dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Shielding integral benchmark and archive database (SINBAD) An international shielding benchmark was first proposed in 1988 at the 7 th International Conference on Radiation Shielding (ICRS-7), which resulted in the Shielding Integral Benchmark Archive Database (SINBAD) being established in 1996 as a joint effort between the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and the Radiation Safety Information Computational Center (RSICC) (https://www. oecd-nea. org/jcms/pl_32139/shielding-integral-benchmarkarchive-and-database-sinbad)  (Kodeli, Sartori, and Kirk, 2006; Kodeli, et al. , 2014). The goal of this type of database is to provide the community a way to validate their shielding or fixed source simulations and evaluated nuclear data. Today SINBAD continues under the auspices of the Expert Group on Physics of Reactor Systems (EGPRS), which is a subgroup of the NEA's Working Party on Scientific Issues and Uncertainty Analysis of Reactor Systems (WPRS).
The current release of SINBAD, which is available from the NEA Data Bank and RSICC, contains evaluations of 102 benchmark experiments. These experiments are broken into three broad categories, fission systems, fusion systems, and accelerator systems, which have 31, 48, and 23 benchmarks, respectively. In February 2021 the EGPRS established the SINBAD Task Force (TF) to oversee the future development of SINBAD, which is consistent with the strategy of the NEA to continuously improve data available from their data bank. The TF will operate for 3 years, and then the EGPRS will evaluate the performance and determine how SINBAD development should continue in the future. The proposed aim of the SINBAD TF is to maintain and begin modernizing SINBAD. There are two major factors that led to the EGPRS establishing the TF.
First, is the reduction in new benchmarks being added to the database. The second motivating factor is to modernize the database while building upon previous work. This previous work includes all entries currently in SINBAD, but also the quality reviews  (Kodeli and Sartori, 2021). The goals prescribed by the EGPRS for the SINBAD TF are to provide new database entries and to improve the quality of the existing database entries. Providing new database entries is self-explanatory. The goal of improving the quality of the existing database entries is a very broad goal. Discussions with the EGPRS and TF participants have led to specific deliverables that achieve this goal, which are: • when updating current evaluations or producing new evaluations, have a single summary document following the SINBAD evaluation guide approved in 2019 (NEA, 2022c), • perform sensitivity and uncertainty quantification, • provide accurate models of the geometry (CAD or some code agnostic format), materials, sources, and detector response parameters, and • provide supplemental resources like sample code inputs and outputs, variance reduction parameters, tools to convert data to code input, and tools to post process code output.
The TF participants have also defined the following additional goals: • do not lose or remove any existing information from the database, • involve the nuclear data community, and • capture the output of the Working Party on International Nuclear Data Evaluation Cooperation (WPEC) Subgroup 47, which was focused on the use of SINBAD for nuclear data validation  (Kodeli, et al. , 2022). From the perspective of advance reactor design, like with criticality, thermal hydraulics, and other topics mention herein, many concepts are outside the domain of current benchmark experiments used for validation. Different fuel types, moderators, and coolants have been proposed that do not have benchmark quality experimental data. This becomes a shielding concern for biological dose around advanced reactors and their spent fuel, but also for radiation damage of reactor and fuel components.
The international experimental thermal Hydraulics database (TIETHYS) Nuclear reactor design and accident analyses are generally multi-physics simulation problems. Validation of relevant multiphysics codes requires that the individual physics models are also validated in order to avoid compensating effects. One important component of multi-physics simulation is thermal-hydraulic (TH) physics and requires relevant TH data. Some of the TH codes are at a system level and others such as CFD (computational fluid dynamics) address more details of local thermal hydraulic phenomenon such as at sub-channel level. These system TH analytical tools have balance equations and many hundreds of correlations to provide information or model parameters about interactions between different phases at the interfaces.
The Nuclear Science Committee (NSC) of the NEA has developed a user-friendly GUI (graphical user interface) and a relational database, The International Experimental Thermal Hydraulic Systems database (TIETHYS)  (Rohatgi, Dyrda, and Soppera, 2018) , to organize and preserve the international TH test data for various reactor concepts and different scenarios. The database has an expandable platform with place holders for molten salt reactors, high temperature gas cooled reactors, CANDU, and liquid metal reactors. TIETHYS provides better access to and preserves this valuable information. In addition, the database will also expand as more information becomes available for given tests such as application, instrumentation uncertainty, and user guidelines. For TH code validation, it is important to provide accurate descriptions of geometry and initial conditions.
The validation of a code for a given application requires tests that cover the conditions expected in that application. The TIETHYS development has two parallel paths. One path includes a database for tests with searchable attributes. The second part is linking of these tests to applications through possible phenomena identification table, part of PIRT (Phenomena Identification and Ranking Table ) process. The current database platform includes scenarios for PWRs, BWRs, vodo-vodyanoi enyergeticheskiy reactors (VVERs), and corresponding SETs (separate effects tests) and IETs (integral effects tests) along with specific benchmarks for CFD modelling. Currently, the database includes 45 integral facilities and 223 separate effects tests (which have been mostly derived from previous efforts carried-out by the OECD-NEA in the framework of the Computer Code Validation Matrix (CCVM)  (NEA, 1994; NEA, 1996; NEA, 1997; NEA, 2001; NEA, 2017) , and nine CFD-relevant tests  (NEA, 2015).
Numerous others have been identified for later inclusion for LWRs. This will meet some of the needs for the multi-physics development programs around the world. These tests are currently for LWRs, spanning PWR, BWR, and VVER designs. It is important to note that it is difficult to define benchmarks for TH codes as they do not undergo rigorous nodalization studies as prediction can change with nodalization due to flow regime map definition, and related interfacial transfer of heat, mass, and momentum. The goal of this database is to provide descriptions of tests, geometry, initial conditions and transient test data, and examples of application. The code user can apply their own code guidelines to create nodalization. The initial version of relational database TIETHYS and GUI software are freely open to public and available for testing via the NEA website (https://www.
oecd-nea. org/tiethysweb/). Going forward the database will be extended to include additional links and data as they become available. The organizations conducting TH tests are encouraged to submit their test data to NEA for inclusion in database for wider exposure and for preservation. Another initiative which is linked to TIETHYS and is worth mentioning is the OECD/NEA THEMPo (Harmonization of Methodologies for System Thermal-Hydraulics Experimental Meta-Data Preservation, Collection and Qualification) which will commence in 2023. The objective is to develop and/or to improve and then harmonize existing methodologies  (Petruzzi and D'Auria, 2016)  for collection, preservation, qualification, organization and then use of an exhaustive "Set of Experimental Information" (SEI). The derived methodology will provide the guide for the creation of a relational database of experimental meta-data with a standardization of the procedures by which the SEI are collected, qualified, and organized into a consolidated database which finally allows the code analysists for a faster and more accurate development of computational simulation models of experimental tests to be exploited for code validation purposes.
Challenging state-of-the-art tools in cooperative benchmark exercises Benchmark exercises at OECD NEA challenge our current state-ofthe-art tools and provide international best practice guidance on simulation methods and tools. Benchmarks are typically either based on existing experimental benchmark cases in the NEA databases or lead to the development of new benchmark cases which then become part of the databases. Key activities with relevance to the development of advanced reactors design include the multi-physics benchmark exercises in the Expert Group on Reactor Systems Multi-Physics (EGMUP), which is here presented as a showcase. EGMUP originates from the Expert Group on Multi-Physics Experimental Data, Benchmarks and Validation (EGMPEBV) which was established in 2014 by the NEA to establish processes for certification of experimental data and development of benchmark models for validation of multi-physics computational methods  (Finck, et al.
Training opportunities to demonstrate validation principles and practices; and 7. Demonstrations of the validation recommendations for specific applications. To support its activities, the group will collect and evaluate multiphysics data from available integral facilities, test and research reactor and nuclear power plant experimental data; analytical and numerical benchmarking will also be used to fulfil the objectives. All nuclear reactor systems operate in a multi-physics domain. Simulations of many advanced reactor systems have demonstrated tightly coupled behavior between different physical aspects of the core, including micro-reactors, molten salt and fast reactor systems and nuclear thermal propulsion concepts. With these generally reactors still in early design phases and prototypes being developed for testing, multi-physics data from such systems may become available in the next few years.
At the time of this writing, the schedule for future meetings of the SINBAD Task Force has not been determined, but the Task Force may continue to hold meetings in tandem with IRPhEP/ICSBEP meetings. The first workshop on preservation of Thermal-Hydraulics experimental data workshop (TH-1) was conducted under the auspices of new Expert Group on Reactor Core Thermal Hydraulics (EGRCTH) within the WPRS. The meeting was hosted by Gesellschaft für Anlagen-und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS) gGmbH, in Garching, Germany in June, 2019. This workshop elected to endorse the effort to provide for preservation of experimental data for model development and validation in the form of the existing TIETHYS database. Since this time updates to TIETHYS are reported to EGRCTH, but workshops have held independently of WPRS meetings.
To get more information on other benchmark exercises, please contact the following Secretariats within the NEA Division of Nuclear Science and Education: • Working Party on Scientific Issues of Advanced Fuel Cycles (WPFC): wpfc@oecd-nea. org • Working Party on Nuclear Criticality Safety (WPNCS): wpncs@oecd-nea. org • Working Party on International Nuclear Data Evaluation Cooperation (WPEC): wpec@oecd-nea. org • Working Party on Scientific Issues and Uncertainty Analysis of Reactor Systems (WPRS): wprs@oecd-nea. org.
and experimental data preservation activities. Many such opportunities abound under the auspices of the  Nuclear Science Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA). Key projects and activities of relevance to the development of advanced reactors design include the  International Criticality Safety Benchmark Evaluation Project (ICSBEP) , the  International Reactor Physics Experiment Evaluation Project (IRPhEP) , the  International Assay Data of Spent Nuclear Fuel Database (SFCOMPO ), the  Shielding Integral Benchmark  and Archive Database (SINBAD), and The  International Experimental Thermal HYdraulicS Database  (TIETHYS), and various cooperative benchmark exercises. Interested participants are encouraged to contact the leadership and secretariat of the various Technical Working.
Moreover, our database spans a limited time, and future studies may benefit from incorporating additional data sources and using more advanced machine learning techniques to improve the accuracy of the analogues identification process. Our analysis is based on empirical estimates of the relationship between sea level and damages, which may be subject to errors and biases. In particular, our model assumes an exponential relationship between sea level and damages, which may not hold under changing climatic conditions. Furthermore, our data on damages is limited to reported losses, which may not capture the full extent of the economic and social impacts of Acqua Alta events. Finally, our analysis does not incorporate information from climate models or other types of climate projections, which could help to assess the potential impacts of future climate change on Acqua Alta events in Venice.
Incorporating such information would require additional data sources and modeling techniques, and may be subject to uncertainties and biases associated with the models themselves. The use of large ensemble simulations will also help in discriminating the role of anthropogenically driven changes of these patterns from the long term variability of the climate system. In conclusion, the results of this study have important implications for the management of Acqua Alta events in Venice. While we cannot attribute the observed changes exclusively to one factor, the modifications of atmospheric circulation patterns due to both natural and anthropogenic forced variability leading to Acqua Alta events already greatly affect the city of Venice. Our findings suggest that the MoSE system can be an effective mitigation strategy for events with historical analogues, but additional measures may be needed to address the potential damages caused by unprecedented events  24.
Future research in this area should focus on improving the accuracy of analogues identification, incorporating more sophisticated modeling techniques, and expanding the range of data sources and variables used to assess the impacts of Acqua Alta events. From the point of view of impacts, future research should focus to better understand the effectiveness of the MoSE system in mitigating damages caused by Acqua Alta events and to identify additional measures that can be implemented to reduce the impacts of these events on the city of Venice. Our study represents one of the first examples that goes beyond identifying the circulation drivers of extreme events to quantifying the changes and their impacts. The framework we presented is general and can be applied to other case studies. However, our study also has limitations, like for example the limited database of sea-level for the past, the limited analogues used, and the fact that we did not use climate models.
Data We utilised the latest climate reanalysis data produced by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) as part of the implementation of the EU-funded Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S). Specifically, we used the ERA5 dataset, which provides hourly data on atmospheric, land surface, and sea state parameters from 1950 to the present at a horizontal resolution of 0. 25 ∘ × 0. 25 ∘33. The choice of using ERA5 data for this study was motivated by the dataset's consistency over a long period of time (73 years), which allowed us to detect changes in the large dynamics associated with Acqua Alta events. In addition, the global nature of the ERA5 dataset allowed us to avoid mixing data from different national weather services and ensured uniform spatial and temporal coverage.
While other observational or reanalysis datasets were considered, such as E-OBS, MERRA, NCEP, and CFSR, these were discarded due to the lack of sea-point coverage or insufficient temporal and spatial resolutions. The Centro Previsioni e Segnalazioni Maree (Center for Tides Forecasting and Reporting) of the Venice Municipality provides tide gauge data that is essential for understanding the frequency and intensity of Acqua Alta events in Venice. The tide gauge data records the water levels in the Venetian Lagoon at 16 different locations, including the historical station of Punta della Salute. These measurements are taken every 1 h and are reported in centimeters above the mean sea level, referred to the tidal zero of Punta della Salute. The tide level data are freely available at https://www.
Analogues methods The attribution protocol described in Faranda et al. 30  has already been applied and validated for pressure maps leading up to series of extreme events in the year 2021, including floods in Westphalia  34  , storm Alex  35  , and wind-power changes  36. Here we apply it for Acqua Alta events in Venice, as follows. Considering that most of the Acqua Alta events analysed were due to rapid, small-scale cyclones, we analyse hourly and 6-hourly data. We divide the ERA5 sea-level pressure data set into two periods: 1950-1979 and 1993-2022 each consisting of 30 years data. We consider the first period to represent a past world with a weaker anthropogenic influence on climate than the second period, which represents our factual world affected by anthropogenic climate change. Here, we assume that 30 years is a long enough period to average out high-frequency interannual variability of the atmospheric motions.
We perform this last analysis using monthly indices from NOAA/ERSSTv5 data and retrieved from the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) Climate Explorer. In particular, the ENSO index is version 3. 4 as defined by Huang et al. 38  , and the AMO, PDO index is calculated as described in Trenberth and Shea  39. When the ENSO 3. 4 index is positive, it corresponds to El Niño, and when it is negative, it corresponds to La Niña. We define several quantities to support our interpretation of analogue-based assignment, including the analogue quality Q, which is the average Euclidean distance of a given day from its 17 closest analogues. If the value of Q for the extreme event belongs to the same distribution of its analogues, then the event is not unprecedented, and the attribution can be performed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All the authors acknowledge the  Centro Previsione e Segnalazione Maree -Protezione Civile, Venice, Italy , for making available tide gauge data. Data are distributed under the License Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3. 0 Italy ( CC BY-NC-SA 3. 0 IT). D. F. and E. C. received support from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No. 101003469  (XAIDA). D. F. and M. G. received support from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020   Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant  agreement No. 956396  (EDIPI). D. F. received further support from the  LEFE-MANU-INSU-CNRS  grant " CROIRE ". We also acknowledge useful discussions with the  MedCyclones COST Action  ( CA19109 ) community. This research was supported by the  SAVEMEDCOASTS2  Project (number  874398  www.
DATA AVAILABILITY ERA5 data are publicly available at climate explorer (http://climexp. knmi. nl/). Sea level data are made available at https://www. comune. venezia. it/it/content/centroprevisioni-e-segnalazioni-maree from the Centro Previsione e Segnalazione Maree -Protezione Civile, Venice, Italy, under the License Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3. 0 Italy (CC BY-NC-SA 3. 0 IT).
Whole-exome sequencing (WES) WES was performed on leukocyte DNA of 62 glioma patients from 61 tumor families using the SureSelectXT Human All Exon V5, SureSelectXT Human All Exon V5 + UTRs or SureSelectXT Human All Exon V6 + UTRs target enrichment kit (all Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) on a HiSeq 2500 or NovaSeq 6000 sequencer (both Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). All samples were sequenced to a mean target coverage of ≥ 50x. Sequencing data were processed and aligned to the GRCh37/hg19 reference human genome assembly using the QIAGEN CLC Genomics Workbench (version 22. 0. 2; Qiagen), and assessed using Qiagen Clinical Insight Interpret (Qiagen) and our in-house next-generation sequencing data analysis workflow as described in Results and the Additional file 1: Table  S1. Variant minor allele frequencies (MAF) were retrieved from the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD) browser v2.
Tumor mutational burden (TMB) and mutational signature analysis Tumor DNA extracted from 14 FFPE glioma specimens from 10 patients with POLE or POLD1 variants was sequenced using xGen customized gene panels (Integrated DNA Technologies, Coralville, IO, USA) targeting cancer-associated genes on a NextSeq 500 sequencer (Illumina) to a mean target coverage of 185x. Sequencing data were processed and aligned to the GRCh37/hg19 reference human genome assembly, and the TMB score of each glioma DNA was calculated using the QIAGEN CLC Genomics Workbench. Variants from the dbSNP common database (dbSNP common v151 ensembl hg19), which contains variants with a MAF ≥ 0. 01, were subtracted to obtain somatic variants. To calculate TMB, the total number of somatic non-synonymous high-quality (read depth ≥ 10, call quality ≥ 50, allele fraction ≥ 5%) single nucleotide variants in the coding region was divided by the total size of the sequenced coding region in megabases.
To detect combinations of mutation types within the identified somatic coding non-synonymous single nucleotide variants of each glioma DNA, the Mutational Signatures in Cancer (MuSiCa) tool (http://bioinfo. ciberehd. org/GPtoCRC/en/tools. html), an R-based web application to characterize mutational signatures in cancer samples based on COSMIC database v2 -March 2015  [13] , was used. The nomenclature of the detected mutational signatures was updated to single base substitution (SBS) signatures of COSMIC database v3. 3.
Histological assessment Hematoxylin and eosin staining of sections of 15 FFPE gliomas from 11 patients with POLE or POLD1 variants was performed according to standard protocols. Sections were evaluated by an experienced neuropathologist (CH) regarding the presence of enlarged nuclei or multinucleated cells. Images were acquired using a BX46 microscope and an XC50 camera (all Olympus, Shinjuku, Japan), or sections were scanned using an Aperio AT2 Scanner (Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany), and digital images were processed using Aperio ImageScope v12. 4. 3. 5008 software (Leica Microsystems).
Multiplexed fluorescence immunohistochemistry (IHC) To characterize the immune cell infiltrate of seven glioblastomas and two spinal metastases from seven patients with POLE variants as well as POLE WT glioblastomas and a spinal metastasis, multiplexed fluorescence IHC was performed on 3 μm thick FFPE glioma sections. OPAL Multiplex IHC Assay kit (Akoya Biosciences, Marlborough, MA, USA) was used for spectral library generation and data acquisition following the manufacturer's instructions (OPAL Multiplex IHC Assay Development Guide, Akoya Biosciences). Slides were deparaffinized, initial antigen retrieval was performed by microwave cooking in Tris-buffered saline at pH 9. 0, and blocking of unspecific protein binding was performed using Protein Block Serum-free solution (Agilent). Subsequent antigen retrieval and deactivation of the preceding staining step were performed by microwave cooking either in Tris-buffered saline at pH 9.