dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
OBSERVATIONS High-resolution spectropolarimetric data were taken for TWA 25 and TWA 7 using HARPS in polarimetric mode on the ESO 3. 6-m telescope in La Silla, Chile. TWA 25 was observed 16 times and TWA 7 observed 17 times from March 12 th to 31 st , 2017. Journals of the observations for each star are given in Tables  1  and 2. Each observation consists of 4 sub-exposures with alternating configurations of a quarter wave plate to remove first order spurious polarisation signals. Two observations of TWA 7 contain only two sub-exposures due to weather, and so are only used for the analysis involving brightness information, and are excluded from the magnetic field analysis. Our spectra have a wavelength coverage of ∼380 nm to ∼690nm, and spectral resolution of ∼115000. The spectral data were reduced using the L ES RIT pipeline software adapted for use with HARPS polarimetric data  (Hébrard et al.
Least Squares Deconvolution To increase the signal-to-noise for our tomographic mapping, we combine the lines in our observed spectra using Least Squares Deconvolution (LSD,  Donati et al. 1997). This process combines the signal in absorption features, by deconvolving our observed spectra with a mask of photospheric lines constructed using the Vienna Atomic Line Database (VALD3,  Ryabchikova et al. 2015)  based on the effective temperature and surface gravity of each star (see Section 3), and removing lines in emission, or with broad absorption. Given the large number of weak and blended absorption lines at the spectral types of these stars, we remove lines with a strength relative to the deepest lines of less than 0. 1, as per  Nicholson et al. (2018)  to limit the effect of blends. After generating these LSD profiles, the continuum levels were re-normalised, and all were scaled by the mean equivalent width for each star using the re-normalisation program within the ZDIP package  (Folsom et al.
These FAP values are calculated in the PyAstronomy program as per Equation  24 of  Zechmeister & Kürster (2009). Both data sets are sampled approximately daily, giving an associated Nyquist frequency of 0. 5 d -1. These are highlighted as grey lines at periods of 1 and 2 days, respectively. The periodograms of   , H and Na I doublet indices for TWA 25 all show peaks around the stellar rotational period. For the H and the Na I doublet, this is the second highest peak (the highest is around the 1/4 rotation period), but is still detectable above a FAP of 0. 001. For the   values however, the peak at the rotation period is small. Instead, the highest peak in   is at 1/2 the rotation period, with the second highest peak at 1/3 the rotation period. The dominance of these peaks at fractional aliases of the full rotation period reflects the magnetic field geometry: there are multiple magnetic regions that come into and out of the line of sight in a given rotation, giving signal power at fractions of that rotation period.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to  Louise Yu  for her help with the stellar luminosities. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at  Uppsala University , the  Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow , and the  University of Vienna. This work has made use of data from the  European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia  (http: //www. cosmos. esa. int/gaia),processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC, http://www. cosmos. esa. int/web/gaia/dpac/consortium). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. We also warmly thank the  IDEX initiative at Université Fédérale Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées (UFTMiP)  for funding the STEPS collaboration programme between IRAP/OMP and  ESO and for allocating a 'Chaire d'Attractivité ' to GAJH, allowing her to regularly visit Toulouse.
We would like to thank the members of the FIELD/SWEAP teams and the PSP spacecraft team. We acknowledge the use of data from FIELDS/PSP (http://research. ssl. berkeley. edu/data/psp/data/sci/fields/l2/)and  SWEAP/PSP  (http://sweap. cfa. harvard. edu/pub/data/sci/sweap/). Data analysis was performed using the IRFU-Matlab analysis package available at https://github. com/irfu/irfu-matlaband the SPADAS analysis software available at http://themis. ssl. berkeley. edu.
Acknowledgments This material is based upon work supported by the  US National Science Foundation  under Grants  PHY-1602994  and  DMS-1809074  (P. G. K. ). P. G. K. also acknowledges support from the  Leverhulme Trust  via a Visiting Fellowship and thanks the  Mathematical Institute of the University of Oxford  for its hospitality during this work. R. C. G. gratefully acknowledges support from the  US National Science Foundation  under Grant  PHY-1603058. J. C-M. thanks the  Regional Government of Andalusia  under the project  P18-RT-3480  and  MICINN ,  AEI  and  EU  ( FEDER program ) under the project  PID2019-110430GB-C21. B. A. M. appreciates support provided by  Israel Science Foundation  through grant  Np. 1286/17.
, 2020)  and subjected to several mutations. This illustrates the quantitative relationship between the expression of the DNA code and the physical origin of functional domains. the general scope of our remarks, we have chosen a much smaller system than SPIKE trimer such as the HIV1-protease enzyme (PDB id:1rx7) and calculate the confinement potential of the dimer. The corresponding plot (top of Figure  7 ) allows us to identify the valleys of the confinement potential in which the energy must remain confined or a contrario the collars which will allow the isolation of the high frequency domains. We have chosen two sites (a collar C) and a valley (V, corresponding to the active sites) and we parametrically excite an AA in each of these domains, at the fastest frequency of the system (here 3 THz).
Outlook Competitive searches for dark matter have been conducted using the nEDM spectrometer over the last decade. More ideas are still being explored to extend the limits on axion-like particles: a limit on the oscillating EDM signal at higher frequency (axion mass range up to 10 -15 eV) is under study and dedicated data to push the limit of reference  [10]  are being analyzed. Additionally, similar searches of axion-like particles are planned with the next generation n2EDM apparatus making use of the much improved sensitivity in the frequency measurements and of the better control over systematic effects. The not yet excluded regions of the signal bands of  [40]  for mirror neutrons will be a focus of future efforts.
Introduction Recent developments with the nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium (non-LTE) radiative transfer code CMFGEN  (Hillier & Dessart 2012 ) have led to a better numerical stability in the steady-state solver and a more suitable treatment of chemical mixing in core-collapse supernova (SN) ejecta  (Dessart & Hillier 2020a,b). Following our previous work  (Dessart et al. 2021 ) on the nebular-phase properties of Type II SNe arising from the explosion of stars that evolved in isolation at solar metallicity and died as red supergiants  (Sukhbold et al. 2016) , here, we undertake a study of a similar nature based on the He-star explosion models of  Ertl et al. (2020) , with the pre-SN evolution described in  Woosley (2019). The underlying assumption is that such He stars initially formed from the prompt removal of the H-rich envelope through binary mass exchange, probably as the star first expanded following the ignition of hydrogen burning in a shell (case B mass transfer).
The wide diversity of spectral properties from our grid of spherical He-star explosion models contrasts with the relative uniformity of observed properties of SNe Ibc at nebular times. This could actually be an indicator of as yet unexplored diversity in nature. Much of the diversity in models arises because of changes in ionization that result from changes in the density structure, even for constant nucleosynthetic yields. Numerous models, in particular those with lower initial He-star masses, show a larger ionization and stronger flux in the blue part of the optical range than observed. The subset of these ejecta that are also characterized by a low ejecta mass, low kinetic energy, and low 56 Ni mass, are probably missed by current surveys so the disagreement with the existing dataset may be an observational bias.
Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the  "Programme National de Physique Stellaire" of CNRS/INSU  co-funded by  CEA  and  CNES. DJH thanks  NASA  for partial support through the astrophysical theory grant  80NSSC20K0524. HTJ acknowledges funding by the  Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation ) through  Sonderforschungsbereich (Collaborative Research Centre) SFB-1258 "Neutrinos and Dark Matter in Astro-and Particle Physics (NDM)" and under Germany's Excellence Strategy through Cluster of Excellence ORIGINS  ( EXC-2094 )-390783311. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of CINES under the allocation  2019 -A0070410554  and  2020 -A0090410554  made by  GENCI, France. This research has made use of  NASA's Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.
The plasma target is based on a hydrogen-filled continuousflow capillary to provide reproducible conditions for every laser shot. The whole beamline is build following the same vacuum standards as the user facilities operated on campus. Tightly integrated into an accelerator-grade control system, a rich set of data, combining electron and laser data as well as machine status and lab conditions, is recorded for every single shot, monitored live and stored for post-analysis. With the demonstration of continuous 24-hour operation of the LUX plasma accelerator  [54]  a major milestone was achieved in 2020. Based on previous work, which studied the thermal management and spatiotemporal couplings of the drive laser pulse from heat-induced deformations of the laser compressor gratings  [58, 59]  , more than 100,000 consecutive laser-plasma electron beams could be demonstrated.
We acknowledge SOLEIL for provision of synchrotron radiation facilities under the project  20180060  and we thank  Laurent Nahon  and the DESIRS beamline team for their help. This work was done in collaboration and with financial support by the  European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)  under the collaboration agreement KE3324/TE. The research was supported by the  Programme National "Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire" (PCMI)  of  CNRS/INSU  with  INC/INP  co-funded by  CEA  and  CNES. Financial support from the  LabEx MiChem , part of the French state funds managed by the  ANR  within the  investissements d'avenir program  under reference  ANR-11-10EX-0004-02 , and by the  Ile-de-France region DIM ACAV program , is gratefully acknowledged.
Acknowledgments We are especially grateful to  Fabio Falchi  for creating the light pollution map of Southern Africa (Figure 1), and to  Stefan Wagner  for his very helpful comments. The support of the Namibian authorities and of the  University of Namibia  in facilitating the construction and operation of H. E. S. S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the  German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) , the  Max Planck Society , the  German Research Foundation (DFG) , the  Helmholtz Association , the  Alexander von Humboldt Foundation , the  French Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation , the  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS/IN2P3 and CNRS/INSU) , the  Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA) , the  U. K. Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) , the  Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation , the  National Science Centre, Poland  grant no.
A 4p-4h prolate band of similar deformation shows up about 2 MeV higher. In addition, KB does not produce a doubly magic 48 Ca, but it does an excellent job for 52 Ca and makes 54 Ca the strongest doubly magic nuclei ever. All in all, with lights and shadows, a rather impressive first attempt. But we are being counterfactual; there were neither the codes nor the computers to do the calculations, and the neutron-rich isotopes of calcium had not been synthesised yet. What is true is that agreement of the "ab initio" SM results with the experimental data deteriorated as the number of valence particles increased in the relatively few cases that were computationally accessible. Because of that and because of deep formal problems in the "ab initio" theory, the purely phenomenological approach took the lead in the SM calculations for many years, reaching its climax with the USD interaction  [134] , which was a fit of the three one-body and sixty three two-body matrix elements of the sd-shell to a database of hundreds of experimental excitation energies, and which has enjoyed an immense popularity since then.
Full calculation with the SDPFU-MIX interaction compared with the experimental data than 1022 keV. The state was then looked after by use of electron spectroscopy combined to β decay. Indeed, 34 Al being at the edge of the island of inversion, it should exhibit both normal and intruder configurations at low excitation energy. At the time of the measurement, shell-model calculations predicted a 4 -ground state and a 1 + excited state. The excited state was expected to be a βdecay isomer with a strong 2p -1h configuration favorably decaying to the intruder 0 + state in 34 Si. The experiment was extremely successful and a clear E0 transition was observed from a coincidence measurement of a e + e -pair, revealing the intruder-configuration 0 + state in 34 Si at 2719(3) keV. The branching ratio for the decay of the 2 + 1 state to the newly-measured first excited 0 + was also determined.
The calculation predicts the excited 0 + 's a bit below 2 MeV both in 80 Ge and 82 Ge. A recent lifetime measurement of short-lived states in the region of neutron-rich Ge isotopes was performed at GANIL using the recoil distance Doppler-shift (RDDS) method combined with the AGATA detector. Nuclei were produced via fusion and transfer-fission of 238 U beam particles impinging on a Be target. Reaction residues were unambiguously identified. The isotope 84 Ge could be reach in the measured, although with low statistics. Only the 4 + 1 state could be observed as a feeder of the 2 + 1 state. The low-statistics data were analysed to extract s lifetime for the 2 + 1 state after correction from the observed feeding. A lifetime of 13. 8 +7. 9 -9. 8 ps was determined, leading to a reduced transition probability of B(E2; 2 + → 0 + ) = 621.
Acknowledgements. The SM-CI calculations pertaining to the  Strasbourg-Madrid Shell Model collaboration  discussed in this manuscript have been performed with the ANTOINE and NATHAN shell-model codes, developed by  Etienne Caurier , a great physicist and friend which passed away in May 2020. We dedicate this work to his memory. The results presented in this review stem from long lasting collaborative work and endless discussions with many colleagues, among them, and prominently,  E. Caurier ,  A. P. Zuker ,  S. M. Lenzi , and for the more experimental parts  H. Grawe (  †2020 ) and  O. Sorlin. The authors thank warmly  M. Huyse  for providing information on the history of the ISOL technique and RI production. AP's work is supported in part by the  Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (Spain) ,  Severo Ochoa Programme   SEV-2016-0597  and grant  PGC-2018-94583.
However, observations of the required spectral quality are out of reach to current technology because: 1) main sequence O-stars at > 1 Mpc are at the sensitivity limit of optical spectrographs installed at 10m ground-based telescopes; 2) the program should include near-IR observations to overcome internal extinction (significant in dIrr galaxies)  47  and to reach MYSOs, but both are out of reach to current IR spectrographs; and 3) the densest concentrations of gas and stars should be inspected to look for very massive stars but these regions are hardly resolved by ground-based spectroscopic facilities even using adaptive optics. Nonetheless if such a phenomenal database was possible it would enable studying on-going star formation with unprecedented detail, and re-calibrating star formation indicators once all the stellar mass content (including extincted stars that were initially unregistered) was properly accounted for.
Constraining massive star evolution is a multi-dimensional problem. The high incidence of massive stars in multiple systems, and the fraction that will interact with their companions  102  , enriches the problem exponentially. The way to proceed is to assemble large, multi-epoch spectroscopic datasets of large samples of massive stars to fully cover the parameter space, constrain their physical properties with the most advanced stellar atmosphere models, obtain distributions of vsin i and of the properties of binary systems, and contrast against the predictions of single and binary evolutionary models. Only a vast spectroscopic program can lead to the reconstruction of the single-and binaryevolutionary pathways of massive stars. Such ensembles have been built over the years in the Milky Way  113  , and most recently in the Magellanic Clouds  36, 22, 100.
Technological needs for a break-through Answering the questions stated in this White Paper requires observations of a large sample of massive stars in sub-SMC metallicity galaxies in all their flavors (OB-type, WR, LBV, YHG and RSG), with sufficient good quality as to enable detailed and precise spectroscopic analyses. This section focuses on the OB-stars, the most challenging to observe with current facilities. The technical specifications set by OB-stars will also enable observations of WRs and LBVs. The VLT and the upcoming ELT warrant good prospects for YHGs and RSGs  15, 95, 29. Homogeneous studies of high-quality optical and UV datasets, such as the IACOB 113 and VFTS  36  Europe-led projects, have provided invaluable insight into blue massive stars of the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds (see also  22, 100  ).
In principle, LUVOIR-A will have the required sensitivity to obtain R∼8 000 optical spectra of V∼21 O-type stars at 1. 5 Mpc in about 12 hours (Fig. 6  bottom-left). The analysis of such dataset can provide accurate T eff , log g and abundances. Farther galaxies require a lower resolution R∼1 000 mode, enough for first estimates of stellar parameters. LUVOIR-A could then comfortably reach V∼22. 5 O-stars at 4 Mpc in 12 hours (Fig. 6  bottom-right). Reaching I Zw18 would mean a leap of 2. 5 mags that translates into a factor 10 longer exposure times. Such observations are feasible, but strongly advocate for multi-object capabilities. We note that the instruments currently studied for LUVOIR do not include a multiobject optical spectrograph working at intermediate and high spectral resolution.
The simulation was performed using the PGOPHER software  [ 25 , 26 ]. a The instrumental resolution was 0. 31 cm -1 and combined fitting and calibration 1 σ frequency uncertainties are given in parentheses in terms of the least-significant digit. The absolute calibration uncertainty is 0. 03 cm -1 and the fitting uncertainties are estimated to vary between 0. 006 and 0. 1 cm -1 , depending on the line intensity and blending. The "o-c" columns lists observed minus calculated frequencies. b Lines marked with b and/or w are blended and/or weak. * The lines marked with an asterisk were not used in the final fit. et al. [12]  for 13 C 16 O A 1 ( v = 0), and Hakalla et al. for 12 C 17 O A 1 ( v = 1 -5)  [13]  , 13 C O A 1 ( v = 0 -3)  [14]  , and 13 C 18 O A 1 ( v = 0)  [15]. In the latter case of 13 C 18 O already an indication for an indirect interaction between the CO a 3 and A 1 electronic states was observed and analysed.
5% for any other isotopologue. Measurements were made at a temperature of 850 K and with approximate CO pressures of 0. 03 and 0. 4 hPa, corresponding to measured column densities of 4 × 10 14 and 8 × 10 15 cm -2. These spectra are shown in Fig. 1  and were simultaneously fit to a model of all A 1 -X 1 + and forbidden transitions. The frequencies and strengths of all lines were optimised taking into account overlapping absorption by 12 C 16 O and instrumental broadening. Additionally, the relative frequencies of P -and R-branch lines that terminate on a common upper level were kept fixed to their expected combination difference based on their extremely wellknown ground-state energy levels. These are computed by Coxon et al. [22]  that reproduce a large dataset of pure-rotational and rovibrational transitions frequencies for multiple isotopologues and with typical accuracies of 0.
Deperturbation analysis The A 1 state of CO exhibits a remarkably complicated rotational structures  [1]. It results from multiple perturbations, mainly due to direct spin-orbit and rotation-electronic ( L -uncoupling) interactions with both near and distant states. In addition, the A 1 state is perturbed indirectly by the a 3 state through spin-orbit, spin-electronic and rotation-electronic interactions mediated by the direct perturbers of A 1  [ 15 , 19 ]. The direct a 3 ~A 1 (spinorbit) interaction exists as well but is negligible due to a small overlap integral between these states in the vibrational region under investigation. A development version of the PGOPHER program  [ 25 , 26 ]  is used to identify perturbers of the A 1 ( v = 2) level and to carry out a deperturbation analysis based on an effective Hamiltonian (for matrix elements and other details see supplementary material).
[40] [41] [42] [43]. The method allowed us to test the significance of thirty possible direct and indirect interactions potentially affecting the A 1 ( v = 2) level, with results listed in Table  6. Term values of the X 1 + ( v = 0) reference level were fixed to the values given by Coxon et al. [22]. High-accuracy data for 541 transitions from 5 bands: (i) B 1 + -A 1 (0, 2) and C 1 + -A 1 (0, 2) obtained by VIS-FT spectroscopy, and (ii) A 1 -X 1 + (2, 0), B 1 + -X 1 + (0, 0), C 1 + -X 1 + (0, 0), obtained by VUV-FT spectroscopy, are used in the deperturbation analysis of A 1 ( v = 2). As a result, 17 independent parameters were obtained: 11 deperturbed molecular constants for the A 1 ( v = 2), e 3 -( v = 4), d 3 ( v = 7), a ʹ 3 + ( v = 12) and.
Acknowledgments RH is indebted to  Professor Colin M. Western  ( University of Bristol ) for his enormous help with implementing the term-value fitting approach method into the development version of the PGOPHER code and for a lot of valuable discussions. RH thanks  LASERLAB-EUROPE  for support of this research [grant numbers  EUH2020-RIP-654148  and EC's-SPF-284464] as well as  European Regional Development Fund  and the Polish state budget within the framework of the  Carpathian Regional Operational Programme  [grant number  RPPK. 01. 03. 0 0-18-0 01/10 ] through the funding of the  Centre for Innovation and Transfer of Natural Sciences and Engineering Knowledge of the University of Rzeszów. AH acknowledges grant funding from the  CAAS ERDF/ESF "Centre of Advanced Applied Sciences " (number  CZ.
Samples were rocked around the (2 0 2) diffraction peak and a ptychographic scan was performed at each rocking angle. Ptychographic reconstructions were performed using 300 iterations of the difference map algorithm  [21]  followed by 1000 iterations of a maximum likelihood refinement  [22]  using the PtychoShelves package  [23]. The resulting ptychographic reconstructions with a pixel size of 21 nm (in forward geometry) and 30 nm (in diffraction geometry) were back-propagated to the sample position and followed by post-processing (phase offset and a linear phase wrap removal, vertical and horizontal spatial alignment)  [24]. We estimated the resulting spatial resolution using Fourier ring correlation  [25]  to be 29 nm in the forward direction (see Fig. S2  in the Supplemental Material).