dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Comparison of indentation modulus extracted with a geometric model or following the AFC method. To validate our data processing method, we carried out sets of indentation measurements in the G layer of the tension wood cell walls, using the two different probes, while varying the indentation depth. The number of indentations per set of measurement is limited by the width of the investigated layers (less than 1 µm). To avoid overlapping solicitated volumes, the number of indentations was limited to 3 × 3 grids replicated 3 times for a total of 27 indentations. For both probe types (PPP and DT probes), indentations were performed and processed using our area-function calibration method described previously (example of raw indentation curves are available in Supplementary Section S1). We then compare our AFC method to a spherical-conical tip model to describe the probe geometry (Supplementary Section S1).
Acknowledgements This work was sponsored by the A*MIDEX foundation on the Innovation and  Emergence AAP2017  (project no:  A-MAAP-EI-17-10-170224-18. 04-CHARRIER-E ) and the  CNRS  through the  PICS2019 program. The authors thank  Mrs Aïcha Aouane ,  Mr Nicolas Brouilly  and  Mr Fabrice Richard  from the  Marseille Institute of Development Biology (IBDM)  microscopy platform,  Mr Lionel Chasson  from the  Marseille-Luminy Immunology Center.
In the two following steps, the models are inverted in two SU tasks that differ in the amount of prior information provided regarding the ground truth, with the aim of evaluating the ability of each model in identifying and estimating correctly the pigments and their relative concentrations. The models are selected based on criteria that aimed to describe specific underlying imaging configurations, with the goal of comparing them through the proposed evaluation protocol. In the particular instance of the investigated imaging models, the results show that models having a subtractive nature are more accurate under several standpoints: spectral reconstruction, accuracy in pigment identification, and precision in determining the relative abundances. A validation test of pigment mapping is run on a mockup painting realised with the same set of pigments, confirming the observation made on the dataset of mixture samples.
Imaging Models Equation  (1)  shows that an imaging model combines the reflectance factors of the endmembers, with their relative concentrations. In this perspective, we consider three possible cases on how the pigments (or endmembers in general) might be mixed when represented as an individual pixel. Figure  1  schematically reports such configurations, which can be smoothly applied to the case of pigment mixing and lead us to propose the use of specific mixing models. protocol. In the particular instance of the investigated imaging models, the results show that models having a subtractive nature are more accurate under several standpoints: spectral reconstruction, accuracy in pigment identification, and precision in determining the relative abundances. A validation test of pigment mapping is run on a mockup painting realised with the same set of pigments, confirming the observation made on the dataset of mixture samples.
Considering the 2 × 2 cm size of a mixture patch, this resolution yields approximately 160,000 pixels per sample. The objects were illuminated by a halogen Smart Light 3900e produced by Illumination Technologies, guided on the scene via fibre optics, projecting lights at 45°with respect to the camera (Figure  4 ). At each acquisition, a Spectralon ® calibration target with a known wavelength-dependent reflectance factor was included in the scene. The target served to estimate the light source spectrum and to compute the reflectance at the pixel level. The HyspexRAD software was deployed to perform radiometric correction  [48]. Flat field correction was performed to correct the spatial non-uniformities of the illumination field. Due to noise present at both ends of the spectrum, the first 10 and last 10 spectral bands are omitted from the data, therefore leaving spectra with 166 data points.
The reflectance factor of each patch was obtained by averaging over a manually cropped area. Post-processing of hyperspectral images and the analysis presented in the following sections are conducted using MATLAB (The MathWorks Inc. , Natick, MA, USA). Hyperspectral image acquisition setup. The light sources are placed at 45°, while the camera is at 0°. This allows avoiding specular reflection and shadows. In the push broom setup, the translator stage slides across the field of view of the camera at a speed synchronised with the integration time of the camera.
SAM Data Analysis The quantities of CO 2 evolved by organic salts in our experiments were compared to the abundances of CO 2 evolved by SAM samples in order to set upper limits on organic salt concentrations within Gale crater. SAM CO 2 and O 2 abundances and uncertainties were calculated based on a SAM analysis of an equimolar mixture of gas containing O 2 , CO 2 , N 2 , and Ar and SAM EGA of known masses of calcite prior to launch  (Archer et al. , 2014). SAM CO 2 was corrected for the maximum potential contribution from leaking SAM derivatization agents of 900 nmol C for each SAM-EGA experiment  (Sutter et al. , 2017). The SAM detector is tuned to detect trace species, so abundant gases such as CO 2 can saturate the detector  (Archer et al. , 2014). When plotting SAM CO 2 data, missing portions of the m/z 44 peak were replaced with the corrected isotopologue m/z 45 ( 13 CO 2)  (Sutter et al.
Both GG and HU2 produced low-temperature CO 2 releases, which in GG was associated with a minor CO peak. The EB sample from the pediment capping unit produced an O 2 peak during EGA and evolved major CO 2 peaks at 270 °C and 360 °C, a CO2 shoulder at 430 °C and a minor CO release at 255 °C. SAM data were assessed for the presence of acetone and acetic acid by examining the traces for m/z 58 and m/z 60. The search for acetone was complicated by the ubiquitous presence of 2,2,2-trifluoro-N-methyl-acetamide (TFMA) in SAM runs, a by-product of the leaking wet chemistry cup. The major fragments produced by TFMA during mass spectrometry include m/z 58 and m/z 127. In every SAM run, m/z 58 peaks were observed <400 °C that tracked with m/z 127. Most SAM samples evolved m/z 58 and m/z 127 at a ratio consistent with TFMA  (Eigenbrode et al.
The majority of our acetate-perchlorate runs evolved chloromethane, which in SAM data is generally interpreted as a by-product of the leaking wet chemistry reagents  (Freissinet et al. , 2015; Glavin et al. , 2013; Leshin et al. , 2013; Szopa et al. , 2020). Our results suggest that Martian acetates, if present, could contribute to low-temperature SAM chloromethane detections, such as those seen in RN  (Leshin et al. , 2013). We also observed chloroacetone in our data, but only when acetates were abundant relevant to perchlorates, which suggests the formation of significant amounts of chloroacetone from acetates in a flight instrument on Mars would be unlikely. SAM wet chemistry data should be assessed for possible derivatization or thermochemolysis products of organic salts, but such a study is outside the scope of this paper.
The CO 2 peaks generated by our mixtures of Ca or Mg acetate with perchlorates were a closer fit with the 380 °C peak in RN4. The CO 2 peaks observed between ∼400 °C and 500 °C in GB and OG3 were consistent with the decomposition of a mixture of Ca acetate, Mg acetate, Mg oxalate, and perchlorates. If organic salts were present in the modern eolian materials analyzed by SAM, our laboratory results demonstrate that the lack of acetone, acetic acid, and major CO peaks in SAM EGA data could be due to perchlorates. CO may also have reacted with other gases in the SAM oven or undergone disproportionation  (Newsome, 1980; Vedyagin et al. , 2016). If Mg oxalates and Ca or Mg acetates were significant CO 2 contributors in GB and OG3 it would suggest that a unit with appreciably high levels of these phases exists somewhere within Gale crater.
If such a unit can form at one locality on Mars, it is likely that organic salt deposits could occur elsewhere on the planet. Possible spectral signatures of Mg oxalates have been detected in an unnamed ∼61 km crater located at 37. 07°S, 178. 23°W using Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) data  (Aaron et al. , 2019). If the substantial low-temperature CO 2 evolutions seen in RN were due to Fe oxalates and Fe acetates, it would suggest they were present in the dust-sized fraction and that they could be a constituent of regional or global dust. The drill samples acquired by MSL between the JK and GH sampling sites evolved O 2 peaks during SAM EGA and were therefore compared to the laboratory EGA data from our organic salt mixtures with elevated perchlorate concentrations.
The BY parent rock and GH2 alteration halo materials from the Stimson sandstone also evolved low-temperature CO 2 peaks that were consistent with Fe-oxalates. The major ∼270 °C CO 2 peak produced by BY was similar to our Fe(II)-acetate data, while the mid-temperature peak in GH2 was significantly broader. GH2 also featured a 500 °C CO 2 peak that fit well with our Mg-oxalate results. The more complex CO 2 profile of GH2 relative to BY was similar to the contrast between JK4 and CB3, which further suggests that some low-temperature alteration in Gale crater may have been associated with organic salt formation. From OU onwards, the majority of SAM samples lacked O 2 peaks and were compared to our mixtures with minor or absent perchlorates. The major CO 2 peak evolved by OU fit well with our Fe(II) acetate data but the strong CO release in OU, and the lack of acetone or acetic acid, challenged an acetate explanation.
Instead of a Gaussian contribution, two distinct resonances were evidenced, which is in agreement with the crystallographic data (δ iso ( 43 Ca) = -2. 6 ppm, C Q = 1. 50 MHz, η Q = 0. 60; δ iso ( 43 Ca) = 0. 7 ppm, C Q = 1. 60 MHz, η Q = 0. 70). The 43 Ca MAS NMR spectra of COM, COD and COT, recorded at 20. 0 T, are presented in Fig. 6a. All spectra were obtained in natural abundance in a reasonable amount of experimental time (∼ 2 h for COM and COT; ∼ 4 h for COD). The 43 Ca NMR fingerprints obtained allow for unambiguous distinctions of the three phases. The sharpest line (characterized by the smallest C Q ) is observed for COT (one unique crystallographic site). For this particular phase, second-order quadrupolar broadening is efficiently suppressed at 20 T, leading directly to δ iso ( 43 Ca) = -0.
0 µs, the contact time was 5. 0 ms, with 96 increments in t 1 dimension, and there was an active regulation of the temperature at -20 • C. Relaxation of crystallographic structures. Starting from the crystallographic data, COM  (Daudon et al. , 2009) , COD  (Tazzoli and Domeneghetti, 1980)  and COT  (Basso et al. , 1997)  structures were relaxed at DFT level. The unit cell parameters and the atomic positions were optimized, as previously described for COM  (Colas et al. , 2013). The Vienna Ab initio Simulation Package (VASP) was used  (Kresse and Hafner, 1993, 1994; Kresse and Furthmüller, 1996). The corresponding crystallographic information files (CIFs) are available upon request.
The deconvolution of the 1 H and 13 C MAS NMR data into assigned subspectra aided the interpretation of the data describing the whole system, thus demonstrating that KSs materials are usually a complex association of organic and inorganic components. Additional 31 P MAS NMR studies provided further insight into the composition of the low-level phosphates which are ubiquitous and difficult to characterize in KSs. The development of solid-state NMR, in combination with modern computational DFT and machine learning approaches, would be able to characterize the complex heterogeneous biomaterials such as KSs without ambiguity  (Tielens et al. , 2021). As part of on-going studies building on the observations here, systematic NMR studies of a large range of KSs from the Tenon Hospital's collection is being undertaken to develop new diagnosis NMR approaches that could impact on developing novel treatments.
DFT calculations were performed using HPC resources from  GENCI-IDRIS  (grant no. 097535 ). The  UK 850  MHz solid-state NMR facility used in this research was funded by  EPSRC  and  BBSRC  (grant no. PR140003 ) and the  University of Warwick , including funding, in part, from the  Birmingham Science City Advanced Materials  Projects 1 and 2 supported by  Advantage West Midlands (AWM)  and the  European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). This article is dedicated to  Geoffrey Bodenhausen  on the occasion of his 70th birthday. Financial support. This research has been supported by an  École Doctorale  ( ED 397 ) doctoral fellowship of  Sorbonne University.
01-100 Å 2. The absolute pressure in the reaction cell was measured using an MKS 398H differential manometer instrument. All data were collected with either reaction gas in the cell or in the surrounding chamber, therefore allowing the removal of any contribution resulting from collisions occurring outside the reaction cell, corresponding to no more than 5% of product ion counts. The absolute cross section acquisitions were performed in the so-called multi-scan mode, which involves recording signals for all ionic species at a single point before moving to the next point. This method has the benefit of drastically reducing the effects of potential drifts of source pressure, reaction cell pressure and photon flux.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful to the DESIRS beamline team for their assistance during the synchrotron measurements and to the technical staff of SOLEIL for the smooth running of the facility under projects nos. 20180118 and 20190249. This work was supported by the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  " Astro-Chemistry Origins" (ACO) , Grant No. 811312. WG thanks the  Swedish Research Council  for a project grant (grant number  2019-04332 ). MP and JZ acknowledge support from the  Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic  (grant No. LTC20062 ). VR acknowledges funding for a PhD fellowship from the  Dept. Physics, University of Trento. J-CG  thanks the  Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)  for a grant. CA, RT and CR acknowledge the synchrotron SOLEIL for the support to the associated CERISES setup since 2008 and subsistence expenses during beamtime periods.
However, no full-fledged theoretical argument or phenomenological feasibility proof has been put forward so far. Even if lattice QCD offers the long-term promise of a first-principle evaluation of the functional shape of GPDs (see e. g. [24] ), experimental data are, and will remain for years, the main source of quantitative knowledge about GPDs. This Letter deals with the question of extracting leading twist GPDs from DVCS experimental data beyond leading order (LO). Our argument involves Lorentz covariance, QCD evolution equations and the implementation of additional knowledge coming from PDFs and EFFs. We provide the first proof that the reconstruction of GPDs from CFFs using next-to-leading order (NLO) coefficient functions is ambiguous, even if the scale dependence is taken into account.
IV. DISCUSSION We have shown the existence of shadow GPDs i. e. nontrivial distributions with a null forward limit and negligible contributions to CFFs over kinematic domains relevant for the experiments at Jefferson Lab, CERN, EIC or EIcC. This result holds in a full next-to-leading order analysis of DVCS and crucially relies on properties grounded in first principles as analyticity, polynomiality and evolution. We expect it to remain true at any finite perturbative order. Our result is the first quantitative answer to the deconvolution problem beyond leading order and it points to a non-uniqueness of the solution. Since experimental data are acquired at non-zero skewness ξ, the extrapolation towards zero skewness required for proton tomography may suffer from the residual presence of shadow distributions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank  B. Pire  and  J. Wagner  for fruitful discussions. This project was supported by the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No  824093. This work was supported by the Grant No. 2019/35/D/ST2/00272  of the National Science Center, Poland. The project is co-financed by the  Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange  and by the  COPIN-IN2P3  Agreement.
Acknowledgements CR thanks  Cristian Mariani ,  Alexia Auffèves ,  Philippe Grangier  and all the participants at the reading group of the  Institut Néel in Grenoble , for very stimulating discussions at the origin of this paper. Both authors wish to thank  Eric Wiseman  for a clarification on the significance of the work [5] and  Axel Polaczek  for useful comments on a first version of this note. This work was made possible through the support of the  FQXi Grant FQXi-RFP-1818  and of the ID#  61466  grant from the  John Templeton Foundation , as part of the "The  Quantum Information Structure of Spacetime (QISS)"  Project (www. qiss. fr).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thanks all colleagues involved in the development and operation of the facility, notably from EN-CV, EN-SMM, SY-BI, SY-EPC, SY-STI, EN-HE, EN-DHO, HSE-RP, BE-OP, TE-VSC groups and the collaborating institutes. We wish to thank all the members of the  CERN-MEDICIS collaboration  for their commitment, support and advice.
FUNDING Funding was also acknowledged through the  CERN & Society Foundation , the  Flanders Research Foundation (FWO) , the  CERN Knowledge Transfer  fund and the  European Commission  (MEDICIS-Promed, H2020 contract # 642889 ). The GIP ARRONAX acknowledges support from  Equipex ,  Arronax-Plus  n •  ANR-11-EQPX-0004 ,  Labex IRON  n •  ANR-11-LABX-18-01  and  ISITE NExT  n •  ANR-16-IDEX-007.
Characterization The XRD spectra of CoFe 2 O 4 nanowires was recorded using X′Pert PRO X-ray diffractometer (λ Cu = 1. 5406 Å) in the angular range 15-82° with a step size of 0. 03° at room temperature. The XRD data are processed by FullProf program. Then, the morphology and the elementary composition of the nanowires have been examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM-Quanta 200-FEI) operating at 20 kV and equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray detector. Moreover, the hysteresis loops of the ferrimagnetic CoFe 2 O 4.
Instrumentation During the studied time period, the Sun, Earth and Mars were aligned in that same order. This enables us to use the two Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) probes, which were located close to Earth at the time, and the Advance Composition Explorer (ACE) as SW monitors in order to understand better the observations of the Mars Express (MEX) mission. STEREO mission consists of two identical probes in the orbit around the Sun at approximately 1 AU. We use data from several instruments from the In situ Measurements of Particles And CME Transients (IMPACT,  [38] ) suite: (i) magnetometer (MAG,  [2] ) that provides accurate measurements of the magnetic field with subsecond time resolution and (ii) Plasma and Suprathermal Ion Composition (PLASTIC,  [24] ) that provides ion measurement in the 0.
We first look at the MEX IMA data during 20-27 November 2007 (Figure  5 ). Panels exhibit: a) particle energy flux spectra (in units of keV/(cm 2 s ster keV)), b) plasma number density (cm -3 ), c) velocity (kms -1 ), d) thermal pressure (nPa) e) SW dynamic pressure (nPa) and f) temperature (eV). These data are obtained directly from the ClWeb plataform (http://clweb. irap. omp. eu/). Strong variations of plasma parameters occur during each orbit because MEX enters very different plasma regions (SW, magnetosheath, ionosphere) with very different plasma properties. The largest densities are measured inside the ionosphere, while velocity, temperature and P dyn,SW peak when the spacecraft is either in the magnetosheath or in the SW. However we can see that these parameters also vary from orbit to orbit.
Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge ClWeb (http://clweb. irap. omp. eu/),AMDA (http://amda. irap. omp. eu/) and  ESA Planetary Science Archive Data  (http://amda. irap. omp. eu/)teams for easy access and visualization of the data. PK's work was supported by  PAPIIT  grants  IA101118  and  IN105620. ESA-ESTEC  faculty funding.
★ E-mail: belinda. nicholson@physics. ox. ac. uk The study of the differences between these populations of PMS stars has been one of the goals of the Magnetic Topologies of Young Stars and Survival of close in Giant Exoplanets (MaTYSSE) large program. MaTYSSE is a multi-telescope programme using high resolution spectropolarimetric observations to map the large scale brightness and magnetic fields of a range of wTTSs, and compare them to a sample of cTTSs observed in the Magnetic Protostars and Planets 1  (MaPP) program (see e. g. Donati et al. 2007 Donati et al. , 2008;; Donati et al. 2010a; Donati et al. 2011a; Donati et al. 2012; Hussain et al. 2009). Few stars below ∼ 0. 8  have been observed in either sample, as their peak emission in the infrared and low brightness make them challenging targets for current optical spectropolarimeters.
Within the MaPP sample there have been 3 PMS stars below this limit (when compared with the  Baraffe et al. (2015)  PMS evolution models), DN Tau (0. 65  ;  Donati et al. 2013) , BP Tau (0. 7  ;  Donati et al. 2008), and V2247 Oph (0. 35 𝑀 ; Donati et al. 2010a) , and two stars with masses around 0. 8  , TW Hya  (Donati et al. 2011b ) and AA Tau  (Donati et al. 2010b ). The magnetic field of V2247 Oph appeared significantly different compared to the other stars' magnetic field. The star is fully convective like its higher mass counterparts of the same age, but displayed a wildly different magnetic field morphology. To further our understanding of low mass PMS dynamo fields, this work presents an analysis of high-resolution spectropolarimetric data of two low-mass wTTS stars as part of the MaTYSSE sample: TWA 25 and TWA 7.
Both are 10 Myr old stars in the TW Hya association  (Mentuch et al. 2008) , and represent more evolved versions of the MaPP stars AA Tau (in the case of TWA 25), and DN Tau (in the case of  TWA 7). In this analysis we reconstruct the surface brightness and largescale magnetic field morphologies of both stars. In addition, we examine the variation in longitudinal (line of sight) magnetic field with stellar rotation, as well as the spectral activity markers of H and Na I doublet indices. The other major focus of the MaTYSSE program is the search for close-in giant planets around wTTSs. Finding planets around very active stars is challenging, as the surface activity of these stars can contribute to radial velocity variations of the order of hundreds of meters per second, obscuring even a giant planet's signal.
The MaTYSSE program has addressed this by using the surface activity information provided from surface brightness mapping to measure and remove the radial velocity contribution due to this activity  (Donati et al. 2014). This work, therefore, also analyses the radial velocities of TWA 25 and TWA 7, and uses the surface brightness information from our Doppler mapping to filter out activity jitter from the radial velocities of both stars. In Section 2, we detail the observations and data processing of TWA 25 and 7. The evolutionary states of both stars are determined, and the stellar properties calculated in Section 3. Section 4 describes the mapping of large-scale brightness and magnetic fields, Section 5 explores the rotational modulation of the longitudinal magnetic field and activity indices, and Section 6 describes our analysis of the radial velocities for both stars.