dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Publication bias The last two decades have seen a large body of evidence of the presence of publication bias  [60] [61] [62] [63]  and why authors fail to publish  [64, 65]. Given that it has long been recognized that investigators frequently fail to report their research findings  [66] , many more recent papers have been geared towards methods of detecting and estimating the effect of publication bias. An array of methods to test for publication bias and additional recommendations are now available  [38, 43, [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] , many of which have been evaluated  [77] [78] [79] [80]. Automatic generation of funnel plots have been incorporated when producing a Cochrane review and software (RevMan) and are encouraged for outcomes with more than ten studies  [43].
Trial registration During the 1980s and 1990s there were several calls to mitigate publication bias and selective reporting via trial registration  [102] [103] [104]. After some resistance, in 2004, the BMJ and The Lancet reported that they would only publish registered clinical trials  [105]  with the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors making a statement to the same effect  [40]. Despite the substantial impact of trial registration  [106]  uptake is still not optimal and it is not mandatory for all trials. A recent report indicated that only 22% of trials mandated by the FDA were reporting trial results on clinicaltrials. gov [107]. One study suggested that despite trial registration being strongly encouraged and even mandated in some jurisdictions only 45. 5% of a sample of 323 trials were adequately registered  [108].
Longer term issues The scope of methodological research and subsequent contributions and evolution in bias assessment over the last 20 years has been substantial. However, there remains much work to be done, particularly in line with innovations in systematic review methodology itself. There is no standardised methodological approach to the conduct of systematic reviews. Subject to a given clinical question, it may be most appropriate to conduct a network meta-analysis, scoping review, a rapid review, or update any of these reviews. Along with the development of these differing types of review, there is the need for bias assessment methods to develop concurrently. The way in which research synthesis is conducted may change further with technological advances  [125]. Globally, there are numerous initiatives to establish integrated administrative databases which may open up new research avenues and methodological questions about assessing bias when primary study results are housed within such databases.
Whilst a diverse set of indicators may in theory be necessary to yield a sufficiently nuanced and representative picture of healthcare performance, collection may not be feasible. Additionally, end-users may have a preference for fewer indicators, over a forest of data they have difficulty synthesising into a single picture. The trade-off between few and many data points is often resolved by feasibility constraints; and in practice fewer performance elements are collected from fewer constituents than one would typically like. This is currently the case with the HCQI project, which, although developing year on year, is nevertheless known to reflect a patchy and incomplete picture of healthcare quality. The opposite concern applies to the SHA database, which currently contains a potential 90 million data points and continues to grow with each annual data collection.
Recent discussion has therefore focussed on the value, or otherwise, of such a highly detailed, granular database. One question concerns whether all the available detail is actually of interest: local government spending on hearing aids is cited as an example of data which is collected, but which may never be relevant in policy discussions at international level. Another concerns the resources which can be devoted to validation and comparability verification, both within the coordinating and submitting organisation, as well as the question of timeliness, since it can take some countries a number of years before they can report data in the detail requested. As a database expands, other possible resolutions come into play. One is that the coordinating centre publishes easily digestible performance summaries alongside the full data set, the model seen in the OECD's biannual Health at a Glance publication  [10].
Study selection and data abstraction Two reviewers (senior pharmacists) screened the title and abstract of each publication to independently determine eligibility. They screened the full text of the articles and extracted the main outcome independently. One reviewer extracted the data; the second reviewer checked the data. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus between the two reviewers after discussion. If no consensus was achieved, a third researcher arbitrated. Standardised data-extraction forms were used to extract relevant data on inclusion criteria (study design, year and country, study period, hospital setting), methods (sampling, profession of observers, number of observers, definitions used), and the rate, type, and severity of administration errors. Error rates were extracted in the control period for crossover-studies, before intervention for before-andafter studies, and in all groups in the control period in randomized controlled before-after studies (we estimated that during each study, practices may change even in the control groups after intervention).
I 2 values greater than 75% with low P values from the Cochran Q test were considered as indicating substantial heterogeneity. To study the publication bias, we plotted the study precision (within-study standard error) against the log-odds of error rate without wrong time errors (funnel plot). If studies with large proportions of errors were less likely to be published, the funnel plot would appear asymmetric about the vertical. Funnel plot asymmetry was assessed using Egger's test  [26]. Under the null hypothesis of no small study effects, the regression line of the effect against its standard error would be vertical. The software R was used for forest plots (version 2. 12. 0); the software Stata was used for funnel plots (StataCorp. 2009. Stata Statistical Software: Release 11. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP; commands "metareg" and "metabias"); and the software SAS was used for descriptive statistics (version 9.
Data acquisition and processing We recorded the postural stability with a forceplate (principle of stain gauge) produced by Techno Concept (Céreste, France) composed of two dynamometric clogs. The oscillations of the body were measured for 12. 8 seconds; the equipment contained an analog to digital converter of 16 bits. The sampling frequency of the CoP was 40 Hz. We examined four parameters: the surface of the Center of Pressure, CoP (90% confidence ellipse of CoP area, in mm 2 ) which allows to efficiently measure CoP spatial variability  [20] ; the length of CoP in the medio-lateral axis, which is the path of the CoP in this axis; the standard deviation of the medio-lateral body sway (SdX), which is believed to be controlled by a hip strategy  [21]. This parameter was evaluated in order to further investigate the optokinetic effect.
This paper contributes to this debate by presenting empirical evidence on how employers use strategies to overcome the potential costs associated with employment regulations. In particular, we assess whether employers tend to hire more temporary workers when employment regulations on permanent contracts are constraining; or whether they invest more in training to enable their existing workforce to adjust to new technologies, instead of changing the skill composition of the workforce by recurring to the external labor market. Our data are drawn from surveys of employers conducted by the World Bank in the past few years (see the Enterprise Surveys, World Bank 2004a). Our sample includes 10,800 firms in 44 developing and emerging economies. We supplement these data with indicators of the stringency of employment protection legislation constructed on the basis of detailed aspects of the labor legislation for about 140 countries around the world over the same period (Doing Business Database, World Bank 2004b; Botero et al.
The data For our empirical analysis, we rely on two main sources of data. First, we use the detailed information on labor legislations in about 140 countries that is available in the World Bank Doing Business Database. 6 On the basis of this information, we construct synthetic indicators of the stringency of employment protection legislation by country. 7 Second, we use firm-level information on firm characteristics, their perceptions about employment regulations and their responses in terms of employment composition (temporary vs. permanent) and provision of training from the World Bank Investment Climate surveys. 8 Measuring the stringency of employment protection legislation (see Pierre and Scarpetta   (2004), World Bank (2004c) for more details).
Employers' perception of the stringency of employment protection legislation Micro level data on firm characteristics, employers' perception about labor regulations and their behavior are drawn from the Investment Climate Survey (ICS) conducted by the World Bank (World Bank 2004b). Overall, we have an estimation sample of a crosssection of 44 developing and transition countries for which we have both regulatory indicators of regulations and survey data. 11 The aim of the ICS is to provide quantitative data on investment climate which are comparable at the international and regional levels. The survey is normally carried out under the auspices of national stakeholders, which vary depending on the country. Because the priorities of these surveys vary across countries, ICS are not all exactly the same.
However, in order to make these as comparable as possible, a set of criteria were defined, in particular a set of core questionswith the same wording -are asked in the same way in all countries. 12 rom the ICS database we have extracted responses on a specific question concerning labor regulations: "Please tell us if any of the following issues are a problem for the operation and growth of your business. If an issue poses a problem, please judge its severity on a four-point scale". 13 Eighteen issues are proposed including labor regulations. 14 he two other variables of interest are whether firms hire temporary workers (based on a constructed dummy variable which equals 1 if firms employ temporary workers, 0 otherwise); and whether firms provide training to their workers (based on the question "Do you offer formal (beyond "on-the-job") training to your permanent employees?").
5 Flexible work practices include movement away from hierarchical management structures e. g. through improving workers' input into managerial decisions, workers' coordination through occupational lines, etc. (see Gittleman et al. 1998). 6 http://www. doingbusiness. org/. Given the wide country coverage of the dataset used in this paper, we could not use the more detailed OECD indicators of employment protection legislation that indeed focus on OECD and key emerging economies (see OECD 2013). 7 Unfortunately, the information does not permit to have a more disaggregated measure of legislation. For example, it is not possible to find out whether it varies across regions, or whether it applies differently to different firms. 8 http://www. enterprisesurveys. org/. 9 In order to check the reliability of our synthetic indicators of the stringency of employment protection legislation, we compare them with those produced by the OECD (OECD 2008).
15 Comparing the characteristics of this dataset with another survey (with a larger number of countries, including industrial countries): the World Business Environment Survey (World Bank 2000), we have found that, despite the different country coverage, they do not differ substantially. For example, close to 70 percent of respondents in WBES (60 percent in ICS) reported that labor market regulations represented an obstacle (minor, moderate, major) to their operation and expansion. Around 16 percent report that these regulations are a major obstacle to the operation and growth of their business in ICS (14 percent in WBES). 16 In particular, Pierre and Scarpetta (2006) found that medium and large firms are the ones most severely affected. This is probably because in many countries where enforcement of regulations is limited small firms do not comply, remaining invisible to regulators and inspectors.
Acknowledgements For helpful comments we are grateful to an anonymous referee,  Gordon Betcherman ,  Alan Gelb ,  Mary Hallward-Driemeier ,  John Haltiwanger ,  Adriana Kugler ,  Carmen Pagés ,  Vijaya Ramachandran  and  Warrick Smith , and participants at two World Bank seminars and at the 2nd Joint World Conference of the EALE and  SOLE in San Francisco. Gaëlle Pierre  was a consultant at the  World Bank  at the time of writing. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and should not be held to represent those of the OECD, the  World Bank  or their member countries. Responsible editor:  Juan F Jimeno.
Characteristics of the study population At the time of the study, a total of 149 children receiving PPN for ⩾3 weeks were available in the database. The median age was 26 months (interquartile range 16-48) and 84 (57%) children were males. Overall, 121 (81%) children had SAM and 28 (19%) had MAM. Nearly 51% of the included children had received PPN for 3 weeks and the remainder had received it for >3 weeks (range 3-22). A total of 149 care givers were interviewed: 138 (93%) were mothers and housewives, three were fathers and eight were female family members. Overall, 58 (39%) care givers were illiterate and the rest had received at least 1 year of primary education. Interviews were also conducted with 29 CHWs, of whom 69% were women. The average educational level of the CHWs was 11 years of schooling.
A number of large-scale mailed surveys have reported cancer survivors' functional and psychosocial well-being, lifestyle behaviors, and supportive care needs with some of the surveys using cancer registries for identification of survivors  [11]. Traditionally, cancer registries have been used to record incidence, prevalence, and survival using data collected prospectively for all cancer patients. The role of registries is evolving as registration data are now being linked with other large electronic datasets, providing a rich source of population-based data to inform service planning  [12]. A recent review has demonstrated increasing use of cancer registries in quality of life studies of cancer survivors worldwide  [13]. Online surveys are an obvious way forward (inexpensive and widely used), but the challenges to their use in health care include ensuring the involvement of all patients, obtaining meaningful patient consent, combining PROs with medical information, and maintaining data security.
At the Eindhoven cancer registry in the Netherlands, an online system has been successfully established, complementing a mailed paper questionnaire alternative, to collect and link PROs data to registry data from patients identified via the registry post registration: the Patient Reported Outcomes Following Initial treatment and Long-term Evaluation of Survivorship (PROFILES) system  [14] [15] [16]. In order to collect PROs across the whole patient pathway, patients need to be recruited soon after diagnosis and thus pre-registration. One strategy for identifying and recruiting patients close to diagnosis is via hospitals. Use of electronic PROs early in the patient pathway in cancer outpatient consultations has been shown to be feasible, acceptable, and beneficial for patients  [17] [18] [19] [20] [21].
We have designed and built a potentially UK-scalable system for administering Patient Reported Outcome Measures (PROMs) online at specified post-diagnostic time-points to patients identified and consented in the clinical setting, for linking and storing the collected PROs data with patients' clinical data in the regional registry, and for semiautomating the associated patient monitoring and correspondence. This is the first such system developed in the United Kingdom and is known as electronic Patient-reported Outcomes from Cancer Survivors (ePOCS). A comprehensive description of the design and development of ePOCS has been published open-access and includes a graphical representation of the system components and data flows as well as details concerning data linkage  [25]. The two key components of the ePOCS system are QTool, a custom-designed Web-based password-protected questionnaire administration and management system, and the Tracker, a custom-designed database for monitoring patients' QTool activity and generating study correspondence (eg, invitations to complete questionnaires, reminders), which is housed on a secure registry server.
In brief, patients complete PROMs using QTool, which is accessed via a public-facing website (Figures  1 2 3 4 ). The PROMs data are subsequently linked to patients' clinical data transferred from the EHR to the registry and stored in the National Cancer Data Repository. Monitoring of and communications with patients (primarily by email) are semiautomated via the Tracker (Figure  5 ). This study aimed to test the technical and clinical feasibility of the novel ePOCS system by running it in two UK National Health Service (NHS) settings over 2 years. Feasibility outcomes included system informatics performance, patient recruitment, retention, representativeness and questionnaire completion (response rate), patient feedback, and administration burden involved in running the system.
The questionnaire was mailed in order to keep feedback on the system distinct from the system itself and to encourage as wide and representative a response as possible, by facilitating inclusion of patients who, although in the study, did not engage or were no longer engaging with the online ePOCS system. Throughout the study, the ePOCS research team diligently maintained a "patient contact" log of all patient-initiated inquiries to the team. For each inquiry (ie, each instance of contact), among other things, the date, mode of communication (eg, email, telephone, letter), and a detailed reason for the contact were recorded on a database. The ePOCS system Tracker automatically generates all the administrative actions due each day (ie, all the patient invitations, reminders, thank yous, etc, that need sending on that date).
We defined a fully completed questionnaire as one in which all the items have been answered (ie, responded to, as patients could choose to answer that they "prefer not to answer"), and a partially completed questionnaire as one in which less than all of the items have been answered (ie, one or more of the items had no response). Associations between patient characteristics and questionnaire completion were explored. For each PROM at each time-point, the proportion of missing data, median completion time, and psychometric reliability were also assessed. Missing data were calculated as the number of "prefer not to answer" item responses within the total PROM dataset (number of items in PROM multiplied by the number of patients who fully completed the PROM).
Patient Feedback: What Do Patients Think About Providing Data via ePOCS? Participant opinion regarding ePOCS was evaluated from the post-T3 feedback questionnaire. Closed questions were analyzed using proportions. Free-text comments were read by the ePOCS research team (HJ, LA, PW) and following discussion key themes were agreed. The text was imported into QSR NVivo 9 with the main coding undertaken by HJ. Coding consistency, coding saturation, and consensus discussions were undertaken by PW and HJ. Quotes were grouped and examples chosen to best represent the majority opinion for each theme.
Administration Burden: Is It Administratively Onerous to Run the ePOCS System? Administrative burden was assessed by examining (1) the successful functioning of the Tracker system in automatically generating the administrative actions due each day (eg, the invitations, reminders required) (see feasibility outcome 1), as this minimizes workload, (2) proportion of patients providing an email address for study correspondence, as this too reduces workload compared to printing and mailing study correspondence, and (3) the dates, types, and frequency of patient-initiated inquiries recorded in the "patient contact" log. Quantitative data were analyzed using IBM-SPSS Statistics-19. Group differences were examined using chi-square tests, t tests, and binary logistic regression (alpha=0. 05). Socioeconomic status was determined using Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) scores and quintiles calculated from patients' postcodes obtained from their medical records (February 2012 release)  [36].
Results Informatics Performance: How Successful Are the ePOCS System Informatics? The ePOCS system successfully linked PROs data with clinical registry data for 100% of patients (N=636). Two key problems were identified in the day-to-day running of ePOCS from the comparison of the manually worked out administrative actions due each day (eg, the number of invitations, reminders required and for which particular patients) with those generated automatically by the system Tracker. Some programming updates to the EHR that were not notified in advance to the ePOCS team affected registry data transfers, resulting in void or inaccurate actions generated in the Tracker database. These were resolved quickly. The second problem concerned date of definitive diagnosis. The time-points for questionnaire completion were determined from patients' date of diagnosis at the time of consent, which was entered into QTool (the questionnaire administration component of the ePOCS system) to guide the timing of questionnaire administration for each patient.
Administration Burden: Is It Administratively Onerous to Run the ePOCS System? The Tracker database was easy and quick to use with all required daily correspondence (invitations, reminders, thank-yous) automatically generated and populated with the appropriate patient's details, ready for sending (after health status was verified). As most participants provided an email address (83. 0%, 528/636), sending the required numerous reminders (Table  2 ) was not onerous. There were proportionately few occasions when participants contacted the ePOCS research team (n=281), averaging 11 contacts per month. The reasons for the patient inquiries are given in Figure  7. b T2 window -a 6-week window for completion with the midpoint at 9 months post diagnosis. c T3 window -a 6-week window for completion with the midpoint at 15 months post diagnosis.
Conclusions Routine collection of PROs is integral for planning patient-centred, compassionate, and personalized health care. This study has shown that the ePOCS system performs well, is accepted by the majority of patients, and is an efficient means to collect and collate PROs data at scale. Although IT usage is not currently universal, every year more patients will become Internet users. Until then, and for those who choose not to engage with e-systems, conventional alternatives will also have to be offered. This should not hold back plans for introducing systems such as ePOCS, as the majority of patients are keen to engage and provide information they believe will help future cancer patients. ©Laura Ashley, Helen Jones, James Thomas, Alex Newsham, Amy Downing, Eva Morris, Julia Brown, Galina Velikova, David Forman, Penny Wright.