dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Following  Greulich et al. (2014) , the data are compiled as follows: To observe women's characteristics before potential procreation, we use the longitudinal data set of the SILC covering the years 2006 to 2011 for women aged 15 to 45 years in Turkey. The longitudinal data set is a rotational panel with individuals and households observed for a maximum period of four years. A dummy variable indicating the arrival of a child during the observed period serves as endogenous variable, while we observe the women's and their (if existing) partners' characteristics during a certain period before potential procreation. This data transformation allows us to apply a simple logit estimation model (with robust standard errors). In order to obtain the information needed, individuals have to be observed over a period of at least three years.
Children born in the third and the fourth quarters of each year are generally declared at the interview of the year after as interviews usually take place during the first half of each year. Births that occur at the end of the year are thus not detectable immediately. Three consecutive years of interviews are thus needed: year t and year t+1 to identify all births that occur in year t, and year t-1 to observe the mothers' (and their partners') characteristics over a certain period before potential procreation. Around 40% of women are observed not only for three, but for four consecutive years. Women observed for four years who have not had a child in the second year are included twice in our database (two person-years: two years of potential child arrival). Allowing for two potential 'events' increases the number of observations.
In order to avoid estimation bias due to unbalanced panel data (the number of observed years may influence the probability of observed child arrival), we include "second event fixed effects" for individuals observed for the second time. To reduce endogeneity, we not only observe activity status before child arrival, but over a certain period before potential procreation of a child. This is possible as the SILC data contains information about labor market status on a monthly basis as well as about the quarter of births of children. For those women with child arrival (test group), we observe their activity status during the three months before procreation. For those women without child arrival in t (control group), we arbitrarily chose a three months period during the year for t-1. We define an activity status as "stable" if it does not change during the observed period of three months.
The following categories are created for women's activity status during three months before (potential) conception of a child:  Stable employment (self-employed, employed, full-time, part time)  Stable unemployment  Stable inactivity  Stable student  Other (retirement, military service, any change in the activity status over the three month period 10 ) The event "first child arrival" is observed for 7% of women in our database, while second child arrival is observed for 12% and third child arrival for 3% (see table  1 ). The proportion of observed second child arrivals is larger in comparison to first child arrival, as for second child arrival, the group of observed women is much more homogenous: Women in this group (test and control group) are in most cases in a partnership and as they already have one child, they are unlikely to be infertile.
months after partners move together. The SILC actually reports zero out of wedlock births in Turkey (proportion of women with child arrival who have an observed partner but are not married). The fact that in Turkey, household formation and the arrival of a first child are quite contemporary events raises the issue of attrition: We might lose a certain number of women in the longitudinal database, who live with their parents in the beginning of the observed period, and are not followed up as they found their own household due to imminent family formation.
Printed parallel texts therefore rely often on dedicated or adapted translations. Digitalized Materials. Reading a digitalized parallel text with a standard e-reader is cumbersome, as parallel texts have specific requirements for navigation between pages. Bederson et al. designed a smart-phone application to address related navigation issues in digitalized children books (including multi-lingual ones)  [3]. While their interaction techniques can be used to access and read text b oxes corresponding to different languages, it does not allow the reader to quickly switch its focus of atte ntion from one language to the other. Another solution could be to use dual-display readers such as Codex  [19] , dedicating a display to each language. Interactive Digital Materials. Web-based machine translation services like Google Translate are the best known and most used interfaces to read a web page originally written in a foreign language.
When these tools are used to translate a full web page, hovering a translated sentence with the mouse triggers the display of a tool-tip showing the original version of this sentence. Doppel Text 1  provides a similar interface for reading classical novels as e-books, but exchanges the roles of the two languages (tool-tips show the translation). Its use of professional translations certainly allows for a better reading experience but reduces the number of available books (only 32 at the time of writing). Much more content could be made available to readers with the use of natural language processing tools that compute a (sentence-level) alignment structure. These interfaces only use very simple interactions and have ergonomic issues, such as the tooltips being hard to distinguish from the original document.
iDict uses eye-tracking techniques and algorithms to identify the foreign language words that cause difficulties to the reader, and automatically displays in a side pane the corresponding entry in a bilingual dictionary  [21]. Han et al. discuss the benefits of using pictures instead of bilingual dictionaries entries to avoid reading in multiple languages  [18]. In the context of written conversations, people better understand machine-translated messages when the sender highlights the key words in the message  [16]. These helping techniques and other similar ones could be used for bilingual reading, however we will argue that bilingual reading cannot be reduced to the availability of such help tools. Generalization to Multi-Representational Reading. Studies of interest can be found in the context of multiple representations.
Our field survey is based on face-to-face interviews, conducted from January to April 2011, just following the eruption in the Mt. Merapi area. The collected information was analyzed both manually and by using the text analysis software Tropes ®. The software's statistical and linguistic algorithms enable researchers to see connections and relationships in respondents' answers. Such discourse analysis aims at facilitating the understanding of the adaptive capacity of institutions in charge of risk management. The introduction presents the problem and states the objectives of this study. Section 2 describes the material and the methodology. Section 3 shows the main findings. Section 4 discusses the hypotheses and limitations of the study, and section 5 highlights the main results.
Information and skills The dissemination of information among institutions and population is provided by a wide variety of means, persons and localities (Table  8 ). During the emergency response period in 2010, orders to evacuate were permanently communicated through a variety of direct communication channels (e. g. public meetings, radio and TV announcements) and as a result many thousands of lives could be saved. Here Table  8. Means and localities used for the dissemination of information, as generated by Tropes software. Information and skills around Mt. Merapi are generated by a beneficial cooperation between scientists and communities by using reliable scenarios and instruments (e. g. social networks, radio, mobile phones). This self-organization facilitates the dissemination of warnings among people living in hazard-prone areas before the arrival of a lahar.
Several steps can be taken in the future to improve future evacuations, such as: (1) a more complete integration of disaster risk reduction education into school curriculum, (2) a development of an updated disaster database which includes loss, (3) a better and maintained facilities (roads, IDP camps, etc. ), (4) a more effective dissemination of accurate information, and (5) an elaboration of multiple hazard scenarios for contingency not only for pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) but also for lahars at local scale (desa/dusun). Besides, inhabitants living on and around Mt. Merapi are likely to have adapted in various ways to their hazardous environment. Interpretations of risks are shaped by their own experience, personal feelings and values, cultural beliefs and interpersonal and societal dynamics  [55].
Research Design & Methodology The data collection for this paper consists of interviews with 32 CEOs in Indian public and private organisations. The data collection instrument focused on the opinion of CEOs regarding their leadership behaviours, organisational practices and effectiveness, comparative organisational performance and strategic intent in organisational change. It also included questions about the business environment of the organisation and challenges facing the leaders and their organisations. The interview guide developed by Professor Robert House for the Cross-cultural CEO study was used to gather leadership perspectives for this paper. The interview questions are is in the English language which remains a preferred way of communication among Indian business leaders, therefore no translation was involved.
As clarified earlier, the stamp of earlier bureaucratic and procedure-driven structures are indelible not only in the public sector, but also in the corporate or for-profit sector  (Budhwar and Verma, 2010; Basu, 2010). It is with this reason that the present journal is considered for discussing the outcomes of this exploration on leadership in the public and private domain in the Indian context. All the respondents interviewed happened to be males, such a demographic selection was totally unintentional. Data collection was primarily done through semi-structured interviews in and around Delhi which houses not only the Headquarters of organisations in the public sector but also the regional head offices of quite a few private sector companies. It is a metropolis with diversity and multiplicity ingrained in every aspect of its life  (Dasgupta, 2014).
Hence, it seems to be a microcosm of the whole of India and has served as its capital more often than not since the medieval times. Mail and telephonic contacts were established with these respondents (Table  1 ) so as to get a good understanding of corporate and public sector leadership in India. These semi-structured interviews were video-recorded with the permission of interviewees and lasted around one hour. Interviews were fully transcribed. A content analysis was done manually and minutely and the main themes were captured and scrutinized in form of a database file. The file was read over again to capture the dominating, underlying themes.
Acknowledgements The authors are very grateful to  Paul Rainey ,  Corina Tarnita , three anonymous referees and the scientific editor for providing critical comments and useful suggestions to improve the manuscript. TG was supported by the  UPMC/IRD program  ' Modelisation des Systemes Complexes '. SDM acknowledges support through the project  IAMEE of the Paris Sciences et Lettres program  ' Structuration de la Recherche '.
METHODS It compares i) the timing of union formation, ii) the type of first union (cohabitation vs. marriage), and iii) the transition from cohabitation to marriage of first-and second-generation male and female immigrants from the same region of origin with those of the native-born. The data come from the Trajectories and Origins survey (2008) that oversamples immigrants and their descendants. Piecewise-constant exponential models are estimated.
Data The data we use come from the Trajectories and Origins (TeO) survey conducted in 2008 by the French National Institute of Demography (INED) and the French National Statistical Office (INSEE). This survey is particularly appropriate since it investigates the living conditions and social trajectories of immigrants and secondgeneration immigrants. Twenty-two thousand people living in France 3  were interviewed, and immigrants and their descendants were oversampled  (Beauchemin, Hamel, and Simon 2010). The native French and immigrants were 18-60 years old (1948-90 cohorts), while descendants of immigrants were 18-50 years old  (1958-90 cohorts). The survey contains retrospective biographical data concerning family and employment history, in particular dates (month and year) of first and current coresidential union, first and current marriage, and first separation.
I am grateful for comments and suggestions from HillKulu, Tina Hanneman,  Emmanuelle Santelli, andthe two anonymous reviewers. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), under grant agreement no. 320116 for the research project FamiliesAndSocieties. Calculations based on Trajectories and Origins survey (TeO), INED-INSEE, 2008 Coverage: Immigrants aged 18-60 who arrived single in metropolitan France, Native French aged 18-60 and descendants of immigrants aged 18-50. Model 1: controlled for origin, cohort, age, child conception. Model 2: additionally controlled for social background and religiosity. Model 3: additionally controlled for educational level. Model 4: additionally controlled for being in education and in stable employment.
A success story As my third year as Chief Editor of the European Respiratory Review comes to an end, it is time for me to pass this responsibility onto a new team. It is also time to look back at what has been accomplished and what challenges are faced by the Review. In an era when the number of medical publications and journals continues to increase, it is a necessity for physicians to have access to up-to-date and synthetic reviews on medicine. The European Respiratory Review is indexed in a range of databases, including MEDLINE/PubMed, and is free to access. As the review journal of the European Respiratory Society (ERS), the Review provides up-to-date knowledge covering many aspects of respiratory medicine. As announced in my incoming editorial  [1] , the Review has expanded in recent years, with an increase in the diversity of topics reviewed.
Precipitation records We used monthly precipitation data from the meteorological service of French Polynesia. The homogenization procedure 'Prodige' described by  Caussinus & Mestre (2004)  was applied to a total of 9 stations on the island of Tahiti in order to adjust the inhomogeneities due, for example, to changes in the conditions of measurement, relocation of the weather station or modification of the environment. This technique can only be used if at least 5 neighbouring stations are available and are climatologically wellcorrelated with each other over a minimum period of 16 yr. These criteria are met for only a few stations on the island of Tahiti and 1 station on Moorea. Nevertheless, they provided high-quality data records for the period 1961-2011. The 9 stations are shown in Fig.
The SPLAT index started in 1979 with satellite observations and the IPO index ends in 2008 (updated by the Met Office Hadley Center in 2008). Studying daily rainfall data in the South Pacific,  Griffiths et al. (2003)  argued that the displacement of the diagonal portion of the SPCZ on decadal time scales affected not only mean precipitation but also the daily rainfall extreme, suggesting an enhancement of the activity of the SPCZ as well. Although our analysis was based on monthly data, the intense rainfall episodes of  1978, 1979, 1980 and 1981 , characterizing the presence of a highly active SPCZ in the vicinity of Tahiti, support their theory. As for the relationship between EOF1 and the ENSO phenomenon, the correlation with the Niño3. 4 index was weak (-0. 26), although the major spectral peak at 5 yr suggested an interannual modulation.
DISCUSSION This study investigated the low-frequency rainfall variability in Tahiti and the possible signature of climate change over 1961-2011. The new homogenized data records provided by the meteorological service of French Polynesia constituted a reliable and suitable database for analysing climate variability and change in this region. As the database is available only at monthly timescales, intraseasonal variability was not studied, al though precipitation in the region of Tahiti varies on intraseasonal timescales  (Griffiths et al. 2003). Matthews (2012), who carried out an analysis of the SPCZ in a multiscale framework, identified the primary modes of SPCZ variability using a spectral analysis of daily anomalous OLR data. He found a large spectral peak at lower interannual frequencies and 2 significant peaks in the intraseasonal and submonthly bands.
Acknowledgements. We thank the  Meteorological Service of French Polynesia (DIRPF -CER Etude)  for performing the homogenization procedure on Tahiti's precipitation records and making the data available. We are grateful to  Aurélien Ribes  for his help and advice in using the TOD detection algorithm, and to  Anthony Jamelot , who provided the topography map. We acknowledge 3 anonymous reviewers and  Michel Déqué  for their useful comments, which led to improvements to the manuscript.
Background: Differential Item Functioning (DIF) is investigated to ensure that each item displays a consistent pattern of responses irrespective of the characteristics of the respondents. Assessing DIF helps to understand the nature of instruments, to assess the quality of a measure and to interpret results. This study aimed to examine whether the items of the Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire-Short Form (Q-LES-Q-SF) and Short-Form 12 (SF-12) exhibit DIF. Method: A total of 124 outpatients diagnosed with substance dependence participated in a cross-sectional, multicenter study. In addition to the Q-LES-Q-SF and SF-12 results, demographic data such as age, sex, type of substance dependence and education level were collected. Rasch analysis was conducted (using RUMM2020 software) to assess DIF of the Q-LES-Q-SF and SF-12 items.
Data source and sampling The data were collected from a French cross-sectional, multicenter study. The outpatients who met the DSM-IV criteria for alcohol or opiate dependence were sampled from four French specialized addiction treatment centers in two regions of France  [16]. The patients were assigned to the alcoholic or the opiate group according to their main dependence (alcohol or opiate) on axis I of the DSM-IV. The diagnosis was made by clinicians certified in addiction pathologies who were familiar with the DSM-IV. The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (Comité National Informatique et Liberté DR-2013-156), ensuring the confidentiality of the patient information. The Q-LES-Q-SF questionnaire The Q-LES-Q-SF is a self-report instrument comprising 16 items derived from the general activities scale of the original 93-item form  [17].
The Rasch model provides a way of relating item difficulty to respondent characteristics. Rasch analysis is described in detail elsewhere  [24, 25]. The item fit was explored based on standardized residuals (item and person-fit residuals expected to range between ± 2. 5 units) and examination of the ICCs. The internal consistency of the domains was examined using a person separation index (PSI). PSI values of 0. 90 or greater indicated excellent results  [26]. The RUMM software program was employed to assess DIF via Rasch analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the standardized response residuals for each item was conducted across each level of the factors and the class interval (i. e. , at different levels of the trait)  [27, 28]. Analysis was conducted using both statistical and ad hoc graphical procedures to illustrate DIF.
Comparative analysis To describe impact of the DIF of each item in both SF-12 and Q-LES-Q-SF on its corresponding score, a new score excluding the item displaying DIF, was calculated and transformed to a 0-100 standardized score. The difference in the scores on both the SF-12 and Q-LES-Q-SF questionnaires between the inclusion and exclusion of DIF (Δ Score) was compared between the modalities of each variable-related DIF using a paired-t-test. Rasch analysis was conducted using RUMM2020 software (Rumm Laboratory, Perth, Western Australia), and descriptive and comparative analysis was performed using SAS v9. 3 (SAS Inc. , Cary, NC, USA). The overall significance level was set to 0. 05.
Nevertheless, no scientific rational supports this hypothesis. Removing an item with DIF from a scale is not without consequences on its psychometric properties; however, if various characteristics (e. g. , sex, age, and so on) are affected by a DIF phenomenon within a scale, then it is difficult to adjust for all sources of DIF in a multivariate analysis  [33]. Recent findings based on simulated datasets suggest that the percentage of items in a scale affected by a uniform DIF should be taken into  account. If less than 50 % of the scale items are affected by a uniform DIF with a small effect size, then the resulting measurement bias at the scale level would not be meaningful, regardless of the level of difficulty of these DIF  [34]. Although the interesting findings of this study support the use of the Q-LES-Q-SF and the generic SF-12 to evaluate health status among users, some limitations of this study remain.
But this kind of site must have very carefully designed interfaces to ensure that they do not mislead users  59. For example, the European PrimeLife project has proposed a Firefox extension called Privacy Dashboard, that allows users to know some of the practices of the websites they are using, for example whether they use cookies, geolocation, third party content or other tracking means. An icon displays a more or less happy face depending on the overall evaluation of the web site 60. Specific solutions have also been proposed to improve the privacy interfaces of social networks, for example to reduce unnoticed over-sharing of information, to make it easier to find out to whom a particular attribute is visible 61 or to help users avoiding to make posts that they may later regret 62. Personal data are sometimes collected without the subject being aware of it and by parties that he has never heard about.
Active rights: consent, modification, deletion, etc. When he has reached a decision about his privacy preferences, the next step for the data subject is to express this decision. Several techniques are available to help him in this task. They differ mostly in terms of scope (general purpose versus specific) and interfaces. On the 57 Privacy Bird is an example of browser add-on (for Internet Explorer) that provides this facility 58 Google Dashboard provides this facility but it shows only a subset of the collected data. general purpose side, a number of languages have been proposed to express privacy policies 66. The general principle is that both the subject and the controller (typically a web site) should be able to author privacy policies which are translated into a machine readable format.