dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Conclusions A strategy for a model-independent general search to find potential indications of new physics is presented. Events are classified according to their final state into many event classes. For each event class an automated search algorithm tests whether the data is compatible with the Monte Carlo simulated Standard Model expectation in several distributions sensitive to the effects of new physics. For each distribution the search algorithm is repeated on many pseudo-experiments to make a frequentist estimate of the statistical significance of the three largest deviations. A data selection in which a significant deviation is observed defines a data-derived signal region which will be tested on a new dataset in a dedicated analysis with an improved background model. The strategy has been applied to the data collected by the ATLAS experiment at the LHC during 2015, corresponding to a total of 3.
2 fb -1 of 13 TeV pp collisions. In this dataset, exclusive event classes containing electrons, muons, photons, b-tagged jets, non-b-tagged jets and missing transverse momentum have been scanned for deviations from the MC-based SM prediction in the distributions of the effective mass and the invariant mass. Sensitivity studies with various toy signals (t t + γ, W Z, gluino, and Z production) have shown that the strategy could discover signals for new physics without an a priori knowledge of the existence of the processes. No significant deviations are found in the 2015 dataset and consequently no dedicated analysis using data-derived signal regions is performed. The strategy discussed in this paper will be useful to search for signals of unknown particles and interactions in the subsequent Run 2 datasets.
Their modelling uncertainty is evaluated from variations of the renormalization and factorization scales, together with a change in the merging scale. For t t + γ, an additional 12% uncertainty in the normalization is assumed, while a uniform 30% uncertainty is assigned to the modelling  [76]. Multijet and γ + jets processes are scaled to data following the procedure described in Section 3. 2. 2. Therefore, no uncertainty is applied to their normalization. For multijets the maximum bin-by-bin difference between the P 8 nominal sample and alternative samples generated with S and H ++ is considered as a shape uncertainty. In addition the standard deviation of the 100 replica sets of the NNPDF2. 3LO PDF is used. The modelling uncertainty for γ +jets is estimated from scale variations with the same methodology as for the V + jets samples.
The energy of tracks in a cone of ∆R = 0. 2 should be less than 0. 05 × p γ T. Jet candidates are reconstructed with the anti-k t algorithm  [38]  implemented in the FastJet package  [85]  with a radius parameter of R = 0. 4, using as input three-dimensional energy clusters in the calorimeter  [86]  calibrated to the electromagnetic scale. The reconstructed jets are then calibrated to the jet energy scale (JES) derived from simulation and in situ corrections based on 13 TeV data  [42, 87]. For all jets the expected average energy contribution from pile-up clusters is subtracted according to the jet area prescription  [88]. Quality criteria are imposed to identify jets arising from non-collision sources or detector noise and any event containing such a jet is removed  [89]. All jet candidates are required to have p T > 20 GeV and |η| < 2.
5 5%Figure 1 : 51 Figure 1: The fractions of pseudo-experiments (P exp,i (p min )) in the m inv scan, which have at least one, two or three p channel -values smaller than a given threshold (p min ). Pseudo-datasets are generated from the SM expectation. Dotted lines are drawn at P exp,i = 5% and at the correspondinglog 10 (p min )-values.
In table  1    The simulation of the telescopes was done using sim_telarray  [7] , applied for the first time to simulate also the MAGIC telescopes. The implementation of the MAGIC telescopes has been extensively checked and tuned to reproduce the results of the standard MC software used by the MAGIC Collaboration  [9]. The simulated events have been reconstructed and analyzed with the MARS  [10]  analysis chain, a software developed and used by the MAGIC Collaboration, adapted to handle CTA simulations. For each pixel the charge is extracted by means of a fixed-width sliding window, the image is then cleaned with a standard two-levels tailcut algorithm and the image is parameterized accordingly to classical second moment Hillas analysis  [11]. Basic quality cuts have been applied, e. g. : image centroid within 0.
8 eV. Analyses were first performed recording a survey spectrum on a wide range of 1200 eV in order to identify all chemical elements. Afterwards, a scanning of the individual photo-peaks was undertaken over a smaller range of 15-25 eV to establish the different chemical states of the detected species and to perform quantitative analysis using PHI multipack software. XPS photo-peaks were fitted with a Shirley background and the quantification was calculated with Wagner sensitivity factors. Before performing XPS analyses on the tribofilms, the specimens were cleaned by several immersions in pure distilled water. All the parameters needed for the fitting such as the peak area ratio, the difference between doublets binding energies and the Full-Width at Half-Maximum (FWHM) were fixed in order to obtain the most appropriate chemical meaning.
Surface analysis. To study chemical reactions between the surfaces and glycerol, the regions inside and outside the wear track on the steel ball were analysed by XPS. More attention was paid to the C 1s and O 1s oxygen photopeaks in the two cases (Fig. 3  and Table  2 ). A characteristic peak corresponding to iron oxides is observed at a binding energy (BE in the following) of 530. 0 eV, in good agreement with data from the literature. In addition, the peak at 531. 5 eV BE is attributed to either an iron hydroxide or a carbonyl (O=C) bond  20. The corresponding low intensity of the (C=O) contribution at the C1s peak at 288 eV BE confirms the predominance of hydroxides in the wear scar. Because hydroxides usually cover the top of the oxide layer, its thickness is very small, approximately 1 nm.
We solve the magnetic induction equation in a spherical shell using the publicly available pseudo-spectral solver MagIC  (Wicht 2002; Gastine & Wicht 2012 ) which can de downloaded on https://github. com/magic-sph. MagIC uses a poloidal/toroidal decomposition both for the magnetic field and the mass flux to ensure the divergence constraint. MagIC employs spherical harmonic decomposition in the azimuthal and latitudinal directions, and Chebyshev polynomials in the radial direction. For time-stepping, it employs semi-implicit Crank-Nicolson scheme for the linear terms and Adams-Bashforth for the nonlinear terms. The inner and outer radii of computational shell are [0. 65, 1. 0] R , where R is the solar radius. We choose N r = 64 grid-points in the radial, N θ = 128 points in the latitudinal, and N φ = 256 points in the longitudinal directions.
Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the  Indo-French  research grant  5004-1  from  CEFIPRA/IFCPAR. Numerical simulations were performed at CINES, the supercomputing facility in Montpellier, France, and at the CALMIP supercomputing facility at the  Université de Toulouse  ( Paul Sabatier ),  France. The  Center of Excellence in Space Sciences India  is funded by the  Ministry of Human Resource Development of the Government of India. We thank  Prantika Bhowmik  for useful discussions and suggestions. L. J. acknowledges support from the  Institut Universitaire de France (IUF).
Results and Discussion Figure  2  shows examples of SAXS images, fluorescence spectra, and ion TOF spectra from Xe clusters recorded in coincidence for each FEL pulse. Under our experimental conditions, the hit rate determined by the ratio of observed SAXS signals in the octal MPCCD sensor to the total number of FEL shots was less than 0. 1%. Therefore, the recorded data of each FEL shot were considered to originate from a single cluster in the focus of the FEL pulse. In the SAXS images, we observed clear concentric diffraction rings which suggest a spherical shape of the Xe clusters. We analyzed the SAXS images with respect to the size of the Xe clusters as well as the fluence of XFEL pulses at the actual interaction point, described in detail in the following section. The obtained values of cluster size and XFEL fluence are summarized below in the panels (a), (d), and (g) in Figure  2.
Conclusions We carried out multispectroscopic measurements of single Xe clusters at SACLA. The SAXS signals, fluorescence spectra, and ion TOF spectra of giant xenon clusters were recorded simultaneously on a shot-by-shot basis. The radii of the clusters and the XFEL fluences at the reaction point were evaluated from SAXS data, and the ion TOF spectra and fluorescence spectra were sorted according to the obtained parameters. After sorting, we found a clear size and FEL fluence dependence in both the ion TOF and fluorescence spectra. The present results demonstrate the importance of removing the averaging effects of the size distribution of the clusters as well as the laser fluence profile to obtain deep insights into the laser-matter interaction. The information extracted from our single-shot single-particle data sets, the first in the hard X-ray regime and the first containing inner-shell fluorescence information, is in good agreement with the findings of previous studies using similar styles of single-shot approaches in the soft X-ray and ultraviolet spectral regime.
Acknowledgements This work was granted access to the HPC resources of the institute for computing and data sciences (ISCD) at  Sorbonne Universite. This work benefited from the IPSL ciclad-ng facility. We are grateful for the computing resources on OCCIGEN (CINES,  French National HPC ). The authors acknowledge  Michael Wolff  for his useful feedbacks and careful proofreading. M. T. acknowledges  Jim Head  for discussions related to this work, as well as  Edwin Kite  for his useful feedbacks on the manuscript. Eventually, the authors acknowledge the reviewer  Alexis Rodriguez  for his very constructive feedbacks.
Coates et al. 2009  and Figs  3a  and b ). Coates et al. (2009). In addition, there is a group of data points made up of mostly orange (2007) and green  (2008)  observations that are higher in mass than the average at a specific altitude. The mass-SZA dependence Fig. 3 (c) shows a range of masses on both the day and night side; the very highest masses are observed on the night side at 105 • to 140 • SZA. The mass-latitude dependence Figs 3(e) and (f) show that the very highest masses are found in the polar regions; however, there are also some medium to high masses at mid-latitudes. The three highest data points (marked by a red circle in all Fig. 3  panels) are the maximum masses recorded from T16 signatures E, F, and G in Figs  1  and 2. Four of the 34 fly-bys where negative ions were observed by CAPS-ELS were polar fly-bys.
AFM Characterization Atomic force microscopy (AFM) height images were obtained in intermittent contact (tapping) mode on an Asylum Research MFP-3D Bio AFM instrument (Asylum Research, Santa Barbara, CA) using AC 160 TS silicon cantilevers with a nominal spring constant of 26 N/m (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). Images were taken with a resolution of 512 × 512 pixels at a scan rate of 1. 0 Hz. All data were acquired at ambient temperature and pressure.
Results and Discussion Thin DH4T films were prepared by vacuum deposition at room temperature on a Si/SiO 2 substrate. The diffraction patterns of DH4T thin films were measured by in situ GIXD as a function of temperature. The angularly resolved data were converted to reciprocal space where the axes of perpendicular (q ⊥ ) and parallel (q ‖ ) components of the momentum transfer vector correspond to scattering along perpendicular (out-of-plane) and parallel (in-plane) directions, respectively. The converted reciprocal space map of DH4T film at 30 °C is given in Fig. 1a. In total, more than 70 Bragg reflections were observed in the GIXD patterns of DH4T thin films. The proposed indexation of reflections (cf. Fig. 1a-c  and text below) demonstrates that the initial thin-film structure is highly crystalline and uniformly oriented with respect to the film surface.
This confirms that on a longer timescale, the conversion of the mesophase to the crystalline phase does take place indeed. However, the backward transition is not complete after 5 h of annealing at room temperature (cf. Fig. 5 ). However, the measurement conducted after 2 years of annealing at room temperature confirms its full reversibility (cf. right panel of Fig. 5 ). In this case, the diffraction pattern reveals again the highly ordered crystalline phase typical of the pristine sample. The multilayered structures were characterized by X-ray reflectivity (XRR). The XRR curves before and after the annealing experiment are shown in Fig. 6. XRR simulations were performed with Motofit package using the Abeles matrix/Parratt recursion and least squares fitting (Genetic algorithm or Levenberg Marquardt).
The parameters extracted from the XRR analysis are summarized in Table  2. The morphology of the film before and after annealing was also examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Figure  7  displays height images of the films recorded before and 5 days after the annealing experiment from 1 mm 2 surface area. Prior to annealing, a highly ordered structure was observed with a very distinct layering within the islands where the height distribution revealed a monolayer thickness which is in qualitative agreement with the XRR data and matches the calculated molecular length of 32. 5 Å. In contrast, a very rough morphology of the film was obtained after the annealing, which also confirms the findings of the XRR technique. In our previous studies  [10, 31] , we reported the mobility values for oligothiophenes with the linear alkyl groups ranging from 0.
Funding This work was supported by  BMBF  (project number:  05K13PS4 ). S. G. thanks  CNRS-National Center for Scientific Research (France)  and  IM2NP  and the  University of Aix Marseille  for hosting the sabbatical leave. D. W. and H. S. acknowledge the  European Research Council  (Grant No. 279202 ) and the  Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft  (Grant No. INST 221/87-1FUGG9 ). Part of this work was performed at the  Micro-and Nanoanalytics Facility (MNaF) of the University of Siegen. Synthetic work was supported by the  Russian Foundation for Basic Research  (grant №  18-33-20224 ). S. A. Ponomarenko acknowledges  Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation  (grant NSh-5698. 2018. 3 for Leading Science Schools). D. A. I. and A. I. R. acknowledge the financial support from the  Russian Ministry of Science and Education  (Grant No.
She quickly isolated and concentrated these "radio-active" elements (as she said) from the many other elements present in uranium ores. To do that, she measured the increase of activity of different chemical precipitates from acidic solutions obtained through the dissolution of hundreds of grams of pitchblende in hydrochloric acid. Po was carried down with bismuth sulphide (Bi 2 S 3 ) and Ra with barium sulphate (BaSO 4 ). Po and Ra are in minute amounts in uranium ores, about 74 μg for 210 Po and 0. 34 gram for  226  Ra per metric tonne. Marie Curie made these elements "visible" by measuring their activities, but could not give the data that at the time was necessary to characterise an element: atomic weight relative to hydrogen or spectral signature. She introduced the unit of 1 g of Ra called Curie (Ci) to measure the activity of a radioactive substance: 1 Ci is the number of disintegrations occurring per second in 1 g of Ra.
Observations An observation campaign aimed at observing prominences on several consecutive days, in order to disambiguate the observed magnetic field vector by the Hanle effect, was led by V. Bommier at the TH ÉMIS telescope from 11 to 17 September 2008. The prominence under study in this paper was observed on 13 September from 11:48 UT to 13:40 UT, and on 14 September from 11:19 UT to 13:34 UT, at the position angle 229 •. On the Hα spectroheliograms available in the BASS2000 database, we identified the corresponding filament in the preceding days before passing the limb and we verified that this filament or prominence lies far from active regions, hence its quiescent character. However, it is not a Polar Crown prominence, being located at rather low latitude. The TH ÉMIS telescope is polarisation-free, which means that the polarimetric analysis and beam-splitting are performed in F1 focus before any oblique reflection inside the telescope.
We based our analysis on the fact that the magnetic field is found to be mainly horizontal in quiescent prominences, as investigated by several authors and with different methods as stated in Sect. 1. Using this hypothesis of horizontal field, only two ambiguous field vectors form solutions of the observed integrated polarisation. These two solutions lie on either side of the long axis of the filament. The Carrington coordinates of the filament were found on the Hα spectroheliograms available in the BASS2000 database. Our inversion code makes use of these coordinates to determine the true value of the scattering angle, which may not be a right-angle. The inclination angle of the solar rotation axis with respect to the sky plane, in other words the disk centre latitude, is also taken into account and was b 0 = 7.
EUSO-SPB1 was a balloon-borne mission of the JEM-EUSO (Joint Experiment Missions for Extreme Universe Space Observatory) Program aiming at the ultra-high energy cosmic ray (UHECR) observations from space. We operated the EUSO-SPB1 telescope consisting of 1 m 2 Fresnel refractive optics and multianode photomultiplier tubes. With a total of 2304 channels, each performed the photon counting every 2. 5 µs, allowing for spatiotemporal imaging of the air shower events in an ∼ 11 • × 11 • field of view. EUSO-SPB1 was the first balloon-borne fluorescence detector with a potential to detect air shower events initiated by the EeV energy cosmic rays. On 24 April 2017 UTC, EUSO-SPB1 was launched on the NASA's Super Pressure Balloon that flew at ∼16 -33 km flight height for ∼12 days. Before the flight was terminated, ∼27 hours of data acquired in the air shower detection mode were transmitted to the ground.
About 27 hours of the acquired data in the air shower detection mode could be transmitted to the ground during the flight. During those hours, EUSO-SPB1 oversaw various weather situations. To monitor the presence of clouds in the FOV, an infrared (IR) camera  [17]  was operated in limited times along with the EUSO-SBP1 telescope. Figure  2  shows an example of the IR camera image taken above a cloudy area. The FOV is ∼32 • ×24 •. The raw data without calibration are displayed. Two stripes suspended from SPB are seen. Further analysis is underway. As the clouds have high reflectivity to the diffuse light, the background level on the telescope increases in comparison with cloud-free conditions  [18]. The cloud pattern and its relative motion with EUSO-SPB1 was also recognised by the telescope itself.
Weather Research and Forecast model In this section, we briefly describe key functions of the WRF model. Further details can be found in Ref. [19]. Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)  [16]  is a mesoscale, non-hydrostatic, fully compressible meteorological model developed by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). It is maintained by the collaboration of many institutions such as NOAA. WRF is mainly composed of two parts: WRF Pre-processing System (WPS) and Advanced Research WRF (ARW) solver. For real case simulations as in our case, a set of programs prepare the inputs for real program by interpolating staticterrestrial and dynamic-meteorological data and elaborating initial and boundary conditions. We use a global circulation model (GCM), Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) running at ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts)  [20]  for the input.
After 27 April, it tended to drop in the night time. The operation in air shower detection mode was carried out in the flight heights of ∼16 -33 km. The average count rates that represent the brightness FOV as background for air shower detections were determined from the data acquired in the air shower detection mode. This information is important to determine the threshold parameters for trigger algorithms. A few hertz trigger rates due to background fluctuations were maintained by the dynamic setting of such parameters  [26]. The data are also used in detector response simulations to determine the instantaneous aperture of air shower detection. The cumulative operation time represents the acquisition time for the data retrieved from EUSO-SPB1. Once the gas leakage was recognised, recovery of the EUSO-SPB1 telescope became more unlikely.
Thus, we partly modified the data format to allow the downlink of more data. In the end, ∼29. 9 hour data, ∼2/3 of all acquired data, were retrieved. The data available for the air shower detection mode accounts for ∼27. 1 hours. From the WRF analysis, the cloud fraction in the domain is often large, while the CTH variation was moderately small and CTH was as low as a few kilometres until 29 April. On 30 April, and 1 and 2 May, CTH was as high as ∼15 km. Typical cloud features inferred from the satellite images are in general in agreement with the WRF output. The CTH variation will be used for studying the cloud impact on the air shower detection by simulations.
Summary and discussion In the present work, we focus on the application of the WRF model to describe the cloud properties, particularly CTH, during the EUSO-SPB1 flight. This is a part of the comprehensive, collaborative activities to estimate the expected number of air shower events and the exposure for the UHECR observation by EUSO-SPB1. Simulations for clear atmospheric conditions are primarily relevant to evaluate these values. Currently, the estimation of the exposure during the EUSO-SPB1 flight is underway by the Collaboration using EUSO OffLine  [27]  and the ESAF (EUSO Simulation and Analysis Framework) software  [28]. The instantaneous aperture and the effective observation time are the main factors in determining the exposure. The variations of the flight height and the count rate variation both play a role.
Acknowledgments This work was partially supported by  NASA  grants  NNX13AH54G ,  NNX13AH52G , the  French Space Agency (CNES) , the  Italian Space Agency  through the  ASI INFN  agreement n. 2017-8-H. 0 ,the  Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation , the  Basic Science Interdisciplinary Research Projects of RIKEN  and  JSPS KAKENHI  Grant ( 22340063 ,  23340081 , and  24244042 ), and the  Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt , and the  Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics HAP  funded by the  Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association (Germany). We acknowledge the  NASA   Balloon Program Office  and the  Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility  and staff for extensive support, the  Telescope Array Collaboration  for the use of their facilities in Utah.
After heterodyning with a fraction of the seed laser, the output train of waveforms is measured with a fast photodiode and oscilloscope (25-GHz detection bandwidth). Figure  5  shows a few examples of arbitrary RF waveforms on a carrier synthesized through the proposed method, particularly, data pulse sequences arbitrarily modulated in phase (according to a quadrature phase-shift keying format, QPSK), as well as in amplitude and phase (according to a quadratic amplitude modulation format, QAM). Each of the synthesized data sequences is ~2 ns long.