dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
We acknowledge the contributions of Jir ˇı ´Borovic ˇka and  Pavel Spurny ´, Ondr ˇejov Observatory (Czech Republic) , who determined the atmospheric path. This work is partly funded by the  Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation ) -Project-ID  263649064 -TRR 170  (A. B. , C. B. , T. K. ); this is TRR170 Publication No. 119. M. S. and C. M. thank the  Swiss National Science Foundation  ( SNF ) for support. The work of H. B. and M. S. has been in parts carried out within the framework of the  NCCR PlanetS  supported by  SNF. D. H. thanks  F. Langenhorst  for support and access to the FIB-SEM and TEM facilities at  FSU-IGW , which are funded by the  DFG  via grant  LA830/14-1. D. F. (CIW) acknowledges the support of the  NASA  awards  80NSSC19K0559  and  80NSSC20K0344.
Oxygen isotope analysis Oxygen isotope analyses of tourmaline and quartz were performed at the SwissSIMS ion probe national facility at the University of Lausanne (Switzerland) using a Cameca IMS 1280-HR instrument. A total of 180 18 O/ 16 O isotopic ratio analyses were performed on tourmaline and quartz chips placed in indium mounts together with grains of three tourmaline (UNIL-T2, UNIL-T6, and IAEA-B-4;  Marger et al. , 2019)  and one quartz (UNIL-Q1;  Seitz et al. , 2017)  reference materials. The complete SIMS dataset for O isotopes is reported in Supplementary Table  S1. Prior to the SIMS session, the mounts were cleaned with dry ethanol and were dried in an oven at 60 • C for 24 h, and then coated with a 35-40 nm-thick layer of gold. Oxygen isotope measurements were done with a 10 kV Cs + primary beam and a ∼2 nA current, resulting in a ∼15 μm beam size.
All data have been obtained during the same SIMS session in March 2018. The reference materials were measured between every 5 to 8 unknowns for monitoring the instrument stability and analytical accuracy. The average reproducibility on the reference materials was better than 0. 4 (2SD) and internal error for each analysis lower than 0. 2 (2SD). After correction of the instrumental mass fractionation (IMF), the measured 18 O/ 16 O isotopic ratios were corrected for tourmaline matrix effect based on the Mg/(Mg + Fe) and Al(Y) contents determined independently by electron microprobe  (Marger et al. , 2019; Harlaux et al. , 2020). The average IMF for all sessions of O isotope measurement was about 3. 6 ± 0. 2 for IAEA-B4 schorl, 2. 3 ± 0. 3 for UNIL-T2 dravite, 3. 6 ± 0. 3 for UNIL-T6 elbaite, and 5.
Boron isotope analysis Boron isotope analyses of tourmaline were performed at the SwissSIMS ion probe national facility at the University of Lausanne (Switzerland) using a Cameca IMS 1280-HR instrument. A total of 166 11 B/ 10 B isotopic ratio analyses were performed on the same tourmaline chips analyzed for O isotopes. Each indium mount included grains of three tourmaline reference materials (UNIL-T2, UNIL-T6, and IAEA-B-4;  Marger et al. , 2020). The complete SIMS dataset for B isotopes is reported in Supplementary Table  S1. Sample preparation was the same as for O isotope analysis. Boron isotope measurements were done with a 13 kV O -duoplasmatron primary beam and a ∼5-6 nA current, resulting in a ∼20 μm beam size. 10 B and 11 B secondary ions, accelerated at 10 kV, were measured at a mass resolving power M/ M of 2400 (entrance slit at 100 μm and exit slit 1 of the multicollection) and were counted in multicollection mode on Faraday cups (L'2 for 10 B and H'2 for 11 B, both set with 10 11 resistors).
Typical count rate obtained on 10 B was 2. 5 × 10 6 cps (count per second) and 9 × 10 6 cps for 11 B. The background of the Faraday cups was calibrated at the beginning of each day session, and a nuclear magnetic resonance was used to lock the magnetic field. Each calculated isotopic ratio 11 B/ 10 B corresponds to 3 measurement blocks of 10 cycles per block, resulting in 30 cycles of acquisition with counting times of 5 s per cycle on each mass. Each analysis takes ∼4. 5 min, including presputtering (50 s) and automated centering of secondary ions (60 s). This setting allowed an average reproducibility on the reference materials better than 0. 6 (2SD) and internal error for each analysis lower than 0. 4 (2SD). All data have been obtained during the same SIMS session in November 2018. The reference materials were measured between every 2 to 4 unknowns for monitoring the instrument stability and analytical accuracy.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the  Swiss National Science Foundation  (grant  SNSF S19053_169901 ) and the company Minsur S. A. authors thank  Drs. Michel Pichavant  and  David Dolejš  for fruitful discussions during this project. We are also grateful to  Drs. Robert Trumbull  and  Fernando Tornos  for their constructive and thorough reviews, which helped to improve the original manuscript. Dr. Rosemary Hickey-Vargas  is thanked for the editorial handling.
For the X-band, the value of ∆(k w ) is smaller than 0 when the wind speed is small enough. One can also note that there exists a significant inconsistency between the curves estimated by using XMOD2 and NSCAT4. The reason for this phenomenon is probably because the XMOD2 is a relatively new geophysical model and needs more time and data to be well-tuned. In this work, the inverted omni-directional curvature spectrum and ∆(k w ) can be regarded as "real" proxies of the Bragg wave spectrum. ically. For the X-band, the value of   w is smaller than 0 when the wind speed is small enough. One can also note that there exists a significant inconsistency between the curves estimated by using XMOD2 and NSCAT4. The reason for this phenomenon is probably because the XMOD2 is a relatively new geophysical model and needs more time and data to be well-tuned.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H. Z. ; methodology, H. Z. ; validation, H. Z. and X. -M. L. ; investigation, H. Z. ; writing-original draft preparation, H. Z. ; writing-review and editing, J. Z. , A. K. and  X. -M. L. All  authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was supported in part by the  Joint Funds of the National Natural Science Foundation of China  under Grant  U2006207 , the  China Postdoctoral Science Foundation Funded Project  under Grant  2020M682261 , and the  Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities  under Grant  20CX06043A.
Here, we reproduce at the scale of the laboratory the complete spectrum of rupture velocities observed in nature. Our results show that when the nucleation length is within the fault length, Blue circles correspond to slow slip events (so-called SSEs), deep low-frequency earthquakes (LFEs), very-low-frequency earthquakes (VLFEs) and slow slip fronts (SSF)  7,9,10,13,-15,19,62. Regular earthquakes are presented by the red circles. The source time functions used were downloaded from the SCARDEC database  16, 63. Most of the data for regular earthquakes were taken from recent studies  62, 63. The dashed lines correspond to the regular trend deduced from natural observations for both slow (blue dashed lines) and fast earthquakes (red dashed lines)  1, 7. b Normalised scaling low assuming the average rupture velocity and the average static stress drop as determined in previous work for both regular  62, 63  and slow slip events  1, 7, 9, 10, 15, 19.
The axial stress can reach 680 MPa on 40-mm diameter samples. Both confining and axial pressure are controlled and measured with a resolution of 0. 01 MPa. Axial contraction is measured by averaging the values recorded on three capacitive gap sensors located outside of the vessel. These sensors record both the sample deformation and that of the apparatus. The resolution of these measurements is 0. 1 μ. Both pressure and displacement data were recorded at the maximum sampling rate during experiments (2. 4 kHz). Note that because of our sample geometry, increasing the differential stress leads to an increase in both shear and normal stresses. In addition to the record of regular mechanical data (σ 1 , σ 3 , axial strain ϵ 1 , radial strain ϵ 3 and axial contraction), eight strain gages equally spaced at 0.
8 cm and recording preferentially axial strain were glued 3 mm from the fault plane along the fault strike (Supplementary Fig. 1a ). This strain gage array is used to monitor the propagation of the rupture front during episodic slip events and to image the evolution of the stress distribution profile along the fault during experiments. The local shear stress was computed from the resolved stresses accounting for the transient changes in the axial stress recorded by the strain gage array. Transient changes in the confining pressure were neglected, which is justified by the relatively high compliance of the confining medium  38. Note that the strain gages data allow to record slip front velocity up to a maximum of 180 m/s. For faster events, we used acoustic records to track the rupture front velocity, as used in previous studies  [39] [40] [41].
Black circles correspond to each slip instability treated in this study. The missing data in panel c are related to experimental maintenance of the fluid pressure system. The fluid pressure during this period is constant along the experimental fault. larger the confining pressure, the larger the initial shear stress (~20, 42 and 70 MPa during experiments conducted at 30, 60 and 95 MPa confining pressure, respectively), i. e. , the amount of energy available in the system (Fig. 2 ). Then, the fluid pressure was increased locally through a borehole (Supplementary Fig. 1a ) at a constant volume rate to trigger a succession of slip events, up to the complete release of the energy stored in the system prior to the injection (Fig. 2 ). The fluid pressure was measured at both edge of the fault through boreholes connecting directly the pore fluid system to the fault plane.
Acknowledgements F. X. P. acknowledges funding provided by the  Swiss National Science Foundation  through grant  PZENP2/173613. F. X. P. is grateful to  A. Kato  for providing him the teleseismic dataset. F. X. P. acknowledges  J. Fortin  and  A. Nicolas  for providing the andesite sample through the grant GEOTREF obtained by  J. Fortin. F. B. acknowledges support of the  Swiss National Science Foundation  through the fellowship No. P2ELP2/188034. M. V. acknowledges support provided by the  ERC BEFINE  (Grant  757290 ). F. X. P. thanks  A. Schubnel  and  R. Madariaga  for introducing him to this topic and  F. Paglialunga  and  M. Acosta  for continuing to explore it with him. This work benefits from discussions with  F. Cappa ,  B. Lecampion ,  J. -F. Molinari  and  H. Leclère.
e a r t h q u a k e s 3 R e g u la r e a rt h q u a k e sFig. 1 31 Fig. 1Scaling relation between the different modes of slip. a Scaling law for natural earthquakes observed from seismological or geodetical measurements. Blue circles correspond to slow slip events (so-called SSEs), deep low-frequency earthquakes (LFEs), very-low-frequency earthquakes (VLFEs) and slow slip fronts (SSF)7,9,10,13,-15,19,62. Regular earthquakes are presented by the red circles. The source time functions used were downloaded from the SCARDEC database 16, 63. Most of the data for regular earthquakes were taken from recent studies 62, 63. The dashed lines correspond to the regular trend deduced from natural observations for both slow (blue dashed lines) and fast earthquakes (red dashed lines) 1, 7. b Normalised scaling low assuming the average rupture velocity and the average static stress drop as determined in previous work for both regular 62, 63  and slow slip events 1, 7, 9, 10, 15, 19.
The terminal lava dome growth involved fully outgassed magmas ascended during more than 1 month, giving time for microlite crystallization (∼40 vol% plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, magnetite, and cristobalite). The detection of any shallow new magmatic intrusion is crucial, since it can trigger a sequence of conduit processes leading to an eruption marked by a succession of different and disastrous eruptive styles, following a scenario similar to the AD 1530 eruption. Overall, we provide a combined approach of petrological, geochemical, and experimental data that may be used to infer ascent conditions and rates at other volcanic systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS HB-B and MP gratefully thank  E. Deloule  for the access and help with the SIMS analyses. CM and MP thank  I. di Carlo  for the Raman analyses and help with the EMP analyses, and  P. Benoist  for the help with the SEM analyses. We gratefully thank the five reviewers, the Associate Editor  Mike Carroll  and the Editor  Valerio Acocella , who volunteered their time to improve the manuscript.
FUNDING This study benefitted from financial support from the  French CNRS-INSU_TelluS program  ( H. Balcone-Boissard ), the  ANR V-CARE  ( ANR-18-CE03-0010 ;  G. Boudon ), the  EQUIPEX   PLANEX  project ( ANR-11-EQPX-0036 ; B. Scaillet), and the LABEX  VOLTAIRE  project ( ANR-10-LABX-100-01 ; B. Scaillet).
Materials and methods The accessory mineral phases were identified using a Merlin compact Zeiss Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), co-operated by BRGM-CNRS-Orléans University, and equipped with Energy Dispersive System (EDS) for qualitative analyses. In addition, SEM-cathodoluminescence images have been made using MEB-CL MIRA-3 Tescan (BRGM-CNRS-Orléans University). Chemical analyses of arsenopyrite were obtained with the Cameca SX-Five Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer (EPMA) at the Institut des Sciences de la Terre d'Orléans (ISTO). Analyses were performed using an accelerating voltage of 20 kv, a beam current at 40 nA, a beam diameter of 3 mm, and a counting time of 30 s for Fe, Ni, Co, Sb, Pb, Cu, As, Zn, Ag, Bi, and 60 s for gold. Details on the method, parameters and analytical data are given in ESM2.
This leads us to suggest that a large part of the gold and Bi-Te phases probably precipitated directly form a hydrothermal fluid enriched in Bi-Te-Au and were not scavenged by a bismuthrich liquid/melt. Between stages 1 and 3, a temperature decrease is observed (Fig. 14 ). In addition, the stage 3 underwent a significant pressure drop associated with a change in tectonic regime, which might have triggered the input of a meteoritic fluid  (Bril, 1982; Fig. 14). Furthermore, the decrease in the sulfide activity in the ore-fluid could be responsible for the gold deposition by destabilization of gold-sulfide complexes Table  1. Summary of the EPMA assays obtained on arsenopyrite from the Brioude-Massiac W-As-Bi-Au veins and gold from Bonnac. Estimated temperatures of crystallization with the arsenopyrite geothermometer are compared with the fluid-inclusions data  (Bril, 1982).
Acknowledgements. This work was funded by e -Mines Company  through its R&D activity, and the ISTO with contribution from  ANRT. The authors thank the following persons for their technical support and valuable advices:  T. Poitrenaud ,  B. Cochelin ,  A. Beaudoin ,  R. Augier ,  C. Montmartin ,  J. Gouin ,  M. Picault. We particularly thank  I. Di-Carlo  ( ISTO ) for the SEM, cathodoluminescence and microprobe analyses and for valuable advices. S. Janiec ,  G. Badin , and  P. Benoist-Julliot  ( ISTO ) for thin sections preparation, and technical assistance, and the GeOHeLiS platform for the LA-ICP-MS dating. We also gratefully acknowledge  Pr. L. Jolivet  and  Dr. O. Vanderhaeghe , for their efficient editorial handling, and  Pr. D. Béziat  and one anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments that improved this manuscript significantly.
Cryovolcanism has been widely conjectured in some form of Saturn's moon, Titan  [8] , and the Titan's thick atmosphere is considered as a strong argument in favor of recent activity  [9] , but the interpretation of Cassini data has been insufficient to demonstrate conclusively whether Titan is, or even has been, cryovolcanically active  [9]. Ocean worlds are a focal point of interest in planetary science for presenting a convergence of the fundamental requirements for known life: a source of energy, a liquid solvent, and the resulting chemical gradients for mobilising biologically relevant elements including C, H, N, O, P, and S. All the active-to-dormant ocean worlds discussed above show evidence of the other known prerequisite for life, which is complex organics  [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. In this context, studying Ceres may solve remaining inquiries concerning the formation and evolution of planetary systems, and particularly the main belt.
Based on the data from the Dawn mission, the surface of Ceres is consistent with aqueous alteration of CM chondrites  [15] , suggesting first that the largest object of the main belt could be a carbonaceous body, different from the non-carbonaceous body formed in the inner solar system  [16] , but also that that Ceres experienced global aqueous alteration. Dawn revealed Ceres as a volatile-rich body, with a partially differentiated interior, which experienced both cryovolcanism and geothermal activity in its recent history. Dawn revealed an ubiquitous presence of hydrated minerals, a distribution of ammoniated phyllosilicates  [17, 18]  linked to its formation, and a latitudinal variation of abundance of water ice  [19]  related to the evolution of its subsurface. The presence of subsurface volatiles can be inferred from many geomorphological features : the bright regions within the Occator crater are one of the most remarkable features observed by Dawn, and are the most direct evidence of recent geothermal activity on this body.
Previous and upcoming missions The Calathus mission to Ceres stands on the shoulders of half a century of in situ and sample return missions: • The Dawn mission  [26]  could be considered a precursor or scout mission for Calathus, and provided numerous pieces of evidence supporting the presence of a subsurface cryosphere, as expounded in subsection 1. 1. Returning samples from the faculae salts should help determine its nature and composition. • The Cassini mission  [52]  during its flight through the plumes of Enceladus confirmed the existence of water beneath an icy surface. Cassini's data could be compared with Calathus' in order to better constrain the conditions of appearance of subsurface oceans on icy bodies. • The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) mission  [53]  to the Jovian system will be orbiting the Galilean satellites by the time Calathus is launched.
Thermal Infrared Mapper Thermal mapping of Ceres would provide information on the local and global physical properties of Ceres, such as surface porosity and grain size distribution. A thermal infrared camera, similar to the Thermal InfraRed imager (TIR) designed for the Hayabusa2 mission  [75] , This paper has been published on Acta Astronautica. Please cite the published version: https://doi. org/10. 1016/j. actaastro. 2020. 12. 050 would yield thermal emissions maps of Ceres. TIM observes in the wavelength range 8 to 12 µm. With a field of view of 16 deg × 12 deg, the TIM (Thermal Infrared Mapper) would be able to characterise the thermal inertia of the landing and sampling site as well as other regions of interests. As the TIM measurements require relatively little power and yield light weight data products (less 200 kb/image), it can be operated along with the NAC during the mapping phase, yielding a global thermal inertia map of Ceres at both daytime and nighttime.
Descent images, housekeeping and landing images acquired by the lander's camera are down-linked through the orbiter to Earth, where the status of the rover is assessed. Drill sites are selected based on the post-landing images. 3. Commands to collect sample 1 are sent to and executed by the lander. This paper has been published on Acta Astronautica. Please cite the published version:https://doi. org/10. 1016/j. actaastro. 2020. 12. 050 4. Post-drill images and housekeeping data are down-linked to Earth to assess the collection of sample 1 and possibly reevaluate drilling sites selection. 5. If the collection of sample 1 is successful, commands to collect sample 2 are sent to and executed by the rover. 6. Steps 4 and 5 are repeated for each sample.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge  ESA  and the  FFG  (the  Austrian Promotion Agency)  for the funding to attend the Post Alpbach Summmer School Event 2018. This study benefited from the work of 40 other students during the Summer School Alpbach 2018 on " Sample Return  from small solar system bodies". The authors also would like to thank all the tutors and organisers of the summer school for their support. The authors thank  Marcus Hallmann  for the PaGMO implementation of the outbound optimization.
2. 2 Descent images, housekeeping and landing images acquired by the lander's camera are down-linked through the orbiter to Earth, where the status of the rover is assessed. Drill sites are selected based on the post-landing images. 3. Commands to collect sample 1 are sent to and executed by the lander. This paper has been published on Acta Astronautica. Please cite the published version:https://doi. org/10. 1016/j. actaastro. 2020. 12. 050 4. Post-drill images and housekeeping data are down-linked to Earth to assess the collection of sample 1 and possibly reevaluate drilling sites selection. 5. If the collection of sample 1 is successful, commands to collect sample 2 are sent to and executed by the rover. 6. Steps 4 and 5 are repeated for each sample.
Acknowledgements This work was partly funded by  Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (IAG) ,  Ulan Bator , Mongolia. LB benefited from additional funding from  CEA/DASE, France. YK benefited from additional funding from  ANR-12-BS06-0016  contract. We are grateful to the  IAG  for organizing the project and field excursion for the 50th anniversary of the earthquake. We also thank  Antoine Schlupp  for sharing his previous works on the Mogod fault, as well as  Battogtokh Davaasambuu  for fruitfull discussions. We thank  Christoph Grützner ,  Eulàlia Masana ,  Joaquin Cortés Aranda , and the editor for their detailed comments on the manuscript.
The O2 observing run began  November 30, 2016 and ended   August 25, 2017  and included the first de-tection of a binary neutron star (BNS) merger  [23]. The O3 run began  April 1, 2019 and ended March 27, 2020 , for which the first six months (April 1, 2019 to  October 1, 2019) , prior to a 1-month commissioning break, is designated as the O3a epoch. The analysis presented here is based primarily on the O3a data set, with data from the remainder of the run (O3b epoch) used only for following up on promising signal candidates. From the O1, O2 and O3a data sets, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration have reported a total of 50 compact binary coalescences  [24] [25] [26] , primarily BBH events, with two binary neutron star (BNS) detections  [23, 27]  and one potential binary neutron star / black hole detection  [28].
The Virgo interferometer  [29]  observed during August 2017 near the end of the O2 run and throughout the O3 run. The Virgo data has not been used in this analysis, however, because of an unattractive tradeoff in computational cost for sensitivity gain, given the interferometer's higher noise level during the O3 run. Prior to searching the O3a data for continuous wave (CW) signals, the quality of the data was assessed and steps taken to mitigate the effects of instrumental artifacts. As in previous Advanced LIGO observing runs  [32] , instrumental "lines" (sharp peaks in fineresolution run-averaged H1 and L1 spectra) are marked, and where possible, their instrumental or environmental sources identified  [33]. The resulting database of artifacts proved helpful in eliminating spurious signal candidates emerging from the search.