dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Hindcast simulation For the validation of the hindcast simulation, the results of the model are compared with the centerline ice velocities (Fig. 5a ) and observed surface elevation changes at the four cross sections (Fig. 5b ). Note that at the highest profile (Tacul), the observations are used to impose the ice flux on this boundary of the model domain, explaining the perfect match between observations and model outputs. The valida- tion is therefore only discussed for the three lower profiles of Trélaporte, Echelets and Montenvers. The overall agreement of the model with the observations at the three lowest profiles was obtained without any tuning of the model parameters except the inversion of the friction coefficient using the 2003 velocity and surface elevation dataset. The model is capable of reproducing the thickening phase in the first years of the simulation period with increasing ice velocity and ice thickness, as well as the subsequent thinning phase with decreasing surface elevation and velocity.
Moreover, the glacier being temperate, this value should be uniform and constant and cannot therefore explain the transient discrepancy between the model and the observations. Consequently, the major process explaining these discrepancies is likely basal friction and its evolution from year to year which is not accounted for in the model. Indeed, the basal conditions are inverted from the 2003 dataset and kept constant over the whole simulation. Changes in glacier geometry and surface runoff have likely induced changes in basal conditions over the 4 decades. Inferring these changes would require contiguous surface DEMs and surface velocity maps, which are not available for dates other than 2003. Regarding the glacier retreat, Berthier and Vincent (2012) estimated that over the period 1979-2008, two-thirds of the increase in the thinning rates observed in the lowest part of Mer de Glace was caused by reduced ice fluxes (and consequently emergence velocities) at the Tacul gate and one-third by increasing surface ablation.
Acknowledgements. We thank  Samuel Morin  and  Deborah Verfaillie  ( Centre d'Etude de la Neige, Météo France/CNRS ) who produced the climate scenarios used in this study (ADAMONT simulations, https://opensource. umr-cnrm. fr/projects/adamont,last access: 3 November 2020). Remote field measurements were obtained thanks to the support of the  TOSCA program  of the  French Space Agency (CNES). Glaciological data were obtained from the GLACIOCLIM database, https://glacioclim. osug. fr/(last access: 3 November 2020). This study was supported by  Électricité de France and Compagnie du Mont Blanc. We thank all collaborators past and present for their thorough measurements of mass balance, thickness and velocity changes, as well as bedrock topography, for Mer de Glace over all these decades. We thank the editor  Andreas Vieli  and the three anonymous reviewers for their judicious comments and suggestions that greatly improved the quality of the initial paper.
Code availability. Elmer/Ice code is publicly available through GitHub (https://github. com/ElmerCSC/elmerfem, last access: 3 November 2020, Gagliardini et al. , 2013). Supplement. The supplement related to this article is available online at: https://doi. org/10. 5194/tc-14-3979-2020-supplement. Author contributions. VP, CV, CB and OG designed the experiments. VP, CB and FG-C performed the numerical modeling. OL, DS, and CV performed the geophysical and geodetic measurements. VP led the writing of the paper with contribution from all coauthors.
Geometric morphometric analyses In this analysis of the overall shape of the articulation, we used geometric morphometric approaches  (Zelditch et al. , 2012)  and selected the auricular surfaces of the right and left ilium of each specimen. Right and left data were determined and tested separately. The three dimensional shape of the surfaces was studied by using eleven digitized anatomical landmarks (Fig. 2 ) defined in Table  2. The x, y and z landmark coordinates were acquired with a 3D Revware Microscribe system (Microscribe Utility Software 5. 1). Once all landmark data were obtained, a generalized Procrustes superimposition  (Rohlf and Slice, 1990 ) was performed by using the package RMORPH  (Baylac, 2012)  in R (R Core Team, 2014). Finally, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed on the shape data to evaluate the distribution of the species in morphospace.
In contrast, smoother surfaces with smaller shallower waves could favor gliding movements. Therefore, we investigated the auricular surfaces topography to analyse interlocking abilities of the joint. To perform quantitative comparisons of topographic variables, we developed a new method to calculate the relative difference in level (d%) of landmarks to the reference plane including landmarks 2, 3 and 4 (Appendix 1, Fig. 2 ). We described the topography within the auricular surface with the series of landmarks 1, 9, 10, 11 and 5. We defined an inner line with the line connecting these landmarks. The series of landmarks 2, 1, 8, 7, 6, 5 and 4 described the outline of the auricular surface and the line connecting these landmarks defined the outer line. From raw data, we calculated a 95% confidence interval for each landmark in each species and used this data set.
Acknowledgements The authors thank the following financial supports of this study: (i)  ATMs -Muséum  national d'Histoire naturelle 2013-2015 " Formes possibles, Formes réalisées…" (Dir: Pr Vincent Bels & Pr Pierre-Henri Gouyon ), and (ii) UMR 7205 (Dir:  Dr CNRS Philippe Grancolas ). We are grateful to  Pr Luc Zimmer  who allowed us to use the " Centre d'Etude et de Recherche multimodale en imagerie du Vivant " ( CERMEP, CNRS -INSB ) for all of the CT-scans used in this study and to  Franck Lamberton  for his help and coordination on the platform. We are grateful to  Carole Czmil ,  Nathalie Moshfegh  and  Arina Nussberger  for the English review and to  Jerôme Curty  for his support in DTP. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their highly helpful comments on this paper.
Only some recent works have shown the effect of digestion on the surfaces of fish bones ingested by Lutra or Bubo bubo  [24, 25] , but these studies did not take in account the degradation of bone tissue as well as its chemistry. In the present work, we compare the structure and composition of fresh fish bones, fish bones extracted from modern regurgitation pellets of the fish eagle, and fossil samples collected in Malema and Mwenirondo sites. The fossil material sorted from sediment specifically collected for taphonomical purposes was not included in the fish fossils collected for paleontological curation  [13] , which is currently the focus of another study  (Otero et al. in prep. ). Due to the paucity of microstructural and chemical data on the three stages occurring in the geological history of fossil fish bones (capture, digestion, diagenesis), several interrelated questions arise about the fossil fishes from Malawi: are the effects of digestion and diagenesis different, allowing them to be assigned to one of these processes? Are traces of digestion destroyed and/or hidden by the fossilisation process or are they still visible in fossil remains? Are the used techniques suitable for such studies? Is the previous hypothesis, established from studies of mammalian remains that Malema and Mwenirondo taphonomic histories differ, confirmed or denied by our study of the fish bones?.
Before a spectrum was run, the height of the sample cup was adjusted by using the alignment routine provided by Perkin-Elmer Spectrum software (for the model PE FTIR 1600), so that a maximal signal throughput was obtained. A background spectrum was measured for pure KBr. Sample spectra were automatically ratioed against the background to minimize CO 2 and H 2 O bands; they were normalized on the v3PO 4 band. Two standards were used to assign the mineral bands (geological apatite) and organic bands (commercial type I collagen). Several ratios were calculated from the infrared spectra. Crystallinity index (CI), also called splitting factor, can be calculated from height 606 cm -1 band + 565 cm -1 band/595 cm -1 band intensities  [32, 33]. CO 3 /PO 4 index was based on the band intensity at 1457 cm -1 (CO 2 3-) and 1037 cm -1 (PO 3 4-)  [34].
Chemical Analyses Data were obtained on an analytical scanning electron microscope (Philips 505 SEM, Philips, Eindhoven, The Netherlands) equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). Quantitative analyses were obtained using a Link AN10000 ZAF/PB program that estimates peak-to-background ratios. The ZAF/PB method can be applied to specimens with rough surfaces, essential for the etched surfaces (see below). Small pieces of bones were embedded in an epoxy resin and polished using various grades of diamond paste. The polished surfaces were lightly etched in 5% formic acid for 15 s to reveal microstructural details of the samples. The locations of the analysed points with respect to the structural features were therefore precisely known. Cobalt was used to provide the EDS calibration, and measurements were made using a live time of 100 or 200 s with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV.
Statistical Methods Although several microprobe EDS analyses were made at various locations on individual bone fragments, we have calculated the mean values as being representative of the sample. Thus, the standard deviations are higher than if they had been calculated from punctual analyses. Due to the small size of the analysed individuals, the comparison of chemical contents was estimated using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test, at α = 5%. Only those elements with concentrations above the detection limit of the microprobe were used. Multivariate analyses (principal component analyses) were based on correlation matrices, so that the statistical weights of elements with high concentrations (i. e. , Ca) were moderated within the software (Statgraphics XVI). The concentrations of elements were assigned as the variables, and the bone fragments assigned to individuals.
Modern Fresh Bones Due to the mild cleaning process, remains of flesh and organic components are present in the holes of the fresh bones of Bagrus and Oreochromis (Figure  2a, c ). The mineralized collagen fibres are locally visible (Figure  2b, d ). From structural data, Bagrus and Oreochromis are similar. Minerals 2020, 10, x 6 of 21 non-parametric Mann-Whitney test, at α = 5%. Only those elements with concentrations above the detection limit of the microprobe were used. Multivariate analyses (principal component analyses) were based on correlation matrices, so that the statistical weights of elements with high concentrations (i. e. , Ca) were moderated within the software (Statgraphics XVI). The concentrations of elements were assigned as the variables, and the bone fragments assigned to individuals.
Mineralogy and Composition From the chemical and FTIR analyses, modern and fossil bones are clearly different. EDS analyses show that fossil bones are enriched in P and Ca, whereas FTIR data show that they have lost a large part of the organic matrix. The lost organic components are "replaced" by some chemical elements such as Mn and Fe, and also P and Ca. The changes in the crystallinity index (CI), i. e. , the size of the bone crystallites, prove difficult to be assigned to a unique phenomenon. The loss (dissolution) of the smallest crystals increases the CI because only the large crystals are preserved, but the reworking (dissolution, then re-precipitation) can increase the size of these smallest crystals. According to Trueman et al. [42] , crystal sizes increase during diagenesis, but the studied bones were recent and not buried.
The sediment is clearly different from the fossil bones from both Malema and Mwenirondo sites. Sediment is sandy, so some grains penetrate within broken bones, as shown in the polished samples used for electron microprobe EDS analyses (Figure  13a, b ). The fossil fish bones collected at the sites are not large, so only small sandy grains are found within the bones. Using the electron microprobe on polished samples, the location of the analyses (bone or sediment) is known, so that grain sands and bone tissue are easily separated in the PCA analyses (Figure  13c ). Fossil bones are enriched in Si (and Al, data not shown), but silty sedimentary particles are too small to be detected by the EDS analyses. It must be noted that the results from the FTIR and EDS analyses of sedimentary particles are concordant.
Increments of exhumation are inferred from 40 Ar/ 39 Ar  (Brunet et al. , 2000) , and Rb-Sr  (Rossetti et al. , 2015)  ages on phengite around 25 Ma and 20 Ma, respectively, and interpreted as crystallization ages during retrogressive shearing. Accurate age constraints of HP-LT metamorphism in the Tenda massif are still lacking while existing radiometric data are scattered. In the ETSZ, the timing of prograde top-to-the-SW shear is constrained between 54 ± 8 Ma and 48 ± 18 Ma by U/Pb data from syn-kinematic rutile, coexisting acmite-phengite, and coatings of oxides or sulphides  (Maggi et al. , 2012). Late-Eocene/Early-Oligocene 40 Ar/ 39 Ar phengite ages have been reported between 37-34 Ma,  (Mailhé, 1982) , and 35-31 Ma  (Jourdan, 1988). These fall in the same range than in situ 40 Ar/ 39 Ar ages on a single HP-LT phengite grain distributed between 36.
1 ± 0. 3 Ma (top-to-the-SW shear zone partially overprinted by semi-brittle top-to-the-NE shearing; not considered further in the text), and 20. 2 ± 2. 2 Ma (top-to-the-NE shear zone in its most deformed domains). This temporal sequence is considered as recording the end of the two shearing events. Final exhumation stages are recorded by zircon and apatite fission track data (ZFT and AFT). ZFT ages between 25 and 17 Ma in the Tenda massif and the Schistes Lustrés nappe are interpreted to date cooling with no significant age difference from either sides of the ETSZ  (Fellin et al. , 2006). AFT ages between 25 and 10 Ma  (Cavazza et al. , 2001; Zarki-Jakni et al. , 2004; Danisik et al. , 2007)  are comparable between the different units, indicating no differential cooling between units during Miocene denudation.
Ar and Cl isotopes were sequentially measured in 20 cycles with an electron multiplier ( 35 Cl, 36 Ar ± 1 H 35 Cl, 37 Ar ± 37 Cl, 38 Ar ± 1 H 37 Cl, 39 Ar, 40 Ar isotopes) and a Faraday cup ( 40 Ar only) by peak-switching. Gas handling and mass-spectrometer operations are fully automated using in-house, standalone LabView-based software interfacing gas extraction and data collection. Procedural blanks were analyzed every sample gas admission (in situ experiments) or every third heating step (step-heating experiments) in the same conditions as the sample analysis. Typical values were 0. 1-0. 05 fA and ~0. 001 fA for m/e = 40 and m/e = 39, 38, 37, 36, respectively. Data regression and age calculations/corrections were made following  Scaillet (2000). Regressed 40 Ar/ 39 Ar isotopic data are tabulated either as 40 Ar/ 39 Ar step-heating analyses and in situ 40 Ar/ 39 Ar analyses in the supporting information.
In situ data In situ 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating was applied to statistically quantify ages vs. microstructure relationships according to strain grade, and investigate the relationships with the age variations revealed by the corresponding bulk 40 Ar/ 39 Ar step-heating data. Three polished sections from Grades 0W, 1 and 4 (TE84, TE62, TE77, respectively) were analyzed. Data are presented below either in the form of in situ age maps or sorted in situ ages spectra. 7. 2. 1. Grade 0W (meta-granite TE84) Section TE84 (Fig. 12 ) was drilled out across zones II and III in a top-to-the-SW localized shear zone (see Fig. 8b ). S1 is marked by green phengite aggregates alternating with white quartz-feldspar layers (Fig. 12a ). Phengite is more abundant in zone II which lacks relic K-feldspar clasts as found in zone III.
We note however that such a correlation is not systematic. For instance, while phengites TE41 and TE52 are characterized by a high pyrophyllite component (Fig. 6b ), only the first is associated with apparently older ages relative to the rest of the dataset (see sub-section 8. 5. 1, and Figs. 9 and 11). Thus, a systematic and direct correlation between K content and age can also be dismissed. In contrast, a control of deformation is clearly highlighted by the temporal strain distribution revealed by the MCP analysis. High strain grades (Grades 3 and 4) and low strain grades (Grades 0W and 1) rocks, respectively localized toward the (northeast) upper parts and the (southwest) lower parts of the ETSZ, are respectively associated with the youngest (< 30 Ma) and oldest (> 30 Ma) ages  (Figs. 8 to 11).
Acknowledgments and data availability Federico Rossetti  and two anonymous reviewers are thanked for their constructive comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This work has received funding from the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the  Seventh Framework Programme  of the  ©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved. European  Union  ( ERC Advanced Grant , grant agreement No  290864 , RHEOLITH) and the  Institut Universitaire de France. It is also contribution of the Labex VOLTAIRE. The  40 Ar/ 39 Ar  facility at ISTO was funded and is supported by the  ERC Advanced  grant  RHEOLITH , the  LABEX  project  VOLTAIRE  ( ANR-10-LABX-100-01 ), the  Région Centre  project  ARGON , and the project  EQUIPEX   PLANEX  ( ANR-11-EQPX-0036 ). Datasets for this research are available at: https://zenodo.
Statistical analysis of data Data placed in a contingency array matrix  [Benzecri and Benzécri, 1980, Volle, 1993]  is preparing for mul- tivariate analyses, such as Factor Correspondence Analysis (FCA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). These analyses are supplemented by a Dendrogramm hierarchical classification (Clusters analyses and Neighbour joining), so as to define the relationships and nuclei of affinities between the samples  [Roux, 1985]. Data processing, graphic representation of results, and dendrogram of hierarchical classification were made with MacMul, GraphMu and MacDendro software  [Thioulouse, 1990]  and PAST software  [Hammer et al. , 2001]. In the study region, this type of statistical analysis has recently been adopted on current pollen  [Jolly et al. , 1996]  and fossil  [Reynaud-Farrera, 1995].
Acknowledgements For their contributions to the writing of this article, sincere thanks to:  Jean de Dieu Nzila ,  CAMES Lecturer  ( Marien Ngouabi University );  Victor Kimpouni ,  CAMES Lecturer  ( Marien Ngouabi University );  Noel Watha Doudy ,  Assistant Master CAMES  ( Marien Ngouabi University );  Anthelme Tsoumou , Doctor ( Marien Ngouabi University ).
PALEOBIOGEOGRAPHY We performed faunal similarity analyses between Asian localities with terrestrial carnivorans during the middle and late Miocene. We first compiled faunal lists of localities from the literature, with geographic locations ranging longitudinally from Turkey to Japan, and latitudinally from Southeast Asia to southern Russia (see appendix S1 for complete faunal lists and appendix $2 for list of references, in the supplementary data available online at doi. org/10. 5531/sd. sp. 40). We then removed doubtful taxonomic attributions  (indet. , aff. , ?, sp. ) , singletons, and localities bearing only one taxon (see supplementary appendix S3, available online at doi. org/10. 5531/sd. sp. 40). We built a matrix of presence/absence of genera and species. We used both the Simpson and the Raup-Crick dissimilarity index to measure the difference in genus and species composition between localities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work has been supported by the  Department of Mineral Resources of Bangkok , the  Thai-French TRF-CNRS "Cenozoic Biodiversity" Project , the  CNRS-Eclipse II Program , the  ANR-05-BLAN-0235 , the  ANR-09-BLAN-0238-02-EVAH , the UMR 7262 (PALEVOPRIM,  CNRS  and  University of Poitiers, France) , and the  Fondation Fyssen  (grant to O. C). We would like to thank the  Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand  for providing scientific assistance and access to the mine. We thank  Xavier Valentin  and  Arnaud Mazurier  for their technical support,  Sabine Riffaut  for her nice drawings, and  Vincent Lazzari  for providing access to software and computer for 3D reconstructions. We are grateful to  John C. Barry ,  David Pilbeam ,  Lawrence J, Flynn  ( Paleoanthropology Laboratory at Harvard University ),  David Brinkman  ( Yale Peabody Museum ),  John J.
The understanding of the coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of fault zones is of fundamental importance for a variety of sociétal and économie reasons, such as the sustainable energy transition for the safe use of natural resources (energy storage, nuclear waste disposai or geothermal energy). The overall objective of this inter-disciplinary project is to create a dataset that will allow to highlight the physical processes resulting from a thermal and hydric load on an existing, identified and characterized fault zone. An in situ experiment will be performed at IRSN's Tournemire Underground Research Laboratory to evaluate the hydraulic properties and mechanical behaviour of a fault zone in a shale formation due to an increase of gas or water pressure under incrémental thermal loading.
4. 2. Geomorphological analysis We combined the analysis of the historical source with a geomorphological and neotectonic investigation. Topographical data from the Cusco Basin were processed using two Digital Elevation Models (DEM). The creation of a high-resolution DEM (1. 5m) based on Pleiades images and covering the western part of the Cusco Basin allows us to relate the location of the Quibipay lake with a classic feature of tectonic geomorphology. To this end, topographic features were studied thanks to basic GIS analysis including a slope map, hill shadings, and topographic profiles. Based on a larger ASTER DEM (30m) we executed a "visibility analysis" from the archaeological site of Amaru Marka Wasi, settled on a calcareous plateau above Cusco (AMW on Fig. 3 ). Composed mainly of rocky outcrops containing carvings this site was the seventh shrine of the first ceque of the Antisuyu (An 1:7 in  Bauer, 1998, p.
76 ). Considered to be the former residence of the eldest son of the sovereign Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, the site most probably was dedicated to ceremonial activities. Due to its sacred character, its geographic proximity with the localities mentioned in the story, and its direct relation with Amaru Tupa Yupanqui, we considered it worth questioning the link that may have existed between the outcrop and the Amaru story. The "visibility analysis" realized thanks to Global Mapper software allows us to display the area visible from the summit of the outcrop. This particular GIS analysis highlights the main features of the environment visible from the site and provides some indications of its ceremonial purpose. We fixed as initial parameters an observer of 1. 65m tall and, a visibility radius from 20 km, and we kept the standard value of atmospheric correction  (1.
Acknowledgments We acknowledge  Fabrizio Delgado Madera  and  Xavier Robert  for their valuable assistance during field campaigns as well as  Aldo Vargas León  for his valuable help in the identification of the Quibipay place. This work was part of the  CuscoPATA  project (  006-2016-FONDECYT ) and under the inter-institutional agreement between  IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement)  and  INGEMMET (Instituto Geológico ,  Minero y Metalúrgico del Perú ). We particularly wish to thank  César Itier ,  Sara Neustadtl  and  Peter Molnar  for their helpful comments. This work was supported by the  French National Research Agency  in the framework of the  Investissements d'Avenir program  ( ANR-15-IDEX-02 ). The project has received, as well, financial support from the  CNRS  through the  MITI interdisciplinary program  and from the  IRD.