dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
In another example, the status of Saccharomycodes sinensis (now Yueomyces sinensis) was restored after it was discovered that an incorrect strain was deposited in the NRRL collection  (Wang et al. 2015a ). The availability of ex-type strains from additional collections allowed this error to be corrected. A unique combination of a collection acronym and accession number ultimately defines the holotype of a taxon and/or its duplicates (ICNafp Shenzhen Code;  Turland et al. 2018: Art. 40. 7, Note 4 and Rec. 9B. 1). When a mistake occurs, a correction mechanism should be in place. The designation of a holotype made in the protologue can be corrected for errors in data on locality, date, collector, collecting number, herbarium (including fungarium) code, specimen identifier, or citation of an illustration (ICNafp Shenzhen Code Art.
2016; Warnock 2019) , and adversely affect large databases, such as GenBank, patent databases, and clinical guidelines that need to implement name changes. Routine taxonomic changes can rapidly incite debates around naming species of medical importance, highlighting the responsibility of scientists to patients who may experience health risks due to the wrong treatment being given because of name change  (Kidd et al. 2020 ). An example is the case of Candida auris. This species was described based on a single isolate obtained from the external ear canal of a 70-year-old woman who was an inpatient at a Japanese hospital  (Satoh et al. 2009 ). The type strain, JCM 15448, was also deposited as CBS 10913 and DSM 21092, without referring to holotype, ex-types, or isotypes, with the wording "Typus stirps JCM15448" in the Latin protologue.
Whether or not this description effectively conformed to the intent of the Code (the nomenclatural type is a strain), it would only be considered invalid by a nomenclature purist. This yeast species and its name are of the highest importance, as witnessed by a for Candida auris, which returned > 553,000 hits in Google search, 12,700 records in Google Scholar and 643 publications listed in PubMed as of 5 February 2021. Candida auris ranks at the top of the field of clinical mycology due to its multidrug resistance. Many clinical warnings have been published by public health authorities, such as the CDC [https://www. cdc. gov/drugresistance/solutions-initiative/stories/cdcresponse-to-global-threat. html], or the PAHO [https:// www. paho. org/hq/dmdocuments/2016/2016-oct-3-phecandida-auris-epi-alert.
ABBREVIATIONS ATCC:  American Type Culture Collection (USA) ;  BCCM: Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms; BRC: Biological Resource Center ; CBD: UN Convention on Biological Diversity; CBS: The Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, presently the  Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute (the Netherlands );  CCINFO: Culture Collections Information Worldwide database; WFCC: World Federation for Culture Collections; CCY: Culture Collection of Yeasts (Slovakia ); CDC:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) ;  CGMCC: China General Microbiological Culture Collection Center; CECT: Spanish Type Culture Collection; CIRM: International Center for Microbial Resources (France ); DAOM:  Canadian National Mycological Herbarium ; DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; DSMZ: German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell cultures; ECDC:  European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control ;  IBC: International Botanical Congress; ICBN: The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature; ICNafp: The International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi , and Plants; ICNP: The International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes; ICTF: The International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi; ICY: The International Commission on Yeasts;  IJSEM: International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology; IMC: International Mycological Congresses; ISSY: International Specialised Symposium on Yeasts; ISO: International Organization for Standardization ; JCM: Japan Collection of Microorganisms; KBP: Yeast collection of the  Soil Biology Department in Lomonosov Moscow State University (Russia );  NBRC: National Biological Resource Centre of Japan ; NCF: The Nomenclature Committee for Fungi; NP:  Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources  and the  Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization , a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity; NRRL:  Agricultural Research Service Culture Collection (USA) ; PAHO: Pan American Health Organization; RNA: Ribonucleic acid; TYTS: The monographic book 'The Yeasts: A taxonomic study' published between 1952 and 2011; UAMH:  University of Alberta Centre for Global Microfungal Biodiversity (Canada );  UCD-FST: Phaff Yeast Culture Collection (USA) ; VKM: All-Russian Collection of Microorganisms; WDCM: World Data Centre for Microorganisms; WHO:  World Health Organization Acknowledgements Heide- Marie Daniel ,  David L Hawksworth ,  Andrew Miller ,  Pedro Crous ,  Paul M.
29. 1 (Shenzhen Code; Turland et al. source Centers (BRCs) routinely use an array of tech- 2018), provided curated records of all yeast species ac- niques to preserve microbial resources as freeze-dried cepted at the time of publication. A single strain depos- (lyophilized powders) or frozen (liquid nitrogen, - ited in a culture collection was indicated as a type strain, 140 °C and -80 °C freezers) material (Smith and Ryan thereby providing an univocal indication of holotypes for 2012). Information on how the major collections pre- the majority of invalid yeast names, including those vali- serve their cultures is publicly available through the Cul- dated by Kijpornyongpan and Aime (2017) and Denchev ture Collections Information Worldwide (CCINFO) and Denchev (2021). One can debate on whether TYTS database of the World Federation for Culture Collec- qualifies as a correction and was conforming at the time tions (WFCC) and World Data Centre for Microorgan- of publication with provisions of the ICBN Vienna Code isms (WDCM) (see http://www.
40. 8 isotypes, CBS 12589 and ATCC MYA-4884 (Toome Our opinion on Art 40. 7 (ICNafp Shenzhen Code) is excessive because the et al. 2013). However, in this case the isotypes are In our opinion, cases like that of the genus Jaminaea information about preservation techniques used by duplicates of the holotype obtained by subculturing (Kijpornyongpan and Aime 2017), Acaromyces, Farysi- culture collections is provided in the CCINFO the same original in the laboratory of the depositor. zyma, and Meira (Denchev and Denchev 2021) where database in Art. 40. 7 Note 4 and therefore implicit the authors stated that original descriptions of the gen- in the mention of a collection in the description. era were invalid, but for a different reason, namely be- Since the first application of cryopreservation cause the protologue cited more than one culture techniques for fungi, methodologies have been collection for the deposition of the type material (Art.
The second last highest degree of open access is the provision of academic resources under Creative Commons Attribution only licenses (CC BY), where the only condition is to cite the name of the author. This version actually corresponds to general scientific usages, and there is not a burden to reproduce or to cite articles manually. However, use of CC BY can add complexity and create unnecessary contractual liability issues in the case of data mining of multiple databases (Dulong de  Rosnay, 2010). The highest degree of open access is the release of the work under a CC0 public domain waiver, which places the resource in the public domain with no conditions on further reproduction or reuse. Even if it has been advertised as frictionless for data mining, some governments such as UK and France preferred to write their own licenses for open data to maintain data integrity standards, adding a condition to not modify the data and to cite the date and source of production (Dulong de  Rosnay and Janssen, 2014).
A second way of understanding how rights can be shared is to update the bundle of rights of traditional commons to licensing under copyright. Access, withdrawal, management, exclusion and alienation -the traditional actions -  (Ostrom, 1990) , can be translated into the right to access or read; to reuse; the right to make commercial use of, for instance incorporate into a syllabus for business training; the right of translation, for instance by another publisher; and finally, the right to reuse the underlying dataset, perhaps under the condition to attribute. The right of ownership traditionally structures access to and enjoyment of property, which translates into the right to exclude and the right to alienate. Roman law provides for a separation of this right into three categories: usus or the right to use the property; fructus, the right to make the property bear fruit or to rent it; and abusus or the right to dispose of the property, to resell it.
Open access diamond, gold, freemium and platinum Open access gold journals or books and their variants have different features which also embed the governance principles of commons. In our field of media and communications and critical internet social science, several funding models are implemented, trying to devise sustainability which is neither based on charging authors nor users: 'In the Diamond Open Access Model, not-for-profit, non-commercial organizations, associations or networks publish material that is made available online in digital format, is free of charge for readers and authors and does not allow commercial and for-profit reuse'  (Fuchs & Sandoval, 2013: 438). The University of Westminster Press 5 supports its publications through support (as for this journal 6 ) from its university, external contributions, book sales and funder grants and endeavours to avoid publication fees for authors.
The funding of commons infrastructure, here the development of open access platforms, is crucial to allow the flourishing of open access journals, as underlined by Plan S principles. Open Journal Systems 11 (OJS) provide a complete technical production infrastructure and workflow for gold journals to use. OpenEdition, 12 a platform hosting 550 social sciences journals, requires 13 some curation, quality-controlled peer review of journals before agreeing to host them, including minimum open licensing standards in the application criterias. Many open access publishers use CLOCKSS, a solution to guarantee permanent access through archiving solutions, as well as the Dataverse Network 14 for 'research data, software, bioresources and methodologies' associated to articles, a bigger step towards data commons and open science.
Their distributed technical architecture permits the sharing of large volumes at high speeds. It provides free hosting for large datasets and can support open access journals or researchers with scarce resources or no server. It may offer anonymous storage to researchers who want to publish their own papers but can't post their postprint version on their institutional website because the publisher's agreement forbids it. Because the data is mirrored, it ensures the preservation of sources even in the case of data loss. Started in 1997, Aaaaarg is a file-sharing library of pirated academic works, hosting digital copies of books and papers as well as academic conversations. It is not based on a peer-to-peer distributed architecture but relies on a peer-to-peer community to scan and upload files.
Developed in 2013 by two PhD candidates in Computer Science at the University of Massachusetts Boston, Academic Torrents is a distributed platform based on the Bittorrent protocol allowing researchers to share scientific data and papers. It introduces itself as ' a community-maintained distributed repository for datasets and scientific knowledge', providing a useful hosting service for academic peers, libraries and journals. The website indicates that 'All files must be licensed to legally reshare' and asks users to upload only content for which they have a licence and to indicate a licence allowing sharing in the licence field of the bibtex (GNU GPL, Creative Commons, or similar). But when uploading the content, there is no mechanism to check if the licencing information indicated is correct and accurate.
It seems technically possible to upload any content, whilst leaving blank the field for licensing information (e. g. a dataset). This suggests it is probably in the public domain as data produced by the US federal government, but you have to be knowledgeable to infer that. At the registration step, the user is asked to provide a username and an email to which she receives a confirmation message indicating that someone from the IP address XXX wants an account and requesting to click a link to confirm the registration. There is no identity checking and IP address could be masked by using TOR (The Onion Router), a decentralised network. Therefore, the index may host different types of content: -Legal content: papers and databases entirely authored and produced by the uploader and/or in which they have the rights because they are under a Creative Commons or similar licence, -Grey content: papers and databases in which the uploader may have the rights, but didn't check with co-authors or human subjects of personal data or the publisher of the paper, -Illegal content: papers and databases in which the uploader didn't have the rights: someone else's paper, data derived from mining or performing statistics analysis on pre-existing data in which the producer didn't have the rights, data containing personal data without consent of the human subject.
The index might be closed, and therefore users' data could be lost, as has happened to those who had hosted their legitimate content on Megaupload. At the time of researching Z-library contained a DMCA notice and allowed rightsholders to claim copyright infringement. On one title the download button was disabled and displayed, the explanation 'Link deleted by legal owner', however immediately followed by the mention that it was possible to use TOR to download it anyway. Providing a link to the course of action with detailed explanations to follow in order to circumvent the thin legal barrier could be proven as non-compliance with the law in some jurisdictions like the US. There is uncertainty on the legal status of the data and thus liability risk for potential re-users, unless the data was uploaded with a Creative Commons or similar licence and provides accurate attribution and contact information, hinting that the uploader is the rightsholder and/or performed due diligence before uploading the data to be sure they would not infringe someone else's rights.
Liability outside of copyright is also possible, as datasets can contain errors, not be up-to-date, or be unfit for purposes. They are made available on an as-is basis, without warranties. Processing of personal data could also trigger liability issues under European regulation such as GDPR, as scientific data can be subject to ethical and privacy constraints. Anonymisation may or may not have been performed correctly by the uploaded, and re-identification by a reuser may happen. Technical choices can be made by these platforms for better legal sustainability. There are advantages to use a distributed architecture and anonymity protocols. For researchers, pirate libraries help solve the problem of insufficient open access and open data policies and exceptions to copyright. They may offer anonymous storage to researchers who want to publish their own papers but can't post their postprint version on their institutional website because the publisher's agreement forbids it or the posting of their dataset because they use databases on which they hadn't cleared the data mining rights.
Therefore, from the point of view of the researchers, Academic Torrents is supporting their work and filling the gap left by the lack or the inadequacy of exceptions to copyright for research purposes and open access and open data policies. In the case of academic papers, some journals following the green or the gold open access model will allow authors to upload their papers on their own website, including on Academic Torrents. But journals with more restrictive contractual policies may not allow authors to distribute their paper, or only the preprint version, if the publisher required an exclusive transfer of rights from the authors before publication. In that case, Academic Torrents provides a solution to host the papers without risking any liability for copyright infringement of the institutional repository or the University of the academic.
In December 2013, Elsevier issued take down notices based on the DMCA (Digital Millenium Copyright Act) for articles hosted by Academia, a centralised commercial server, which could take advantage of its safe harbour legal provision by promptly removing the content as required by this Act or other intermediary liability laws such as article 14 of the European e-Commerce Directive. In the case of scientific data, reproducibility can only be achieved if the data is available for other researchers to verify scientific findings expressed in a paper. Some journals and institutions are developing services such as Figshare. Academic Torrents offers a complementary service for everybody, without the need to be published or to have finalised data as the service can also be used as a personal hard drive or back up for unfinished research.
For libraries and open access journals, pirate libraries offer performance and cost-efficiency for hosting and preservation, without development, maintenance or hosting costs. Their distributed technical architecture allows the sharing of large volumes at high speeds. It provides free hosting for large datasets and can support open access journals or researchers with scarce resources or no server. Because the data is mirrored, it ensures the preservation of sources even in the case of data loss. Just as peer-to-peer platforms offering access to music and movies have often a broader cultural diversity than commercial distributors, these platforms can share any rare content and preserve content even if the producer does not have an institutional repository. Also, for libraries, data journals and universities, reusing the protocol and API of Academic Torrents could provide a much more perennial hosting solution than the servers of those in the commercial business of academic papers and the sharing and production of analytics (Academia, ResearchGate, Google Scholar) while providing true open access to the data and state-of-the-art indexation, without requiring subscription or using closed standards or making a profit out of the data produced by the researchers.
Even if the system crashes, mirroring will ensure the data is available elsewhere. Instead of going gold and having to pay elsewhere, or going green and facing possible limits, an option for some academics is to become their own academic pirate and themselves share their own content even without permission of their open access-averse publishers. In the UK and the EU, data mining is an exception to copyright law done for research purposes, but this is not the case in other countries  (Bottis et al. , 2019). If commercial publishers' strategy is to propose another licensing fee for datasets, piracy, if that is the name of copyright infringement, would be a way for researchers to perform data mining work. None of these initiatives are true commons, and another step would be to apply the framework of the commons to academic production to replace the journal model.
To obtain a D depth profile  [15]  on the deuterated W sample, the proton signal from the nuclear reaction D( 3 He,p) 4 He was measured at six 3 He energies (730, 1040, 1550, 2570, 3390 and 4320 keV). For one D depth profile, the proton energy spectra are first checked for energy calibration by SIMNRA, version 7. 02  [45]  for all six measured energies. These six proton energy spectra are then all input into NRADC program  [46]  that outputs the most probable D depth profile. To develop the NRA method via 3 He beam that would enable the detection of T trapped in materials over depths of a few µm, the cross section of the nuclear reaction needs to be measured. The analysis Fig. 1. A schematic picture of the setup for ion beam measurements with the NRA detector and the RBS detector in their positions.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge dr. Thomas Schwarz-Selinger  from  Max-Planck Institute for Plasma Physics  for preparation and W ion irradiation of the W samples and preparation of the a-C:D films. This work has been carried out within the  TRANSAT  project that has received funding from the  Euratom  research and training programme  2014-2018  under grant agreement N • 754586. The content of this document reflects only the author's view. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. This work was supported by  IAEA  Coordinated Research Project  F11023 , entitled ' Development and Application of Ion Beam Techniques for Materials Irradiation and Characterization relevant to Fusion Technology '.
conditions for which the light is reflected. Finally, the heights of the specimen were randomly selected between 7 and 21 mm, with a mean value of 14. 7 mm and a standard deviation of 3. 2 mm. Note that the diameter of the cone's base depends on each height. Contact between specimens is realistic (barnacles or mussels for instance) and offers the worst conditions for identification of boundaries. The shape was selected because it offers a compromise between the shape of two common species, barnacles (pyramids) and mussels (ellipse). The distribution of heights is given in Figure  4. Note that, due to the U-shape end of the jib, 13 cones were not visible and were removed from the database for detection (low part Figure  5 ). The distribution of heights is given in Figure  4. Note that, due to the U-shape end of the jib, 13 cones were not visible and were removed from the database for detection (low part Figure  5 ).
Authors are grateful to Hamed Ameryoun (IXEAD, Capacités SAS company, Université de Nantes, France) and Christian Berhault (senior Consultant) for their help in LEHERO-MG and ABIOP projects. This work was carried out within the project LEHERO-MG (Load Effect of HEterogeneous ROughness of Marine Growth) granted by WEAMEC, West Atlantic Marine Energy Community with the support of Région Pays de la Loire and in partnership with Naval Energies (Françoise Dubois). Tests were carried out within the french national project ABIOP (2017-2018) in collaboration with "France Energies Marines" (Nolwenn Quillien and Guillaume Damblans) and has benefited from state aid managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR-10 IEED-0006-21). V. P would like to acknowledge ERA-NET Cofund MarTERA FLEXAQUA project PBA/BIO/18/02, The Marine Institute, Ireland, SFI MaREI Centre (12/RC/2302_2) and The Energy Institute, UCD for this work.
Funding: Authors are grateful to Hamed Ameryoun (IXEAD, Capacités SAS company, Université de Nantes, France) and Christian Berhault (senior Consultant) for their help in LEHERO-MG and ABIOP projects. This work was carried out within the project LEHERO-MG (Load Effect of HEterogeneous ROughness of Marine Growth) granted by WEAMEC, West Atlantic Marine Energy Community with the support of Région Pays de la Loire and in partnership with Naval Energies (Françoise Dubois). Tests were carried out within the french national project ABIOP (2017-2018) in collaboration with "France Energies Marines" (Nolwenn Quillien and Guillaume Damblans) and has benefited from state aid managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR-10 IEED-0006-21). V. P would like to acknowledge ERA-NET Cofund MarTERA FLEXAQUA project PBA/BIO/18/02, The Marine Institute, Ireland, SFI MaREI Centre (12/RC/2302_2) and The Energy Institute, UCD for this work.