dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
For each mass bin, we used the SEDs of the 150, 200, 250, and 300 M series. We focused on two ages -1 and 2 Myr -because VMSs rapidly disappear after this. Figure  8  shows the results of this exercise in the UV wavelength range. VMSs contribute almost the same amount of light as all 0. 1-100 M stars. Some lines are almost exclusively produced by VMSs. This includes He II 1640 and N IV 1720. P V 1117-28, C IV 1169, N V 1240, and C IV 1550 are also affected, they are stronger when VMSs are included, especially at 2 Myr. At this age, N IV 1486 appears in the integrated spectrum because of VMSs. The BPASS database provides models that include stars up to 300 M. For this purpose, both the evolutionary tracks and the stellar atmospheres for 100-300 M stars were computed with the mass-loss rates of  Vink et al.
Acknowledgments. We thank an anonymous referee for a positive report and suggestions of clarification. We warmly thank  John Hillier  for making the code CMFGEN available to the community and for constant help with it. This work made use of v2. 2. 1 of the  Binary Population and Spectral Synthesis (BPASS) models as last described in Stanway & Eldridge  (2018). We thank  Paul Crowther  and  Joachim Bestenlehner  for sharing the UV spectra of  R136 a1  and of the entire R136 population. We acknowledge interesting discussions with  Daniel Schaerer  and  Rui Marques-Chaves  about the UV spectra of young starburst galaxies. Some of the data presented in this paper were based on observations made with the  NASA/ESA HST , obtained from the  MAST  data archive at the  Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI).
Orbital image constraints We investigate the orbital images from CTX and HiRISE cameras, both onboard MRO spacecraft. They provide a complete coverage of the two regions of interest being the InSight landing site (135. 61ºE 4. 49ºN) and the vicinity of the large quake (170. 85ºE, 7. 05ºS, being at 37º from the SEIS instrument) named 1222 which occurred on 5 May 2020. In both areas, we identified many past avalanche events (Figure  1-A ). More specifically, we investigate the complete set of orbital data (imagery, topography, and thermo-physical properties) to estimate in particular the rate of formation of these avalanches in the vicinity of the 1222 event location (Fig. 1-B,C ). This has led to request new orbital observations targeted to the most favorable areas for avalanches and hence try to link the ground acceleration resulting from the 1222 event with the triggering of new avalanches by using detection techniques (Fig.
Acknowledgements The work here was carried out at the MEC endstation of the LCLS. Use of the LCLS,  SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory , is supported by the  US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences  Contract No. DE-AC02-76SF00515. This work was performed, in part, at the  Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies , an  Office of Science User Facility  operated for the  US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science. Los Alamos National Laboratory , an affirmative action equal opportunity employer, is managed by  Triad National Security, LLC for the US Department of Energy 's  NNSA , under contract  89233218CNA000001.
Acknowledgements. The work of O. G. is financed by the budget for science in 2020-2021, as a research project under the " Diamond Grant" program. The works of J. W. and L. S. are respectively supported by the grants  2017/26/M/ST2/01074  and  2019/33/B/ST2/02588  of the  National Science Center in Poland. This work is partly supported by the  Polish-French  collaboration agreements Polonium, by the  Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange  and  COPIN-IN2P3  and by the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No  824093.
Additionally, to replicate a real size thin film in the surface simulations, yet keep the computation cost reasonable, a fast thermostat was set at the bottom of the cell to prevent surface effects at this boundary. The simulations of the Xe irradiations were performed using 30 × 30 × 50 nm 3 cells. The simulations of the more energetic SHI (i. e. , 0. 6 MeV amu -1 Pb, 5. 8 MeV amu -1 Pb, and 3. 8 MeV amu -1 U ions) were performed in cells with 30 × 30 × 100 nm  3. Comparing bulk and surface simulations performed on these cells showed that the latter was capable of describing both bulk and surface regions. Hence, only the surface simulations are shown here. The visualization of the simulations was done using the software OVITO. [57] he predicted radii were determined by visually inspecting slices with a thickness of 25 nm in the bulk region.
Acknowledgements Financial support by  FCT ,  Portugal  and  FEDER  is acknowledged ( PTDC/CTM-CTM/28011/2017 ,  LISBOA-01-0145-FEDER-028011 ,  UID/05367/2020 ). M. S. thanks  FCT Portugal  for his PhD grant ( SFRH/ BD/111733/2015 ) and the  EU H2020  Project No. 824096  "RADIATE. ". The authors acknowledge the GANIL for SHI beamtime available under the project  CIMAP/IPAC2016/LB/P1110 -M-S. The authors thank  I. S. Roqan  ( KAUST ) for the GaN samples. Open access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
[67]. Diffuse X-ray Scattering: Diffuse X-ray scattering data were collected at the Imaging and Medical Beamline (IMBL) of the Australian Synchrotron. A beam energy of 79. 7 keV was used with a sample to detector distance of 633 mm. Scattered intensities were recorded with a Hamamatsu flat panel detector to a maximum q-range of 5 Å -1. The crystal was mounted in a Critus in situ electrical loading cell,  [46]  allowing the macroscopic strain to be recorded simultaneously with the collection of diffuse X-ray scattering data. Data were collected during a crystal rotation from -40° to 55°. The detector intensities were then resampled into reciprocal space coordinates with isosurface renderings being produced by the software package Dragonfly. [68] ptical Transmittance under Stress: Optical transmittance measurements were performed with a Perkin Elmer 1080 spectrophotometer with a 150 mm integrating sphere and UV-vis-IR detector.
The transmittance data were collected with the sample in two positions: 1) the sample placed at the input port of the integrating sphere and 2) the sample placed in the beam path but 0. 6 m in front of the integrating sphere. A custom mount allowed application of a uniaxial mechanical load to the sample without interfering with the optical beam path. Transmission Electron Microscopy: A crystal was cut to create a 0. 5 mm plate that was thinned into a wedge shape with a tripod polisher. After fixing to a copper mount, the wedge was milled with a Zeiss Auriga focused ion beam fabrication into an ≈200 × 900 × 1200 nm 3 section. Microscopy was done with JEOL 2100 TEM operating at 200 kV, and in situ uniaxial compression was performed with a Hysitron PI 95 diamond nanoindentor.
Acknowledgements Funding for this work was provided by the  Office of Naval Research (ONR)  under Contract No. N001421WX01058. This work was supported in part by the  American Society for Engineering Education Fellowship. M. C. acknowledges support by core programs at the  U. S. Naval Research Laboratory  funded by  ONRG. Funding for this work (J. E. D. ) was provided by the  Office of Naval Research (ONR)  under Award Number  N62909-19-1-2090. This was also supported by the  Australian Federal Government  through the  Next Generation Technologies Fund , and the  Strategic Research Initiative in Advanced Materials and Sensors. The authors are grateful for the scientific and technical support from the  Australian Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis , the  Microscopy Australia (MA) node at the University of Sydney.
Parts of this research work was carried out in the framework of the  ADVENT  project (Grant Number:  16ENG06   ADVENT ) which is supported by the  European Metrology Programme for Innovation and Research (EMPIR). The EMPIR initiative is cofunded by the European's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  and the  EMPIR Participating States. XMaS ,  BM28 , is a UK National Research Facility funded by  EPSRC. The authors acknowledge the  European Synchrotron Radiation Facility  for X-ray diffraction experiments performed on beamline ID-22,  Diamond Light Source  for time on beamline I16 under proposal MM18924-1 to perform DMS experiments, and the  IMBL beamline at the Australian Synchrotron , part of  ANSTO , for the diffuse scattering studies. This article has been contributed to by  US Government  employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
Mini-EUSO (Multiwavelength Imaging New Instrument for the Extreme Universe Space Observatory or "UV atmosphere" in the Russian Space Program) is a telescope operating on board the International Space Station (ISS) in the ultraviolet (UV) range with a field of view of 44 • and a ground resolution of 6. 3 × 6. 3 km 2. It was launched with the uncrewed Soyuz MS-14 on 22 August 2019. The first observations from the nadir-facing UV-transparent window in the Russian Zvezda module took place on 7 October 2019. Since then, it has been taking data periodically, with installations occurring every couple of weeks. The instrument is expected to operate for at least three years. Mini-EUSO has, so far, observed night UV emissions from the Earth of natural and artificial origin, thousands of meteor candidates and several transient luminous events-in particular, emissions of light and very low frequency perturbation from an electromagnetic pulse (ELVEs), which are observed as large ring-like upper atmospheric emissions that appear to be expanding at superluminal speed-among other observations and scientific objectives.
Scientific Goals The general scientific goals of the K-EUSO mission are similar to those of other projects of the JEM-EUSO collaboration  [27, 30]. The ultimate purpose of the experiment is to make a significant step towards revealing the nature and origin of UHECRs, the highest energy particles in the Universe The most obvious way to investigate the origin of the cosmic rays is the analysis of their arrival directions. A benefit of an orbital experiment is that it can register cosmic rays arriving from the whole celestial sphere. In case a telescope is placed on the International Space Station, the exposure can be almost uniform, provided the mission is sufficiently long  [31]. This will make large-scale anisotropy analysis both more statistically powerful and more reliable by providing a larger significance for the same overall statistics and by eliminating the problem of merging datasets from different parts of the sky taken with different instruments, and therefore different resolutions and different systematics  [32] [33] [34] [35].
In this model, the Fresnel surfaces were chosen as annular zones of an equal depth of 2 mm. The total numbers of zones are 329 (S1), 391 (S2) and 364 (S3). To calculate the detector response, it is necessary to implement it within the simulator of the entire space experiment. Such models have been developed by the JEM-EUSO collaboration in the framework of the ESAF package (EUSO Simulation and Analysis Framework  [50, 51] ). As a part of the calculations in ESAF, the consistency of the optics and electronics of the K-EUSO was checked (i. e. , the comparison of the image size with the pixel size), as well as the calculation of the focusing efficiency and the effective light collection area (throughput). A characteristic feature of Fresnel optics is that a part of the light energy is scattered at large angles relative to the centroid of the image.
Triggers of the slow modes can be implemented in a processor part of FPGA since they do not need to be extremely fast. A model of the PDM was made during the preliminary design stage of the project to confirm its performance characteristics and to check command and data transfer with the CPU. A photo of the PDM with DDPS and nine EC units during tests is shown in Figure  7. The modified EC unit with ASIC inside was developed especially for K-EUSO and EUSO-SPB2 projects in the Astroparticle and Cosmology laboratory (APC), France. The absolute photometric calibration of the PDM was performed to study the overall efficiency of the photon detection. The photometric calibration provides a relationship between the amount of photons arriving at the detector and the measured signal. The methods suggested in  [55]  were employed for this purpose.
Acknowledgments: The program of studying UHECRs with orbital telescopes was pioneered in Russia by Boris Khrenov and Mikhail Panasyuk. Unfortunately, they passed away recently. Their impact on the development of the research program was profound and their scientific legacy is fully recognized by all their collaborators. The authors express their deep and collegial thanks to the entire JEM-EUSO program and all its individual members. The article was prepared based on research materials carried out in the space experiment "KLYPVE," included in the long-term program of experiments on board the Russian segment of the ISS.
In order to describe HNC, we calculated new energy points at the CCSD(T)/augcc-pV(5 + d)Z level of theory for the ground electronic state using MOLPRO  (Werner et al. 2012 ; Werner et al. 2020  ) on a grid in internal coordinates ( R 1 , R 2 , θ ). For HCN, R 1 , R 2 , and θ correspond to the HC and CN bond distances and the bond angle, respectively, whereas R 1 and R 2 are the HN and NC bond distances, respectively, in HNC. The vibrational frequencies are computed with the RVIB3 code of  Carter & Handy ( 1984 )  and  Carter et al. ( 1990 ). This code requires that the PES is of the form V ( R 1 , R 2 , θ ) = ij k c ij k ( R 1 -R 1 , eq ) i × ( R 2 -R 2 , eq ) j ( θ -θ eq ) k , (1) where R 1, eq , R 2, eq , and θ eq refer to the equilibrium geometry of each isomer. We therefore fit the coefficients c ijk to potential energy data taken from  Makhnev et al.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We thank  Julia Bos  and  Robert Austin , members of the  Gregor and Tarnita labs , and two reviewers for input, support, and suggestions at various stages of the project. F. W. R. and C. E. T. acknowledge support from  NSF  RoL: FELS:  EAGER-1838331. This work was supported in part by the  US NSF , through the  Center for the Physics of Biological Function  ( PHY-1734030 ), and by  NIH  Grant  R01GM097275.
Panel (b) shows the X-ray fluxes from the RXTE-PCA (3-20 keV) and Swift-XRT (0. 3-10 keV) satellites, respectively, while panel (c) gives the photon index derived by fitting a single power-law model to these datasets. Panels (d) and (e) give the B, V , R, I, J, H, and K-band fluxes from various, labeled, observing programs. Panel (f) gives radio fluxes, with noted offsets, from the Metsähovi (36. 9 GHz and 22. 0 GHz), OVRO (15 GHz) and UMRAO (14. 5 GHz, 8. 0 GHz, and 4. 8 GHz) monitoring programs, respectively. Radio light curves for the entire duration of monitoring are given in Figure  4 (a). rato et al. 2016) than for BL Lac objects (e. g. ,  Kushwaha et al. 2018). Interestingly, the broad-band SEDs of the blazar PKS 1510-089 often reveal a prominent accretion disk component peaking at optical/IR emission frequencies  (Nalewajko et al.
Chen et al. (2016)  included the effects of the decline of particle acceleration in this model setup and obtained PSDs at synchrotron and SSC emission frequencies. Breaks in PSDs on timescales of hours-days have been either identified with light-crossing, electron cooling, or escape timescales  (Finke & Becker 2014) , or with relaxation timescales of the system  (Chen et al. 2016). Due to the availability of large datasets from various monitoring programs started some decades ago, although restricted to, at best, daily/weekly sampling of flux measurements, several groups have attempted to characterize the shape(s) of variability PSDs covering ∼3-3000 day timescales. In particular, using ∼30-40 years of radio data at 4. 8, 8. 0 and 14. 5 GHz frequencies from the University of Michigan Radio Observatory (UMRAO) program,  Park & Trippe (2017)  reported β∼1-3 for a sample of 43 blazars/AGNs.
Max-Moerbeck et al. (2014)  reported β∼1. 6-2. 5 for a sample of 41 blazar sources using the 15 GHz radio light curves of 4-year duration from the Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) monitoring program. At optical frequencies, using the decade-long R-band data from the Tuorla Observatory monitoring program,  Nilsson et al. (2018)  reported β ∼1-1. 5 for a sample of 31 TeV detected blazars. At X-ray energies, using ∼2-3 day-long Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA) and Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) datasets,  Kataoka et al. (2001)  reported β∼1-1. 5 for the blazars Mrk 421, Mrk 501 and PKS 2155-304 with a break in the PSD at a frequency of ∼10 -5 Hz (see also  Isobe et al. 2015; Chatterjee et al. 2018 , for confirmation of this break in the case of Mrk 421 using longer datasets).
At high energy (HE) γ-ray energies using 11 months of the Fermi-Large Area Telescope (LAT) data,  Abdo et al. (2010a)  reported β∼1-2 for a sample of 28 blazars; these slopes remain essentially unchanged when the PSD analyses were extended to longer timescales using the decade-long Fermi-LAT light curves  (Meyer et al. 2019; Bhatta & Dhital 2020; Tarnopolski et al. 2020). At VHE γ-ray energies, using ≥decadelong TeV light curves from the Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System (13. 4 years) and High Energy Stereoscopic System (8. 4 years) monitoring datasets, Goyal (2020) reported β∼1 for the blazars Mrk 421 and PKS 2155-304, respectively. Even though blazar emissions have been detected for over 18 decades of wavelengths and are variable over a wide range of timescales, very few efforts have been made to characterize the variability PSDs over different emission frequencies covering similar variability timescales for the same set of blazar sources; this is due to the lack of good quality datasets at a wide range of emission and variability frequencies.
Notably,  Chatterjee et al. (2008)  performed the PSD analysis for the blazar 3C 279 at X-ray, optical, and radio frequencies using the decade-long RXTE-PCA data, Rband, and 14. 5 GHz UMRAO datasets for the period 1996-2007. We revisit these results in the discussion. Chatterjee et al. (2012)  reported similar PSDs slopes for a sample of 6 blazars using 2-year long γ-ray and optical/infrared light curves. Studies by  Sandrinelli et al. (2016)  and  Sandrinelli et al. (2017)  focussed on searching for quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) using >6-year long γ-ray and optical light curves of the blazar sources. Keeping this in mind, we started a program in 2015 to uniformly characterize the PSDs for many objects by uniquely selecting blazar sources for which long-duration (>decade), densely sampled (daily/weekly binned), high photometric accuracy (∼1-15%) multiwavelength datasets exist for a large number of emission frequencies, either from public archives or from our own monitoring programs (particularly relevant for covering intranight timescales at optical frequencies).
HE γ-rays: Fermi-LAT We analyzed the Fermi-LAT  (Atwood et al. 2009 (Atwood et al. , 2013;; Bruel et al. 2018 ) data for 3C 279 and PKS 1510-089 for the 0. 1-300 GeV band, for the period 2008 August 8 -2020 September 16 with an integration time of seven days using the Fermi ScienceTools package Fermitools-conda (version 2. 0. 18) available from Fermi Science Support Center 2  (FSSC) and the latest instrument response function p8r3 source v3. The standard unbinned likelihood analysis was performed 3. The procedure started with selecting the events for a time interval (1-week) with standard quality cuts (DATA QUAL>0)&&(LAT CONFIG == 1) and zenith angle cut of θ < 90 • to avoid contamination from the Earth's limb using the tasks gtselect and gtmktime. For the target, we selected a 20 • ×20 • region of interest (ROI) centered at the source catalog position.
X-rays: RXTE-PCA and Swift-XRT We downloaded the 1998 and 1334 Stdprods (Stan-dard2 data product) for 3C 279 and PKS 1510-089, respectively, from the RXTE quick look analysis from the HEASARC website 7. These source and background Standard2 spectra were reduced by a pipeline using a standard set of FTOOLS and PCA backgrounds with a general script and employed one single set of filtering criteria for all observations 8. The Standard2 mode of PCA has 129 energy channels, covering the entire range 2-25 keV of the PCA detector. The spectra were fitted within the energy range 3. 0-20. 0 keV with a powerlaw of the form F (E) = F 0 E -Γ X , where F 0 is the normalization and Γ X is the photon index, found via xspec with χ 2 statistics. In the spectral analyses, the Galactic absorption corresponding to neutral hydrogen column density in the direction of the source was fixed  (Kalberla et al.
2005). The unabsorbed photon fluxes were obtained within the 3-20 keV energy range by fitting wabs*cpflux*powerlaw. We averaged the fluxes using a binning interval of 1 day. Figures  1(b ) and 2(b) show these X-ray photon fluxes for 3C 279 and PKS 1510-089, respectively. A few earlier studies report part of the RXTE-PCA datasets examined by us for 3C 279  (Hartman et al. 2001; Larionov et al. 2008b; Böttcher et al. 2007; Chatterjee et al. 2008; Abdo et al. 2010b ) and PKS 1510-089  (Marscher et al. 2010; Castignani et al. 2017). The archival data from the Swift-XRT  (Gehrels et al. 2004) , consisting of 415 and 262 pointed observations made between 2005 September 17 and 2016 July 17, for the blazars 3C 279 and PKS 1510-089, respectively, were also analyzed by us. We used the latest version of the calibration database (CALDB) and version 6.
19 of the heasoft package 9. For each dataset, we used the level 2 cleaned event files of the 'photon counting' (PC) and 'window timing' (WT) data acquisition modes generated using the standard xrtpipeline tool. The details of the XRT data analysis are given in  Goyal et al. (2018)  and  Goyal (2020)  and we briefly outline the procedure here. For the PC mode data, the source and background spectra were generated using a circular aperture with appropriate region sizes and grade filtering using the xselect tool. An aperture radius of 47 around the source position and four source-free regions of 118 radius were used to estimate the source and background spectra, respectively. For the WT mode data, the source region of 47 circular aperture and an annular region with inner and outer radii of 187 and 281 , respectively, for background estimation were selected to estimate the source and background spectra.
Following the XRT tutorial 10 , appropriate corrections were made in the 'BACKSCAL' keyword in the extracted source and background spectra to account for the different sizes of the source and background estimation regions. We also checked for the recommended pile-up limit for the PC (∼0. 5 count s -1 ) and WT (∼100 count s -1 ) modes. The 9 http://heasarc. gsfc. nasa. gov/docs/software/lheasoft/ 10 http://www. swift. ac. uk/analysis/xrt/backscal. php ancillary response matrix was generated using the task xrtmkarf for the exposure map generated by xrtexpomap. All the source spectra were then binned over 20 points and corrected for the background using the task grppha. For each exposure, the spectral analysis between 0. 3 and 10 keV was performed in an identical manner to that of the RXTE-PCA data.
The unabsorbed 0. 3-10 keV photon fluxes were averaged using a 1day binning interval and these light curves are shown in  Figures 1(c)  and Figure 2(c) for the targets 3C 279  and PKS 1510-089 , respectively. In addition, we show the fitted Γ X for the RXTE-PCA and Swift-XRT datasets analyzed in Figures  1(c ) and 2(c) for the targets 3C 279 and PKS 1510-089, respectively. A few earlier studies report part of the Swift-XRT datasets analyzed by us for 3C 279  (Abdo et al. 2010b; Hayashida et al. 2015; Larionov et al. 2020 ) and PKS 1510-089  (Abdo et al. 2010c; D'Ammando et al. 2011; Nalewajko et al. 2012 ).