dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Fig. 7  Depending on the linear size of the optical surface to be simulated, the maximum number of Zernike terms (231) that can be simulated in Zemax can be sufficient (or not) to represent the MSF. In this case the measured map of a metal mirror (b) is well represented with a grid sag surface (a), whereas the Zernike maps with 37 (c) and 231 (d) do not adequately represent the surface texture, and with a higher number of terms the fit worsens. In the optical design of the ELT + MAORY, we inserted MSF patterns synthesized in MATLAB on the ELT-M2, the MAORY dichroic, and the last folding mirror M11 using the methods described in Sec. 5. The optical specifications of the ELT-M2 allow for some low-order residuals of astigmatism and trefoil and about 40 nm root mean square (RMS) for the MSF. 28 Therefore, to the nominal sag of the M2, we added 100 nm of astigmatism (Z 6 ), 50 nm of trefoil (Z 10 ), and 25 nm peak to valley (PV) of epicyclic MSF pattern with a 4-mm pitch of the grid sag points.
Results In this section, we report the preliminary results of an exploratory study to assess the residual distortions in the presence of low-order aberrations and MSF for the ELT plus an MCAO system with one PFDM. Downstream all of the operations listed in Sec. 5, this overall simulation chain has been performed over different PAs to simulate observations at different epochs during the night. The optical distortion pattern is extracted using a Zemax macro that samples it with 961 equally spaced points over the MICADO FoV and fitted with a series of Cartesian polynomial orders in MATLAB. The astrometric postfit residuals for up to the ninth-order polynomial are shown over the full FoV (Fig. 11 ), for a FoV equivalent to 80% of a MICADO detector unit (Fig. 12 ), and over a 2-arc sec 2 patch FoV (Fig.
13 ). The results are presented using a boxplot graphic: the central red mark indicates the median, and the bottom and top edges of the blue box indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles, respectively. The whiskers extend to the most extreme data points, and the outliers are plotted individually using the "+" symbol. In the full FoV scenario, a single astrometric solution with residuals below 50 μas can be retrieved only for a PA range of AE1 deg. Restricting to a fraction of 80% of a single MICADO detector, the PA range extends to AE3 deg. When the fit is performed on a 2-arc sec 2 patch, the astrometric residuals are within the requirement for any PA for fit orders ≥3rd. For comparison, we show the distortion content of the nominal ELT + MAORY system with no MSFE in Fig. 14. The comparison with the distortion patterns affected by the MSFE is overwhelming and highlights the role of the worst offender for astrometry.
As described in Fig. 1 , the wire deposition is coaxial to the laser. Nine clads of 100 mm length have been deposited on each substrate. Three cuts have been made on each substrate (i. e. ¼ cord length, ½ cord length and ¾ cord length) using a silicon disc and a cutting wheel. Subsequently, the samples are coated, mirror polished and then chemically attacked with Kroll's reagent. The measurements will be carried out under a microscope (LEICA DM1750 M) and its software Leica Application Suite (see example in Fig. 2 ).
Foam Polyurethane Characterization The material of interest here is polyurethane foam. The polyurethane is a polymer bicomponent material obtained by mixing together isocyanate and polyol. It begins to cure in 6 s, expands to nearly 40 times its initial volume to yield a low density of 36 kg/m 3. Its compressive strength is 110 kPa, tensile strength is 171. 5 kPa. The reactions taking place in PU foams are complex, but can be represented by only two global exothermic reactions: the first gelling reaction, where polyol and isocyanate react to form highly cross-linked polyurethane and blowing reaction where water and isocyanate react to form urea and carbon dioxide  [3]. In order to model mechanical and thermal reaction, we use modelling software called Rem3D. This software computes the flow of the material by solving the Navier Stokes and the thermal equations.
3 mm/s. Once the material has been characterized  [4] , the data from the experiment (Fluid Flow rate, Height of deposition, speed…. ) have been translated into a digital material file and implemented in the Rem3D software. Then, the simulation was realized in order to correlate the data from simulations carried out and experiments (Fig. 2  and Fig. 3 ). The compared results are: the volume of foam and the temperature (Fig. 3 ). The foam volume between simulation and experiment at each time is the same (a, b, c). If we compare the reaction exothermal, the maximum temperature in simulation is reached at a time equivalent to the tests. The reaction seems to be faster when start-up.
Methods TO consists in finding the optimal solid-void pattern of a material layout inside a bounding box representing the design domain once boundary conditions are defined. In typical TO software, the design domain is meshed in Finite Elements which density can vary between 0 and 1. In this paper the TO package by ANSYS has been adopted. It is a density-based topology optimization tool that uses a Solid Isotropic Material with Penalty (SIMP) method to define pseudo-density of each finite element of the mesh during optimization  [2]. The optimization of a general non convex problem is solved with a Sequential Convex Programming (SCP) strategy. With this approach the convex portions of the problem are handled exactly and efficiently, while non convex portions of the problem are modelled by convex functions that are (at least locally) accurate.
Results and Discussion For static load validation, yield stress at 220 °C is considered, with value for build direction (Z) and an additional safety factor 1. 2 (racing application), so permissible stress of 560 MPa is calculated. Figure  4  shows results. Moreover, remark on fatigue life and proper processing/treatments on stressed areas is necessary  [9]. As reported in Table  1 , maximum displacement at 220 °C is 0. 675 mm for the original caliper and 0. 614 mm for the final design of the optimized one (9% reduction) while the body weight goes from 248 g to 184 g (25,8% saving). Moreover, an analytical thermal study of a braking cycle by Matlab code shows a 20 °C decrease of working temperatures for the final design. One last note is that titanium has worst tribological characteristics (low wear resistance and high size tendency) and thus surface treatment chemical nickel-plating (Niplate) for pistons housings has been defined.
The literature presents some useful references, even if sometimes they are difficult to link with the real application. Thanks to advanced simulation such as Computer-Aided Tolerancing (CAT) software, the tolerance analysis approach improves the knowledge about the process and enables the optimization of the GD&T scheme and the assembly process. These tools represent a support during the early design phases to validate the product tolerance design. For industrial fields as automotive, the product optimization through CAT simulation can produce a consistent increase of quality levels and a reduction of unnecessary costs  [4, 5]. For these reasons, this work aims at performing the tolerance analysis of an automotive assembly, suggesting corrective actions on the tolerance values and allocation schemes.
Method To reach the expected levels of customer's satisfaction, quality has become a design approach based on a group of procedures, first the Tolerance Design process. Tolerance Design process is mainly performed by CAT-based approach, which is integrated in the early design phases  [6]. The general workflow has an input phase of preparation and setting-up, a modelling and simulation phase and the final output analysis and synthesis phase  [6, 7] , with their subphases here reported: • Preparation: Data collection, CAD models import in the CAT software, identification of parts geometry, elimination of non-contributing parts. • Functional analysis: Functional and technological requirements definition, identification of the measurements consistent with the targets, identification of the functional features of the parts and Datum Reference Frames (DRFs).
Case Study: V12 Engine Assembly We selected a high-performance V12 engine assembly as a case study, performing a tolerance analysis to verify the effectiveness of its assembly operations. We focused on the bolting operations between the upper (UC) and lower crankcase (LC), and between the cylinder heads and the UC (Fig. 1 ). These operations are crucial during the assembly phases since they affect the performance and reliability of the engine itself. To fulfil the design requirements, we performed the 3D tolerance analysis of the engine assembly, then we assessed the adopted GD&T and tolerance allocation schemes, and the tolerance values. The CAT software adopted is Cetol 6σ (Sigmetrix®), an add-in workbench integrated in CATIA V5 (Dassault Systemes®) platform, based on a vector loop approach  [8].
Methodological Description The main objective of this study is to collect and analyze the design and manufacturing product methods focused on prosumer users that have been developed until now. To achieve this, the study is divided into two parts: a bibliographic analysis and a field study. The bibliographic analysis shows works published in the academic field that deal directly with this type of methods, while the field study is based on real cases that prove the existence of consolidated methods frequently used by prosumers. To perform the bibliographic analysis, a search was carried out in various databases (Web of Science, Scopus, Wiley Online Library, Science Direct) by combining two keywords: first, about prosumer user (end user, co-design, maker, lead user, design manufacturer); and, second, in reference to the design or manufacturing method (method, methodology, tool, guideline + product design, manufacturing).
The description template for solution concept characterizes into five categories  [13]. These five categories are: 1) an abstract of idea describing the general properties, all the relevant performing functions, extra note, merits/demerits. 2) A complete explanation of problem model (in which contradiction contain action parameter and evaluation parameter or SU-field model) and solution model (using tools like inventive principle, inventive standard, physical effect database). 3) Possible outcomes, trends and developments from the outcomes of related projects in term of hypothesizes and laws of technical systems evolution, 4) keeping the objective of the project point out all the inacceptable conditions. 5) A sketch of the solution concept, which is synthesized by model of solution and hypothesis of solution concept.
Acknowledgments. The research work reported here was made possible by the Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (France). The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Introduction Open source refers to a product development movement where the source of the product (software, hardware, or hybrid) is publicly accessible so as to create derived works. The open source movement has its origin in the software community. Open source software is a term for software published under licenses that do not give any private intellectual property rights to the developers. The source code is publicly and freely accessible so that anyone can reuse it with or without prior modification  [3]. The transfer of open source principles from software development to the world of physical objects gave birth to the phenomenon of open source hardware (OSH). OSH is piece of hardware whose design is made publicly available so that anyone can study, modify, distribute, make, and sell the design or hardware  [5].
• How does a company facilitate the reuse of design? Companies use a mix of techniques to facilitate design reuse. The first technique aims at using a design rationale to capture the reasons and arguments leading to a design decision  [7, 11]. The second technique consists in organizing the design data and using data structures such as ontologies  [14]. The third technique corresponds to careful management of data using information systems such as PDM/PLM software  [9]. When such database-based information systems fail to retrieve existing designs, information retrieval techniques such as search engines can facilitate design reuse. In computer-aided design environment, the use of data exchange formats, the storage of models in wellstructured libraries, and the capitalization with templates facilitate design reuse.
Design from Experiment In the previous experiment  [7] , the analysis of the usability of the library chair has been performed; this analysis aimed to investigate the chair characteristics that affect either the perceived overall comfort and postural comfort. As far as feedbacks registered during the experiments, all participants accused pain in the lumbar region and the main factor was identified as they were unable to lean their back on the backrest to sit properly and to unload the weight of the head and the back  [13, [16] [17] [18] [19]. The software CaMAN  [20]  was used to process postural angles and to compare subjective and objective postural data and to correlate perceived discomfort to chair's characteristics. The thoracic and the lumbar areas were confirmed as critical even through the statistical analysis.
Optimization Result The function fmincon of Matlab is used to obtain a local minimum value with respect to the nonlinear and linear constraint. This kind of nonlinear optimization problem is extremely sensitive to the initial starting point. To generate a global solution, one idea is to repeatedly run a local solver with the various starting points. The best solution is then picked among the multiple local minima. The Multi Start method was applied in our study. Firstly, we should define the working course, Course = 80 mm, and the tolerance, toler = 5 mm, to prevent the center of mass falling outside the working course. The target cubic stiffness, A 3 is 4e5 N/m 3. The initial value is chosen with the parameters given in  [5]. When the number of local solvers is 1000, the lightest quality design parameter is obtained in Table  3  and a new distribution of pitch is found in Fig.
Volumetric Characterization The first step was to get a simple model of the Luffa in a CAD file, in order to know its internal structure and potentially get a micromechanical model  [3]. Due to its fibrous structure, a medical-oriented program called 3DSlicer was used. It can generate volumes with cross sections as inputs, which was a good approach in this case, as substantial variability can be observed within a few centimeters (Fig. 1 ). Due to the superficial smoothness of the Luffa, the minimum thickness that could be achieved for each slice was 10 mm and thus one piece was divided in 25 parts. In that way several full models of Luffa were modelled and analysed. While conducting a full CT scan would be useful in order to get an exact micromechanical model, stacked up 2D images, along with the smoothing tools provided by 3DSlicer is an economic pathway to create an accurate CAD file.
Materials and Methods The LCA analysis has been carried out with OpenLCA software version 1. 10. 1  [7] , integrated with the ecoinvent database version 3. 6  [8]. The allocation of the environmental burden has been handled by means of the cut-off system. In this way, if a material is recycled, the primary producer does not receive any credit for the provision of any recyclable materials. As a consequence, recyclable materials are available burden-free to recycling processes, and secondary (recycled) materials bear only the impacts of the recycling processes. Recyclable materials have been selected on the European market for products, consequently they include all the upstream burdens included average transports of that product within the geography, as well as inputs of the product itself to cover losses in trade and transport  [8].
This particularly affects the energy mix referred to in the production of electricity for recharging electric car batteries but also the emission related to the petrol production and distribution. In all cases, reference was made to urban driving in areas with high population density. The electricity market activity ends with the transport of the energy at low voltage (400 V) electricity in the transmission network over aerial lines and cables. The ecoinvent dataset includes: electricity inputs produced in this country and from imports and transformed to low voltage; the transmission network; direct emissions to air; electricity losses during transmission. The dataset is extrapolated from year 2017 to the year of the calculation (2019). The energy mix change greatly in function of the natural resources and the political choices of the country.
Moreover, it must be considered that material choice strongly influences the performances of the successive phases (e. g. recyclability or possibility to separate material at EoL). Therefore, eco-design in the context of coffee machine BoL requires the use of material selection tools or at least a material database including environmental properties of materials (e. g. Ansys Granta Selector tool equipped with the Ansys Granta MI database). The use of such tools allows anticipating sustainable matters yet in the first design phase and reduce the environmental impact of products. Middle of Life (MoL) is a key phase, since it is well known that most of the environmental impacts for energy using products is caused during their use (up to 95-98% in case of coffee machines). The energy consumption is the most important metric concerning the use phase.
Methodology For the generation of the template, a specific methodology has been implemented, aimed at optimizing the conditions of insertability, stability and uniqueness of positioning, which maximize the use of the device during the operating phase. The pursued methodology provided for the succession of a series of procedural steps, listed below: -Using a medical image processing software (3DSlicer, slicer. org), a three dimensional surface, in. STL format, related to the spinous process of a lumbar vertebra has been obtained, and the part of the surface of the spinous process on which the template rests is duplicated. -One of the infinite possible extraction directions has been identified. As the extraction direction changes, undercuts located in different positions will occur. Note how the insertion and extraction of the template take place in the same direction, only the orientation changes, so in the two operations the same shaded areas are found.
The Algorithm The algorithm has been developed in the Rhinoceros -Grasshopper environment. The Grasshopper is a visual programming language that allows to parametrize the drawing tools of the Rhinoceros CAD (Fig. 1 ). The first step of the algorithm is the filling of the regions that are to be optimized with the seeds. Each seed is the point where the lattices will connect to each other. It is possible to decide the number and the distribution of the seeds, that can be uniform or not. In the second step, the seeds are interconnected by linear prismatic elements. In this phase it is possible to decide a limit of a number of connections for each node and the maximum and minimum length limits of the connectors. Obviously, by increasing the number and the limits, the number of connectors that make up the lattice structure increases.
Conclusions In the paper a novel 3D optimization method, based on a mix of random and highstress points, have been presented. The method is based on a stochastic lattice structure inside two, or more, monolithic walls. The algorithm has been developed inside the Rhinoceros-Grasshopper environment that allows to program and parametrise the CAD commands. As case study a simple cantilever beam has been choose. The analysis shows the different effects, in terms of weight and stress, changing the number of seeds necessary for the construction of the stochastic lattice structure. The method showed high potentialities with a drastic weight reduction (up to 50%) and very good stress performance, with a very low computational effort. Furthermore, the stochastic structure ensures good performance even when real loads differ significantly from design loads.
CAD Modelling of Flexible Structures by Commercial Software To investigate a standard approach to model additively manufactured textiles, a test case study related to the design and modelling of a customized elbow orthosis was developed (Fig. 1 ). The analysed elbow prosthesis was initially modelled using a classical reverse engineering approach  [13]  and its structural parts were dimensioned using numerical methods  [14]. The flexible structures of the orthosis were modelled using the commercial software Rhinoceros. Initially, it was decided to create flexible structures consisting of networks of rings. For this purpose, the Paneling Tools plug-in was used. The 3D basic module of the network is shown in Fig. 2  (left). The structure created and adapted to the external surface of a part of the orthosis is shown in Fig.
CAD Modelling of Flexible Structures by a New Approach To overcome the drawbacks of the modelling of flexible structures with Rhinoceros, a new modelling approach based on generative algorithms was proposed. The new algorithm was developed using Grasshopper, a graphical algorithm editor that can be used as a plug-in to Rhinoceros. The developed algorithm allows the creation of flexible structures made of different basic modules (for example rings) that are perfectly mapped onto any surface with no deformation and/or misalignment. The algorithm consists of three main features that allow the: • 3D parametric modelling of a basic module; • definition of a grid of points on a surface; • paneling of the basic module on the surface. The function blocks diagram of the developed algorithm is shown in Fig.
Conclusions In this work, a new process aimed at the design and production of orthopaedic devices fully manufacturable by Additive Manufacturing has been implemented. To better customise and improve the aesthetic appearance of an elbow orthosis, it was decided to use Additively Manufactured Textiles technology. Initially, a commercial CAD software was used to model the non-structural parts of the orthosis and its flexible structures. This approach had some drawbacks mainly due to the deformations and misalignments of the AMT structures. To overcome these problems, a new modelling approach based on generative algorithms was developed. The obtained results have shown that this generative algorithm is a very good solution that allows the user to create very complex flexible structures with no drawbacks typical of traditional CAD modelling approaches.
Methods A 1 mm unit cell of P-Surface type was modeled as described in  [13]. A coarse mesh was used to model the unit cell of a P-surface; the Catmull-Clark subdivision surface algorithm was then adopted to achieve a smooth geometric model; finally, a thickness is assigned adopting a differential offset algorithm. The deviation of the subdivided mesh at the third iteration of the Catmull-Clark subdivision scheme from the reference minimal surface was then computed in Rhinoceros 6 by "Mesh-Mesh Deviation" tool from "Rhino Open Projects"  [17, 18]. The reference minimal surface was built in Netfabb introducing the minimal surface implicit equation in the mathematical part library (accuracy at 0. 05 mm). The finite element analysis software ANSYS R18. 1 was then used to obtain the mechanical properties of the TPMS cells: Young's modulus (E), Poisson's ratio (ν), and Shear modulus (G).