dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Evaluation against simulated streamflow Results for peak amplitude are given in Figure  4. Upper panel shows the CRPS/ı averaged over the 5 study basins. Streamflow forecasts obtained with the 4 different precipitation forecasts exhibit very similar performances. By taking into account the uncertainty on CRPS values, it is not possible to state that one precipitation forecast dataset is clearly better than another for all basins. However, different patterns exist between basins. Middle and lower panel of Figure  4  5 show performances for the Valserine and the Usses basins. They were chosen as they exhibit the most different patterns among all basins. The Usses basin shows significantly lower performances for analoguebased streamflow forecasts compared to ensemble-based forecasts. On the Valserine basin, it appears that ECMWF-forced forecasts are better than NCEP-forced ones, regardless the type of method (ensemble or analogue) the forecasts come from.
Although ECMWF-Ens and ECMWF-Ana present similar performances on the Valserine basin, notable differences exists when looking at the behaviour of the two forecast datasets. Figure  5  shows rank histograms relative to the forecasted Valserine streamflow peak amplitude. ECMWF-Ens forecasts lead to under-dispersive streamflow forecasts for all prediction horizons. Besides, except for short prediction horizons (D), they globally show a negative bias, with a very large number of under-estimated peaks. On the contrary, ECMWF-Ana tend to be over-dispersive for all prediction horizons. They also show a negative bias, but it is less visible due to the large spread of the forecasts. Same findings were found for other basins (not shown), as well as using NCEP-ENS and NCEP-Ana forecasts. These behaviours can be illustrated by Figure  6  and Figure  7 , which display respectively D and D-2 streamflow forecasts for the highest peak event of the Valserine basin, for ECMWF-Ens and ECMWF-Ana forecasts.
As the benoxacor is expected to show a significant volatilization rate given its Henry law constant and in order to compare the behavior of S-metolachlor to the benoxacor behavior, this study focuses on both compounds. The first experiment carried out for this study was conducted with two wind tunnel systems placed in the same field, one on a bare soil and the other on a soil partially covered with a crop residue consisting of maize and cover crop residue resulting from previous crops. Such systems were previously used to measure trifluralin volatilization rates  (Bedos et al. 2002b ). To complete this analysis and obtain a dataset at the field scale, a second experiment was also conducted on a bare soil without crop residue in a field close to the wind tunnel site. For each experiment, volatilization rates, together with additional environmental conditions, were measured for 3 days after herbicide application.
All data were measured every 5 s and averaged on 15min intervals using a data logger (Campbell CR10, Campbell Scientific, UK). Outside meteorological conditions were monitored by a meteorological mast located close to the wind tunnels and measured air temperature, wind speed and direction, solar radiation, relative humidity, and rain, averaged at an hourly time scale. Soil water content was estimated at 0-0. 05 m using the gravimetric method before the experiment outside the experimental surfaces and at the soil surface (0-0. 02 m) at the end of the experiment inside both wind tunnels. Additional soil moisture monitoring was conducted using time-domain reflectometer (TDR) sensors (Soil Moisture, Santa Barbara, California) placed close to each tunnel at 0. 05-and 0. 10-m depths.
Conclusion Based on experiments carried out with two experimental systems, this study provides two datasets with quantitative data on S-metolachlor volatilization rates (and its phytoprotector benoxacor) together with environmental conditions. A diurnal cycle could be observed, mostly at the field scale that decreased in magnitude with time. Soil surface dryness was also expected to have played a role in the volatilization rate as observed from bare soil. Indeed, with S-metolachlor showing a high calculated adsorption coefficient, the adsorption from the gas phase to the soil matrix may have occurred. Cumulated losses were found in agreement with those in the literature. Measurements carried out at the field scale could give a quantification of the volatilization fluxes under real conditions, whereas the quantifications with the wind tunnel systems are helpful to analyze the behavior of a compound under semicontrolled conditions, using several systems in parallel allows to quantify the effect of a given factor (differing from one wind tunnel to another one, e.
Acknowledgements The authors thank  ANR MICMAC design  ( ANR 09 STRA 06 ) for funding, the experimental farm in Purpan (Toulouse, France),  Laboratoire d'Etude et de Recherche en Environnement et Santé (LERES, Rennes, France , especially  F. Mercier ) for the chemical analysis of air and application dose samples, N. for technical support in soil sample analysis, and  K. Goss  ( UFZ, Leipzig, Germany ) for calculation of adsorption coefficients from gaseous phase.
A comprehensive database of P crit values, comprising 331 measurements from 96 published studies, covering 151 fish species from 58 families, provides the most extensive and up-to-date analysis of hypoxia tolerance in teleosts. Methodologies for determining P crit are critically examined to evaluate its usefulness as an indicator of hypoxia tolerance in fishes. Various abiotic and biotic factors that interact with hypoxia are analysed for their effect on P crit , including temperature, CO 2 , acidification, toxic metals and feeding. Salinity, temperature, body mass and routine metabolic rate were strongly correlated with P crit ; 20% of variation in the P crit data set was explained by these four variables. An important methodological issue not previously considered is the inconsistent increase in partial pressure of CO 2 within a closed respirometer during the measurement of P crit.
If so, P crit may have major implications for the fitness of fishes living in environments prone to hypoxia and, as such, each of these levels can be considered as functional traits  (McGill et al. , 2006; Claireaux and Chabot, 2016). The examination of trait variation across populations and communities, and its ecological implications, are increasingly becoming the basis for predicting and potentially mitigating the effects on biodiversity of environmental change  (Chown, 2012). Such trait-based approaches are facilitated by the collection and dissemination of trait data. Large-scale multi-trait databases have been compiled for various taxa, including plants  (Kattge et al. , 2011) , mammals  (Jones et al. , 2009) , marine polychaetes  (Faulwetter et al. , 2014)  and North American freshwater fishes  (Frimpong and Angermeier, 2009).
As a quantifiable measure of hypoxia tolerance that is measured on individuals and is applicable at population level, P crit is useful for incorporation into trait-based approaches to the conservation physiology of fishes  (Frimpong and Angermeier, 2009). The field of fish physiology has generated a large body of literature on P crit , across a wide range of species and in highly variable abiotic and biotic conditions  (Perry et al. , 2009). Owing to the discrete and nuanced nature of each study, it is challenging to make broad generalizations. The aims of the present work were as follows: (i) to assemble a database of the P crit values reported for fishes, from published literature, in a format suitable for future incorporation into multi-trait-based analyses; (ii) to analyse the data to identify how biotic and abiotic factors (particularly temperature) interact with hypoxia and affect P crit ; and (iii) to appraise methodologies for measuring P crit critically, and thereby evaluate its usefulness for quantifying hypoxia tolerance in fishes.
Database construction In order to maximize the future usefulness of the database and to ensure that it fully reflects the variation in abiotic/biotic conditions in which P crit has previously been measured in fishes, it was necessary to extract multiple parameters from each study. For each P crit entry, 66 columns summarize information on the species and origin, acclimation parameters, animal characteristics, experimental method, results, statistical analyses, general comments and bibliographic information (Table  1 ). The database was constructed as a single Microsoft Excel file, with individual columns for each parameter and rows for each P crit determination in a particular species or treatment group. As such, a single study may occupy several rows depending on the number of treatment groups and/or species for which P crit is reported.
Values for P crit were reported in a variety of different oxygen units across the literature (millimetres of mercury, torr, percentage air saturation, milligrams of oxygen per litre and micromolar), but were converted here to a partial pressure of oxygen (in kilopascals) based on oxygen solubility values reported by  Green and Carrit (1967)  and assuming standard atmospheric pressure at sea level (760 mmHg), if not otherwise reported. Likewise, all values of oxygen uptake rate were converted to milligrams of oxygen per kilogram per hour. To enable unbiased inter-species comparison, a subset of the full database was produced, which included only those P crit measurements made in fishes meeting the following conditions: (i) in an unfed or post-absorptive state; (ii) undergoing no additional (to hypoxia) abiotic stressor; and (iii) where temperature acclimation lasted for >2 days.
Database analysis The frequency of P crit measurements across families and climate zones was calculated based on the full database. However, comparisons of P crit values were made using the subset 'control' database described above. Based on the latitude of where the studies were conducted, each entry was labelled as tropical, sub-tropical, temperature or polar. Analysis of variance was used to test for an effect of climate zone on P crit using the Sidak post hoc test. Potential influences of varying respirometry methodologies and hypoxia exposure methods on P crit were explored using the subset 'control' database, in which there are 297 data points. Similar to the full database, the majority of studies measured P crit using closed static respirometry on individual fish, where oxygen is reduced via the oxygen consumption of the fish (n = 202).
Database coverage Of the 96 studies reviewed, 331 measurements of P crit across 151 species were incorporated into the database. Across the global database, 58 families are represented, with Cyprinidae (n = 44), Pomacentridae (n = 41), Gobiidae (n = 24), Cichildae (n = 23), Salmonidae (n = 19), Cottidae (n = 18), Apogonidae (n = 17), Percidae (n = 13) and Sparidae (n = 12) the most frequently represented. Freshwater and marine (including euryhaline) species account for 40 and 60% of P crit entries, respectively. Water temperatures at which P crit values were determined ranged between -1. 5 and 36°C, with a mean (±SD) of 21. 7 ± 7. 6°C. Values for P crit over the entire data set ranged between 1. 02 kPa (Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor victoriae;  Reardon and Chapman, 2010)   solea larvae;  McKenzie et al.
, 2008)  with a mean (±SD) P crit in the 'control' data set of 5. 15 ± 2. 21 kPa. Plots of species and their reported P crit values from the subset data set are provided in the Supplementary Data (Supplementary Fig. 1 ). The geographical coverage of the database includes at least one entry from every continent, although North America, Europe and Australasia are by far the most heavily represented and, when combined, account for 87% of P crit entries. Perhaps unsurprisingly, most studies of P crit in fishes have been concentrated around the major fish physiology research groups in Europe, North America and Australia. Arguably, this introduces an element of bias into the database, given the incomplete representation of all habitats and species at a global scale. Based on the full database, tropical studies are the most frequently represented (n = 125 P crit measurements, dominated by Lizard Island Research Station, Australia, n = 98), followed by subtropical (n = 104) and temperate regions (n = 100), dominated by Canada and Europe.
The polar regions are the most under-represented (n = 2). Within the subset 'control' database, there was a significant difference in mean P crit across climatic regions (ANOVA, F 2,297 = 4. 054, P = 0. 018), where tropical fishes had the lowest P crit (mean ± SEM: 4. 92 ± 0. 190 kPa) < sub-tropical fishes (5. 0 ± 0. 24 kPa) < temperate fishes (5. 74 ± 0. 24 kPa). However, the Sidak post hoc test suggested that P crit values for tropical fishes were significantly lower only than temperate fishes (P = 0. 021). There was no difference in mean P crit between subtropical and either tropical (P = 0. 991) or temperate P crit (P = 0. 085). Owing to low sample size, the polar P crit values were not included in the ANOVA across temperatures but, interestingly, had a higher mean P crit than the other three climatic zones (7.
9 ± 1. 6 kPa). Additionally, the species studied tend to be those conducive to respirometry trials. In particular, large, active or highly sensitive species, such as those of the Scombridae family (tuna, mackerels and bonitos) are generally under-represented in the literature  (Blank et al. , 2007). For example, the majority of P crit values reported in the database were measured on fish <1 kg body mass.
Methodology used to determine critical oxygen level The relationship between ambient P O 2 and oxygen uptake in fishes has been investigated since the study of  Keys (1930). Even at that early stage, there was considerable discussion among physiologists regarding the validity of different methodologies. Technological developments, particularly methods for measuring dissolved oxygen content such as galvanic oxygen electrodes and, more recently, fibre-optic sensors, have made the performance of high-resolution measurements of oxygen uptake in fishes increasingly common  (Clark et al. , 2013; Nelson, 2016). Nevertheless, the literature examined for the purpose of building this database is characterized by considerable variation in terms of methods used to determine P crit. For example, the majority of studies (56%) used closed respirometry for P crit estimates, 21% used flow-through respirometry, 20% used intermittent respirometry, and 3% used other approaches, such as indirect estimation of gill oxygen uptake (Table  2 ).
, 2007b). However, there are several important considerations regarding the use of closed respirometry for determination of P crit. For instance, the rate of oxygen depletion during closed respirometry is determined by the ratio of fish size (or oxygen uptake rate) to respirometer volume. A lack of control over the development of hypoxia can be problematic in comparative studies that use the same respirometer to measure P crit in fish of different size and/or metabolic rate. As an illustrative example, the depletion of oxygen levels from 20 to 1 kPa by Australian barramundi (Lates calcarifer) took between 1. 5 and 4 h depending on the temperature (26 or 36°C;  Collins et al. , 2013). From our database, it is evident that there is very little, if any, standardization in terms of the rate of oxygen depletion between P crit studies, irrespective of which respirometry method is employed.
As the equipment and software for automating flush-recirculation cycles and simultaneous data acquisition from multiple chambers have become more sophisticated and widely available, intermittent flow-through respirometry has been increasingly used  (Svendsen et al. , 2016). However, P crit measurements via this preferred technique account for only 20% of values incorporated into the present database. Flow-through techniques allow for the supply of hypoxic water to the respirometry chamber. This hypoxic water can be produced by bubbling with N 2 via a solenoid valve linked to an O 2 probe  (Schurmann and Steffensen, 1997)  or by bubbling with set gas mixtures of variable O 2 and N 2 content. Both methods allow for finer control of the hypoxic exposure compared with allowing the fish to deplete ambient oxygen levels dependent on its own M O 2.
Progressive hypoxia can be generated in a stepwise fashion such that multiple M O 2 measurements can be made at a specific P O 2 , thereby increasing the likelihood of determining an M O 2 that is representative of true SMR or RMR  (Rantin et al. , 1993). Using the present database, we were able to explore differences in respirometry methods within three species, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), for which the sample size for at least two methods was greater than n > 2. Between closed static or closed flow-through respirometers, there was no difference in P crit of common carp (Student's unpaired t-test, t = 1. 429, d. f. = 6, P = 0. 203). Likewise, between closed, static respirometers (individual fish) and open flow respirometry (with grouped fish), there was no difference in P crit in Atlantic salmon (Student's unpaired t-test, t = -0.
, 2004). The method used to establish the point of intersection between continuous oxyregulation and oxyconforming M O 2 data is also inconsistent among studies. The slope of these lines will determine the P crit and vice versa; therefore, determining which data points should be included within each line is critical to establishing an accurate estimate of P crit  (Yeager and Ultsch, 1989). This can be achieved graphically by fitting a least-squares linear regression through data points that show a progressive decline in M O 2 such that it intersects with a regression line fitted through normoxic M O 2 data  (Monteiro et al. , 2013). A number of mathematical methods for performing socalled piece-wise or segmented linear regression analyses are available, which provide greater robustness to estimates of P crit and are used in the majority of studies incorporated into the present database  (Nickerson et al.
, 2012). Likewise, several species of Gymnotiform electric fishes from South America, which inhabit naturally hypoxic floodplain pools, also appear to be obligate oxyconformers with no P crit  (Reardon E. E. , personal communication) , an observation that is also anecdotally supported in Brachyhypopmus brevirostris  (Crampton, 1998). In some of these species, such as the inanga, a lack of scales and a large surface area-to-volume ratio indicate a high capacity for cutaneous O 2 uptake whilst emersed, and hence, provide a short-term means to escape aquatic hypoxia  (Urbina et al. , 2011). The oxygen thresholds for aquatic surface respiration, air breathing and emergence were incorporated into the database, but only where they have been reported alongside P crit measurements. Such examples demonstrate the limitation of P crit as a universal and comparative measure of hypoxia tolerance between species and emphasize the benefit of multi-trait-based approaches.
Thus, generalizations regarding hypoxia tolerance across temperatures cannot be established firmly at the inter-species level. Although salinity has long been recognized as a key environmental factor, studies evaluating the effects of salinity on P crit are scarce. A previous study in the euryhaline sheephead minnow (Ciprinodon variegatus), acclimated to salinities from freshwater (0 PSU) to hypersaline waters (100 PSU), showed a marked effect on P crit  (Haney and Nordlie 1997)  as environmental salinity rose. Inter-specific comparisons in the database agree with this previous intra-specific finding; that is, salinity had a significant influence on P crit , whereby freshwater  species (including a few euryhaline species) presented a 23% lower P crit than seawater species (also including a few euryhaline species; Fig.
4A ; P ≤ 0. 001). As explained in earlier sections, any factor influencing the oxygen demand (metabolic rate) of an individual will be likely to have implications for its hypoxia tolerance. Given that teleost fishes must maintain a tight regulation of their internal salts and water composition (osmolality), as external salinity changes or becomes extreme, fishes must expend increased efforts to maintain internal homeostasis  (Urbina and Glover, 2015). As many of the mechanisms of osmoregulation involve the action of ATP-driven pumps (i. e. Na + ,K + -ATPase) in order to pump ions against a concentration gradient, increased costs of osmoregulation may explain, in part, some of these differences in P crit , at least for intra-specific comparisons. However, from our database (inter-specific), where more freshwater vs.
Future applications The comprehensive P crit database presented here provides the opportunity for a variety of further analyses with potential to offer fundamental physiological, as well as wider ecological, insights. For example, further analyses could involve comparing species P crit values within a phylogenetic context as a means to investigate the evolutionary relationships of hypoxia tolerance among species  (Mandic et al. , 2009). Likewise, combining species P crit data with information on the spatial distribution of populations would help to refine our understanding of the ecological relevance of P crit as a physiological trait. Such an analysis would be particularly relevant to predicting the impacts on fish populations likely to arise from the increasingly widespread occurrence of hypoxic zones in aquatic environments around the globe  (Friedrich et al.
, 2014). Given the variability found in the reported P crit for different fish species, it is likely that hypoxic events will have consequences that are very dependent on individual species. This highlights the complexity of predicting the effects that hypoxia will have at community and ecosystem levels, and the potential for hypoxia to have differential effects on predator-prey interactions, migrations, and ultimately, global fisheries. The integration of the present database with similar databases of other widely measured physiological parameters in fishes should offer useful insights into interactions among traits. Such physiological data are of great value for improving the predictive capacity of models as an aid to the management and conservation of aquatic systems  (Jørgensen et al. , 2012; Cooke et al.
, 2013). Traits for which databases are currently under construction include the metabolic response to feeding (SDA), aerobic scope, growth rate and critical temperature. On completion, the combined data set will be made widely accessible via an online data repository facility, such as that provided by Dryad (http://datadryad. org/). Thus, it is envisaged that these data will prove to be a tangible link between the field of fish physiology and future studies of ecology, conservation and management.
J. R. /R. W. W. and  NERC  and  Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)  research grants ( NE/ H010041/1 ,  BB/D005108/1  and  BB/J00913X/1 ) awarded to R. W. W. The physiological database is a contribution of the  European Union Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action  ( FA1004 ) on the ' Conservation Physiology of Marine Fishes'. The same EU COST Action  supported this work as a  Short Term Scientific Mission (STSM). For more information, see: http://fish-conservation. nu/.