dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
A Cs + primary beam of 5 nA intensity was focused to a spot of about 15-20 µm in diameter and less than 1 µm in depth. The mass resolution was set to 5,000 to resolve the isobaric interferences due to hydrides on sulfur isotopes. Typical 32 S -intensity was between 6 and 10 × 10 8 counts per second (cps) depending on the sulfide mineral analyzed. A typical analysis consisted of 2 min of pre-sputtering followed by data acquisition in 30 cycles of 3 s each. The background of the detectors was measured during pre-sputtering and was then corrected for each analysis. Several pyrite standards Maine (δ 34 S = -20. 61‰, δ 33 S = -10. 63‰), Spain (δ 34 S = -1. 56‰ and δ 33 S = -0. 78‰), and Balmat (δ 34 S = 15. 84‰ and δ 33 S = 8. 12‰  (Muller et al. , 2017)  were used to determine (a) the instrumental mass fractionation by considering the average value obtained on the three standards and (b) the reference mass discrimination line, from which Δ 33 S values were calculated.
11-IDEX-0005-02), the INSU Programme National de Planétologie and the ANR (project SRB -ANR-14-CE33-0003-01 to JM). VB thanks the IUF. JMC thanks the Laboratory of Excellence initiative (n°ANR-10-LABX-0006), the Région Auvergne, the European Regional Development Fund and the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon H2020 research and innovation program (STROMATA, grant agreement 759289). P. P. acknowledges support from the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP grant 2015/16235-2).
Funding information The SEM facility at IMPMC is supported by  Région Ile de France  grant  SESAME 2006 N°I-07-593/R ,  INSU/CNRS ,  UPMC-Paris 6 , and  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  ( ANR  grand No. ANR-07-BLAN-0124-01 ). The TEM facility at IMPMC is supported by  Région Ile de France  grant  SESAME 2000 E 1435. The  TEM national facility in Lille (France)  is supported by the  Conseil Regional du Nord-Pas de Calais , the  European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) , and the  Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers (INSU, CNRS). This research was supported by the  Labex UnivEarths program of Sorbonne Paris Cité  ( ANR-10-LABX-0023.
Data description The dataset in this article describes geotechnical, chemical and mineralogical characteristic of sediment dredged in Safi harbour. In Table  1 , we present the evolution of water content after drying for one month and the density specific, of five sampling of sediment S1 and S2 dredged in Safi harbour. In Table  2 , we present the particular size distribution of three sampling of sediment S1 and S2 dredged in Safi harbour. We present in Table  3  the cleanliness of sediment S1, S2 dredged in Safi harbour using the methylene blue test supplements the sand equivalent, and Atterberg limits test (five samples for each test). Finally, in Table  4  we expose Chemical and mineralogical characteristics of sediment S1 and S2 dredged in Safi harbour.
Description of data collection Sampling concerns two areas of the port: zone 1 and zone 2 which correspond respectively to the channel of access and the basins of the port of trade. In a first step, sediment samples were collected in 7 points (4 points in zone 1 and 3 point in zone 2). Then the samples were homogenized manually in order to have a single representative sample for each zone. We note S1 for the mixture of P1, P2 and P3 corresponding to the zone 1 and S2 for the mixture between P4, P5, P6 and P7 corresponding to the zone 2. Data source location SAFI HARBOUR, SAFI, MORROCO (32. 312642, À9. 252548) Data accessibility Data incorporated within this article.
Value of the Data The data represents the geotechnical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics of sediments dredged in Safi harbour (Morocco) in order to valorise them in civil engineering works. These data can be beneficial to all researchers works on valorisation of sediment dredging in port These data can initiate port users in developing countries to the possibility of valorise dredged sediments instead of dumping them into the sea. are kept in a cold room protected from light. On each container, we mark the following information: The identification code of the sampling station, the date, the time and depth. In a first step, sediment samples were collected in 7 points (4 points in zone 1 and 3 point in zone 2). Then the samples were homogenized manually in order to have a single representative sample for each zone.
Earthquake surface fault ruptures can show very complex geometries and involve different faults simultaneously. Consequently, modern fault-based probabilistic seismic hazard assessments (PSHA) need to account for such complexities in order to achieve more realistic modellings that treat fault systems as a whole and consider the occurrence of earthquake ruptures as aleatory uncertainties. We use SHERIFS, a recent approach of modelling annual rates of complex multi-fault ruptures, to obtain system-level magnitude-frequency distributions (MFDs) for the Eastern Betics Shear Zone (EBSZ, Spain) considering four fault rupture hypotheses. We then analyze the consistency of each scenario based on data from the earthquake catalogue and paleoseismic studies. The definition of the different rupture hypotheses was discussed within the frame of Fault2SHA ESC working group and critical fault input data is extracted from previous published studies.
Introduction Characterizing faults as seismogenic sources in probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) is far from trivial. Field data shows that earthquake surface ruptures can be very complex, involving faults with different characteristics in a broad system (e. g. , 2010 El Mayor Cucapah earthquake;  Wei et al. , 2011 and 2016  Kaikoura earthquake;  Kearse et al. , 2018). Modern fault-based PSHA models should then evolve and consider earthquakes corresponding to single-fault ruptures as well as to multi-fault ruptures that propagate through a fault system. In this sense, the occurrence of earthquake ruptures should be treated as an aleatory uncertainty linked to the randomness of the seismic process while exploring the epistemic uncertainty of which rupture is considered in each model.
, 2019)  to generate synthetically derived MFDs for different fault and multi-fault rupture hypotheses or scenarios at the EBSZ and considering the occurrence of such possible ruptures in each hypothesis as an aleatory uncertainty. The aim of the study is to compare the synthetic MFDs with respect to the earthquake rates calculated using the earthquake catalogue and paleoseismic data. The fit between the modelled rates and the rates from the data can be used as criteria for weighting the different input hypotheses for PSHA. To do so, we first define and explore four fault and multi-fault rupture hypotheses or scenarios at the EBSZ and we use geological fault data from previous published studies as inputs for the calculations, filtered after a thorough discussion (extended in the Appendix).
The identification of the epistemic uncertainties related to the definition of the input hypotheses and the discussion of the reliability of the fault data are further objectives of this paper, since these affect the results. It should be acknowledged that the input hypotheses presented here are based on expert criteria and that geological fault data are not always conclusive, hence expert decisions needed to be taken in some cases. The approach used is an alternative to other studies that model earthquake recurrence considering fault data and its uncertainties (e. g. Wang et al. , 2012 ). The rupture rates calculated and discussed in this study as well as the weighting of the different rupture hypotheses might be useful in future PSHA studies. Also, they might also be used for choosing specific earthquake scenarios for neo-deterministic seismic hazard calculations (NDSHA) (e.
Geological fault parameters as inputs for the calculations A current challenge in the EBSZ is the difficulty to have a complete and reliable dataset of fault geological parameters for all its major faults, such as slip rates and rates of large earthquakes. Most paleoseismological studies have typically focused on specific branches of major faults while some of the faults remain poorly studied to date. This causes heterogeneity on how the knowledge on faults is distributed. Accordingly, constraining the geological parameters for some of the faults considered is a difficult task and, for our modelling purposes, it required taking a number of assumptions and extrapolating data among different fault sections (see Appendix). For this reason, we emphasized the revision of the slip rates on the EBSZ faults after discussion in the frame of the Fault2SHA-Betics working group at the Eastern Betics (García-Mayordomo et al.
Paleorates Annual rates of large earthquakes or paleoearthquakes (paleorates) were inferred from minimum and maximum recurrence intervals published in the available paleoseismic literature from trench data. Mean values have been calculated for each different recurrence distribution (Table  2 ). The methods used to infer such paleorates in each published study are indicated in table 2 and detailed in the Appendix. These data are considered when comparing the SHERIFS models with the geological information in the discussions. For all cases, the magnitude of the paleorates for all faults was assumed to be a minimum of Mw 6. 25±0. 25. This threshold was selected because statistically, earthquakes of Mw < 6. 0 are less than 50% likely to rupture the surface  (Biasi and Weldon, 2006 ) and hence to be recorded as fault ruptures in the paleoseismic record.
Data by  Bonilla (1982) ,  McCalpin (1996)  or the Unified Database of Surface Ruptures (SURE;  Baize et al. , 2019)  support this selection. Additionally, very shallow earthquakes at the EBSZ such as the Mw 5. 1 ± 0. 1 2011 Lorca earthquake (IGN-UPM working group, 2013) have not ruptured the surface, and events identified in trenches, despite the uncertainties of these estimations, infer slips per event consistent with Mw > 6. 0 (e. g. Ferrater, 2016; Moreno, 2011).
Other parameters Geological parameters of the faults such as dip, kinematics, fault traces, length and seismogenic depth were extracted from the Quaternary Active Faults of Iberia database (QAFI) (García-Mayordomo et al. , 2017, 2012; IGME, 2015a), which compiles the data on the literature from each fault. Exceptionally, for PF we used the kinematics proposed by  Roquero et al. (2019) , since it is more recent (Table  1 ). However, García-Mayordomo (2005), as compiled in the QAFI database, considers PF as a dip slip fault and the net slip rate estimations are inferred from this consideration. Hence, it is important to recognize that the net slip rate for this fault is a minimum and it is subject to large uncertainty as it strongly depends on its kinematics, which is still not clear. Although these discrepancies, our modelling does not rely on the kinematics of the fault since the scaling law used is valid for all types (see section 3.
SHERIFS method The flexibility of the SHERIFS methodology makes it well suited for regions where seismic and geodetic data are insufficient to characterize the activity of faults and hence geological data is the prime source of information on fault characteristics, long-term behavior and seismic potential, as it is the case of the EBSZ. SHERIFS treats the slip rate of each individual fault of the system as a budget, which is consumed by the iterative steps of the method and converted into rates of earthquakes assuming a given shape of a target MFD set at the fault system level. Iteratively, SHERIFS picks a magnitude according to the target MFD and picks a rupture whose size corresponds to this magnitude. An increment of the slip-rate budget of the faults involved in this rupture is converted into earthquake rate.
Such effect also evidences the fact that the poor knowledge on the slip rate for some of the faults, i. e. the ones with lower slip rates, especially PF (Table  1 ), limit the way the models consume their budget and the resulting MFDs. Thus, it is critical to constrain them in future paleoseismic studies. Because NMS cannot be directly interpreted as a nature-related effect, but as an artefact of the model linked to the rupture hypotheses, MFD target and input data set, we use it to evaluate the adequacy of our hypotheses. In the line of Chartier et al. (2019), we have set a threshold of 30% NMS for the overall system as an indicator of models that are not sufficiently satisfactory. This value is in agreement with studies that estimate that postseismic moment release reaches at most 30% of the total moment released in seismic events.
Comparison with the earthquake catalogue and paleoseismic data We visually analyzed the fit between the SHERIFS MFDs and the annual seismicity rates obtained from the regional earthquake catalogue (IGN-UPM working group, 2013). Note that the GR curve from the catalogue covers a dispersed range of annual rates due to the exploration of the code within the magnitude uncertainty of the events in the catalogue (Fig. 3 ). The dispersion is higher for the high magnitudes (Mw ≥ 6. 0) due to the large uncertainties related to the magnitude estimation of large historical events at the EBSZ. The MFD from hyp. 2 shows the better fit with the seismicity rates especially for Mw 4. 0-6. 0 (Fig. 3 ). MFDs from hyp. 1 and 3 show similar good agreements with the catalogue as well, but their fit is poorer; hyp.
Seismicity rates from the catalogue The better fits of the seismic catalogue with hyp. 2 especially, but also hyp. 1 and 3 (Fig. 3 ) do not allow determining if these hypotheses describe the manner in which the EBSZ system works. They only show that, given the methodology used, the input data and the rupture hypotheses explored, the models are more consistent with the low-moderate magnitude seismicity of the EBSZ than others. Hence, no hypothesis should be ruled out, especially considering the epistemic uncertainties linked to some slip rate estimations. However, the consistency of these models can be used to guide their weight in a logic tree for PSHA. Overestimation of the seismicity rates by hyp. 1 could be caused by two factors: i) a nonadequate segmentation model for the faults that considers too short fault sections and hence, higher earthquake rates than the catalogue, ii) the already acknowledged uncertainties and poor reliability of some geological fault data affecting the modelisation.
Paleorates Recent studies on active faults at the EBSZ allowed to infer slip rates in specific portions of such faults as well as to calculate rates of earthquakes. In this study, the rates inferred from paleoseismology are a qualitative way to analyze the prediction of the models in the high magnitude range, where the seismic catalogue is not well represented. Similar to the case of the catalogue, the agreement or disagreement of the paleorates with the modelled rates does not provide a way to accept or rule out any of our hypotheses, but to weight them for future PSHA. Paleorates, though, have an additional problem related to the high uncertainties and low resolution of the paleoseismological data in the study area. One of these problems applies mainly to the magnitude of the events inferred from geological observations.
Hyp. 2 and hyp. 3 satisfy this requirement more correctly than hyp. 1 (Fig. 3 ) and accordingly should have more weight in subsequent PSHA. Similarly to the analysis with the catalogue, the weaker agreement of hyp. 1 with the paleorates could mean that either or both the segmentation proposed for these faults is not adequate and larger ruptures should be expected (e. g. hyp. 2 and 3), and that paleoearthquake data is underestimated. Both epistemic uncertainties should be explored in further research, although the latter is more difficult to assess, since the issues are somehow inherent to the paleoseismic approaches. More paleoseismic research might help improve and better constrain paleoearthquake data at the EBSZ. Finally, the method used to infer the paleorates in each study (Table  2 ) is conditioning the robustness of the results, because it affects the independence of the analysis.
Additional considerations on the modelling The present study raised several critical questions concerning the databases that may be of interest for other low-strain regions similar to the EBSZ and for PSHA modelers. SHERIFS constitutes a useful tool to discuss the epistemic uncertainties affecting a given fault system for fault source modelling in PSHA. In the particular case of the EBSZ, as in most low-strain regions, the main epistemic uncertainties are related to the geological fault input data used, especially affecting slip rate and paleoearthquake rate estimations, and the definition of fault rupture scenarios to be explored. In this sense, the results of this study, far from precisely determining the EBSZ behavior, have shown to be a practical tool to highlight where these uncertainties are more important and limiting.
One clear example is PF, one of the less studied faults of the system with contrasting low slip rates (Table  1 ) that affect the modelling and the resulting distribution of hyp. 4. This highlights where future research should focus to better constrain these parameters and which rupture models are not adequate in the calculation given the input data. Despite this, geodetic data suggests that in the transect between PF and AMF (Fig. 1b ), most part of the slip rate is absorbed by the former  (Echeverria et al. , 2013) , which could explain the low values assigned to PF. Knowing and assessing these uncertainties is critical to account for them in fault-based PSHA. In addition and despite the limitations, SHERIFS is also a good tool to determine the weights that different fault source models should have in PSHA according to their consistency with the seismic catalogues and paleoseismic studies.
Perspectives It is critical that researchers challenge classical segmentation models and consider faults as systems of geological structures that can interact. This is especially relevant in regions of distributed deformation along complex fault systems (e. g. Berryman et al. , 2012)  as it could be the case of the EBSZ, where the rupture models selected may have important repercussions on PSHA. The research in this paper constitutes the first step for a fault-based PSHA at the EBSZ in which epistemic uncertainties of the available databases are discussed. Hence, further work needs to be focused towards reducing the uncertainties raised, especially from the geological and paleoseismic records. Moreover, the approach might serve as an example for similar seismo-tectonic contexts, as well as for defining deterministic earthquakescenarios for engineering applications.
In further modellings and especially for PSHA we also find necessary to consider a portion of the seismicity from the catalogue as background in SHERIFS calculations. Clearly, not all the seismicity within the buffer area defined is generated by the faults in our models, especially smaller magnitudes (Fig. 1b ). This is critical because it might directly affect the seismic hazard of the region for short or mid-term return periods. In the models we explored a particular GR distribution; the one used for the Spanish seismic hazard map (IGN-UPM working group, 2013). Considering the data available from the catalogue and paleoseismic studies, we do not have clear criteria to dismiss it. However, other studies in other regions, for instance New Zealand  (Stirling and Gerstenberger, 2018) , have proved that GR distributions do not always describe annual rates of the high magnitudes derived from paleoseismic data.
The other hypotheses, especially hypothesis 4, are less consistent with these data. Despite their different performance, no hypothesis can be completely ruled out because the resulting rates are dependent on the reliability and multiple epistemic uncertainties affecting the geological input data as well as the criteria on the definition of the hypotheses. Instead, they are weighted for further PSHA studies being hypothesis 2 and 3 the ones with higher weight. The comprehensive methodology followed in this work, and particularly the use of SHERIFS, is revealed as a practical method for obtaining fault-system MFDs and as a practical tool for highlighting limitations and epistemic uncertainties in geological and paleoseismic data of the fault system to be assessed in further research. The main geological uncertainties are related to poorly constrained and unreliable slip rate estimations for some faults mainly due to lack of paleoseismic research.
These data have a high impact on the modelling, since they limit the annual rates of earthquakes for some hypotheses. On the other hand, uncertainties from paleoseismic data might lead to wrong estimates of the rates of paleoearthquakes. Accounting and reducing these uncertainties are key issues for the improvement of fault-based PSHA. Considering faults as interacting systems is an option that needs to be acknowledged when modelling seismic hazard, as evidenced by the recent experience from earthquakes worldwide. This means overcoming the classical sectioning models and exploring different multi-fault rupture models by combining seismic and paleoseismic data. The paleorates from this study are calculated from the slip rate and seismic moment considering the rupture of the whole section. However, these paleorates are consistent with the ones estimated from two paleoevents for the last 6.
-CAF-2: For this fault section there is a published net slip rate value of 0. -BSF-4: This section of BSF is offshore and only a few studies have focused on that part of the fault, hence not enough data is available to do estimations of the slip rate of this section. Although some authors (e. g. Alfaro et al. , 2012a)  suggest that the deformation associated to the BSF decreases towards the E, from a conservative perspective we assigned the same slip rate range as for BSF-3 (0. 12-0. 3 mm•yr -1 ), which is consistent with new GPS results in that sector  (Borque et al. , 2019). -AMF-3: There are no slip rate estimations for this section. In fact, the geomorphological expression of this fault is scarce and hence its slip rate is probably much lower than the other sections. Since it is our only source of information, we used the net slip rate estimated in the QAFI database (0.
Gutenberg and Richter, 1944)  with a b-value in the range of 0. 8-1. 2, whose central value is coincident with the b-value of 1. 03 assigned to the EBSZ (IGME, 2015b; IGN-UPM working group, 2013). This wide b-value range was explored in order to prevent the resulting MFDs of our hypotheses from being limited or biased by such value or imposed shape of the MFD. See the datasets available on the Mendeley Data of this paper (Gómez-Novell et al. , 2019).
The Mw 7. 8 2016 Kaikoura earthquake ruptured the Kekerengu-Needle fault resulting in the loading of its eastern continuation, the Wairarapa fault. Since the most recent earthquake on Wairarapa occurred in 1855 and is one of the strongest continental earthquakes ever observed, it is critical to assess the seismic potential of the Wairarapa fault, which might be prone to break. Using Lidar data, we examine its bare-earth morphology and reveal ~650 mostly undiscovered offset geomorphic markers. Using a code we developed in earlier work, we automatically measure the lateral and vertical offsets of these markers providing more than 7000 well constrained measurements. The data document the lateral and vertical slip profiles of the 1855 earthquake for the first time and show its total slip reached ~20 m at surface.
Modeling the entire offset dataset reveals 7 prior earthquakes ruptured the entire fault, each similarly producing 16. 9 ± 1. 4 m dextral slip and ~0. 6 m vertical slip at surface in the same central bend zone of the fault. Thus, the Wairarapa fault repeatedly produced giant earthquakes and is likely able to produce a similarly strong forthcoming event. The extreme large size of the Wairarapa earthquakes questions our understanding of earthquake physics.