropospheric aerosol opacity and stratospheric hydrocarbon distributions in Section 5.
Settings were chosen based on their sensitivity to temperatures in a particular altitude range or the presence of absorption/emission features in relatively clear regions of the telluric transmission spectrum. Two channels of the February 2013 dataset sensing tropospheric NH 3 were previously published by  Fletcher et al. (2014). In this study we use the full December 2014 dataset of nine channels, detailed in  in Appendix Appendix A, acquired over two nights (December 8th and 9th), as an excellent example of the quality of the maps that can be derived from TEXES data. A suite of 9 channels took approximately 70 minutes to acquire, and was cycled repeatedly over approximately 6-8 hours. December 8th focussed on 0-180 • W and December 9th focussed on 180 -360 • W.
TEXES Data Processing 2. 1. 1. Radiometric and wavelength calibration Target spectra were radiometrically calibrated and flatfielded using two observations of the sky emission and two observations of a room-temperature black body (a high-emissivity metal chopper blade just above the entrance to the Dewar, temperature T black ), observed immediately prior to each scan. If we assume that T black is approximately equal to the sky (T sky ) and telescope (T tel ) temperatures, then the difference between the black body and the sky observations can be used as the flat field to account for both the telluric and instrument emission. The calibrated target intensity I ν (target) is therefore given by  (Lacy et al. , 2002) : I ν (target) = S ν (target-sky) B ν (T tel ) S ν (black -sky) (1) where S ν (target-sky) is the measured flux difference between the target and the sky, S ν (black -sky) is the measured flux difference between the black and the sky, and B ν (T tel ) is the black body flux at the ambient temperature of the telescope.
Spatial resolution The highest spatial resolution of the Cassini/CIRS maps of Jupiter was 2700 km from 137 R J using its 273 × 273 µrad detectors, equivalent to 2. 2 • at Jupiter's equator. The TEXES observations occurred when Jupiter was at a distance of 4. 83 AU (7. 2 × 10 8 km), so that the spatial resolution varies between 2400-5500 km (0. 67-1. 56" for diffraction-limited observations from the 3-m IRTF between the longest and shortest wavelengths, 1248 cm -1 and 538 cm -1 ), equivalent to 1. 9-4. 4 • latitude at Jupiter's equator. A 0. 75" seeing corresponds to the same spatial resolution as the best CIRS dataset, with wavelengths larger than 10µm being diffraction limited. The spatial resolution of the two datasets is therefore comparable at wavelengths below 10 µm. For the remainder of this paper we explore both zonal-mean spectra and spatially resolved spectra from both TEXES and CIRS.
Besides the large-scale banded structures, the TEXES dataset also allows us to probe the vertical structure of smaller-scales. Two examples are shown in Figs. 4  and 5 , for the North Equatorial Belt (NEB) and the region surrounding the GRS and Oval BA. The brightness variations in the NEB are related to Rossby wave activity on the prograding jet at 7 • N. Visibly-dark structures in the visible images are associated with cloud-free regions at 4. 7 µm, where the dearth of aerosol opacity permits emission from deeper, warmer layers. These '5-µm hotspots' are in fact visible throughout the M and N-bands, showing that they are perturbing the temperature, aerosol and possibly the composition field in the 400-600 mbar region. They are harder to observe in the Q-band, although this may simply be related to the lower spatial resolution.
Radiometric Comparison to Cassini The comparison of central-meridian averages between the CIRS dataset in 2000 and the TEXES dataset in 2014 (Fig. 3 ) suggested that systematic radiometric offsets might be present. If these offsets had been confined to a single region of Jupiter, such as those associated with the most dramatic changes over time like the NEB and SEB, then we might have considered them to be real. But these offsets are seen globally, which strongly suggests a defect in the radiometric calibration. In their analysis of TEXES spectra of Saturn's stratospheric vortex,  Fouchet et al. (2016)  found TEXES-derived stratospheric temperatures to be systematically cooler than those derived from CIRS. They attributed this to the significant difference in spatial resolution found when convolving Cassini's high-spatialresolution thermal maps with a seeing-limited FWHM that was reasonable for the IRTF at the time of their measurements.
However, as the TEXES and CIRS Jupiter datasets have a comparable spatial resolution, we cannot attribute the radiometric offsets observed in Fig. 3  to the same effect. To assess the magnitude of the CIRS-TEXES discrepancy, we compare zonally-averaged TEXES spectra to Cassini-based forward models at every latitude. CIRS spectra at 2. 5-cm -1 spectral resolution were extracted from the latest calibration of the CIRS database (version 4. 2) for the ATMOS02A map acquired on December 31st, 2000. We replicated the work of  Fletcher et al. (2009a) , fitting temperatures, PH 3 , NH 3 and aerosols as described above. This was extended by simultaneously fitting scale factors for the hydrocarbon distributions (C 2 H 6 and C 2 H 2 ). The resulting zonal-mean temperature, composition and aerosol opacity will be presented in Section 5, but these were used to forward model the TEXES channels, using the observing geometry (latitudes and emission angles) of the TEXES spectra themselves.
35-0. 45 ppm depending on the choice of vertical profile. If we fix p 0 to 750 mbar, we derive deep abundances that are consistent with the q 0 ∼ 2 ppm estimated for p > 1 bar by previous mid-infrared studies (see  Fletcher et al. , 2009a, and references therein) , but larger than estimates of q 0 ∼ 0. 7 ppm using the deeper-sounding 5-µm window  (Giles et al. , 2015 , using the same spectral inversion techniques). Resolving this discrepancy requires simultaneous modelling of both the 5-and 10-µm PH 3 bands and is beyond the scope of the current study, so we fix the PH 3 to q 0 = 2 ppm for p > 750 mbar for the remainder of this study. In summary, despite the excellent spatial and spectral resolution of the TEXES Jupiter dataset, one significant challenge hampers its analysis -the radiometric calibration.
This is the opposite of what we would expect from condensation alone (depletion in colder environments), and suggests the influence of dynamics. 500-mbar abundances range from ∼ 5 -15 ppm over the NEB/SEB to ∼ 30 ppm at the equator, but belt/zone variations with smaller amplitudes are evident in the temperate domains (particularly in the NTropZ and STropZ). These values are consistent with previous CIRS analysis by  Achterberg et al. (2006)  using the same dataset. There is conflicting evidence for changes to the ammonia abundance in the polar domain, with CIRS results suggesting a gradual decline in abundance from ±45 • to ±75 • in both hemispheres, and TEXES results suggesting a slight upturn poleward of ±60 •. Given that sensitivity to tropospheric ammonia drops with increasing emission angle at these high latitudes, understanding the distribution of NH 3 at Jupiter's poles must likely await the arrival of the Juno spacecraft.
13b ). The spatial distribution of NH 3 in Fig. 19a  shows that NH 3 does indeed form bands around the planet coinciding with the Figure  18 : Zonal-mean distributions of gaseous species and aerosols in the TEXES (black circle) and CIRS (red diamonds) datasets. Ammonia (panel a), the ammonia relative humidity at 500 mbar (panel b) and phosphine (panel c) are plotted near the peak of the N-band contribution functions, as are ethane (panel e) and acetylene (panel f). The aerosol opacity is the cumulative optical depth at 1 bar using our compact 800-mbar NH 3 ice cloud. As in Fig. 14 , the error bars are from formal retrieval uncertainties and do not account for systematic offsets in absolute calibration. Vertical dotted lines in pane (d) represent prograde jets as measured by  Porco et al. (2003).
This results in a decidedly asymmetric appearance in the spatial map (Fig. 19b ) with more PH 3 in the northern hemisphere. This northern plateau and the southern contrasts are evident in both the TEXES and CIRS observations (late and early northern summer, respectively), hinting at an asymmetry that is stable over long periods of time. The contrast between the enriched EZ and the depleted equatorial belts is more subdued in 2014, mirroring the smaller contrast in equatorial temperatures. This is unlikely to be caused by differences in spatial resolution, given that these are comparable between the TEXES and CIRS datasets. It could reflect the different weighting between the spectral fitting and the prior in the TEXES and CIRS inversions with very different spectral resolutions, although Fig.
8  does show real differences in zonallyaveraged radiances at tropical latitudes. If periodic increases in equatorial upwelling do serve to cool temperatures and enhance gases and aerosols, then it is plausible that the Cassini observations were closer to such an event. Indeed, the 250-mbar time series of  Simon-Miller et al. (2006b)  does suggest that equatorial contrasts were stronger in 2000 than in the early 1990s. We suggest that the equatorial enhancement in PH 3 is therefore time variable. Furthermore, unlike the ammonia updrafts that are localised in plumes in Fig. 19a , the phosphine equatorial enhancement appears more uniform with longitude (although still with a slight bias towards the northern EZ), suggesting different processes controlling the abundances of these species. At higher latitudes, the PH 3 abundances gradually increase poleward of 45 • S and 60 • N, being enhanced at high latitudes in both datasets.
The northern hemisphere was rather different, with a local minimum associated with the NTB near 30 • N and elevated opacity in the neighbouring zones -the NTropZ (22 • N), NTZ (33 • N) and NNTZ (42 • N). The visibility and optical depth of these cloud bands in 2000 is similar to that derived by  Matcheva et al. (2005)  using the same CIRS dataset. The opacity of the belts and zones varies substantially over time in both the tropical and temperate domains, with some of the cloud-free belts disappearing entirely as occurred during the 2009-10 fade of the South Equatorial Belt (SEB)  (Fletcher et al. , 2011b). Connecting these opacity changes to visible colour changes is a long-term goal of this TEXES programme. A subtle asymmetry in the peak aerosol opacity is evident at the equator in Fig. 18d , which tends to be more opaque in the 0 -4 • S region than in the 0 -4 • N region.
The latter suggests that ethane's lifetime is longer than the transport timescale and therefore C 2 H 6 could be influenced by an equator-to-pole circulation. Figs. 18e-f  and 19d e compare TEXES results to CIRS hydrocarbon distributions. This is the first time that Jupiter's hydrocarbons have been derived using Cassini's closest approach data at 2. 5-cm -1 resolution (previous studies of  Kunde et al. , 2004; Nixon et al. , 2007 Nixon et al. , , 2010;; Zhang et al. , 2013a , used 0. 5-cm -1 observations at lower spatial resolution). A comparison of the CIRS and TEXES datasets in Figs. 18e-f reveals equatorial maxima in both species in 2000 (coinciding with the warm 5-mbar airmass in Fig. 14c ) that were largely absent in 2014, suggesting that vertically-localised motions might be varying in strength in connection with the QQO wave pattern.
This confirms the suggestion  (Read et al. , 2006b; Flasar et al. , 2004b)  that the stratospheric jet is somewhat transient. The reversal of the winds with altitude is exactly what is expected for the QQO. However, as the vertical resolution of the CIRS and TEXES data differ due to the different spectral coverage and spectral resolution, quantitative studies of the QQO temporal evolution will require long-term observations using the same instrument. Finally, we note that mid-latitude (±20 to ±60 • ) wind fields are asymmetric between the two hemispheres. In the south, prograde jets experience weaker shear and persist to low pressures (i. e. , they are relatively barotropic), whereas the northern jets are divided into two categories -those that are barotropic between 20 -40 • N and those that vary substantially with altitude poleward of 40 • N.
Discussion: Discrete Regions Having demonstrated that temperatures, composition and aerosols retrieved from the TEXES and CIRS datasets are qualitatively and quantitatively consistent, we can use the retrieved TEXES maps to investigate the thermal structure and composition associated with discrete regions on Jupiter. Fig. 21  compares the retrieved tropospheric temperature, ammonia, phosphine and aerosols to near-simultaneous images in visible light and at 5 µm, allowing us to focus on two regions -the Great Red Spot and the plumes and hotspots on the prograde NEBs jet.
Acknowledgments Fletcher was supported by a  Royal Society Research Fellowship at the University of Leicester. Fletcher, Greathouse, Orton and Giles were visiting astronomers at the  Infrared Telescope Facility , which is operated by the  University of Hawaii  under Cooperative Agreement No. NNX-08AE38A  with the  National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Science Mission Directorate, Planetary Astronomy Program. We recognise the significant cultural role of  Mauna Kea  within the indigenous Hawaiian community, and we appreciate the opportunity to conduct our Jupiter observations from this revered site. The UK authors acknowledge the support of the  Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). A portion of this work was performed by Orton and Sinclair at the  Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology , under a contract with  NASA.
Sequences Processing and Data Analysis The MOTHUR software  (v. 1. 33; Schloss et al. , 2009)  was used to process 16S rRNA gene sequence reads. Short reads (<250 bp) and reads with ambiguous primer or barcode sequences were discarded. Sequencing errors were reduced by aligning remaining reads to the SILVA database  (Pruesse et al. , 2007) , screening the alignment to the overlapping region, and pre-clustering sequences distant by <2 bp. Chimeric sequences were identified using the integrated version of UChime  (Edgar et al. , 2011)  and removed accordingly. To avoid misinterpretation, sequences that were classified as "Chloroplast", "Mitochondria", or "unknown" lineages were removed before clustering into Operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Sequences with a pairwise distance <0. 03 substitutions per nucleotide were clustered in OTU and considered for further analyses.
The estimated richness and evenness were calculated through Chao and invSimpson indices, respectively. Taxonomic assignments were performed on the alignment of consensus sequences with the RDP database  (Cole et al. , 2005). To assess the relative influence of environmental parameters and changes in community structure, a canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was performed between key environmental parameters (pH, TDS, DO, and DOC) and community composition using R with the 'vegan' package  (Dixon, 2003). A heatmap was performed to show the comparison and cluster analysis of microbial composition in the pool samples at the genus level using R with the "pheatmap" package  (Kolde, 2012).
Although no denominational marks are usually given on the Byzantine glass weights, an exact calibration is often inscribed on their early Islamic counterparts. The masses Competing Interests: We hereby declare that even though two of the authors (AM, CE) are affiliated with the British Museum and one author (MAB) with the Bibliothèque nationale de France, the institutions have merely provided the material and there are no competing financial, professional or personal interests that might have influenced the performance, results or presentation of the work described in this manuscript. The institutional affiliations do not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and/or materials. of early Islamic glass weights correspond accordingly to those of the dinar, the dirham or their divisions (  [27, 30]  p.
The pre-ablation time of 20 seconds was occasionally increased, depending on the thickness of the surface corrosion layer. The analytical time was set at 50 seconds and the measurements were carried out in peak jump acquisition mode on a list of pre-selected isotopes, defined so as to avoid isobaric interferences. Fifty-eight elements were measured by spot analysis, including major and minor glass constituents, colouring and opacifying agents as well as other trace and rare earth elements. For silicon, the 28 Si isotope was determined and used as internal standard. An average response factor K Y that allows the signals to be converted into fully quantitative data was calculated using a combination of five different standard reference materials (SRM) that cover the range of archaeological glass compositions: NIST SRM610 (soda-lime-silica glass), Corning Glass Standards B (plant ash glass), C (lead-barium-potash glass) and D (limepotash glass) and an in-house archaeological glass standard analysed by fast neutron activation analysis for the calculation of chlorine concentrations.