dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Secondary Morphological Structure of [ABC]+D 4KCWs Reflecting the greater dominance of the primary [AB]+[CD] morpho logical structure for 4KCWs, the secondary structure of [ABC]+D only accounts for 12. 1% of the 4KCW database list. Moreover, although this secondary structure closely parallels the primary [AB]+C morphological structure of 3KCWs, as noted earlier, where an additional morpheme is being attached to the end of an existing compound word, its coverage of only 12. 1% stands in sharp contrast to the 77. 1% prevalence of [AB]+C 3KCWs as the primary structure of 3KCWs. Moreover, further analy ses of the Dadditions of 4KCWs reveals that 26% are suffixes, which account for account for 61% of the [ABC]+D structures. In light of the clear parallels in terms of wordformation processes, it is most expedient to first compare the most frequent Cadditions of [AB]+C 3KCWs (Table  6 ) with the most frequent Dadditions of [ABC]+D 4KCWs (Table  16 ).
Other 4KCW Morphological Structures Our analysis of the morphological structures of the 4KCW database re veals that a large majority (85. 3%) have [AB]+[CD] structures, being the combination of two 2KCWs. The secondary and tertiary structures of 4KCWs involve one morpheme being added to an existing 3KCW, which together account for 14. 0% of 4KCws However, as Table  10  also indi cates, eight other morphological structures underlie a small percentage of 4KCWs. Accordingly, this section turns to present examples of those 4KCW structures. For the 4KCWs, the first of these more marginal morphological struc tures is nondivisible (0. 1%), which, as with the 3KCWs, is necessary to handle a small set of exceptions. The examples provided in  (19)  also il lustrates that although the compound word's etymology and morpho logical structure are not clear, the meanings of the component mor phemes are often related to the overall meaning.
Concluding Remarks This paper has outlined the construction of two new databases of 3KCWs and 4KCWs, as key components for a larger database project concerned with Japanese lexical properties  (Joyce, Hodošček, and Ma suda, 2017; Joyce, Masuda, and Ogawa, 2014). More specifically, this pa per has focused on describing the results of analysing the extracted data base lists according to the morphological structures that underlie the 3KCWs and 4KCWs, respectively. The results provide tangible quanti tative indications of the degrees to which the dominant morphological structures differ for 3KCWs and 4KCWs  (Kageyama and Saito, 2016; Kobayashi, Yamashita, and Kageyama, 2016; Shibatani, 1990; Tama mura, 1984; 1985). In the case of the 3KCW database, although eight structures were identified in total, the analysis results clearly show that just two mor phological structures underlie the vast majority (98.
4%) of the 23,046 3KCWs. Moreover, although both structures involve adding a mor pheme to an existing 2KCW, the results also reveal a striking preference for attaching an morpheme to the end of an existing 2KCW, such that the primary morphological structure of [AB]+C accounts for 77. 1% of the 3KCWs. In comparison, the secondary structure of A+  [BC] , where the additional morpheme is added to the beginning of a 2KCW, only ac counts for 21. 3% of the 3KCWs. In sharp contrast to the results for the 3KCWs, in the case of the 4KCW database, although 11 structures were identified in total, the analysis results indicate that the dominant mor phological structure of 4KCWs is overwhelmingly [AB]+  [CD] , where two 2KCWs are combined by compounding processes, and which ac count for 85. 3% of the 23,159 4KCWs.
Notwithstanding the pervasive nature of the primary structure, still, a considerable number of 4KCWs are formed by adding a morpheme to an existing 3KCW, where a marked preference for attachment to the end of compound words is also ob served. Thus, at much reduced proportions compared to 3KCWs, for 4KCWs, the secondary structure is [ABC]+D, which accounts for 12. 1%, and the tertiary structure is A+  [BCD] , which accounts for 1. 9%. Taken together, the results of analyzing the morphological structures of both database lists unquestionably underscore the immense signifi cance of 2KCWs within the Japanese lexicon, not only as words in their own right, but as the component elements of longer compound words  (Joyce, 2011; Joyce, Hodošček, and Masuda, 2017; Joyce, Masuda, and Ogawa, 2014; Kobayashi, Yamashita, and Kageyama, 2016; Nomura, 1975; 1988).
Joyce (2002; 2004)  and Ma suda and Joyce  (2018)  have already conducted a series of psycholinguis tic experiments that have employed the constituentpriming paradigm to examine lexicaldecision task responses to 2KCWs. As those studies have generally observed robust patterns of facilitated reaction times due to the prior presentation of the constituent kanji, across a variety of con ditions, including very brief stimulus onset asynchrony intervals, the nat ural next steps are to extend this experimental approach to investigate the recognition processes of 3KCWs and 4KCWs. To that aim, the analyses of their morphological structures will be invaluable in terms of designing various experimental conditions and selecting suitable stimuli. As already noted, these 3KCW and 4KCW databases have been com piled as new components of a larger database project concerned with various Japanese lexical properties  (Joyce, Hodošček, and Masuda, 2017; Joyce, Masuda, and Ogawa, 2014; Masuda and Joyce, 2005; Masuda, Joyce, et al.
, 2014). In being extracted from Joyce, Hodošček, and Nishina (2012) CWLs, which were, in turn, extracted from the BCCJW, both database lists have automatically inherited a number of valuable datafields, such as word class, lexical strata, token frequencies of lemma and orthographic base forms and pronunciation(s). In addition to those inherited datafields, naturally, the work of analysing the morphological structures has itself generated a number of additional fields beyond just assigning a structure category, such as identifying all possible graphe matic overlaps and counts related to morphological family sizes. These will all be checked as the work of integrating these new database com ponents within the larger database progresses and as further database components are developed in the future, such as the planned analyses of the morphological structures of fivekanji compound words.
18 Thus, the present analyses of the morphological structures of both 3KCWs and 4KCWs represent a significance contribution to the larger database project of mapping out various Japanese lexical properties. Japanese and Korean languages. Ed. by Hye Pae. Amsterdam: John Ben jamins, pp. 221-244. Masuda, Hisashi and Terry Joyce (2019). "A database of threekanji com pound words in Japanese, with particular focus on their morpholog ical structures. (2017). "He's more katakana than kanji: Indexing identity and selfpresentation through script selection in Japanese manga (comics). " In: Journal of  Sociolinguistics 21. 4, pp. 497-520. Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
This analysis is illustrated in  (18). Curving in a weak position is thus similar to vowel reduction in unstressed syllables. (18) a. 月 [WS] b. 冊 [S][S] In addition to statistical analyses of character databases, the psy chological reality of the character prosodic template has also been sup ported in a series of experiments. Myers (2016)  demonstrated that read ers generalize constraints on reduplication shape to nonce characters. Myers (2019)  showed that readers find nonce components more accept able if the largest stroke is at the bottom or right, and prefer a curved vertical stroke to appear at the left rather than elsewhere. Myers (2020)  found that readers prefer nonce characters to have thin rather than wide leftedge semantic radicals, whereas widening rightedge semantic rad icals did not reduce acceptability much, presumably because doing so made the nonce characters conform better to the regular prosodic tem plate.
When searching for characters containing "" in the CHISEIDS Database 2   (Morioka, 2015) , only 50 characters were found in those included in UCS (even limited to components, the following are found: 「蠃」「贏」( 「赢」 ) 「」 「」 「䇔」 「」 「羸」 「」 「」 「」 「臝」 「驘」 「」 「」 「鸁」 「」 「」 「」 「」 ). In contrast, only fifteen characters containing "⿲月女卂" were found, all of which contained "嬴" or some variant of it. Similarly, in the case of "族," many characters containing "" were found (such as "斻," "施," "斾," "斿," "旂," "," "旃," "," "旄," "," "旅," "," "旆," "," "旇," "," "旊," "旋," "㫊," "旌," "旍," "旎," "族," "," "㫋," "," "," …), whereas only three characters were found that contain "". More detailed results are shown in Tables  1 to 12. To perform this investigation, we introduced 12 rewriting rules, transforming functional structures into apparent structures.
Conclusion Structural description of Chinese character should be based on Chinese character analysis (Chinese character studies), like grammatical analy sis of natural language. For this reason, it is desirable to describe Hanzi structure based on etymological explanations. Etymological knowledge is required to perform the task, however this information is missing for many atypical Chinese characters, in fact the majority of CJKV Unified Ideographs of UCS. On the other hand, if we consider the "(degree of) componentness" of Chinese characters, a (candidate for) component that produces more Chinese characters is more likely to be considered as an actual com ponent. Considering components with respect to productivity does not require any etymological knowledge on characters and therefore can be calculated whenever we have a dataset of Hanzi structure descriptions at our disposal.
The penetration and assimilation of lexical borrowings in the receiving lan guage complicate the distinction between the original and borrowed vo cabulary, which does not help to understand the processes taking place in the lexicon. All these processes violate the original linguistic system aticity in order to become the source of new systematic relations in the further stages of linguistic development. In this paper, we attempt to test the nonarbitrary formmeaning hy pothesis in the Old English lexicon. Statistical methods and seman tically (conceptually) organized dataset of A Thesaurus of Old Eng lish allowed us to test the formmeaning association at the lexical level and conclude with certain assumptions a statistically significant form meaning correlation. The structure of the article is the following.
Thus, the scope of our study was narrowed, and it was decided to focus on the analysis of A Thesaurus of Old English, 5 with the appli 5. http://oldenglishthesaurus. arts. gla. ac. uk/ cation of statistical methods of the research. A Thesaurus is provided under the license. The data comprise the lexemes from A Thesaurus sharing the initial consonantal graphemes (phonemes) <w>, 
, <h>, and <p>. The lex emes with the initial graphemes <w>, 
, <h> are the most frequent ones while the lexemes with the initial <p>, on the contrary, are the least frequent. After processing, the dataset for the analysis comprised the lexemes with four onsets: <w> (3359 words), 
 (4586 words), <h> (5210 words), and <p> (542 words) excluding entries with the com pound lexemes written separately or with a hyphen  (13, 697  words in to tal).
Despite frequent critical remarks on the application of Pear son's Chisquare in linguistics we consider it to be appropriate and rea sonable for our dataset though with certain assumptions. Pearson's Chi square attempts at making a conclusion whether a distribution observed is purely accidental, or whether it reflects a certain regularity. This sta tistical test is applied to a contingency table made up of the element frequency in the sampling unit to be compared with the total number of elements in this unit. The null hypothesis tested is that the difference between the element frequency is the result of random variations. The implementation of Pearson's Chisquare statistics is available in a num ber of software frequently used in corpus linguistics such as WordSmith Tools and AntConc but in our case the data preprocessing and Pearson's Chisquare statistics were performed within Python realization.
We expect that for a larger number of graphemes the results would be different. In the future, we plan to expand the dataset with more initial graphemes and to undertake a fullscale research. Further explorations into the topic can be contin ued in the sphere of semiographemics since formmeaning relationships can be also traced in other semiotic modelling systems (symbolic writ ings and art) with specific implications for formmeaning hypothesis  (Lotman, 2011).
), they are still culturally worthy of studying. A case in point is the account of ipu ŋutu (Schnabelkürbis = beaked calabash) and hue (Flaschenkürbis = bottle gourd), with the term ipu ŋutu used instead of the real hue. Barthel is inclined to explain this by virtue of the name which describes the function of bottle gourds (as indispens able receptacles in the Old island culture). 52 A striking parallel comes from  Thomson (1891, p. 535) : in his report 53 about the gourdvessels he collected (one, now lost, which presumably carried rongorongo inscrip tions), he talks of the "calabash" called Tata and used chiefly in boats for bailing. Said object, according to the National Museum of Natural His tory Smithsonian's database (2014), corresponds to the access number "E1297580 Gourd" and is indeed a "beaked calabash," being, however, of the Lagenaria sp.
As it turns out, Thomson (ibid. , p. 535) describes the second listed item called Epu Moa: "Known as the fowl gourd, and a superstition ascribes a beneficial influence over the chicken fed and watered from it". 54 In the NMNH Smithsonian's database (  2014 ) it has the access code "E129757 Gourd". What is of certain bearing for our investigation is the fact that not unlike the "engraved skulls" (or other material supports), 55 even particular gourds seem to have had propitia tory effects on the wellbeing and multiplication of chickens. There are several accounts that bear out the effect and use of magic in ancient 51. In  Métraux (1940, p. 157)  and  Barthel (1978, p. 133 ) one finds also the Latin denomination Lagenaria vulgaris. 52. Barthel (ibid. , p. 133). Englert (1948, p. 456)  offers also the entry "kaha" in his "Diccionario Rapanui-Español" "calabaza, calabacina (que se usaba como vasija de agua) [calabash, vessel (formerly used as a water jar)]".
1 , where KU, AB056 and NU correspond to ,  and  resp. ). Fıgure 1. Pictorial representation for Linear A transcriptions of the HT1 tablet. Source: GORILA vol. 1  (Godart and Olivier, 1976a, p. 3)  A newly reconstructed digital corpus of Linear A signs is used to com plement the database of Linear A signs and symbols present in GORILA vols. 1 to 5  (Godart and Olivier, 1976a,b; 1979; 1982; 1985). This allows more rigorous statistical analysis of Linear A signs and sign sequences, as comparative analysis will become much more efficient as compared to the printed version of Godart and Olivier's corpus. In the future, dictionaries of languages from different language fam ilies will be required for comparison with the Linear A clusters. Ex amples of such dictionaries would include Luwian, Anatolian, Hamito Semitic and Hittite.
Overview of the Programme Functions Our programme aims at the implementation of a "bruteforce attack" method as an attempt to decipher Linear A. In the context of cryptogra phy and cryptanalysis, a "bruteforce attack" is defined to be "an exhaus tive search method in order to recover the secret key in a cryptosystem by testing all possible combinations"  (Verdult, 2015). Through clever optimisations and after a sufficient amount of computation, we aim to associate a possible language family to the Linear A writing system. The "bruteforce attack" on the Linear A symbols can help in constructing phoneme ngram databases with respect to the languages of compari son. Consequently, the Python programme aims to develop an auto matic procedure for evaluating language sources that would be of "best fit" to Linear A.
SigLA: The Signs of Linear A A Palaeographical Database Ester Salgarella • Simon Castellan Abstract. We present a database of inscriptions written in the (still undeci phered) Linear A script of Bronze Age Greece. We aim at developing a system atic, exhaustive and userfriendly open access database of all Linear A inscrip tions. Such a research tool is currently missing, and is essential in order to carry out statistical and palaeographical analyses within the epigraphic corpus, only available in print form at the moment.
Introduction This paper presents an interdisciplinary project blending linguistics and computer science and aiming at developing a systematic, exhaustive and user friendly open access database of all inscriptions known to date writ ten in the Linear A script of Bronze Age Greece (ca. 1800-1450 BCE), to date still undeciphered (see § 2). Such a research tool is currently miss ing, and is highly desirable inasmuch as essential in order to carry out statistical and palaeographic analyses within the epigraphic corpus, cur rently available in print form only. In fact, one of the hindrances to deci pherment prospects is the current impossibility to carry out any mean ingful linguistic statistical analysis and palaeographic sign comparison covering the whole corpus of Linear A inscriptions due to the limited re sources available.
This is especially true with respect to research tools, as all material is only available in (cumbersome) print form. Collecting the Linear A inscriptions in a unified database is of paramount impor tance to be able to answer sophisticated palaeographical and linguistic questions about the Linear A script as well as the language (Minoan) it encodes, which will help us reconstruct the sociohistorical context of the Minoan civilisation. The database will record and display for crosssearch comparison: (i) linguistic information: contextual occurrences of signs, their frequency and position within a tablet, as well as individual signsequences (i. e. , words) and their relative position and frequency within the whole corpus; (ii) palaeographic variation: the way in which particular occurrences of signs are drawn on a contextual basis, and how signs vary from inscription to inscription (intrasite analysis), and from location to location (intersite analysis).
Emphasis will be put on allowing users to see the material evidence (e. g. , quickly see all occurrences of a sign or a word in a particular loca tion), in order to ease palaeographic analyses that have so far been done tediously by hand by perusing the print corpus of Linear A inscriptions (known as GORILA  (Godart and Olivier, 1976-1985) , see § 2). Having a digital approach here, where occurrences of signs can be easily com pared is key for carrying out comparative analysis. This is greatly sim plified by the use of a database, given the very little information we can retrieve solely from the laconic textual structure of the inscriptions as they are (characterised by a great many abbreviations which require a contextdriven interpretation of the same signs and/or signsequences), as well as the overall poor evidence in terms of quantity and preserva tion.
xxiixxvii): Linear A is composed of some 180 simple signs (representing a graphic and phonologic unit); and some 164 complex (or composite) signs (which are the combination of two or more simple signs), on top of these there are some 30 fractional signs. A quite reliable transliteration of the texts, although subjective in places, is given by  Younger (2000)  based on  Godart and Olivier (1976-1985)  transcriptions. This contribution has so far proved to be useful, espe cially for linguistic analyses; however, a mere transliteration leaves out palaeographical information. Second, another limitation of the corpus is its very format: a printed edition does not allow to carry out any statistical and comparative analysis of signs and signsequences. This resulted in slowing down comparative linguistic and palaeographical re search (unless one painstakingly collects their own dataset).
A Digital Approach: Challenges and Solutions Turning the printed corpus into a digital database raised a few chal lenges. The first and more important challenge is that of copyright, as the images included in the corpus are not free to use. To circumvent the copyright issues surrounding the original drawings we decided to make our own drawings of each document, based on the standard cor pus of inscriptions and as faithful to the originals as possible. This long process turned out to be fruitful, as it allowed us to separate distinctly each and every sign drawn on the tablet surface, to classify each sign individually and to mark its position within the inscription. As a result, drawings can be annotated with information that would not have been possible to extract automatically for comparative purposes.
As an exam ple, our database includes for display and analysis epigraphical features such as erasures (see § 4). To make the drawing process as smooth as possible, we opted to use Krita, a graphics editor, and to turn the corpus images into multilayered images where each sign belongs in a different layer. Basic metadata can be encoded in these files, therefore our digital corpus becomes a set of Krita files, one per document of the corpus. Another problem we had to face during the design of the database was classifying the data. Because of the nature of evidence, there is a lot of uncertainty: uncertain readings, unknown word boundaries, uncertain function performed by signs in isolation (e. g. , logograms or transaction signs?). Moreover, the standard terminology used in the scholarship is itself ambiguous to some extent, and part of the work of designing the database was to resolve such ambiguity.
For instance, the word sign can refer to the standardised shape of a sign (e. g. , AB 01) or to a particu lar occurrence of that standardised sign on a particular document, or to a graphic variant of the sign (at times difficult to recognise as such). Digitalising the corpus forced us to impose the strict inflexibility of for mal languages onto the flexibility of natural languages, and forced us to make some choices in cases where the evidence is not clear. For all these reasons, we decided to develop our own software to deal with the database. The software has two main components: -Import. This component turns the corpus of Krita files into a JSON database, and produces image files for each document, and for each sign attestation. -Interface. We then developed a web interface, written in OCaml and compiled in JavaScript that entirely runs in the browser.
The inter face allows to visualise and search the data, and is presented in § 4. We choose this architecture to favour simplicity and openness. The database is easily accessible and usable by other people outside the in terface if so they wished, and JSON is one of the best supported data de scription languages. Moreover, the website can be downloaded and run locally. This also ensures a very small load on the server that does not run any computation and ensures that SigLA (or copies thereof) can be easily hosted. The main tradeoff is performance as this is much slower than a relational database would be. We believe this is not a problem as the evidence for Linear A is relatively small (less than two thousands documents). One other challenge in developing the interface was to allow flexi bility in the queries that can be expressed, while still remaining user friendly and simple for the most frequent queries.
For the expressive ness part, we decided to represent queries as typed λterms, which are functional programs, built on primitive terms representing properties of the objects manipulated by the database. For instance, types include Word, Sign, Document, and properties include words, of type Document → Word List. Using types, we built an interface allowing the user to build the λterm incrementally by showing them the possible properties that are available at any point in the query (see  § 4. 2). This proved to be expressive and easy to extend by adding more primitives.