dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
2022; Tripodi et al. 2022; Walter et al. 2022) , which is 0 2 × 0 2, corresponding to ∼1. 0 × 1. 0 kpc 2 at the rest frame of our source. Dust temperature cannot be constrained with the lowfrequency data in hand; hence we fix it to T dust = 50 K. This may be considered the median value in z = 6 -7 quasars, for which a range in dust temperature of 30 to 70 K is found  (Leipski et al. 2014; Schneider et al. 2015; Carniani et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2019; Tripodi et al. 2023 Tripodi et al. , 2022)). We explore the two-dimensional parameter space using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm implemented in the EMCEE package (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013), assuming uniform priors for M dust and β. We derive a cold dust mass of M dust = (1. 7 ± 0. 6) × 10 8 M e and a dust emissivity index of β = 1. 77 ± 0.
Acknowledgments This publication has received funding from the  European Unionʼs Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under grant agreement No. 101004719  (ORP). Authors acknowledge financial support from  PRIN MIUR  contract  2017PH3WAT ;  PRIN MAIN STREAM INAF  "black hole winds and the  baryon cycle "; the  Horizon 2020 INFRAIA Programme  under grant Agreement No. 871158 AHEAD2020 ;  INAF  Large Grant 2022 "Toward an holistic view of the Titans: multi-band  observations of z > 6 QSOs  powered by greedy  supermassive black holes. " This work is co-funded by the  European Union  (ERC, WINGS,  101040227 ). Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the  European Research Council Executive Agency.
Between 20 and 50 successive files accumulated for 10 min each were recorded with alternating light helicity for the complexes obtained with each enantiomer of MOx. The corresponding raw electron images were filtered at the mass of the complex (m/z 152) and processed via the p-Basex software  58. The p-Basex software is based on the Abel transform of the electron distribution and aims to reconstruct the three-dimensional Newton sphere of the expanding electrons from its two-dimensional projection. It consists of fitting a set of polar basis functions with a known and exact inverse Abel function. The sum (LCP + RCP) image provided the PES and the difference (LCP-RCP) image provided the b 1 parameter and therefore the PECD= 2b 1.
Theoretical methods The potential energy surface (PES) was explored using the OPLS-2005 force fields 60 with the advanced conformational search implemented in the MacroModel suite of the Schrödinger package  61. The geometry of the most stable structures within 21 kJ/mol were locally optimised using the B3LYP functional and the 6-311 + + G(d,p) basis set  62  , including D3BJ dispersion corrections  63, 64. The harmonic frequencies were obtained at the same level of theory and scaled by 0. 953 to correct for anharmonicity and basis set incompleteness  65, 66. The scaling factor was defined to reproduce the ν(OH) frequency of phenol. The relative stability of the different isomers of the complex was assessed by their enthalpy ΔH relative to the most stable structure. The structures corresponding to the experiment were re-optimised at the MP2/6-31 + + G(d,p) level.
The electronic densities were calculated at the MP2 level and the cube files were generated using the cubegen facility implemented in the Gaussian software, version G16 B01  67. The electronic density of the frontier orbitals was plotted for each occupied orbital considered using the VMD software, with an isodensity value of 0. 07  68. Energies of the valence orbitals were calculated using the outer valence Green's function (OVGF) method and cc-pVTZ basis set, at the MP2/6-31 G + +(d,p) optimised geometries  69, 70.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the programme " Investissements d'Avenir LabEx PALM"  ( ANR-10-LABX-0039-PALM ) (A. Z. and L. N. ). The authors are grateful to the  SOLEIL general  staff for providing synchrotron beam under proposal No. 20210155  (A. Z. ) and  99220172  (L. N. ). We acknowledge the computing centre MésoLUM managed by  ISMO  ( UMR8214 ) and  LPGP  ( UMR8578 ),  University Paris-Saclay (France ). Part of the calculations were performed using Cloud resources from the " Mésocentre" computing centre of CentraleSupélec ,  École Normale Supérieure Paris-Saclay  and  Université Paris-Saclay  supported by  CNRS  and  Région Île-de-France  (https://mesocentre. universite-paris-scalay. fr/).
, 2019; Siron et al. , 2021; Villeneuve et al. , 2009). Our whole dataset thus implies that chondrule formation began at most at ~0. 7 Ma after CAI formation and lasted for ~3 Ma (Figs. 1 2 3 ). Although only 3 NC chondrules have been measured, we note that the 26 Al -26 Mg ages of spinel-bearing chondrules originating from both inner (LL, R) and outer (CV, CM, CR) reservoirs of the circumsolar disk  (Kruijer et al. , 2017)  provide consistent chondrule formation timescales (Fig. 3 ), assuming 26 Al homogeneity in the early Solar System. The 26 Al-26 Mg age discrepancies between the various mineral phases (i. e. , spinel vs. plagioclase/mesostasis) are unlikely to reflect heterogeneities in their ages of formation. The differences between the temperatures of spinel-olivine crystallization (~1,500 • C;  Schnuriger et al.
Acknowledgments We thank the  French National Museum of Natural History (Paris, France) , the  Japanese National Institute for Polar Research (Tokyo, Japan ) and  Jérôme Gattacceca  ( CEREGE, France ) for providing meteorite samples. We thank  Valentina Batanova  and  Nordine Bouden  for assistance during analytical measurements. We thank  Matthieu Gounelle ,  Audrey Bouvier  and  Cécile Deligny  for fruitful discussion, and  Robert Dennen  ( RD Editing Services ) for stylistic and linguistic corrections. We thank  Andy Davis ,  Thorsten Kleine  and anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and  Alessandro Morbidelli  for very efficient editorial handling. This is CRPG contribution # 2823.
METHOD As 4MOST and the Vera Rubin Observatory are not operational yet, we use simulated data. To assess both instruments' ability to measure galaxy properties, we need to start with a spectrum of a galaxy with values of physical properties that we adopt as the ground truth for this experiment. We use an example output spectrum of the Fitting Assessment of Synthetic Templates (FAST) SED fitting code  (Kriek et al. 2009 ), which has associated 𝑀 * , star formation rate and other galaxy property values. In order to generate the target galaxy properties with which we can compare our results, we ran FAST for an initial pass (we later use FAST in a second pass to analyse the simulated 4MOST output). For this we gave FAST an input spectrum to fit. We used the  Kinney et al. (1996)  elliptical template which is built into the 4MOST Exposure Time Calculator (4MOST ETC)  9.
Synthetic photometry The next stage of the simulations takes the noiseless-template spectrum (from Section 2. 1) to produce synthetic photometry and a spectrum as observed by 4MOST. During the work described in this Section and 2. 4, we shifted the template to different redshifts (0. 1 < 𝑧 < 0. 9) and normalised it to different desired magnitudes in the range (18 < r < 25). We call these shifted target spectra. For each case the Python package Pyphot (version 1. 0) was used to calculate the flux within the filter bands u, g, r, i, z and y. The throughput received after passing through the atmosphere, the filters and the detectors can be seen in Figure  1. Pyphot calculates this by integrating each template through the given filter bands. The Rubin filters provided on the Vera Rubin Observatory's website 11  are used for this process, which we have added into both Pyphot and FAST.
We find on average our photometry mass uncertainty ranges are larger than those observed by  Sullivan et al. (2010). This is to be expected as Sullivan et al. incorporates near-infrared filters (J, H, 𝐾 𝑠 ) with photometry to measure a galaxy's mass. At magnitude 20 the SNLS data has an average mass uncertainty size of 0. 12 dex, whilst our photometry uncertainty has a size of 0. 19 dex. The phot + 4MOST uncertainty for magnitude 20 has a size of 0. 08 dex. This further shows the improvement that 4MOST will enable. A similar trend occurs for magnitudes 21 and 22, with phot + 4MOST having a smaller uncertainty range than SNLS and phot only having a larger range. However, at magnitude 23 and beyond the 4MOST uncertainties become larger than the SNLS values (SNLS: 0. 1 dex, phot: 0. 68 dex, phot + 4MOST: 0.
2022 ), leaving us with 286 objects. The Hubble residual was calculated using a modified version of the Tripp formula  (Tripp 1998) , presented by  Brout et al. (2019) , as shown as follows: Hubble Residual = 𝑚 B,fixdistance modulus(𝑧) (4) Where 𝑚 B,fix = (𝑚 𝐵 + 𝛼𝑥 1 -𝛽𝑐) -𝑀 𝐵,𝑆 𝑁 𝐼 𝑎 (5) where 𝑚 𝐵 is the peak apparent magnitude in the rest frame Bband. 𝑀 𝐵,𝑆 𝑁 𝐼 𝑎 is the mean absolute magnitude. This value was not provided in the Pantheon+ paper so we calculated it from the weighted average of the m_b_corr column (from Pantheon) minus the distance modulus, weighted with the MU_SHOES_ERR_DIAG column (from Pantheon). 𝛼 and 𝛽 are correlation coefficients of 𝑥 1 and 𝑐. The values for 𝑚 𝐵 , 𝑥 1 and 𝑐 were taken from the Pantheon dataset. The values for 𝛼 and 𝛽 were set as 0. 1533 and 3. 44, respectively (taken from  Brout et al.
(2022) ). The distance modulus was calculated using the distmod function in the Python module Astropy. We then calculated the probability of an object appearing either side of the 10 10 (mass/𝑀 ⊙ ) line using Gaussian uncertainties, assuming our 1𝜎 values from FAST, centered on our best-fit 𝑀 * values. This was repeated using our photometry uncertainties, and again for the phot + 4MOST uncertainties. We used the distance of each galaxy from the 10 10 (mass/𝑀 ⊙ ) line and a Gaussian probability distribution to assign a probability of each host galaxy crossing the line. Each galaxy was then randomly assigned a right/wrong classification term, weighted by the probabilities, for a galaxy to be given the right or wrong correction term. The host galaxies with 𝑀 * < 10 10 𝑀 ⊙ were assigned a correction of -0.
(2019). In addition, the results from our research can be improved with the addition of data from future instruments. ESA's Euclid satellite  (Laureĳs et al. 2011)  will provide near-infrared photometry for billions of galaxies over a wide area of the sky, and is due to launch in 2023. The ULTRASAT satellite will provide the first wide-field ultraviolet time-domain sky survey and is due to launch in 2026 (Ben-Ami et al. 2022). We expect using Euclid NIR photometry and ULTRASAT UV images, together with Table  2. The calculated RMS scatter values from 3 corrections: no correction, using the phot uncertainty and using phot + 4MOST uncertainty. The first column was calculated by measuring the scatter around the Hubble residual = 0 line, when a correction is applied based on which side of the 10 10 𝑀 ⊙ mass line a SN's host galaxy appears.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JD acknowledges the  Science and Technology Facilities Council Data Science  studentship and funding of training through the  STFC 4IR Centre  for Doctoral Training. IH acknowledges support for this work from  STFC  (consolidated grant numbers  ST/R000514/1  and  ST/V000713/1 ). MN is supported by the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  (grant agreement No. 948381 ) and by funding from the  UK Space Agency. BFR acknowledges support for this work by  MNiSW  grant  DIR/WK/2018/12. This work has made use of the python adaptation of the FAST software developed by  Corentin Schreiber , as well as documentation on FAST by  James Aird. This work has made use of the development effort of 4MOST, an instrument being constructed by the  4MOST Consortium  for the  European Southern Observatory.
8 < η < 5. 1 (V0A) and -3. 7 < η < -1. 7 (V0C). It provides the minimum bias (MB) trigger defined by the coincidence of signals in the two sets of scintillators. The V0 is also used for the luminosity determination, and an independent measurement is obtained with the two T0 arrays of Cherenkov detectors located in the regions 4. 6 < η < 4. 9 and -3. 3 < η < -3. 0. The two sets of Zero Degree Calorimeters (ZDC), each including a neutron calorimeter (ZN) and a proton calorimeter (ZP), are located on both sides of the interaction point at z = ±112. 5 m, along the beam line. The timing information delivered by the V0 and ZDC is exploited offline to reject the beam-induced background. These two detectors are also used to estimate the event activity. The results reported in this letter are obtained with the data samples recorded by ALICE during the 2016 p-Pb run at √ s NN = 8.
Data were collected with two programmable p T thresholds set to about 0. 5 GeV/c and 4. 2 GeV/c, referred to as MSL and MSH, respectively. These two thresholds are not sharp, and correspond to a ∼50% efficiency for muons  [89]. Based on statistical considerations, the measurement of the v 2 of inclusive muons is performed by combining MSL-and MSH-triggered events which are used up to p T = 2 GeV/c and above this value, respectively. It has been checked that in the overlapping region, both samples give same inclusive muon v 2 results within uncertainties. After applying an event selection which uses the information of the V0 and SPD together with an algorithm to tag events with multiple vertices, the pile-up contribution is found negligible for the data samples considered in this analysis. Moreover, only events with a primary vertex along the beam axis z vtx within ±7 cm are considered in order to reduce non-uniform acceptance effects.
The baseline is a parameter which could influence the fits and is estimated following the same strategy as in Ref. [48]. The latter is obtained by fitting the correlation distributions in low-multiplicity collisions using a Gaussian function in the away side and a constant for the baseline. Alternatively, the baseline can also be calculated in high-multiplicity collisions from the integral or from a second-order polynomial fit around the minimum at ∆ϕ ∼ π/2. Finally, the ∆ϕ projection is obtained from a constant fit instead of a first-order polynomial fit along ∆η for each ∆ϕ interval. The systematic effect due to the angular and momentum resolution of reconstructed muon tracks is evaluated by means of a dedicated Monte Carlo simulation based on the DPMJET event generator  [95] , which uses the GEANT4 transport code  [96, 97]  and the afterburner flow technique  [98].
It amounts to 1. 28 ± 0. 07, the uncertainty being from the fit. This asymmetry could be a consequence of decorrelation effects of the flow vectors in different rapidity regions  [101] [102] [103] [104]. In the p T interval of interest, muons originate mainly from charged-pion and kaon decays at low p T (p T < 2 GeV/c), while muons from heavy-flavour hadron decays dominate over muons from lighthadron decays at higher p T  [48]. The contributions of these muon sources are estimated by means of simulations using the DMPJET event generator  [95]  and the GEANT4 transport package  [96]. The relative contribution of muons from primary charged-pion and kaon decays amounts to about 67% (68%) at 0. 5 < p T < 1 GeV/c, and it decreases with increasing p T down to about 7. 5% (14. 5%) at 6 < p T < 10 GeV/c in the p-going (Pb-going) direction.
Tidal dissipation plays an important role in the dynamical evolution of moons, planets, stars and compact remnants. The interesting complexity originates from the interplay between the internal structure and external tidal forcing. Recent and upcoming observing missions of exoplanets and stars in the Galaxy help to provide constraints on the physics of tidal dissipation. It is timely to develop new N-body codes, which allow for experimentation with various tidal models and numerical implementations. We present the open-source N-body code TIDYMESS, which stands for "TIdal DYnamics of Multi-body ExtraSolar Systems". This code implements a creep deformation law for the bodies, parametrized by their fluid Love numbers and fluid relaxation times. Due to tidal and centrifugal deformations, we approximate the general shape of a body to be an ellipsoid.
Outline and novelty We present the new N-body code TIDYMESS 1  , which stands for the "TIdal DYnamics of Multi-body ExtraSolar Systems". This code covers a niche regime of parameter space where orbits are chaotic and tides can become non-linear. This is accomplished by implementing the Creep tidal model, with a fourth-order direct integration method. The interplay between orbital, spin and shape evolution is calculated self-consistently. Arbitrary number of bodies and configurations can be simulated within a Cartesian inertial frame, including full information on the spin vectors and inertia tensors of the bodies. The main numerical novelty of our method is the ability to integrate the deformation over an orbital time step, irrespective of its fluid relaxation time or spin period. Our code complements the repertoire of tidal N-body codes in the literature (e.
TIDYMESS implements a generalisation of the sticky sphere model, which assumes the conservation of mass, center of mass, linear momentum and total angular momentum (orbit and spin). Internal properties are adopted from the most massive collision component, e. g. the radius is determined by preserving the average density. Alternatively, the code can be halted when a collision is detected, and a collision product can be generated externally, e. g. using the AMUSE framework (Portegies Zwart & McMillan 2018) and specialised codes for collisions (e. g. Gaburov et al. 2018).
CONCLUSION We present the new N-body code TIDYMESS, which stands for the "TIdal DYnamics of Multi-body ExtraSolar Systems". Due to the combination of a direct integration method and the tidal Creep model, this code covers a niche regime of parameter space where orbits become chaotic and where tides can be non-linear. A new implementation of the Creep model, which we call the TIDYMESS Creep model, consists of an integration method for the tidal deformations, which is independent of the spin and fluid relaxation time scales. This greatly benefits the performance of the Creep model in the linear regime, or in the presence of rapidly spinning bodies. We provide six different demonstrations of TIDYMESS, with applications to the tidal evolution of moons, planets and stars. The code will be made open-source and provide the community with a new method for studying the chaotic, tidal evolution of Solar System bodies, exoplanets, stellar multiples and associations.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by funds from the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the European Union's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under grant agreement No  638435  ( GalNUC ). Other support includes  CFisUC  ( UIDB/04564/2020  and  UIDP/04564/2020 ),  GRAVITY  ( PTDC/FIS-AST/7002/2020 ),  PHOBOS  ( POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029932 ), and  ENGAGE SKA  ( POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022217 ), funded by  COMPETE 2020 and FCT, Portugal. The numerical simulations were performed at the  Laboratory for Advanced Computing at University of Coimbra  (https://www. uc. pt/lca). The diagrams were produced using PYTHON ( Van Rossum  & Drake Jr 1995).
this collection). In sum, the gravity, magnetic induction, and tectonic evidence make a powerful case for the reality of Europa's ocean. While an objective of the Europa Clipper mission is to confirm the existence of the ocean, the prime focus of the mission is to characterize this subsurface water layer and understand what it implies for habitability of this world and others like it. In detail, Galileo's Doppler tracking data were used to carry out several analyses of Europa's gravity field. Anderson et al. (1998)  reported on the analysis of the first four dedicated flybys (E4, E6, E11, and E12, according to the numbering scheme used by the Galileo project), combined with ground-based astrometric data and optical navigation observables from both Voyager and Galileo. By imposing the hydrostatic equilibrium constraint (J 2 /C 22 = 10/3 for a relaxed, slowly synchronously rotating, satellite), the degree-2 gravity field coefficients yielded, using the classic Radau-Darwin relation, a mean dimensionless Moment of Inertia (MoI) factor (C/MR 2 ) of 0.
g. ,  Howell 2021). The objectives of the Europa Clipper mission include precise determination of the present-day average ice shell thickness and lateral variations, together with estimates of the near-surface thermal gradient. Knowledge of each of these quantities to an uncertainty of ±50% will provide key constraints on the internal heat budget of Europa and on the potential exchange between the ocean and the surface. Estimates of past ice shell thickness and thermal structure from geological interpretation will also be essential to reconstruct the hydrosphere evolution through time. Magnetometer data from the Galileo mission confirmed the presence of a global saline liquid ocean underneath the icy shell  (Khurana et al. 1998; Neubauer 1998; Kivelson et al. 1997 Kivelson et al. , 1999 Kivelson et al.
2004; Schubert et al. 2004 Schubert et al. , 2009)). Sohl et al. (2002)  estimated that the core radius may range between 0. 1 and 0. 45 × Europa's radius depending on the assumed hydrosphere thickness and averaged mantle/core density. Recent re-analysis of the Galileo data  (Gomez Casajus et al. 2021 ) suggests a thinner hydrosphere and less dense interior than initially estimated; the size, state, and even the existence of a metallic core on Europa could not be conclusively identified by previous studies. Improved and independent determination of J 2 and C 22 by Europa Clipper, as well as the pole obliquity, will yield more accurate constraints on Europa's density profile, although large uncertainties will remain due to the large space of possible properties describing the core and mantle materials.
This tour design has multiple advantages over an orbital campaign. Less propellant is needed to enter a Jupiter orbit than an orbit about Europa itself. The spacecraft is able to make several encounters much closer to the surface than could be safely done while in orbit. By spending most of its time outside the high radiation environment near Jupiter, the mission lifetime is extended substantially; the baseline tour is 4. 3 years long. Finally, the investigations will be able to characterize the ambient Jovian plasma and magnetic environment far from Europa, so that the observations at Europa can be placed in the context of the larger system. The tour has been designed to In this section, we summarize the key contributions of each investigation to the interior science, and in the following section we discuss how the disparate datasets are synthesized into a coherent story about Europa's interior.
2009 ). However, variations at the orbital (85. 2 h, ∼20 nT) and second harmonic of the synodic period (5. 6 h, ∼20 nT) are expected to produce appreciable induction responses, which can break the single-frequency degeneracy, revealing a unique combination of ice shell thickness, ocean thickness, and ocean conductivity that fits the data  (Khurana et al. 2002; Seufert et al. 2011; Vance et al. 2021a ). The geometry of the Jovian magnetic field and the induced field at Europa are illustrated in Fig. 3. These measurements will be performed by the Europa Clipper Magnetometer (ECM), which consists of three fluxgate magnetometers mounted on an 8. 5-m-long boom. Over the course of the mission, ECM measurements of Jupiter's magnetic field far from Europa ( 3 R Europa ) will be combined with data taken during close approaches to determine the driving and induced field amplitudes for at least two frequencies with a precision of ±1.