dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Noise-free numerical test in a carotid geometry In what follows, the numerical experiments shown were computed using two softwares, one under continuous development and maintained by the COMMEDIA team at INRIA: the Finite Elements for Life Sciences and Engineering, FeLiScE, and another one implemented especially for this work: the Multi-physics for biomedicAl engineering and Data assimilation, MAD. In addition, tetrahedron meshing and optimization is done using Mmg (see  [47] ). In the tests, the synthetic ultrasound device is placed in such a way that we measure only in one half of the mid plane of the working domain as illustrated in Figure  3. The ultrasound wave forms an angle of π/4 respect to the dominant fluid direction in the main carotid branch, that is to say, b = √ 2/2, √ 2/2, 0.
The QD induced motion being smaller than the Brownian motion (x QD /x Br ∼ 1/100), the signal must be integrated over time to average out the Brownian motion (see SI). The chosen strategy is to carry out more than 1000 scans of one minute over a duration of about 20 hours. The scan data are postprocessed before the final averaging allowing to reduce the effects of technical noises and QD instabilities (see SI). To ensure stability of the experiment during this time, the power of all lasers is stabilized, the thermal drift of the wire position with respect to all lasers is tracked using an extra laser (wavelength 980 nm) reflected on the wire towards a quadrant photodiode (see SI), and the mechanical frequency is tracked with a phase locked loop (PLL), (see SI).
Acknowledgements JK, NV, AA, JC, JMG, PV and JPP are supported by the  French National Research Agency  (project  QDOT   ANR-16-CE09-0010 ). NV is supported by  Fondation Nanosciences. PLdA thanks Université Grenoble Alpes  and  CNRS  for supporting visits as invited scientist. AA is supported by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  under the  Research Collaborative Project Qu-DICE  ( ANR-PRC-CES47 ). MR is supported by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  under the  Research Collaborative Project QFL  ( ANR-16-CE30-0021 ). BP is supported by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  under the project  QC-Force  ( ANR-JCJC-2016-CE09 ). OA acknowledges support from  ERC Atto-Zepto. PV acknowledges support from the  ERC   StG 758794 "Q-ROOT ". Sample fabrication was carried out in the " Plateforme Technologique Amont " and in CEA/LETI/DOPT clean rooms.
Computational and experimental details In this article, we have utilized the ReaxFF reactive force field, which has previously been successfully employed to study the thermal oxidation  [20]  and tribochemical wear mechanism  [21]  of silicon. In order to consider the charge equilibration, the system utilized the charge equilibration (QEq) method  [22, 23]  at each time step. 'Large-scale Atomic/Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator' (LAMMPS) code  [24]  was used to perform the simulations using the NVT ensemble with the Nose-Hoover heat bath at a time step of 0. 1 femtoseconds. The temperature was kept at room temperature (300 K). Verlet integration with a timestep of 0. 1 femtoseconds was used to calculate the atom trajectories. OVITO  [25]  was used to visualize the system. However, the Coulomb energy term in the ReaxFF force field has been changed, as described in  [26] , which facilitates the incorporation of the applied electric field properly.
Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the  EPSRC  ( EP/K018345/1  and  EP/T024844/1 ) and  Royal Society-NSFC international exchange program  ( IEC/NSFC/181474 ) for this study. The authors also acknowledge the use of the  EPSRC  ( EP/K000586/1 ) funded  ARCHIE-WeSt High-Performance Computer at the University of Strathclyde.
Design considerations From the point of view of accuracy, the ideal form of "folding" would be to run the "full chain" simulation and reconstruction used by the experiments themselves/ This would require passing newly generated signal events to first the appropriate Geant 4  [5]  geometry and material interaction models, then modelling the detector electronic response (digitization), and finally each experiment's reconstruction and analysis software that yields their calibrated physics objects. But none of this is publicly available, and even if it were, the typical CPU cost of multiple minutes per event renders it unfeasible to analysts other than the experimental collaborations themselves. In lieu of this option, the Delphes  [6]  fast-simulation program has become the field's established fast simulation tool: it uses approximate experiment geometries and particle propagation models, combined with tabulated reconstruction efficiencies for different object types, to produce approximate "reco-level" physics objects for analysis.
Expressing detector effects as perobject transfer functions (and mappings to null reco-level ones, in the case of reconstruction inefficiencies) is also ideally compatible with detector performance metrics as published by experiments, meaning that the most accurate parametrisations can be applied directly rather than having to be constructed by cunning configuration of material and reconstruction components. The second major requirement in our design was that detector simulation should in general be analysis-specific, rather than a monolithic detector simulation which is assumed to be appropriate for all analyses. The latter approach is the one taken by Delphes, but in practice there are too many analysis-specific effects for the picture of a unique ATLAS or CMS detector emulation to pass muster: the MadAnalysis 5  [9, 13]  and CheckMATE  [12]  analysis databases, for example, provide different Delphes detector configuration files for each analysis.
Validation of smearing performance In the absence of significant truth-level vs. reconstruction-level MC data from the LHC experiments with which to validate an external fast-simulation package, we will now compare the performance of the Rivet smearing approach to the more explicit approach in the form of Delphes 3. 4. 2. Neither code is guaranteed to be the more correct, but as both have been tested with success in e. g. Les Houches comparisons of BSM analysis recastings  [15]  3 it is expected that their performance on basic event observables should be comparable and perhaps indicate the current acceptable range of fast-simulation uncertainty. To provide a source of most relevant physics objects, we use two event samples: 100k events of inclusive top-quark and t t production by Pythia 8.
Acknowledgements AB is grateful to the  Royal Society  for a  University Research Fellowship  (grant  UF160548 ). This work has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  as part of the  Marie Sk lodowska-Curie Innovative Training Network MCnetITN3  (grant agreement no. 722104 ). DK is supported by the  National Research Foundation of South Africa  (Grant Number:  118515 ).
4 ), but L134 observations are still on-going. We observed last missing data of L134 in N 2 H + with EMIR on early July 2018, and started to build a consistent cloud model of L134. Three over four of the PSCs are detected with our current NIKA2 observations but one is interestingly still not yet detected (L134N) despite its coreshine brightness comparable to others (see Fig. 5 ). First, we will revisit the dust content of L183 thanks to NIKA2 data. In particular, we aim at: • better constraining dust composition (silicates and ice mantles) • find a suitable solution to match MIR and mm observations • revisit dust size distributions made of aggregates mixing not only 2 components but making use of our coagulated dust size distributions. By also modeling L134, when the observations will be done, we will better constrain the coagulation threshold for grain growth and study grain properties dependency with temperature and density.
In this paper, we survey radio instrumentation and facilities that currently operate in space weather science and/or operations, including instruments involved in solar, heliospheric, and ionospheric studies. We furthermore include an overview of the major space weather service providers in operation today and the current state-of-the-art in the radio data they use and provide routinely. The aim is to compare LOFAR4SW to the existing radio research infrastructure in space weather and show how it may advance both space weather science and operations in the radio domain in the near future.
As part of the design study, a survey was performed to review the current and planned use of radio instrumentation in space weather. The aim of this survey is to define the relationship of LOFAR4SW to the overall landscape of radio space weather research infrastructure. This includes comparing LOFAR4SW to other radio instrumentation, as well as a survey of how radio data are used by space weather service providers. Instruments operating in the radio domain were some of the first to begin observing space weather phenomena routinely e. g. the early observation of coronal shocks and energetic particles in the form of type II and III radio bursts, respectively  (Wild, 1950; Wild et al. , 1959). Observations of such phenomena still enjoy a prominent position in space weather science and operations in the modern era, and the variety of radio phenomena under routine observation in a space weather context has grown since these early developments.
Space weather radio instruments range in complexity from single antennas to long baseline interferometers composed of either dishes or phased arrays. The number of space weather service providers using radio data also continues to grow. These bodies provide daily alerts on space weather conditions to interested stakeholders in industry, such as the aviation, power-grid, and satellite industries. Despite the variety of radio instruments used in space weather and the increasing number of forecasters using radio data routinely, a modern survey of radio instruments and data used in a space weather capacity has not been performed. This paper aims at such a survey and attempts to define how radio data is used in space weather (for both science and operations), the current instrumentation in existence, which space weather service providers use radio data, the developments and state-of-the-art in space weather radio observations, and finally how a fully built LOFAR4SW fits into this landscape of existing facilities.
Radio observation techniques used in space weather There are a variety of techniques used routinely in radio observations of space weather phenomena. These include some well known techniques such as monitoring total solar flux with time series, dynamic spectroscopy of solar radio bursts, and interferometric imaging. Some typical examples of these observation types are shown in Figure  1  and the instruments that observe these data types are outlined below. In this section, we outline some of the latest techniques available for radio space weather observations, particularly those used by phasedarray interferometers such as LOFAR. The additional advantage of a phased array is the ability to beam-form in potentially hundreds of different directions at once  (van Haarlem et al. , 2013). This allows for the observation of hundreds of sources on the sky and in the case of LOFAR4SW gives the ability to simultaneously observe the Sun, heliosphere, and ionosphere (as well as any other astrophysical observation).
Because the individual instruments number in the hundreds, only the general frequency of operation from 1 MHz to 20 MHz is indicated by the "Ionosonde*" marker in Figure  4. To add to this, there are thousands of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) monitors that observe ionospheric scintillation at 1. As outlined in Section 5. 2, ionospheric observations are among the most popular space weather data products and LOFAR4SW will be one of the most sensitive and advanced amongst the stations providing textbfthis kind of data. LOFAR4SW will also provide complimentary observations of SRBs via both imaging spectroscopy and tied-array imaging. Ground-based SRB monitors number in the hundreds worldwide. They range in complexity from interferometers to single dish/ antennas and receivers. Some of the most notable radio burst monitors used in space weather science and operations are the multiple sites of RSTN  (Guidice, 1979) , providing 24 h dynamic spectra observations from four separate sites around the world; the Nançay Decametric Array (NDA;  Lecacheux, 2000)  operating from 10 MHz to 80 MHz and the "Observation Radiospectrographique pour FEDOME et l'Étude des Éruptions Solaires" (ORFÉES; https://www.
However this science is still in its infancy, which may explain its lack of adoption as an operational space weather technique. Overall, this work has shown radio data forms an integral part of the infrastructure surrounding space weather observations, science, and operations. Amongst the multiple radio instruments operating in a space weather capacity today, LOFAR4SW will hold a special position as one of the most sensitive and versatile. It will have the ability to observe the Sun, heliosphere, and ionosphere routinely and simultaneously, while using a variety of advanced techniques only available to instruments of its kind i. e. phased-array interferometers capable of performing imaging spectroscopy, as well as tied-array imaging and general beam-forming. It will therefore be an integral part of the space weather research and operations infrastructure in the near future.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under Grant agreement No. 720527  in the frame of the project  InRel-NPower. S. B. wants to thank  Roland Weingärtner  for fruitful discussions,  Mike Müller  for assistance with parts of the AFM measurements and  Oliver Krause  from  Nanoworld GmbH  for supporting all AFM-related work.
Experimental results The reported results were obtained in a high-statistics spectroscopic study of Ba nuclei using the 122 Sn( 13 C,xn) reaction with a 65-MeV 13 C beam provided by the Tandem accelerator at the Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Italy, and with a stack of two selfsupporting 122 Sn foils with a thickness of 0. 5 mg/cm 2 each. The -rays were detected by the GALILEO spectrometer, which consisted of 25 Compton-suppressed Ge detectors placed on four rings at 90 (10 detectors), 119 (5 detectors), 129 (5 detectors) and 152 (5 detectors). Approximately 1. 2 ⇥10 9 triple-or higher-fold events have been collected. Details of the experiment and the data analysis can be found in Ref. [27]. 250 (a) (b) 442 +327 G G G G G G G G G G G.
PET/CT acquisition and reconstruction parameters The 18 F-FDG usual injected activity was increased from 3 MBq/kg to 5 MBq/kg in adult patients and the acquisition time was decreased from 2 min to 1. 5 min. Pediatric patients' activities were computed using the EANM PEDdose application) and these patients were also scanned at 1. 5 min per bed position. Data were acquired in list mode on a Vereos digital PET/CT system. At our centre, the standard reconstruction is as follows: 2 iterations, 20 subsets (2i20 s), point spread function modelling and time-of-flight enabled, no post filtering and voxel size of 2mm 3. In addition, frames of 60 s, 30 s, 20 s and 10 s per bed position were reconstructed with the same parameters. Given that an increase in the noise level was expected for reconstructions shorter than 60 s per bed position, we also reconstructed 30, 20 and 10 s per bed simulated acquisitions with (i) the same number of iterations but with PSF modeling disabled and (ii) a two-fold decrease in the number of iterations (1i10 sec ) and PSF disabled.
Inter-observer agreement was evaluated using the Cohen's Kappa. Kappa values were reported using the benchmarks of Landis and Koch (0. 81-1 almost perfect agreement, 0. 61-0. 80 substantial agreement, 0. 41-0. 60 moderate agreement and 0. 21-0. 40 fair agreement). Graphs and statistical analysis were performed using Prism 8 (Graphpad, graphpad Software, San Diego, CA, USA) and XLSTAT (addinsoft, Paris France).
Acknowledgments This project has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No  824093. The work of R. B. is supported by the  U. S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Nuclear Physics , under contract No. DE-SC0012704 , and in part by  Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD)  funds from  Brookhaven Science Associates. The work of L. S. is supported by the grant  2017/26/M/ST2/01074  of the National Science Center in Poland. He thanks CNRS, the  LABEX P2IO , the  GDR QCD. The project is also co-financed by the  Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange. The work of A. V. G. is supported by the  Russian Fund of Basic Research  grant  19-02-00690  and the  Ministry of Education and Science of Russia.
Different types of charged hadrons are distinguished using information from two ring-imaging Cherenkov detectors. Muons are identified by a system composed of alternating layers of iron and multiwire proportional chambers. The online event selection is performed by a trigger, which consists of a hardware stage, based on information from the calorimeter and muon systems, followed by a software stage, which applies a full event reconstruction. At the hardware trigger stage, events are required to have a muon with high p T or a hadron, photon or electron with high transverse energy deposited in the calorimeters. The software trigger requires a two-, three-or four-track secondary vertex with a significant displacement from any primary vertex. We use data samples collected from 2011 to 2018, at centre-of-mass energies of 7, 8, and 13 TeV, corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 9 fb -1.
For the latter fit, we describe the signal peak with a Gaussian core that transitions to an exponential tail on each side, and we model the background with a third-degree polynomial. The results of these fits are shown in Fig. 2. The total data sample contains 4240 ± 70 B + → J/ψK + decays; the fraction originating from B * 0 s2 decays is f B * 0 s2 = (25. 4 ± 1. 8) %, where the uncertainty combines the statistical and systematic uncertainties from the choice of fit function. The year-to-year variation is not found to be statistically significant, so we use the value obtained from the combined dataset for all years. The relative efficiency of the signal and normalisation modes is determined using simulation with corrections from data. For B * 0 s2 decays the relative efficiencies in different years average around 30%, with an absolute year-to-year variation of less than 3%.
The optimal number of free polynomial parameters in the most signallike BDT output bin, based on the best-fit value of -2 log L, penalised by one for each additional parameter, is four. We further study the effect of background modelling by performing a large number of pseudoexperiments, both background-only and with injected signal at branching fractions of 1 × 10 -5 and 2 × 10 -5. In these studies, we first fit a background model of some polynomial degree to one of the control samples. From this background model we generate many pseudodatasets that we fit with a model of a different degree. Based on these studies, we take into account the systematic uncertainty due to the background modelling by reporting the weakest limit using background descriptions of third, fourth, or fifth degree polynomials, all of which well describe the background shapes in the pseudoexperiments.
Acknowledgements We express our gratitude to our colleagues in the CERN accelerator departments for the excellent performance of the LHC. We thank the technical and administrative staff at the LHCb institutes. We acknowledge support from  CERN  and from the national agencies:  CAPES ,  CNPq ,  FAPERJ  and  FINEP (Brazil) ;  MOST  and  NSFC (China) ;  CNRS/IN2P3  (France);  BMBF ,  DFG  and  MPG (Germany) ;  INFN (Italy) ;  NWO (Netherlands) ;  MNiSW  and  NCN (Poland) ;  MEN/IFA (Romania) ;  MSHE (Russia) ;  MinECo (Spain) ;  SNSF  and  SER (Switzerland) ;  NASU (Ukraine) ;  STFC  ( United Kingdom );  DOE NP  and  NSF (USA). We acknowledge the computing resources that are provided by  CERN ,  IN2P3 (France) ,.
Data accessibility Data is accessible as "Martinsson, Anton; Trstanova, Zofia. (2019). ISST Deca-Alanine. University of Edinburgh. School of Mathematics. https://doi. org/10. 7488/ds/2491". The following libraries were used: -pydiffmap https://github. com/DiffusionMapsAcademics/pyDiffMap -OpenMM Eastman, Peter, et al. "OpenMM 7: Rapid development of high-performance algorithms for molecular dynamics. " PLoS computational biology 13. 7 (2017): e1005659.
7 7 Data accessibility Data is accessible as "Martinsson, Anton; Trstanova, Zofia. (2019). ISST Deca-Alanine. University of Edinburgh. School of Mathematics. https://doi. org/10. 7488/ds/2491". The following libraries were used: -pydiffmap https://github. com/DiffusionMapsAcademics/pyDiffMap -OpenMM Eastman, Peter, et al. "OpenMM 7: Rapid development of high-performance algorithms for molecular dynamics. " PLoS computational biology 13. 7 (2017): e1005659.
Acknowledgements. The authors thank all of the staff of the  UKRI-STFC Central Laser Facility  at the  Rutherford Appleton Laboratory  and the ORION laser facility at AWE plc. The authors acknowledge useful discussions with  C. Joshi ,  M. Koepke ,  C. Li ,  L. O. Silva ,  C. N. Danson , and  H. S. McLean ; collaborators at  Los Alamos National Laboratory :  J. D. Sadler ,  B. M. Haines ,  R. E. Olson ,  S. A. Yi ,  A. B. Zylstra ,  K. Flippo ,  P. A. Bradley ,.
Data accessibility. Third-party codes FLASH 4. 6. 2 ( flash. uchicago. edu/site/flashcode), Smilei 4. 4 (maisondela simulation. fr/smilei) and PROBLEM (github. com/flash-center/PROBLEM) are freely available. Code written for the purposes of this paper and input files for simulations are available at github. com/unpairedbracket/ channelling-code. Raw data generated at Orion is only released on an individual basis. Please contact MPH (Matthew. P. Hill@awe. co. uk) to request access.
Optimization and Parameter Sweep As a starting point, we built upon Piezo D, an open source software for modeling the performance and guiding the design of piezoresistive cantilever beam sensors  41. Although originally developed for the design of solid cantilever beams to measure force, the code is modular and can be applied and adapted to a variety of problems. Here, we modified the algorithm to incorporate the geometrical features of the hollow cantilever (Figure  1b ) and also to convert frequency noise to mass-equivalent noise for a given measurement bandwidth (Supporting Information 6). Overall, we optimized for seven geometric parameters for the cantilever (Figure  1b ), including its total length  and width , and the height tc and width wc of the inner channel extending to the tip of the cantilever (Lc=L-wext); other parameters such as the thickness tLID of the bottom and top lids sealing the embedded channel were assumed fixed, consistent with technological constraints (i.
The instantaneous frequency of the numerically controlled oscillator of each PLL was used to create a sinusoidal signal and then all the frequency signals were summed together to create a drive signal to vibrate a single piezoceramic plate that simultaneously actuated the entire SNR array. We experimentally found the n-type background substrate bias should be set to 1 V to ensure an optimized n-p isolation across the different cantilevers within the array and limit the noise. The measured resonance frequency was post processed with a MATLAB script which extracted frequency peak shifts arising from a particle passage event using matched filters of varying peak widths  13  mimicking a particle passing through the embedded channel. Four independently pressurized vials were fluidically connected to the two bypass channels for the SNR array: one channel was used for loading the nanoparticles and the other for collecting them after their measurement.