dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Purification and Identification of Metabolites After registration of the crude mixture NMR spectra, the extracts from the different parts of each species were combined. Each of the combined extracts was chromatographed on a silica gel column (Merck Kieselgel 60 powder) packed with n-hexane and eluted with a gradient of n-hexane/diethyl ether to give pure compounds and semi-purified mixtures. The mixtures were further separated by HPLC equipped with a Kromasil C18 column (Phenomenex, 5 mm, 250610. 00 mm) using a gradient from 70:30 methanol/water to 100% methanol over 30 min, monitored by measuring absorbance at 210 nm. Purified compounds 1-4 and 6-8 (Figure  2 ) were identified by 1 H and 13 C NMR by comparison to published data  [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]. The dialdehyde 5 was not purified, because of its easy conversion into the corresponding cyclic hemiacetal 4 during the purification procedures.
The model results can then be validated using ground measurements (station data, LIDAR, dropsondes) or satellite measurements  (Menut and Bessagnet, 2010; Zhang et al. , 2012). Generally, anthropogenic emission data are obtained from a top-down strategy, i. e. downscaling national emission totals horizontally, vertically and in time to provide these emissions to chemistry-transport models. The horizontal disaggregation is generally realized through the use of proxies such as land use, population density or transportation networks; the temporal disaggregation follows seasonal and sub-diurnal disaggregation factors depending on the countries. The emission data used for this study are taken from the EMEP gridded emission dataset at 0. 5 • horizontal resolution  (Vestreng, 2003; Vestreng et al.
Pregger and Friedrich, 2009  have used data from 12 699 industrial stacks in 10 German federal states, from the IER inventory, which were aggregated in 34 categories, for which relevant parameters such as weighted and unweighted average, median and standard deviation are provided for 4 main parameters: stack height, flue gas temperature, flue gas velocity and flue gas flow rate. For each of these source types, they also calculated effective emission heights assuming a standard atmosphere, finding effective emission heights significantly lower than the EMEP recommendations. Following this work and using the database provided for stack characteristics (assuming that these characteristics are relevant for all of Europe),  Bieser et al. (2011)  used the SMOKE-EU model to calculate 44 976 vertical emission profiles for Europe depending on SNAP sector, country, climate zone, season, day and night, and pollutant type.
Even though many CTM tend to work with more vertical levels, for the case of CHIMERE, the 8-level configuration is used successfully for operational forecast. A very similar configuration with 9 vertical levels has been used recently for CHIMERE in the AQMEII model intercomparison project for simulations at continental scale with a similar horizontal resolution  (Solazzo et al. , 2012). It has been shown recently that stepping up the number of vertical levels from 8 to 20 does not measurably improve the performance of CHIMERE at least in terms of values at ground level  (Menut et al. , 2012). The simulation has been initialized with LMDZ-INCA climatological data for gas species and LMDZAERO for aerosols, also used as boundary conditions, the horizontal and vertical advection has been performed using the Van Leer I scheme  (Van Leer, 1979).
Temporal and vertical downscaling of the emissions The CHIMERE horizontal grid for the simulations that have been performed correspond exactly to the grid cells for which the EMEP emissions at 0. 5 • × 0. 5 • are provided, so that no horizontal disaggregation is needed for this study, and the emission totals per species and per SNAP sectors are used directly as provided in the EMEP database. The vertical downscaling of the EMEP emissions for CHIMERE, which is of interest for the present study, is performed in two steps. The first step is done during the preprocessing phase of the anthropogenic emissions, where the emissions are vertically distributed into the EMEP vertical layers as defined in the standard EMEP recommendations (Table  1 ). As the first EMEP layer is relatively thick (92 m), and includes more than one CHIMERE layer, to avoid unnecessary vertical dilution of surface emissions between several vertical layers, the EMEP profiles have been modified in the distributed version of CHIMERE, adding a supplementary 20 m vertical level close to the ground.
Observations and statistical methods The observation data were obtained from the Airbase database. A total 2266 stations had NO 2 data for the covered period, 1688 had O 3 data and 1459 had SO 2 data. The 721 stations that have at least a 50 % coverage for the given period for the three above-mentioned trace gases have been selected for comparison with simulated values, which represent a total of 721 stations covering the entire modelled area (Fig. 2 ). As already mentioned, due to the relatively coarse resolution of the model simulations, the model outputs can be considered as representative of background pollution levels, but not of local pollution conditions in urban and industrial areas. Therefore, the comparison of model output with observations will be possible mainly for the stations of the "rural background" type, which represent 94 out of the 721 stations selected for the simulation domain (Fig.
, 2011 study, which can be considered as the actual state of the art for vertical emission profiles (Table  2 ). Conversely, the improvement in the Bie simulation relative to the CTL simulation can not be considered as mere error compensation between biases in the model and/or the emission dataset and a too low emission injection height, since the Bieser et al. , 2011 study is based on an extensive dataset for point sources and explicit plume-rise calculations with the SMOKE-EU model and is, as far as possible in the actual state of the science, realistic. Therefore, it can be concluded from this statistical analysis that switching from the EMEP recommen-dations to the  Bieser et al. (2011)  profiles gives significant added value for the simulation of background atmospheric pollution over Europe, at least when the CHIMERE model is used in its present configuration.
Discussion and conclusions Five air quality simulations were performed with CHIMERE from 20 February 2008 to 19 February 2009 for a domain covering Europe at 0. 5 • horizontal resolution, with a meteorological simulation from WRF and anthropogenic emissions from the EMEP database at 0. 5 • resolution. These five simulations have been conducted using either the EMEP recommendations for vertical disaggregation (CTL simulation), modifying them by a factor of 0. 25, 0. 50 and 0. 75 (h25, h50 and h75 simulations, respectively), or using the alternative profiles of  Bieser et al. (2011)  (Bie simulation). The vertical emission profiles were the only difference between these 5 simulations, which have been performed using the same meteorology, the same horizontal and temporal repartition of the emissions, and the same CTM with the same configuration.
Overestimation of effective emission heights, as seems to be the case of the EMEP recommendations, is a determinant contribution to NO 2 and SO 2 underestimation in CHIMERE when using the EMEP emission dataset, and to O 3 overestimation, particularly during nighttime. These biases can be corrected in a relatively straightforward way by applying alternative vertical emission profiles that lead to lower effective emission altitude, such as the ones proposed by  Bieser et al. (2011). Therefore, the use of the  Bieser et al. (2011)  profiles will be proposed in future versions of CHIMERE, which should be a way of generally improving the simulated concentrations of primary and secondary contaminants of anthropic origin. As this study has been performed with only one model, CHIMERE in its 2011 version, and one horizontal (0.
Acknowledgements. The authors are grateful to the two anonymous revewers as well as to the Editor for their useful remarks that helped to improve greatly the initial manuscript. We also wish to acknowledge  Bertrand Bessagnet  for useful discussions during the preparation of this article. Data from the Airbase database is kindly provided by the  European Environmental Agency. Edited by:  A. Pozzer The publication of this article is financed by  CNRS-INSU.
Conclusions and outlook A technically very challenging setup for testing the feasibility of a UF 6 -loaded active gas target was investigated. Data have been collected for gases from pure argon to a mixture containing 21 mass per cent of uranium in the gas. One observes signal deterioration and subsequent restoration, and the effect of the concentration on the electron drift velocity was studied. Further investigations with even higher electrical field strengths to detect a plateau region in electron drift velocity for moderate uranium mass contents were limited due to technical reasons with the present setup. A trend for long term instability of the UF 6 molecules inside the closed system was found and is currently under a detailed investigation. Possible reasons are the adhesion of UF 6 at the PTFE isolating materials or the disintegration of the UF 6 molecules.
II. EXPERIMENT All Pr x Y 2Àx O 3 samples were grown on 4 inch p-type Si (111) wafers by co-evaporation using a DCA 600 molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) reactor. More details on sample preparation can be found in Ref. 7. Four Pr x Y 2Àx O 3 /Si (111) samples with different Pr concentrations of x ¼ 0, 0. 5, 0. 7, 2. 0 were fabricated. The stoichiometries were determined using quantitative X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis by calculating the XPS peak areas below the curves and was cross checked by Rutherford back scattering (RBS) (data not shown). Detailed information was presented in Ref. 27. The crystallinity of the samples was characterized using two X-ray diffractometers with different arrangements: a Rigaku DMAX 1500 (Cu-Ka radiation) in medium-resolution setup without crystal monochromator and a Rigaku SmartLab diffractometer (Cu-Ka 1 radiation, k ¼ 1.
5406 A ˚) in high-resolution setup with Ge (400) Â 2 crystal collimator. X-ray reflectivity was used to determine oxide film thicknesses which are in the range of 15$20 nm for all samples discussed here (data not shown). Y K edge and Pr L III edge EXAFS measurements on the Pr x Y 2Àx O 3 /Si (111) thin films as well as a bulk Y 2 O 3 reference sample were carried out at the GILDA beam line (BM08) of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France. The epi-layers were measured at 80 K (obtained using a liquid nitrogen cryostat) in the fluorescence mode using a dynamically sagitally focusing Si (311) monochromator, 28 a 13-element hyper pure Ge detector and associated digital electronics with a 1 ls peaking time. 29 For the Y edge measurements (edge energy 17. 038 keV) samples were mounted vertically on a vibrating sample holder to eliminate spectral distortions due to the single crystal substrate and the angle between the impinging photon beam and the sample surface was 45.
For the Pr edge measurements (edge energy 5. 964 keV) the samples were nearly horizontal in a 2 grazing incidence geometry  30  since it was found to be the best solution to eliminate diffraction effects in this case. In both cases, higher order harmonics were eliminated with a pair of Pd coated grazing incidence mirrors. The energy spacing for the EXAFS spectra was equivalent to less than 0. 05 A ˚À1. For the bulk Y 2 O 3 reference sample (commercial yttria powder), data were recorded at the Y K-edge at room temperature in the transmission mode.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge  M. Katsikini  and  C. Meneghini  for stimulating discussions and  Hans-J€ urgen Thieme  for technical assistance of sample preparation. G. Niu wishes to thank  Alexander von Humboldt  foundation for his AvH Post-Doc fellowship. The authors furthermore gratefully acknowledge financial funding by  DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ).
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to  Dr. Wei-Xi Huang  and  Dr. Liang Shao  for the many useful discussions. This work is supported by the  National Natural Science Foundation in China  (Grant Nos. 51076006 ,  11202013 ),  BUAA SJP ''111'' Program  (Grant No. B08009 ), the  National Basic Research Program of China  ( 2012CB720200 ), the  Open Research Fund of MOE Key Laboratory of High-speed Railway Engineering ,  Southwest Jiaotong University  and the European Community's  Seventh Framework Program  ( FP7/2007-2013) under Grant agreement 225967 ''NextMuSE' '.
The perfect spatial overlapping of the beams in between BC and the cavity mirror M is ensured by the fact that M is concave while the Bragg mirror is planar. A 150-µm thick uncoated glass étalon is used to force each polarization to oscillate in a single longitudinal mode. The laser output is continuously analyzed with a 10 GHz free spectral range Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) followed by an oscilloscope to ensure that the two orthogonally polarized modes, which are longitudinally monomode, are always oscillating simultaneously in the laser cavity and that there is no mode hopping during the data acquisition. During the measurement we have also checked that no higher order transverse mode is oscillating for both the eigenpolarizations. The half-wave plate (λ /2) followed by the polarization beam splitter (PBS) in front of the detectors (Discovery DSC-30S, 22 GHz bandwidth) enable to separately detect the two orthogonally polarized modes on two identical detectors without mixing them.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge  Abdel Souilah  for technical support. This work is supported by the  French National Research Agency  ( ANR-11-BS10-0015 ,"3DBROM"), by the  Region Ile-de-France  in the framework of DIM Nano-K and by  LABEX WIFI (Laboratory of Excellence  within the  French Program  " Investments for the Future")  under reference  ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL*.
A technique for analysing exhaust emission plumes from unmodified locomotives under real world conditions is described and applied to the task of characterizing plumes from railway trains servicing an Australian shipping port. The method utilizes the simultaneous measurement, downwind of the railway line, of the following pollutants; particle number, PM 2. 5 mass fraction, SO 2 , NO x and CO 2 , with the last of these being used as an indicator of fuel combustion. Emission factors are then derived, in terms of number of particles and mass of pollutant emitted per unit mass of fuel consumed. Particle number size distributions are also presented. The practical advantages of the method are discussed including the capacity to routinely collect emission factor data for passing trains and to thereby build up a comprehensive real world database for a wide range of pollutants.
Data on the chemical and physical contents of diesel fuel compliant with the Australian National Standard are presented in table S1 of the supplement. The methodology employed, involved the operation of a mobile laboratory adjacent to the railway line. The mobile laboratory contained an array of instrumentation for the analysis of ambient particle and gas concentrations. CO 2 was included in the measurements as a measure of the fuel combustion gas content in the sample. The measurements were conducted in two campaigns lasting for a total of 7 days, the first lasting 4 days was conducted between 30 th August and the 3 rd September 2007 and the second lasting 3 days was conducted between 11 th February and the 14th February 2008. The results for the two campaigns were treated as a single group of measurements for analysis purposes.
The sheath and aerosol flow rates of the SMPS were adjusted to 3 L. min -1 and 0. 3 L. min -1 respectively. The size range of the SMPS was 14. 3-750nm. The calibration factor used to correct the photometer data was derived using the slope of a line fitted to a plot of photometer reported concentration versus that reported by the TEOM. This data was collected over a 3 day period at the site. Only data collected during intervals when the wind was from the direction of the rail quadrant was used to generate the plot. The only high concentration source in this quadrant is from passing trains because the region beyond the railway line is the broad surf free expanse of Moreton Bay extending to the 25 km distant Islands of Moreton and North Stradbroke with the Pacific Ocean beyond. Therefore the dominant source affecting the calibration by far is the train emission.
Study Design All instruments were connected to a common sampling manifold drawing air via an averaging reservoir, the intake of which was connected to a tube drawing air from a point approximately 9m away from the rail track at a height of 2. 5m above the ground. Thus a record of the corresponding ambient data was recorded alternately with the plume data so that appropriate background subtractions could be performed. The reservoir increases the volume and duration of sample availability for analysis by diluting the sample with the much cleaner air drawn through the sample inlet immediately prior to and immediately after the brief appearance of the plume at the sample inlet. The cylindrical reservoir has an internal diameter (D) of 100mm, an internal length (L) of 1000mm and an internal volume (V) of 7.
Results and Discussion Emission factors were compiled for 56 plume events corresponding to passing trains. On average 73 trains were expected to pass the site per week so the detection of 56 events suggests a success rate of around 77%. The high success rate reflects the fact that the prevailing winds at the site have an easterly component so that for a large proportion of the time during the measurements the wind was from the railway sector. Plume detection was further assisted by the fact that the background air in the railway Rail quadrant X X Railway Roadway 1000m sector is of marine origin and is therefore clean permitting good contrast between plume and background concentrations. Size distribution data was also recorded for passing trains. By sustaining the plume concentration the reservoir time constant of 0.
Significant correlations were detected between particle emission factors with both EF(NO x ) and EF(SO 2 ) when particles were measured in terms of number. Also the particle mass emission factor correlated significantly with SO 2. Overall the railside emission factor measurement technique appears to lend itself well to the task of routinely collecting emission factor data for passing trains to build up a comprehensive database of real world locomotive exhaust particle size distributions and emission factors for a range of pollutants.
The level set function is transported by solving by finite element method the following transport equation: ∂ϕ ∂t + v • ∇ϕ = 0 (29) v is here the diffusion velocitie [Eq. (  13 )]. Simulation of doping effect during sintering. All the developments have been implemented in the finite element library CimLib, a highly parallel C++ software developed at Center for Material Forming (Mines ParisTech, CNRS UMR 7635) by the team of Professor Coupez  [8]. An important point of the use of CimLib is a mesh adaptation strategy described in  [9] , and which consists in refining the mesh in the surroundings of the grain surface. Here, the neck growth of two spherical grains of equal radii r=0. 2 is investigated. Theoretical models, based on geometrical assumptions of sintering process modelling (see  [10] ) state: ( x(t) r ) n = AC 0 r 4 t = At * ( 30 ) where r is the grain radius, x the neck radius, A a constant equal to 56 here, n a numerical exponent that depends on the mechanism of sintering, t * = C 0 r 4 t is the dimensionless time; C 0 is equal to Ω m γX Al ••• I δ s θ Al ••• I /2kT.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was partly supported by the  French RENATECH network, R egion Rhône-Alpes and Wallonie-Bruxelles International. The authors would like to thank  Nanoquebec/RQMP  for funding support,  Rhailane EL HAJJAM  for his careful reading,  David ALBERTINI  (from  INL ) for AFM observation and  INL  cleanroom technical staff Khaled AYADI and Jo€ elle GREGOIRE for their precious help.
To assess the analytical formulae available in the literature and determine their domain of validity a numerical model is developed by using the finite element software CAST3M  [1]. These numerical models are built first for "idealized" plates with an available analytical solution. Then, the models are extended to the case of a steel I beam with the web loaded in its plane. It should be noted that the boundary conditions created by the flanges in the real joint are described by elastic restraints on the web plate edges. Thus, the study is concerned with the elastic instabilities of plates and web panels of steel I beams. It can be considered as a first step covering the case of joint panels with high slenderness that have a dominant behavior in elastic buckling. Actually, in the approaches of EN1993-1-5  [16] , whether dominated by a plastic yield mechanism or local elastic buckling the strength of the web panel with or without stiffeners is governed by the dimensionless slenderness ratio λ that takes as an input parameter the elastic critical load.
Despite voluntary repatriation programmes in 1994, a large proportion of refugees elected to stay in the area. Therefore, the AHDSS arguably contains the largest population of self-settled refugees under health and demographic surveillance in the world  (12). Our analysis is based on 21 villages covered by the AHDSS from 1993Á2009 and uses data from women aged 15Á49 who gave birth in Agincourt. 1  Information on births, including limited information on the use of contraception prior to a birth, is collected in regular census rounds conducted since the baseline in 1992. Additional data on individuals and households are collected through special modules in the annual census update. The education of individuals is updated regularly and our analysis uses the highest level of education recorded for women.
Acknowledgements We thank  Christie Sennott  and  John B. Casterline  for comments on earlier drafts. Versions of the study were presented at the 2011  INDEPTH Scientific Conference, Maputo , and at the 2012 Population Association of  America Meeting ,  San Francisco. The AHDSS has been funded by the  Wellcome Trust, UK  (grants  058893/Z/99/A; 069683/Z/02/Z ;  085477/Z/08/Z ), with support from the  William and Flora Hewlett Foundation ,  National Institute on Aging (NIA)  of the  NIH , and the  Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, USA. The  School of Public Health and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand , and the  Medical Research Council ,  South Africa , have provided valuable support.
The ORCHIDEE dynamic global vegetation model ORCHIDEE  (Krinner et al. , 2005)  is composed of three coupled submodels: the surface vegetation-atmosphere transfer scheme SECHIBA, a module for phenology and carbon dynamics of the terrestrial biosphere (STOMATE), and a dynamical vegetation model inspired from LPJ  (Sitch et al. , 2003). The model simulates the distribution of ten different plant functional types (PFTs) and bare soil (for the list of the PFTs and the corresponding acronyms used in this study see Table  1 ), which can coexist on the same grid cell, as a result of climatic forcings and competitivity between these different PFTs. The spatial resolution in the vegetation model is identical to the spatial resolution in the climate model. The dynamical part simulates competitive processes such as light competition, sapling establishment, or tree mortality.