dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
2009: 44). The data that serve as the illustration for this chapter come from Study 2, discussed above. The reader will need to know a number of elements about the two participants who took part in a larger study (Study 1 discussed above, see  Guichon and Cohen 2014). The learner was 20 at the time of the study. His level had been assessed as B2 (according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) and he described himself as a keen language learner. He used Skype for social purposes but had never used it for language learning. It was the first time he had interacted with the 28-year-old female native teacher and this interaction was not part of his usual class. The teacher had several years of experience teaching non-specialist university students in a classroom setting and was a regular user of Skype, mainly for personal communication.
However, this was the first time that she had taken part in an online pedagogical interaction. Neither of the two participants was informed of the study's purpose or hypotheses before the experiment. The task consisted in getting the student to describe four previously unseen photographs. These photographs were chosen because each one contained what were considered to be problematic lexical items likely to trigger word search episodes, chosen as the unit of analysis for this research. The interaction via Skype lasted for about 10 minutes and participants were asked not to use the keyboard. All the secondary data (field notes, questionnaires and interviews) had to be digitalized and grouped together with the data comprising the traces of the mediated interaction "to reconstitute for researchers, in as many ways as desired, information about the original experience"  (Lamy and Hampel 2007: 184)  and to enrich subsequent analyses.
Annotation There are several computer software tools that researchers can use to code audio and video data. Among these, ELAN ((http://tla. mpi. nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/) is a linguistic annotation tool devised by researchers at the Max Planck Institute  (Sloetjes and Wittenburg 2008). Figure  1  shows a sample of the data that were annotated with ELAN with which the researchers can: 1. Access the video stream of one or up to four participants; 2. Play the film of the interaction at will with the usual functionalities to navigate it; 3. View a time line aligned with media time; 4. Transcribe, on the horizontal axis, the utterances of the participants (one layer per participant); 5. Add a new layer for each element they wish to investigate (indicating for instance the onset and the end of a gesture and its description); 6.
Eye movement measures. Fixation duration. After the exclusion of blinks, fixations were automatically detected with the EyeLink software algorithm (SR Research, Ontario, Canada) according to the following thresholds: eye velocity below 30°/sec, eye acceleration below 8000°/sec 2 and eye movement amplitude smaller than 0. 1°. This algorithm is designed to avoid short fixations (less than 100 ms in duration). Triangle time. We considered that the gaze fell within a triangle if it fell within a circle whose center was the barycenter of the triangle and whose radius was the distance between the barycenter and the furthest corner of the triangle plus 1°. Triangle time was calculated as the cumulative duration of gaze within either the blue or the red triangle, divided by the total length of the animation.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  (F. R. , grants number  ANR-09-BLAN-0327 ,  ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL*  and  ANR-10-LABX-0087 IEC );  Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris  and  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (P. R. , Welcome  Grant  APHP-CNRS ). We thanks  Drs Bazin ,  Brunet, Bulot, Mandhouj, Omnès, Zanatta and Volckringer  for their help in recruiting patients. We are grateful to  Anne-Caroline Fievet ,  Inga Vendelin ,  Virginie Delmas Cécile Girard ,  Claire Mégnin  and  Isabelle Brunet  for the recruitment of control participants. We are also indebted to  Nathan Faivre  for his assistance with eye tracking data collection and processing.
4 s). Condition orders were pseudorandom and counterbalanced across subjects: for each subject, a set of condition orders was selected from a large set of ran-domly generated orders (20,000) such that, on average, each condition was equally likely to occur at each point in the run and each condition was preceded equally often by every other condition in the experiment (as in our prior work;  Norman-Haignere et al. , 2013). Presentation software (Neurobehavioral Systems) was used to present sounds in the scanner and record button responses. Sounds were pre-sented at a fixed level (70 dB SPL) using MRI-compatible earphones (Nordic NeuroLab). Data acquisition and preprocessing. All data were collected using a 3T Philips Achieva TX scanner with a 32-channel head coil (at the Lyon Neurological Hospital).
The aligned volumes were resampled to the high-density surface mesh computed by FreeSurfer for each individual subject; and these individual-subject meshes were aligned to the mesh of a standardized template brain (the MNI305 FsAverage brain). After alignment, the mesh data were smoothed using a relatively small kernel (3 mm FWHM) and interpolated to a 1. 5 ϫ 1. 5 mm grid using a flattened representation of the surface mesh. We used a slightly larger smoothing kernel to compute the group-averaged, whole-brain maps described below (5 mm FWHM) to account for the local variability of cortical responses across subjects. Regression analyses. Each voxel was fit with a general linear model (GLM), with one regressor per stimulus condition. The regressors for each stimulus condition were computed in the standard way, using an estimate of the hemodynamic response function (HRF).
There were two parts to the analysis. First, we localized voxels in auditory cortex that showed the most consistent response preference for harmonic tones compared with noise (smallest p value for the harmonic tones Ͼ noise contrast) using a subset of our data. We then measured the response of the selected voxels to each stimulus condition in a disjoint subset of the data, to test whether they replicated their response selectivity for harmonic tones. This analysis was implemented by dividing each run into "subruns," each of which included data from five blocks: one stimulus block from each of the four conditions and one block of silence. To calculate ROIs, we used the same "leave-one-out" analysis described in Norman-Haignere et al. (  2013 ), but applied the analysis to subruns instead runs, in all cases using nonoverlapping scans to select and measure the response of pitch voxels.
This work was supported by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR)  of the  French Ministry of Research  (Grant  ANR-11-BSH2-001-01  to B. T. and A. C. ) and by the  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. P. A. was funded by a  doctoral fellowship  from the  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique , This work was conducted in the framework of the  LabEx CeLyA (Centre Lyonnais d'Acoustique ; Grant  ANR-10-LABX-0060 ) and of the  LabEx Cortex (Construction, Function and Cognitive Function and Rehabilitation of the Cortex ; Grant  ANR-11-LABX-0042 ) of the  Universitede Lyon within the program Investissements d'avenir  (Grant  ANR-11-IDEX-0007 ) operated by the  ANR. We thank  Michael Cohen ,  Leyla Isik , and  Caroline Robertson  for helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
4 hag -a computational grammar of hausa The treatment of tone discussed in this paper is part of an emerging implemented computational grammar of Hausa, developed in the framework of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar. The underlying typed feature logic is a purely conjunctive variant of TDL (=Type Description Language; Krieger 1996), as currently implemented in several processing systems, such as the Linguistic Knowledge Builder (=LKB; Copestake 2002), the Pet parser  (Callmeier 2000) , and the Ace parser and generator (the latter being described in Crysmann and Packard 2012). Owing to its declarative nature, the grammar is fully reversible, i. e. it can be used for both parsing and generation. Furthermore, the symbolic grammar resource is complemented by stochastic models for parse selection and realisation ranking, developed on the basis of the Redwoods treebanking technology  (Oepen et al.
However, none of the efficient processing platforms, such as Pet  (Callmeier 2000)  or Packard's Ace  (Crysmann and Packard 2012) , support this. [ 503 ] agentive nouns. Furthermore, the formation of ethnonyms is limited in productivity, with new forms favouring an analytical construction instead: (25) a. Pàlàsɗī ́nù 'Palestine'ɗán/mùtúmìn Pàlàsɗī ́nù (m. sg), Pálásɗī ́nā ẃā ́(pl) 'Palestinian'  (Newman 2000, p. 174)  b. Bósníyà 'Bosnia'ɗán/mùtúmìn Bósníyà (m. sg), Bósníyā ẃā ́(pl) 'Bosnian'  (Newman 2000, p. 174)  While these observations regarding productivity and complexity are certainly valid, they can hardly obscure the fact that we would miss a generalisation here. Even if it can be shown, with respect to Hausa, that this will not lead to any serious problems regarding weak generative capacity, the current solution will certainly not scale up to other tone languages that feature both spreading and prespecified prefixal and suffixal tone.
June 2013, as well as at a research seminar on tone and intonation at the Institut für Linguistik, Phonetik, Universität zu Köln. I would therefore like to thank the respective audiences for their helpful and stimulating comments and, in particular, Larry Hyman, Jean-Léo Léonard, Enrique Palancár, Martine Grice, Phuong Ha, and Doris Mücke. A great many thanks also go to the three anonymous reviewers whose comments and suggestions have been invaluable in improving this paper. Finally, I would also like to express my gratitude to Carmela Chateau for her careful proofing and copy-editing. Work on the development of the grammar is partially supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the "Investissements d'Avenir" programme (reference: ANR-10-LABX-0083), project ResHau [re:'zo:] of the Laboratoire d'excéllence "Empirical Foundations of Linguistics".
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the reviewers and the editor for their insightful comments and suggestions, as well as  Daniel Vielzeuf (CINaM  ( Centre Interdisciplinaire de Nanoscience de Marseille) ) for his friendly instructions. Furthermore, our thanks go to the following museums and research institutes for their valuable contribution to this work by providing their objects:  Archäologisches Landesmuseum Baden-Württemberg ,  Zentrales Fundarchiv Rastatt, Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe, Institute for Gemstone Research Mainz and Idar-Oberstein, Landesmuseum Mainz, Landesmuseum Württemberg Stuttgart, Musée d'Archéologie Nationale Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Museum der Stadt Worms Worms im Andreasstift, Natural History Museum Mainz, private Collection Klaus Paysan, Reiss-Engelhorn Museen Mannheim ,.
Dataset In order to illustrate the robustness of our approach and to assess its sensitivity to clustering of sites with relatively homogeneous cultural backgrounds, we considered ten sites (Table  1  and Figure  1 ) from France and the Iberian Peninsula belonging to the Cardial, Epicardial or assimilated cultures of the North-West Mediterranean Early Neolithic and dated between 5500 and 4500 cal BC. These data are a part of a larger dataset collated for a PhD project  (Gillis 2012) ; data for all sites were recovered from published sources  (Boessneck and Von den Driesch 1980; Vigne 1988; Helmer, Gourichon, and Vila 2007) , except for Font Juvenal and La Draga (see Table  1 ). We followed  Payne (1973)  and  Ducos (1968)  methodologies of study for all sites, except for Cueva de Sarsa, for which we used  Habermehl (1975).
Histograms We displayed age-at-death frequency distributions amongst the seven age classes using histograms where the unit of the x-axis is in years. Since distinct age classes have different time lengths (Table  2 , age class width Wi column), and to respect the continuous x-axis unit, the 7 bin widths are unequal. This is one of the major differences to the recently published R package "zooaRch"  (Price, Wolfhagen, and Otárola-Castillo 2016) , where the age classes have equal bin width on the x-axis. In "zooaRch" the relationship between area under the curve and mean survival age (e. g. Fries 1980 ) is lost (Price, Wolfhagen, and Otárola-Castillo 2016), while it is conserved in the current approach. The frequency density in counts per unit of time (histogram y-axis, example on independent, and estimating confidence intervals can be challenging.
The Jeffreys' prior satisfies the local uniformity property: a prior that does not change much over the region in which the likelihood of the data is significant and does not assume large values outside that range. We note that for other archaeological dataset a different prior may be more appropriate. Random deviates of the population age-at-death frequency distribution were generated using the 'rdirichlet' function  (Bolker 2000)  from the R library "gtools" (CRAN repository, http://cran. r-project. org/web/packages/gtools/). The 'rdirichlet' function considers absolute counts from the sample and returns random deviates of the population relative frequencies, given the observed data. We subsequently multiply each Dirichlet deviate by the number of teeth observed at the corresponding archaeological site in order to obtain comparable simulated datasets.
The Dirichlet deviates were then divided by the bin width (Wi) to obtain the corresponding frequency density distribution per unit time. These Dirichlet deviates were finally used to obtain the 95% credible interval of each age class using the 'p. interval' function  (Bernardo 2005)  from the R package "LaplacesDemon" (Byron Hall <laplacesdemon@statistcat. com> 2012) and plotted on the histograms.
Correspondence Analysis and kernel density estimation Correspondence analysis is a useful multivariate descriptive statistical technique for summarizing multiple rows and columns of categorical data in two or more dimensions  (Benzécri 1973). Correspondence analysis was performed on an array made of the 10 observed age-at-death profiles and each of their 10,000 Dirichlet random deviates using the 'ca' function  (Nenadic and Greenacre 2007)  from the R library "ca" (CRAN repository, http://cran. rproject. org/web/packages/ca/). Kernel density estimation is a non-parametric approach to estimate the probability density of a random variable,  (Parzen 1962). We used these 10,000 Dirichlet deviates to estimate the two-dimensional kernel density for each mortality profile. The density was estimated using the 'kde2d' function (Venables and Ripley 2002) from the R library "MASS" (CRAN repository, http://cran.
The overlap of these sites within each cluster suggests that their slaughter profiles cannot be differentiated, and could be interpreted as indicating similar slaughtering strategy within each cluster, or poor resolution in the data. Figure  3b  also indicates that three sites do not overlap with one another (LAD, ARA1, COM1). This suggests that these sites' mortality profiles differ significantly, which may represent specific slaughter strategies, differences in taphonomic loss or management of the carcasses occurring at these sites. It should be noted that the correspondence analysis reported in this study necessarily only shows 2 dimensions of variation; further dimensions of variation may permit statistical differentiation of observed datasets. We recommend exploration of dimensions of variation beyond the first 2 before confidently stating that 2 datasets are not statistically differentiated (see, for example, Figures  S1a  and S1b ).
For example, some archaeozoologists  (Tresset 1996   (Brochier 2013)  and not amenable to statistical assessment of these differences. We have shown that generating a large set of random sample deviates using the Dirichlet distribution, in combination to multivariate kernel density estimation of these random deviates, permits robust comparison of ageat-death profiles on correspondence analysis plots (Figure  3  and S1). However, as noted above, it is important to consider all dimensions of variation in a correspondence analysis and the contributions of the different age classes to the analysis (Table  S2 ). We believe that the approach proposed here is novel in zooarchaeology and constitutes a valuable addition to the age-at-death data analysis toolkit. Indeed, we suspect that the approach proposed here will be useful in the analysis of other categorical count data from archaeological sites, especially when sample sizes are relatively small.
Conversely, the number of teeth is a true representation of the archaeozoological evidence. It is none-the-less subject to the fragmentation-dissociation of teeth and to the initial number of teeth in the mandible  (Poplin 1976; Vigne 1988; Lyman 1994b). MNI are better adapted for the less fragmented series of mandibles, whereas the number of teeth is much suitable for series with numerous isolated teeth. Either frequency MNI and number of teeth raw data are informative for addressing archaeozoological debates  (Vigne 1988). Taphonomic loss is a direct outcome of site-specific depositional and postdepositional histories  (Brain 1981; Lyman 1987; Lyman 1994a; Halstead 1998)  and considerable challenges remain in assessing its effects. Taphonomic and sampling biases, such as higher attrition caused by scavengers  (Payne and Munson 1985; Munson 2000)  and differential survival or visibility of sub-adult teeth  (Lyman 1994a ) may lead to observed age class profiles not representing true age-at-death profiles at the time of deposition  (Ducos 1988; Vigne 1988 ).
A tentative interpretation of Cardial stock-keeping practices This study primarily aims at introducing a novel statistical method to assess mortality profiles from age-at-death data. This data is by nature scarce and sample sizes typically small; the dataset presented here is no exception. Indeed, while half of the sites are well dated and have good quality material (La Draga -LAD, Grotte Lombard -GRO, Font Juvenal I -FON1, Combe Obscure I -COM1, Baume d'Oulen I -BAU1), the others are either smaller samples from older excavations (Cueva de la Sarsa -CUES, Abri I de Saint Mitre I -ASM1, Araguina-Sennola -ARA1) with stronger taphonomic alterations (Abri II du Fraischamp -ADF) and/or less accurately dated (Barret de Lioure -BAR;  (Vigne 2007) ). These 10 sites are therefore best thought of as a toy-dataset that is typical of other ageat-death data generally used in archaeozoology.
FINAL COMMENTS We introduce here a Bayesian approach to aid statistical comparison of multivariate count data in archaeology. We exemplify this new approach on ageat-death analysis for domestic animals using caprine toothwear data from 10 sites from the North Western Mediterranean Early Neolithic. Although our dataset is small and disparate, some statistically robust patterns seem to emerge, permitting a sketching of interesting geographical differences in herding strategies. We suggest that the use of statistical approaches such as the Dirichlet distribution will herald a new era in animal age-at-death analysis and husbandry strategy reconstruction. Further large-scale analysis of sites from different time periods and geographic locations should be performed to fully assess the power of the approach suggested here in site comparisons.
In fact, figures corroborate Batten's statement regarding most of the 18 th century: according to  Benjamin Colbert, "[b] efore 1780, only ten books of travel by women had been published in Britain and Ireland"  (Colbert 2016 ). Yet a marked evolution can be observed at the end of the 18 th century, in a context where women writers took an increasingly large share of the literary market: 63 travelogues published between 1780 and 1817 by British or American women are thus listed in the Database of Women's Travel Writing 1780-1840 6. Some are anonymous, others were signed by their author, who sometimes wrote several (Helen Maria Williams, Maria Graham). Although this certainly points to more than mere "occasional" women travellers and travel writers, these findings need to be put in perspective with the thousands of travel narratives which appeared during the 18 th century taken as a whole 7 and lead us to conclude with Elizabeth A.
4. The work was definitively attributed to Beaumont by Jan Wellington and Jean Brondel (see in particular  Brondel 2007). 5. These figures are based on a study of the various pseudonymic formulae built around a gendered noun, carried out in the ESTC catalogue and completed by a search in the catalogues of the British Library and the Bodleian Library and in the EEBO and ECCO databases. It is a work in progress, starting with the earliest occurrences of these formulae, which for the purposes of the present article only takes into account the works published until 1817. 6. This database was compiled by Benjamin Colbert on the University of Wolverhampton website and is available at http://www4. wlv. ac. uk/btw/.
g. , mocking or evade questions). Due to space constraints and current focus, we do not provide a detailed explanation of the multi-level laughter coding scheme, for which see  (Mazzocconi et al. , 2016). Reliability was assessed by having a masters student as a second coder for 10% of the material observed. Percentage agreements between the two coders for French and Chinese data averaged respectively 87% and 87. 76, with an overall Krippendorff α (Krippendorff, 2012) across all tiers of 0. 672 and 0. 636. For the main analysis, we include in our analysis both laughter and speech laughter  (Nwokah et al. , 1999). In the current study we restrict our observations about the aspects pertaining to the form, to the contextual distribution and positioning of a laugh in relation to others' laughter, the laughable and laugher's herself speech.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank three anonymous reviewers for SigDial 2016 for their very helpful comments. We acknowledge the support of the  French Investissements d'Avenir-Labex EFL program  ( ANR-10-LABX-0083 ) and the Disfluency, Exclamations, and Laughter in Dialogue (DUEL) project within the projets franco-allemand en sciences humaines et sociales funded by the  ANR  and the  DFG.
The upper part of the Aurelia Formation with the base of the Vitinia Formation at the top is illustrated in  Fig 4. Since 1980 the Aurelia Formation at Torre in Pietra was correlated to MIS 9 and the Vitinia Formation to MIS 7. Nevertheless the type section of Torre in Pietra lacked geochronological constraints supporting these correlations. We have now radiometric dates and a geochronological framework that refine these correlations. Based on field observations, U-series-ESR and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating and geomorphologic data we present here a review of the stratigraphy, age and lithic technology of the Torre in Pietra sequence within the framework of established volcanic stratigraphy and sequence of glacio-eustatically controlled fluvio-lacustrine deposits in the Latium region. The goals of our paper are: (a) to place the Torre in Pietra Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic in the chronostratigraphic context of the Rome region based on recently acquired geochronological data; (b) to present the results of a detailed taphonomic and technological analysis of the two lithic assemblages for a more precise characterization of their features; (c) to contribute to the general problem of cultural continuity or discontinuity between the Acheulian and the Middle Paleolithic by adopting a comparative perspective on the mode of production of small tools.