dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
country time trend Robust standard errors in parentheses. ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively. Gender of the respondent and whether the respondent was born in an urban or rural locality are included as controls. Specifications include mother fixed effects and robust errors. columns (1) to (3) include all waves and add control for old child when comparing children within a family. Columns (4) to (6) restrict observations to 1994-2010 waves and include linear trend. Children height is converted into height-for-age z-scores after subtracting the average and dividing by the standard deviation of the height of US children of the same age, using the WHO Global Database based on US population data. Height-for-age z-scores Adding father's height and education Adding mother's current employment sector (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Born during transition -0.
004  *  *  * 0. 966  *  *  * (0. 312) (0. 309) Father completed tertiary education 1. 518  *  *  * 1. 493  *  *  * (0. 315) (0. 307) Observations 40910 39943 R 2 0. 386 0. 387 Other controls Yes Yes Country fixed effects Yes Yes Birth year fixed effects No No Time trend Linear Linear Source: Life in Transition Survey III, EBRD Transition Indicators, Gapminder, Correlates of War Data, UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset, and authors' calculations. Notes: Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the country level. ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively. All specifications control for country fixed effects and country-specific linear time trends. Additionally, gender of the respondent, whether the respondent was born in an urban or rural locality, religion, parental education, and the incidence of war are included as controls.
537  *  *  * 1. 523  *  *  * (0. 315) (0. 308) Observations 40905 39938 R 2 0. 385 0. 387 Other controls Yes Yes Country fixed effects Yes Yes Birth year fixed effects No No Time trend Linear Linear Source: Life in Transition Survey III, EBRD Transition Indicators, Gapminder, Correlates of War Data, UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset, and authors' calculations. Notes: Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the country level. ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively. All specifications control for country fixed effects and country-specific linear time trends. Additionally, gender of the respondent, whether the respondent was born in an urban or rural locality, religion, parental education, and the incidence of war are included as controls. Specification (2) also controls for parental sector of employment and log GDP per capita.
3. 2. Data collection and analysis This research is based on both secondary and primary data. As secondary data, institutional reports and academic publications provided us with a good understanding of the energy community movements in France and the Netherlands. Primary data in the form of 41 semistructured interviews conducted with experts, energy communities, and their supporting organisations were used to understand the challenges faced by energy communities and the role supporting organisations play in helping them overcome these challenges. Table  1  summarizes all the data collected and provides a detailed overview of the type of information we obtained. The analysis was conducted in an iterative manner as we moved back and forth between the data and the theoretical constructs. For the sake of conciseness, however, we will describe the procedure in a stepwise manner.
Under the PPP model, this objective must be readjusted according to the building's performance during the first two years, considered to be probationary. The team in charge of site operations includes a chief engineer and three technicians. In addition to these in-situ resources, the hierarchy of the company manages the contract externally. The building's operation is governed by a technical system controlled by a Building Technical Management Software (BMS), which allows all temperature, lighting, ventilation and water settings to be controlled centrally. Only the operator has access to the software settings, which are negotiated in various instances, including the weekly operating review and the monthly Technical Committee (COTEC). The architectural choices of the building meet performance requirements: materials, installation of air conditioning only in server rooms, automation of lights and outlets, window locking.
Acknowledgments This work has been partially supported by the  CDP Eco-SESA  receiving fund from the  French National Research Agency  in the framework of the " Investissements d'avenir" program  ( ANR-15-IDEX-02 ). The authors would like to sincerely thank the researchers of  Eco-SESA Cross Disciplinary Program at Grenoble Alpes University , who contribute to this research and all the actors who welcomed us on the field.
Introduction Following the results of previous work  (Reidsma et al. , 2016; van Hoesel et al. , 2019)  we used a combination of techniques to obtain information on the conditions under which the archaeological materials were heated: i. e. structural morphology, colour, reflectance, Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-Ray diffraction (XRD). Ashes and sediment matrices from fireplaces were studied by recording phytoliths, calcium oxalate crystals, flint chips and fecal spherulites microscopically, measuring sediment pH, using Py-GC-MS to identify biomarkers and screening sediment samples for traces of mtDNA. In order to establish the heating conditions of the archaeological materials, several reference datasets were used that describe the pathways in which physical and chemical changes occur in organic materials in response to heat and oxygen availability, and hence the changes in the properties of the materials before they became part of the archaeological record.
The reference datasets were built using modern samples heated to a range of temperatures and in varying oxygen levels, Fig. 2. Archaeological Level 11 (Early Aurignacian), with the location and the dimensions of hearths and two pits situated within the site's excavation grid system (source:  Movius, 1977: Figure 33). under controlled conditions in a laboratory setup. Included are charred plant material  (Braadbaart and Poole 2008; Braadbaart 2004 ), heated bone  (Reidsma et al. , 2016; van Hoesel et al. , 2019) , and ash from different fuels  (Braadbaart et al. , 2012). In addition, reference data on the effect of pH on heated materials was used  (Braadbaart et al. , 2009; Reidsma, in prep. ).
Absorption spectra were accumulated in 16 scans, for the 4000-450 cm -1 wavelength range, with a spectral resolution of 4 cm -1. All spectra were background corrected and normalised to their highest peak. 3. 2. 2. 1. 4. Pyrolysis mass Spectrometry (Py-MS). Single measurements of powdered material were taken using a Frontier Lab 3030D pyrolyser coupled with a ThermoScientific Focus GC and ISQ mass spectrometer. The pyrolyser heated the sample from 70 to 800 °C at a heating rate of 100 °C /min. The EGA GC chamber was kept at a constant temperature of 300 °C. The mass spectrometer scanned from 20 to 4000 AMU using a cycle time of 7 scans per second. Data acquisition and processing were performed using Xcalibur 2. 1 software.
, 2014). Further confirmation of the effect of alkaline conditions on the COM can be found in the FTIR results, which are most similar to reference data on charcoal exposed to alkaline solutions (pH 12). The heated bone tissue at Abri Pataud appears to be affected differently. FTIR shows incorporation of exogenous carbonates (originating from the limestone of the rock shelter), which makes it difficult to assess the effect the alkaline environment had on the organic content of the bones. However, the incorporation of exogenous carbonates likely resulted in the underestimation of the relative percentage of organic content based on TGA, resulting in possible overestimation of the heating temperature for those results. Additionally, preliminary experimental results show that alkaline conditions may result in increased crystallinity of heated bones, causing possible overestimation of heating temperatures based on SF and CI values  (Reidsma, in prep.
). Our results suggest that the phytoliths found at Abri Pataud are also affected by the site's alkaline conditions. Most of the phytoliths are characterised by ill-defined morphotypes, which is likely the result of partial dissolution. Finally, it should be considered that pH-mediated dissolution of heated and unheated organic compounds may have contributed to the bio-molecular signatures in the sediments at Abri Pataud, even though at least some of the sediment samples showed excellent preservation of the collagen's molecular fingerprints. In order to correct for the effect of alkaline conditions we have incorporated reference data on the effect of high pH in our reconstructions of heating conditions based on the affected materials. This reference data consists of extensive experimental work conducted by the authors  (Braadbaart et al.
, 2019). Especially the presence of hydroxyl bands confirms heating in the presence of air. TGA results again comply with these conclusions since the organic carbon content ranges around 1. 7 wt% meaning that most carbon oxidised. Comparison with the combusted bone reference data suggests the light-coloured bone samples were heated to temperatures between 500 and 900 °C (Table  6 ). The large proportion of charred bone tissue (70%) related to the hearths at Abri Pataud suggests that the material was heated indirectly. The proportion of combusted material shows that when bone was heated directly, they registered relatively high temperatures in the fires (the same is true for the material heated indirectly). This is in contrast with the much lower temperatures registered for the COM. However, this should not be surprising as organic materials heated in the presence of oxygen will oxidise at temperatures above 300 °C and burn until only ash is left.
Fire authorship The ancient mtDNA fragments recovered from sediment deposited in the Early Aurignacian level L14 originated from one or more modern human-like mitochondrial genome(s). To our knowledge, this makes Abri Pataud the first archaeological site for which modern human mtDNA has been retrieved from sediment samples. The detection of ancient mammalian mtDNA fragments in sediment samples from the Abri Pataud fireplaces as well as from a control sample coming from outside of a fireplace calls for a follow-up study to achieve a better understanding of the taphonomy of these biomolecules within the Abri Pataud sequence. It is possible for DNA to survive exposure to high temperatures  (Sawyer et al. , 2012) , even as high as 1000 °C  (Klein et al. , 2018). Did these mtDNA fragments indeed survive exposure to temperatures registered by the COM (350-450 °C) or bone tissue (500-900 °C), and are they (partially) the result of food preparation practices? Or is their presence in the Abri Pataud fireplace's infill (also) a post-sedimentary phenomenon? Study of samples taken systematically all through the site's stratigraphy could yield data to answer questions regarding these (not necessarily mutually exclusive) scenarios.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to the late  Hallam L. Movius Jr  and his team, for the care with which they documented and sampled the infill of fire-related features at the  Abri Pataud , more than half a century ago, without which this study would not have been feasible. Our project was funded by the  Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen  (knaw. nl), Academy Professor Prize program  2013, awarded to  Wil Roebroeks. Technical assistance with the reflectance measurements by  Harry Veld  of  Deltares (Utrecht, the Netherlands ) and of  Eric Mulder  ( Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University ) and  Ton van Brussel  ( Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University ) with the phytolith research are greatly acknowledged. We would like to thank the following people from the  Dutch Cultural Heritage Agency (RCE)  for their help with the measurements:  Suzan de Groot  for assistance with the FTIR and  Henk van Keulen  for his assistance with the PyMS.
Sophie Jorgensen-Rideout  gave helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. The genetic work was funded by the  Max Planck Society  and the  European Research Council  (grant no. 694707  to Svante Pääbo). We thank  B. Nickel ,  J. Richter ,  B. Schellbach  and  A. Weihmann  for work in the ancient DNA laboratory of the  Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology at Leipzig. The sequencing data generated for the ancient DNA project were deposited in the European Nucleotide Archive under accession number  PRJEB31258.
307) -to play key roles in linking welfare and immigration policy. In terms of problem conceptions, we would expect interview data to reflect that in policy deliberations, questions of social legitimacy were perceived as at stake for the welfare state. We would also expect, in terms of implementation, for ministries to evaluate these policies based on whether new policies for provision to non-nationals seemed to satisfy widely held images of social citizenship. The second account focuses on how immigration has burgeoned as a political issue in Western democracies amidst an already-extant period of welfare state retrenchment  (Soroka et al. , 2016) , questioning welfare states' fiscal viability, policy goals, and generosity, as immigration's challenges have simultaneously grown  (Schierup et al.
Germany Germany possesses a paradigmatic Bismarckian or conservative welfare state model, in which relatively extensive social insurance systems are funded primarily through employee and employer contributions. In the early 1990s, asylum seekers represented a majority of immigrants in Germany, and, lacking a right to employment, they were excluded from this contributory system. They were, however, entitled to the basic provision of welfare benefits (Sozialhilfe) that, in cases of emergency, is accessible to Germans and foreigners-including, in principle, irregular migrants  (Schönwälder et al. , 2004, p. 41). Immigration governance in Germany (Ausländerrecht) is characterized by a robust monitoring system which includes one of the first and largest state databases on migrants in Europe  (Badenhoop, 2020).
Acknowledgments We thank  Christina Boswell ,  Karen Schönwälder ,  Caroline Izambert ,  Catherine Xhardez ,  Maria Giulia Montanari ,  Roberta Perna , the editors, and three anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on previous drafts. We also thank participants at the conferences:  European Consortium for Political Research General Conference, Hamburg ; "Crisis of Governability?The  Politics of Migration Governance in Latin America and Europe," Buenos Aires ; the  European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessions, Mons, Belgium ; the  Council for European Studies International Conference of Europeanists , Madrid; and the  European Network for Social Policy Analysis conference, "Social Citizenship, Migration , and Conflict:  Equality and Opportunity in European Welfare States," Stockholm.
The iCUPE work consists of thematic state-of-the-art research and the provision of novel data in atmospheric pollution, local sources and transboundary transport, the characterization of arctic surfaces and their changes, an assessment of the concentrations and impacts of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants and their cycling, the quantification of emissions from natural resource extraction, and the validation and optimization of satellite Earth observation (EO) data streams. In this paper we introduce the iCUPE project and summarize initial results arising out of the integration of comprehensive in situ observations, satellite remote sensing, and multi-scale modeling in the Arctic context.
In summary, the methodology of data acquisition, data quality control, and future strategies on data flows and data streams are not harmonized on either the European or global scale. Furthermore, particularly in the polar areas, measurements are not always continuous but often carried out campaign-wise due to economic, environmental, or logistical challenges. Satellite remote sensing in the Arctic is based on active and passive missions of varying spatial resolution, repeat visit times, and coverage of high latitudes. Monitoring the surface properties and their variations in the Arctic region is a powerful tool to assess the impacts of changes induced in this vulnerable environment. The distribution of different types of land cover (snow, ice, vegetation, soil) can be efficiently analyzed using optical data obtained from the new satellite missions merged with data collected during field campaigns and data acquired from cooperative observer networks.
Chem. Phys. , 20, 8551-8592, 2020 multi-scale modeling (e. g. ,  Kulmala et al. , 2011a; Kulmala, 2018). The need to establish and maintain long-term, coherent, and coordinated observations and research activities on environmental quality and natural resources in polar areas drives iCUPE activities. The core idea of iCUPE is the development of novel, integrated, quality-controlled, and harmonized in situ observations and satellite data in polar areas, as well as the supply of data products to end users. The impact of this integrated Arctic observing system needs to be demonstrated for changing campaign practices to continuous monitoring activities. The Sustaining Arctic Observing Networks (SAON) initiative under the auspices of the Arctic Council has been developing an assessment framework for this since 2017 (IDA Science and Technology Policy Institute and Sustaining Arctic Observing Networks, 2017), and iCUPE has been helping to make the first full value tree analysis for this.
It connects observing activities in situ and from satellites through modeling and services to key objectives of societal benefit areas. This will greatly help in forming impact assessments in the future. The iCUPE project aims to synthesize data from comprehensive long-term measurements, intensive campaigns, and satellites collected during the project or provided by ongoing international initiatives. The aim of this paper is to introduce an ongoing project, iCUPE, and summarize its initial results. We put a specific emphasis on black carbon and persistent pollutants in the Arctic context. We explore snow and ice core samples to put the current concentrations in a longer perspective. We underline the capacity of continuous observations to monitor the impact of policies to reduce emissions. We showcase the potential to address pollution in the Arctic environment by integrating satellite remote sensing, airborne observations, in situ data, and modeling.
Long-term atmospheric in situ observations As an example, we present results from long-term observations of atmospheric aerosol particle measurements at the high-Arctic site Villum Research Station (VRS) in north Greenland and long-term data for black carbon data from Mt. Zeppelin at Svalbard. Furthermore, we summarize recent mass spectrometric analyses of organic matter collected on filters within the Arctic during iCUPE and present results from vertical measurements of aerosol particle number concentrations.
Aerosol particle number concentrations at the high-Arctic site Villum Research Station (VRS) in North Greenland Particle number size distributions (PNSDs) have been continuously measured at VRS from July 2010 onwards. The aerosol number size distributions were determined with a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) in the size range from 9 to 915 nm following the standardization presented in  Wiedensohler et al. (2012). The long-term data show that the seasonality of the atmospheric aerosol number concentration at VRS is largely governed by synoptic weather patterns. Particularly important is the location of the Arctic Front, which describes the boundary between the cold Arctic air masses and the midlatitude atmosphere. The Arctic Front effectively blocks atmospheric transport from the midlatitudes to the high Arctic (e.
Arctic vegetation As part of iCUPE, we are working beyond the recent retrievals of satellite remote sensing data to include advanced current and upcoming optical remote sensing missions with improved spatial, temporal, and spectral resolutions and their potential for the characterization of Arctic regions. In particular, hyperspectral remote sensing (or imaging spectroscopy) has been shown to provide superior derivation of key biophysical surface variables in snow-free permafrost areas during the summer months based on field and airborne remote sensing data  (Buchhorn et al. , 2013; Bratsch et al. , 2016; Liu et al. , 2017; Beamish et al. , 2020). The datasets compiled as part of the iCUPE project (see Sect. 3. 8) consist of 4 years of field data, including canopy-level spectral reflectance data and aerial hyperspectral images (Alaska and Canada), and a dense Sentinel-2 time series (Siberia).
Additional ground-based data include leaf-level photosynthetic pigment data from multiple phenological phases, as well as aboveground biomass and detailed species composition data. The study sites include Toolik Lake (Alaska), Herschel Island-Qikiqtaruk (QHI; Canada), and the Lena Delta (Siberia). All three sites represent key low-Arctic research stations, with the Toolik and QHI sites having preestablished long-term vegetation monitoring plots. This dataset is unique and provides the potential for further work given the freely available nature of much of the ancillary data and the intensive international research being conducted at all locations. The main goal of this work was to provide an initial charac- terization and exploration of the application of hyperspectral remote sensing data in Arctic terrestrial ecosystems where existing research is limited.
Using data from the Lena River Delta and Herschel Island-Qikiqtaruk, within iCUPE we plan to expand the characterization of Arctic vegetation using imaging spectroscopy to include biodiversity and biomass estimates. Using detailed species composition data and destructive biomass sampling in combination with spectral variables we will explore relationships at the ground, airborne, and satellite scale to best estimate these key biophysical variables (Fig. 20 ). In the next step, we aim to provide best practices and proxies for mapping vegetation status and aboveground biomass in the low Arctic at landscape scales with aerial imagery, https://doi. org/10. 5194/acp-20-8551-2020 Atmos. Chem. Phys. , 20, 8551-8592, 2020 Sentinel-2, and upcoming hyperspectral satellite imagery. The biomass data will also be compared to volatile organic compound and atmospheric chemistry datasets.
Snow cover in the Arctic Snow cover is an important component of the cryosphere that plays a key role for climate dynamics and resource availability: the seasonality of the snow cover influences weather patterns, hydropower generation, agriculture, forestry, tourism, and aquatic ecosystems  (Beniston et al. , 2018). Snow cover characterization and its annual spatial evolution represent important factors to be considered in the framework of climate modeling at a global scale. Furthermore, snow cover has been officially declared an essential climate variable (ECV) by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS), and high priority is assigned to enhancing and maintaining snow cover observations  (WMO, 2011 (WMO, , 2012)). From this perspective, the continuous monitoring of snow cover is a major challenge of these last years, and the advances in remote sensing explain why optical data are so diffusely used to monitor snow cover.