dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Caractérisation des propriétés optiques de matériaux urbains Les spectres de réflectance d'un certain nombre de matériaux urbains ont été mesurés sur le terrain à l'aide d'un spectroradiomètre ASD de terrain. La plupart de ces spectres concernent des matériaux de couverture du sol (pavé, asphalte, gravier, terre. ). Ces mesures répondent à un double objectif. D'une part, elles peuvent constituer une vérité terrain pour des expériences de correction atmosphérique des images (inversion des images et correction dans les ombres). D'autre part, elles pourront venir enrichir une base de données de spectres de matériaux. La méthode de mesure mise en oeuvre pour calculer la réflectance ρmat d'un matériau est la suivante : chaque mesure de luminance d'un matériau Lmat était effectuée entre deux mesures de luminance {L 1 spec , L 2 spec } d'un matériau de référence (spectralon) de réflectance ρspec connue (Equation  1 ).
Conclusion La campagne UMBRA a permis d'acquérir un jeu de données de référence en milieux urbains et naturels pour les applications suivantes : la validation de méthodes de correction atmosphérique adaptées notamment à la végétation urbaine, l'étude de la faisabilité de futures caméras superspectrales IGN adaptées aux caractéristiques spectrales des matériaux urbains, et enfin l'estimation de la réflectance des matériaux de façades de rues et de l'illumination du ciel à partir d'images terrestres acquises par le système Stereopolis. Ce jeu de données sera disponible et sera constitué des images corrigées radiométriquement (en luminance) et géoréférencées. L'accès à l'ensemble des spectres de matériaux acquis se fera à partir de la base de données MEMOIRES de l'Onera  (Martin et Bernard, 2012).
Introduction We overview a series of recent works related to some multiscale problems motivated by practical problems in Mechanics. The common denominator of all these works is that they address multiscale problems where the geometry of the microstructures is not periodic. For simplicity, we argue on a linear elliptic scalar equation. We begin by recalling in Section 1 the basics of homogenization theory, both in the deterministic (periodic) context and the random context, which are useful for our exposition. Then, in Section 2, we summarize a series of works devoted to what we call "weakly" random settings, that is, settings where the random disorder is small * The work of the author is partially supported by EOARD under Grant (No. FA8655-13-1-3061) and by ONR under Grant (No. N00014-12-1-0383).
More precisely, we look at δ ε per = ∇u ε (ε •) -∇u ε,1 per (ε •) L 2 (Ω) ∇u ε (ε •) L 2 (Ω) , δ ε = ∇u ε (ε •) -∇u ε,1 (ε •) L 2 (Ω) ∇u ε (ε •) L 2 (Ω). ( 28 ) Figure  4  and Table  1  present our results (all computations have been performed using a P 1 finite element approximation on triangular meshes -the meshsize h is chosen sufficiently fine so that it does not perturb the results at the scale ε-, and implemented using the software FreeFem++  [20] ). They unambiguously show the quality of the approximation provided by the non-periodic corrector, as opposed to the periodic one. Recall that the defect is located at the origin, and has essentially size ε. The quality of approximation at the vicinity of the defect is significantly improved. Reproduced from  [11]. 1. Numerical results: Relative errors (defined by (  28 )) using the periodic corrector (left column) and the corrector adapted to the case with defect (right column).
The advances both in the understanding of discretization methods and in the flexibility of programming languages have prompted recent projects to build upon generic bricks that allow to easily modify the numerical formulation. In the context of geosciences, an example is provided by the recent work  [28, 29]  based on the proprietary platform Arcane  [30]  and inspired by similar tools for finite element methods  [31] , whereas an open source example is provided by the DuMuX project  [32].
In this study, the net balance between CO 2 captured for algae growth and CO 2 released to the atmosphere during fuel combustion in the engine is assumed to be equal to zero. Assuming that CO 2 used for algae growth would have been emitted to the atmosphere regardless, calculations take into account neither CO 2 entering the system for algae growth nor CO 2 leaving the system during the combustion step. Cultivating algae using waste CO 2 from industrial plant is a way to recycle those emissions but not to stock them. All impacts are expressed on the basis of the same functional unit that is the MJ of jet fuel produced. Calculations are made with a LCA software GABI (v4. 3). Data are extracted from literature and the EcoInvent v2. 2 database  [10]. Methodology for taking into account coproducts in the first pathway has been defined considering the RED recommendations.
DEFINED PATHWAYS AND CORRESPONDING DATA Process chains for jet biofuel production from algae studied in this publication are prospective and extrapolated from lab-scale data since no industrial pathway exists yet. Yields and process choice and process data are extracted from available literature and adapted for each considered pathways in order to minimize burdens (Tab. 2). Two pathways are considered for HVO production from microalgae. Those pathways have similarities and differences in terms of biomass characteristics and in terms of considered processes (Tab. 3). The first pathway will be described in detail (Fig. 1 ); the other will be described on the basis of the first only highlighting the differences (Fig. 2 ). The average European electricity mix provided by the EcoInvent database is considered in the calculation.
Their absorption rates at different loadings are measured using a laboratory wetted wall column. The results have shown that the absorption rates of the lower phase alone are generally higher than those of the biphasic solvent and that the CO 2 reaction products of the lower phase alone had twice as much carbonate/bicarbonate as with the biphasic solvent and less carbamate. The next article presents a review on the kinetics of CO 2 reactions with 22 amines which have been investigated and modeled in using the stopped-flow technique in aqueous solutions which is a technique proven to be reproducible and adapted to a study of large variety of amines. A method which enables to compare kinetic constants got by different authors is proposed which involves a plot of kinetic data for all amines studied in the literature by a power law dependency with the concentration.
The selected specimens were then polished on both faces up to a ¼ μm surface finish. The matrix, i. e. the material without pores, of these specimens was segmented from the X-ray tomography 3D image and a geometric model with a volumetric tetrahedral grid was created using Avizo software. The model was then used for finite element simulation using Abaqus software in order to predict the most strained region under tensile loading and to focus the subsequent in-situ observation by high resolution X-ray tomography on this small volume. The in-situ tensile test was performed at the MATEIS laboratory. A 80kV acceleration voltage was selected to enable for at least 10% transmission of incoming X-ray beam. The specimens were placed on the rotating stage in the tomography chamber between the X-ray source and the detector.
Besides, a larger sample of the same material was scanned with a voxel size of 3 μm in order to characterize the pores distribution in a much larger, hence more representative, volume, i. e. 70 mm 3 vs. 8. 2 mm 3 for the studied tensile specimen. The images processing and pores analysis were performed with Avizo software. Feret diameter, which is the distance between the two farthest points on the surface of an object, was used to characterize the size of pores. The granulometry analysis, which allows calculating the thickness distribution of interconnected phases such as iron intermetallics and Al 2 Cu phase, was performed with the "Analysis_3D" plugin in Fiji software  [7]. The displacement field was measured with the DVC technique  [8] , which is an extension of the well-developed Digital Image Correlation (DIC) method, using the Mechanical Image Correlation (MIC3D) algorithm developed by J.
The recommendation for low or medium HVO (HEFA) concentrations is also studied for Diesel engines  [9]. This paper does not deal with the economics themselves but provides technical data that could assist in understanding the relationship between process costs (usually related to process complexity), process yield, HEFA quality, and blending rate. IFPEN and Shell Global Solutions have joined their expertise to produce two different qualities of HEFA from the same original oil for the purposes of the SWAFEA project. The level of hydroisomerisation applied to a hydroprocessed oil to improve the low temperature properties was varied between the two HEFA: -if, as expected, important constraints are put on oil availability and HEFA production capacity, in the short term the incorporation process will have to be optimised to incorporate this product into conventional Jet A-1.
Depuis quelques années, des véhicules de cartographie mobile ont été développés pour acquérir des données géoréférencées très précises et en grande quantité au niveau du canyon urbain. L'application majeure des données collectées par ces véhicules est d'améliorer les bases de données géographiques existantes, en particulier leur précision, leur niveau de détail et la diversité des objets représentés. On peut citer entre autres applications la modélisation géométrique fine et la texturation des façades, l'extraction de "petits" objets comme les troncs d'arbres, poteaux, panneaux, mobiliers urbain, véhicules,. Cependant, les systèmes de géopositionnement de ces véhicules ne parviennent pas à fournir une localisation d'une précision suffisante pour cette tâche. En particulier, les masques GPS fréquents en milieu urbain sont paliés par les mesures de la centrale inertielle grâce à un algorithme de fusion de données pouvant entraîner une dérive.
C'est pourquoi, un recalage est indispensable pour mettre en correspondance ces données mobiles très détaillées avec les bases de données géographiques moins détaillées mais mieux géopositionnées, qu'elles soient 2D ou 3D. Cet article présente une méthode générique et efficace permettant un tel recalage. Le processus est basé sur une méthode de type ICP ("Iterative Closest Point") point à plan. On suppose que l'erreur de géopositionnement, ou dérive varie de façon non linéaire, mais lentement en fonction du temps. On modélise donc la trajectoire par une "chaîne" ayant une certaine rigidité. A chaque itération, la trajectoire est déformée afin de minimiser la distance des points laser aux primitives planes du modèle. Cette méthode permet d'approximer la dérive par une fonction linéaire par intervalle de temps.
1. Introduction 1. 1. Contexte général L'institut national de l'information géographique et forestière (IGN) a pour vocation de décrire précisément la surface du territoire national français. Pour ce faire, l'IGN a acquis des compétences dans le domaine de la cartographie, de l'imagerie (aérienne ou terrestre) et de la photogrammétrie. Grâce à cela, il dispose aujourd'hui d'une quantité importante de données images (terrestres, aériennes et satellitaires), d'acquisitions lidar (terrestres ou aériennes) et de bases de données géographiques 2D ou 3D. Dans ce contexte, il apparaît indispensable de recaler ces données entre elles, en particulier pour les applications suivantes: • détecter des changements pour la mise à jour de bases de données géographiques; • enrichir les bases de données géographiques existantes en augmentant significativement leur niveau de détail (géométrie et texturation fines); • recaler des données brutes entre elles pour que les informations qui en sont extraites soient directement exploitables dans un référentiel commun.
Les modèles Dans cet article, nous appelons modèle toute base de données géographiques, qu'elles soient 2D ou 3D. Un modèle est composé de primitives géométriques qui peuvent être : • ponctuelles (0D): repères de nivellement, sommets d'objets polyédriques, position de troncs d'arbres ou de poteaux en 2D,. • linéaires (1D): arêtes d'objets polyédriques, linéaires 2D (cadastre, base de données topographiques ou parcellaires en représentation 2D, limites de trottoirs,. ). • surfaciques (2D): faces d'objets polyédriques. Ces modèles généralisent l'environnement, dans le sens où ils représentent grossièrement la réalité. Ils ont donc un niveau de détails sommaire (de l'ordre du mètre). Par contre, leur géopositionnement est très précis car ils sont construits sur des points mesurés par des opérateurs.
Les verrous majeurs à ce recalage sont: • le niveau de détail incompatible entre la base de données (de l'ordre du mètre au mieux) et le nuage laser (centimétrique), • la nature fortement non linéaire en fonction du temps de l'erreur de positionnement du véhicule d'acquisition. L'objectif principal n'est pas d'obtenir un géoréférencement absolu centimétrique des données acquises, mais d'assurer leur mise en cohérence relative pour les rendre exploitables.
C'est une approche de type hypothesizeand-verify où les hypothèses sont construites en énumérant des surfaces admissibles dans un arrangement de plans se basant sur des empreintes de bâtiments provenant d'une base de données 2D de l'IGN. L'arrangement choisi est alors celui qui correspond le mieux à un Modèle Numérique d'Elevation (MNE) obtenu par photogrammétrie à partir d'images aériennes. Cette approche produit le niveau de détail appelé LoD2 dans la norme CityGML: les détails sur les façades et les superstructures de toit ne sont pas modélisées. On considère que le niveau de détail du modèle est de l'ordre du mètre, pour une précision de l'ordre de 10 cm en planimétrie (celle de la BD 2D) et 50 cm en altimétrie (celle du MNE). ∇ δ Ereg = 2Mregδ -2vreg = 0 ⇔ δ = M -1 reg vreg ( Les données mobiles : Le laboratoire Matis de l'IGN a développé depuis 2007 un véhicule de cartographie mobile nommé Stéréopolis II  (Paparoditis et al.
16) Ce vecteur optimal δ de dimension (3 * NT c × 1) définit les dérives δc aux temps de contrôle Tc associés. Par conséquent, on peut en déduire la nouvelle trajectoire et le nuage recalé. Le recalage par ICP se fait par itération des étapes d'appariement et de minimisation jusqu'à ce qu'un critère d'arrêt soit atteint: Les données utilisées pour évaluer l'algorithme sont issues d'acquisitions propres à l'IGN. Le modèle : La base de données géographiques utilisée pour cette évaluation est une partie d'un modèle 3D créé par photogrammétrie à l'aide d'images aériennes et de données cadastrales. La zone couvre un quartier du 12 ieme arrondissement de la ville de Paris. Elle se compose d'environ 71. 400 primitives géométriques triangulaires dont 25. 000 correspondant aux façades.
Moreover, the bottleneck of each algorithm can vary for different hardware configurations. For instance, with GPU accelerator (heterogeneous multi-GPU) the main issue is to optimize the data transfer between the host memory and the remote local memory of the GPU while in the case of multi-core architecture, the major problem is to manage the concurrent access of the cores to the memory under the constraint of limited memory bandwidth. The heterogeneous multi-GPU architecture combines both constraints; low latency for data transfer between the CPU and the accelerators (GPU or many-core cards) and concurrent access of the cores to the memory. In this paper, we focus on different types of preconditioners, on their implementation with different libraries (Hypre, Petsc, PMTL4, IFPSolver, MGCSolver) and we study their performance regarding different hardware architectures.
With the Kepler architecture, NVIDIA provides the SMX (Streaming Multiprocessor eXtreme) architecture. Each SMX contains 192 cores, each capable of completing a single-precision floating-point multiple and adds (fused, to avoid truncating the intermediate result) in every clock cycle. In the K20 product, 13 of these SMX units are combined to give a total of 2 496 cores, giving a peak performance of 3. 52 TFlops in single or 1. 17 TFlops in double precision. On the software side, CUDA and OpenCL have emerged as the leaders of general purposes software tools. While CUDA only provides support for Nvidia GPU, OpenCL is more generic and support Nvidia, AMD GPU and also multi-core CPU. In this work, we use the CUDA programming environment. Moreover, we consider that the GPU and the CPU process disjoint parts of the code.
IFPSolvers-MCGSolver IFPSolvers (IFPS) and MCGSolver (MCGS) are software packages developed by IFPEN to provide linear solver algorithms for its industrial simulators in reservoir simulation [12], basin simulation  [32] , or in engine combustion simulation  [33]. The provided algorithms aim for efficiency on IFPEN customer hardware configurations like Windows 64 platform, Linux cluster with multi-core nodes partially accelerated with GPGPU. These packages provide some Krylov solvers (BiCG-Stab, GMRES, CG), some parallel preconditioners like ILU(0), CPR-AMG, BSSOR, PolyN (Neumann polynomial preconditioner), some specific domain partitioner and matrix graph renumbering algorithms. The packages are interfaced with external libraries like Hypre  [8]  or SAMG  [34].
PMTL4 The Parallel Matrix Template Library v4 (PMTL4)  [10, 35]  provides linear algebra operations on distributed data as a C + + template library. Available data types are distributed vector and sparse and dense matrix types as well as abstractions to conveniently handle distribution and migration. On top of the usual matrix and vector operations, PMTL4 contains a comprehensive set of iterative Krylov subspace solvers including the beforementioned CGS, GMRES, and BiCGStab. Due to the generic design of the library, all solvers could be directly used from the sequential MTL4 version without re-implementation. Parallelism is introduced here just by re-compilation: if the vectors and matrices have distributed types then the overloading mechanism selects the according parallel operations. The library establishes its own domain-specific language embedded in C + + in order to provide an intuitive, textbook-like interface.
PETSc The Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific computation (PETSc) is a parallel open-source library (suite of data structures and routines) which permits large-scale application codes on parallel (and serial) architectures to solve their PDE systems. PETSc uses the MPI standard for all message-passing communication. PETSc has an efficient implementation of Block Jacobi with ILU (0,1 or 2) subdomain solves. In this paper, we use PETSc version 3. 1.
Reservoir simulator results We present simulation results for Case 1 and Case 4 which show two different behaviours for GPU solver acceleration. For Case 1, performance results presented in Tables 8 and 4 highlight the obtained benefit by using the hybrid CPU+GPU implementation of ILU(0) compared to ILU(0) using 8 cores of a CPU. This table shows that for the ill conditioned Spe10 system, the hybrid CPU +GPU offers a better performance, even if the number of solver iterations is more important, due to the graphcoloring, than the traditional version implemented in IFPSolver, PETSc and PMTL4. Note that CPU +GPU solver times include all data setup and transfer to/from GPU. For polynomial preconditioner, we have a convergence rate equivalent to GPU color ILU(0) but with a higher algorithmic iteration cost: the polynomial degree is 2 which means 2 SpMV per preconditioner call.
Les populations sont alors évoquées uniquement lorsqu'il s'agit de rendre compte de la participation des habitants dans la mise en place ou l'entretien des réseaux ou encore lorsqu'elles s'opposent aux augmentations tarifaires  [Durand et Jaglin, 2012]. La dimension vécue de l'eau apparaît pour sa part davantage dans des travaux sur la pauvreté ou la vulnérabilité urbaine ou sur des travaux plus ciblés sur le monde rural  [Aubriot, 2010]. 3 Dans cet article, nous nous baserons sur un travail de terrain 1 mené depuis 2012 par des sociologues et des anthropologues, dans le cadre du projet COQUEIRAL (ANR-11-CEPL-012 / FACEPE APQ-0077-3. 07/11 / FAPESP 2011/50553-0) 2 visant à décrire et analyser les sources de salinisation et de contamination des eaux souterraines et à rendre compte des pratiques sociales d'adaptation à la situation de pénurie et de pollution.
LC-MS-MS Instrumentation and Conditions Analyses were performed on a LC Thermo Scientific Dionex Ultimate 3000 (Analytical Autosampler WPS-3000SL, Quaternary Analytical Pump LPG-3400SD) coupled with a MS Thermo Scientific TSQ Quantum Access MAX (HESI-II source) (Thermo Scientific, Illkirch, France). It was used in positive mode, probe in position C, electrospray voltage of 2 500 V and capillary temperature of 200°C. The sheath gas was at a flow rate of 40 mL/min and the auxiliary gas at 8 mL/min. Data were acquired in MRM (Multiple Reaction Monitoring) mode with Xcalibur (Thermo software). Transitions and collision energy were optimized by infusion of each individual product (Tab. 1). A Thermo HyperCarb column (PGC) 150 mm 9 3 mm, 5 lm-particles (Thermo Scientific, Illkirch, France), an Agilent Polaris 3 Amide-C18 column 100 mm 9 3 mm, 3 lm-particles (Agilent Technologies, Massy, France) and a Waters Symmetry shield RP18 column 150 mm 9 2.
This method requires at first a separate analysis of exceedance probability of offshore wave height at high tide (more precisely the maximal wave height between two successive high tides) and wind set-up at high tide (the difference between the maximal observed level and predicted level around high tide). Then the joint probability of offshore wave heights and of sea levels is found through a change of variables (transformation in centred normal distribution) in a normalized workspace (normal bivariate function). The sea level is the sum of tide and wind set up but the wave set up is not included because it is implicitly taken into account in the overtopping and stability formulae. A random sort finally supplies the database representing 10 000 years of data at high tide (offshore wave heights and sea levels).
V. 3. Damage to the breakwater of Malraux In the absence of information on the characteristics of the breakwater of Malraux, we made the hypothesis that the work was presently stable when it is subjected to a centennial wave. The work is not directly submitted to the offshore wave in the outer harbour. An abacus of diffraction was thus used to determine the incident waves on the work. The work is supposed to consist of 1-3 T armour units. The statistical method for damage estimations is the same as that used for the overtopping case. From the database of 10 000 years, the sea conditions are propagated up to the coast: the wave heights are thus known at the entry of the port, the diffraction coefficient is applied. The Hudson formula [Ciria Cur Cetmef, 2007] is finally used to analyze the breakwater stability.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES In the district of Malraux, the strategy of strengthening becomes more interesting economically than the strategy of "doing nothing" from a 1 m MWL rise and remaining the most economic solution up to 2 m MWL rise. The strategy of realignment must be envisaged only locally because of its relatively high cost. The project highlighted the interest to get a database of the joint probability for wave heights -water levels along the French coast. A method was developed to select the most economic solution of strengthening a work. This method must be implemented in an IT tool to propose an expert system to the contracting authorities. The laboratory tests led within the framework of the project to determine in a qualitative way the most promising solutions of strengthening.