dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Statistical analysis, graphs and created images were performed with GraphPad Prism 9 Software. Normal distribution and variance homogeneity of values were determined with Shapiro-Wilk and Fisher test followed by unpaired t-test. Statistical analysis compared healthy and treated groups to the OA control group. Data are presented as the mean + SEM, with p < 0. 05 (*), p < 0. 01 (**), p < 0. 001 (***), p < 0. 0001 (****).
, N -1: 0. 75 2 T O L 2 sp μ t n+1 t n ∇u hτ (t) 2 L 2 ( ) dt ≤ K ∈T h (η sp K ,n ) 2 ≤ 1. 25 2 T O L 2 sp μ t n+1 t n ∇u hτ (t) 2 L 2 ( ) dt, ( 20 ) and for n = 1, 2,. N - 1 0. 75 2 T O L 2 ti μ t n+1 t n ∇u hτ (t) 2 L 2 ( ) dt ≤ (η ti n ) 2 ≤ 1. 25 2 T O L 2 ti μ t n+1 t n ∇u hτ (t) 2 L 2 ( ) dt. ( 21 ) The adaptive algorithm follows the process presented in  [7] [8] [9]. The main step is summarized in Table  1. Every time (  21 ) is not satisfied, a new time step is chosen. Every time  (20)  is not satisfied, a new mesh is generated by aligning each triangle K with the eigenvectors of the matrix G K and by equidistributing η sp K ,n in both direction r i,K , i = 1, 2. The complete procedure is described in  [31, 7, 9, 23, 32]. In practice, the BL2D software  [33]  is used to build the new mesh and the Wolf-interpol program  [34]  is used to interpolate values at the vertices between two non-compatible meshes.
Colocalization Images were captured using the inverted Eclipse Ti-E (Nikon) with spinning disk CSU-X1 (Yokogawa) and 60x CFI Plan Apo. Stacks of 16 images at 0. 2 μm depth were integrated with Metamorph software by Gataca Systems. Single cells were analysed using the colocalization threshold tool in Fiji ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health)  [25].
Chemical synthesis opens new possibilities for bioorthogonal conjugations with STxB The capacity to obtain STxB in a highly efficient linear chemical synthesis scheme opened the possibility of producing STxB variants with defined functionalization sites. Two types of modifications were chosen: unnatural azide-containing amino acids for conjugation via copper- free click chemistry, and the addition of a cysteine on the C-terminus for coupling via sulfhydrylspecific chemistries. Positions for unnatural azide-containing amino acid substitutions were selected based on the analysis of the STxB structure in complex with an analogue of its receptor (Protein Data Bank: 1BOS). Key criteria were exposure at the surface of the homopentamer and non-engagement in Gb3 binding sites. 17 azido variants were synthesized with overall yields between 7 and 24 % (detailed in Table  S1 ).
Acknowledgments This study was supported by grants from  Mizutani Foundation  (reference n°  200014  to L. J. ),  Institut National du Cancer  (INCa contract  n°2019-1-PLBIO-05-1  to L. J. , E. T. D. S. , and  INCa  Contract  PLBIO22-147  to E. T. ),  La Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer  (convention N°  AAPARN 2021. LCC/ChP  to L. J. and E. T. ),  Equipes Labellisées Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale  ( EQU202103012926  to L. J. ) and  Ligue contre le Cancer  ( EL 2020  to E. T. ). F. A. R. received funding from the  Institut Pasteur Coronavirus Task Force (Allospike project) , the  CNRS  and grant  ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID. A. B. was funded by the  French Ministry of Higher Education and Research (AMX funding)  and  La Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer , and received support from " Frontières de l'Innovation en Recherche et Éducation" (FIRE)   Doctoral School -Bettencourt Program.
J. H. was funded by the  Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale. This work was also funded by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche (Labex Immuno-Oncology  to E. T. ) and the  Institut National du Cancer  (Grant  SIRIC CARPEM  to E. T. ). This work was by a  Curie Innov grant  from  Institut Carnot Curie Cancer  ( ANR 18 CARN 0009 01 ) to LJ. We acknowledge  Raphaël Rodriguez 's team from  Institut Curie  for the use of various instruments and the Cell and Tissue Imaging ( PICT-IBiSA ) and  Nikon Imaging Centre ,  Institut Curie , member of the  French National Research Infrastructure France-BioImaging  ( ANR10-INBS-04 ). We greatly acknowledge  Patrick England  and  Sébastien Brûlé  from the  Biophysics Platform at Institut Pasteur  for their help in the biophysical characterization of STxB.
The Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) is one of the most relevant surface meteorological variables; with important implications in ecology, hydrology, and atmosphere. By understanding the processes involved in the variability and trend of the VPD, it is possible to assess the possible impacts and implications related to both physical and human environments, like plant function, water use efficiency, net ecosystem production, atmospheric CO 2 growth rate, etc. This study analysed recent temporal variability and trends in VPD in Spain between 1980 and 2020 using a recently developed high-quality dataset. Also, the connection between VPD and soil moisture and other key climate variables (e. g. air temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity) was assessed on different time scales varying from weekly to annual.
Datasets description A complete register of daily maximum and minimum air temperatures, daily mean dew point temperature, and precipitation for Spain between 1980 and 2020 was provided by the Spanish National Meteorological Agency (AEMET). Data were subjected to a rigorous quality control and homogenization procedure as outlined in Tomas  Burguera et al. (2016). Herein, it should be noted that the first day of each year can fall on different days, and this propagates throughout the year, so it was not possible to use "week" as the reference time step for calculations. Also, leap years may have contributed to the inconsistency of the periods being compared. As a result, each month was divided into four artificial "weekly" periods: the first from the 1st to the 8th day, the second from the 9th to the 15th day, the third from the 16th to the 22nd day, and the fourth from the 23rd day to the end of the month.
This approach enabled interannual comparisons amongst sub-monthly periods, retaining the VPD variability better, compared to the data on a monthly scale. The weekly data were tested for possible temporal inhomogeneities using the Standard Normal Homogeneity Test (SNHT)  (Alexandersson, 1986). Fig. 1  shows the spatial distribution of the complete series of air temperature and dew point temperature available for 1980-2020. As illustrated, the stations are evenly distributed over space, albeit with improved spatial coverage for air temperature and precipitation in particular. Prior to calculating VPD, weekly data for input variables were interpolated to a common spatial resolution of 1 km 2 using the universal Kriging interpolator, which accounted for elevation as an auxiliary variable. Further details about the development of this dataset can be found in  Vicente-Serrano et al.
Overall, results demonstrate the high accuracy of the weekly 1 km 2 gridded dataset used to compute VPD. The seasonal and annual series of observations and those interpolated using the Jacknife approach (in which the predicted series are independent of the series of every meteorological station) show an excellent agreement. Fig. S1  shows the temporal evolution of these average series and the average series of observations based on the available meteorological stations and they show the same evolution, with very few and small differences amongst them. Thus, the magnitude of change between the series of observations and the series interpolated by the Jacknife approach are basically similar at the seasonal and annual scales (Fig. S2 ). Using the gridded datasets, VPD was calculated on a weekly basis by means of the difference between e s and e a following  Allen et al.
Specifically, surface and root zone soil moisture (in m 3 /m 3 ) and E t (in mm) were obtained on a daily basis from the GLEAM v3. 5a dataset (https://www. gleam. eu/) for the period 1980-2020  (Martens et al. , 2017; Miralles et al. , 2011). GLEAM has been fully validated at the global scale using data of Eddycovariance towers located on different environment  (Martens et al. , 2017). Thus, recent comparisons of the output of different model simulations have showed that GLEAM reproduces well the magnitude and temporal variability of the available observations  (Guo et al. , 2022; Liu et al. , 2023; Yang et al. , 2022). To match the VPD's temporal resolution, these daily data were aggregated to a weekly time scale. Also, as the spatial resolution of the two datasets is different (i. e. 1 km 2 for T, RH, VPD, and precipitation (P), and 0.
Analysis Trend and variability of VPD were analysed for the whole of Spain between 1980 and 2020. Trends were assessed on a weekly, seasonal, and annual scale, although the majority of analyses were performed on seasonal and annual scales, while weekly data were used for some comparisons. Overall, seasons were defined in a standard way: winter (DJF), spring (MAM), summer (JJA), and autumn (SON). The main analysis was based on the gridded datasets but we also included the analysis in the independent meteorological stations in order to show the observed trends in the locations in which the data is available. To analyse changes in VPD and other related climatic variables, the nonparametric Mann-Kendall statistic was used. This is a nonparametric test, which quantifies the degree to which a trend is consistently increasing or decreasing.
Trends in VPD and its controlling variables Fig. 3  illustrates seasonal and annual changes in VPD from 1980 to 2020. Results suggest statistically significant positive trends, mainly in spring, summer, and annually. On the other hand, VPD did not exhibit significant changes in winter and autumn over Spain, implying that VPD increase was mainly assigned to the warm season. A similar temporal pattern was seen for data on a weekly scale, as we noted statistically significant positive trends between weeks #19 (4th of May) and #32 (4th of August), which corresponds to late spring and summertime. Spatially, we found spatial differences in the magnitude of VPD trends as a function of season (Fig. 4 ). In summer, the most pronounced increase in VPD was noted in southern and eastern Spain, while weaker changes were recorded in northern Spain.
The spatial patterns of annual trends seem to be more related to VPD trends in summer. In contrast, significant trends during winter and autumn were only seen across small areas. The trends based on the gridded dataset show the same spatial and seasonal patterns identified by the independent meteorological stations (Fig. S3 ). Thus, the majority of the stations with data of dew, maximum and minimum temperature necessary to calculate VPD show positive and statistically significant trends in Spring, Summer and at the Annual scales. Fig. 5  depicts the seasonal and annual changes in the driving variables of VPD. It can be noted that the strong increase in VPD during the warm season was inconsistent with the observed changes in some variables like soil moisture, evaporation, and precipitation.
Discussion This study analysed recent temporal variability and trends in VPD across Spain between 1980 and 2020 and their connection with soil moisture and different climate variables, including precipitation (P), air temperature (T), and relative humidity (RH). These assessments were made on different timescales, varying from weekly, seasonal, and annual. We employed a high-quality updated VPD dataset that has been fully validated and compared with independent precipitation and soil moisture data. VPD data is fully independent of the data of the land variables, such as E t and soil moisture. Also, it is assured that the relationships between VPD, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and soil Fig. 8. Relationships between detrended regional series for VPD and precipitation on the seasonal and annual scales.
Trends in VPD Results suggest a dominant increase in VPD in Spain over the last four decades, which is consistent with the trends assessed based on different observations and reanalysis datasets on a global scale  (Lian et al. , 2020; Weedon et al. , 2011). In this study, the increase in VPD was more pronounced during the warm season, explaining the relevant VPD increase observed on the annual scale. Also, this work attempted to explain the strong observed trend and variability of VPD in recent decades through examining their connection with some relevant variables such as P, E t , and soil moisture. Amongst them, soil moisture has been proven as a key controller of VPD variability in several recent studies. For example,  Stegehuis et al. (2021)  suggested the role of soil moisture drying at the beginning of summer in explaining summer warming in some areas of western Europe, including parts of central Spain.
In the same context, this mechanism is likely to have a significant impact on trends of summer maximum T under future climate change scenarios characterized by enhanced anthropogenic emissions  (Vogel et al. , 2017). As opposed to these findings, our study demonstrates that the increase in VPD over the past decades does not concur with changes in either soil moisture (both surface and root) or E t. Specifically, soil moisture at the surface and the root levels was almost stationary on the seasonal and annual scales, with non-significant changes between 1980 and 2020. While earlier studies in the Mediterranean indicated a decline in soil moisture in the region, including Spain, during the dry season due to increased evapotranspiration (e. g. ,  Padrón et al. , 2020) , this trend was not confirmed for the soil moisture dataset used in Spain over the period 1980-2020.
In summers, the dominant dry soils and possibly physiological plant mechanisms would cause a dominant uncoupling between soil moisture and VPD. For this reason, VPD is probably related to atmospheric mechanisms that control temperature and relative humidity in the region, including warm advections and humidity transport. As increased VPD has important consequences on plant physiology and it strongly determines plant productivity and carbon uptake  (Breshears et al. , 2013; Grossiord et al. , 2020) , and since different studies have stressed its role on crops and natural ecosystems  (Fu et al. , 2022; Lobell et al. , 2011; Novick et al. , 2016) , assessment of VPD variability and trends and their driving physical mechanisms, based on robust databases, seems to be a priority in semiarid and sub-humid regions of the world, where enhanced AED may increase water stress and reinforce climate aridity and the severity of drought events in future climate change scenarios  (Vicente-Serrano et al.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by projects  PCI2019-103631 , and  PID2019-108589RA-I00  financed by the  Spanish Commission of Science and Technology and FEDER ;  LINKB20080  of the programme i- LINK 2021  of  CSIC ,  CROSSDRO  financed by  AXIS  ( Assessment of Cross(X) -sectoral climate Impacts and pathways for Sustainable transformation) ,  JPI-Climate co- funded call of the  European Commission and CSIC Interdisciplinary Thematic Platform (PTI)   clima y servicios climáticos   (PTI-CSC).
In Section 4, the numerical simulation, including the simulation and mathematical representation of the wind flow, is discussed in detail. Section 5 reviews the post-processing of the results including the technique for the calculation of the length scales, the analysis of the instantaneous velocity contours and time-averaged turbulence velocity profiles and length scales, and some suggestions regarding the best locations for the installation of the turbine and Section 6 concludes this work. Ten years of wind speed and direction analysis are shown in Figure  2. The wind potential is analysed using data from NCDC. This analysis shows that about 90% of wind potential comes from the West, mainly during the day (not during the night). In order to achieve specific local results, wind measurement equipment was installed near the parapet of the building, including two cup anemometers, one wind vane, and one sonic anemometer as illustrated in Figure  3  (photograph on the left is facing the dominant winds, from the West).
Numerical Setup The large eddy simulation of the computational domain was performed using the commercial CFD package ANSYS Fluent. The convection terms in the momentum equations have been discretized using a bounded central-differencing scheme, which has an accuracy of the order between one and two, together with a second-order technique for the pressure term. Also, a second-order implicit time integration technique has been used. This technique has been shown to be capable of providing more stable solutions for unsteady problems. Time steps of 0. 01 s have been used during the running of the LES. This time step resulted in local Courant numbers in the domain which are less than 2. 4 and these values for Courant number are small enough to generate stable numerical results. The coupling between the velocity and pressure was through the non-iterative pressure implicit scheme with the splitting of operators, i.
e. PISO which has been widely utilised in similar research , , and a bounded central difference was used to discretizing the momentum convective terms which prevent unphysical oscillations. In order to start the LES, the solution is initialized from steady-state RANS results. In this work, a realizable k-𝜀 turbulence model is used for the RANS calculations and LES simulations are started after a converged RANS results have been obtained. The sample data are captured after 8000 time steps of running an initialized LES solution. This is equivalent to 2. 26 mean flow residence time, 𝑇 (𝑇 = ,where 𝐿 is the streamwise dimension of the computational domain). The sample data are captured every 1000 time steps for a total time of 480s, 13. 35 𝑇. The computation was performed using the high performance computing facilities (HPC) of the University of Sheffield.
This technique has been incorporated in the Fluent software defined as the Spectral Synthesizer The most important advantage of the Smirnov method over other inflow generation methods is that it is divergent-free. Also, the technique is capable of generating inhomogeneous and anisotropic turbulence. The velocity fluctuations are introduced to the domain through a series of Fourier harmonics and the modelled turbulence spectrum is represented by: 𝐸(𝑘) = 16( ). 𝑘 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (-2𝑘 ),  (4)  where 𝑘 is the wave number. The Smirnov method receives the correlation tensor of the original flow field and information on the integral length scale of the turbulence as inputs. These quantities can be estimated using the Reynolds stress terms from previous RANS computations or experimental data. There are several ways to provide inputs for the Spectral Synthesizer techniques.
Energy Spectrum Figure  10  shows the wind history at two points on the top of the building. The data from the measurements are recorded at a frequency of 1. 0Hz for 2hrs and the frequency of sampling for LES is 0. 1kHz for 400s. Simulated time series exhibit variations much faster than the measurements and this is due to two main reasons. The first one concerns the sampling frequencies which differ by a factor of 10 so that the simulated data can contain higher frequencies than the measurement data. The second reason comes from the reduction of the turbulent length scale, which is much smaller in the simulation (7m instead of ~60m). Nevertheless, the order of magnitude of the mean wind speed is similar from the simulation to the measurement: most of all, the reduction from Point 1 to Point 2 is correctly captured in the simulation results.
Conclusions In this paper, the reliability of a reduced integral length scale for the inflow generation of LES was studied. During this investigation, we showed that there is a meaningful relationship between the simulation and measurement results. We performed this study on a practical case, which was a low-rise building and its two simplified neighbouring buildings. LES was implemented in ANSYS/Fluent using spectral synthesizer inflow generation. Also, a combination of the Werner-Wengle wall function for the near wall treatment and the dynamic Smagorinsky Lily method for the sub-grid scale modelling was used. We carried out field measurements at the location of interest. The local wind data have been measured using two cup anemometers on the roof of the building and the wind data was analysed to obtain the real energy spectrum and length scale of the location.
Although similar aerophones are documented in later archaeological cultures, such artificial bird sounds were yet to be reported from Palaeolithic context. Therefore, the discovery from Eynan-Mallaha contributes new evidence for a distinctive soundmaking instrument in the Palaeolithic. Through a combined multidisciplinary approach, our study provides important new data regarding the antiquity and development of the variety of sound-making instruments in the Palaeolithic at large and particularly at the dawn of the Neolithic in the Levant. The Natufian archaeological culture (c. 15,000-11,700 BP) marks the transition from hunter-gatherer Palaeolithic societies into fully-fledged agricultural economies of the Neolithic 1. The Natufians were the first hunter-gatherers in the Levant to adopt a sedentary lifestyle, a dramatic economic and societal change associated with growing social complexity as reflected in various aspects of their material culture (e.
Archaeological The thickness of the units was also adapted to the stratigraphy, resulting in units much thinner than 5 cm, especially when searching for 'floors' and surfaces. As a rule, only exceptional pieces were spatially recorded during excavation in the undifferentiated upper part of Layer Ib, which was crowded with small limestone blocks. Inside the structures, all items larger than 5 cm (bones, stones, lithic artefacts and other finds) were mapped. Sediments were wet-sieved using a 1-2 mm mesh and further sorted in the laboratory. Taxonomical and anatomical identification. Each bird bone retrieved has been numbered individually by the catalogue numbers of the excavation. All variables regarding the definition of taxa, element, completeness, and surface modifications were recorded in a database.
The experiment was carried out in compliance with the sanitary standards and the respect for animal welfare. The unretouched flint bladelets used in the experiment are of consistent typology with those from the Final Natufian archaeological record. We recorded every element and factor (time, number of incisions, the position of the hand, etc. ) in a specific file designed for this experiment. Moreover, we graphically recorded all the processes with a Canon 6D camera (180 mm, 60 mm and 35 mm Tamron Macro lenses). The experimental marks were also analyzed microscopically with a stereomicroscope Kiowa SDZ-TR-P completed with a microscope camera Motic Moticam-S6. We conducted spectral analyses of the sounds produced by the replica, and bird calls with the free computer softwares Praat (version 6.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the following people for their help: the  Centre de Recherche Français à Jérusalem , the  Hebrew University of Jerusalem  and the  Fyssen Foundation  supported our work;  Julien Navas  who helped to record the experimentations;  Claude Guintard  who hosted us for the experiments at the  National Veterinary School of Nantes -Oniris ;  Rachel Sarig , and  Shiri Ellenbogen  from the  Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University. Pierre Allard  ( UMR 8068 TEMPS ) knapped and supplied the flint bladelets used in the experiment. Motic Europe has provided  J. -M. Tejero  with a Moticam S6. Open access funding is provided by the  University of Vienna  (J. - M. Tejero ).