dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Discipline by discipline HSS In the human and social sciences, with regard to recent scientific publications, while more and more French-language journals offer free access immediately or after a few years (mainly through HumaNum, BSN, OpenEdition), English-language journals are often confined to rather expensive platforms; the parallel submission of articles to open archives is relatively undeveloped. The scanning of printed sources used by a number of disciplines, whether it relates to the oldest scientific publications, or novels, journals, legal treaties, etc. is well on track; this is often available through open access, although some large companies (such as Gale) also produce databases at prohibitive prices, which are virtually inaccessible in Europe. Platforms for exchanging numerical data, whether this relates to the most detailed scales of official statistics or data produced by research, have also been established (Quetelet Network, DIMESHS, etc.
Chemistry 11 The field of chemistry is in fact really a bridge between the practices of the life sciences and those of physics. The rule is publications in paid journals from learned societies (American Chemical Society, Royal Society) or commercial companies (Wiley, Elsevier, etc. ) and the timid development of "gold-"type open access, paid for by the authors. There are in fact few differences between the two; negotiations with the ACS were for a time harder than with Elsevier. There is no pre-publication archive like ArXiv. Freely accessible databases are developing, especially the Cambridge Structural Database that contains all the published molecular structures.
Mathematics and computer science In mathematics, databases relating to publications are very important for both individual and community work. A unique feature of this discipline is the importance of easy access to "old" publications (i. e. several years, decades or even centuries old). Long-term access to these publications is therefore crucial for research. Publication archiving platforms such as HAL or ArXiv thus respond in part to this problem and should be supported, along with metadata platforms (MathSciNet, Zentralblatt, etc. ). As regards digital data, for issues of reproducibility, and comparison and interpretation of simulation and calculation methods, they need to be freely accessible and also maintained in the long term (archival, catalogues of datasets, etc. ), and this concerns both software and computing code.
It reiterates its call to see current practices in access to scientific data consolidated by legislation, as is already the case in these countries: when the research activity has been partly financed by public funds, the transfer to a publisher of the rights over the data and the texts from this research cannot be exclusive; scientists must be able to make these data and results available for no fee, in digital form, a priori without any embargo period imposed by publishers; 1-For the past two decades, data have acquired a central role in scientific production, regardless of the discipline. Researchers increasingly need vast data warehouses (big data) -but also datasets of more modest size (small data) -for exploring, viewing and comparing results, validating assumptions or formulating new ones, or even for automatically generating new knowledge (machine learning).
The capacities for data enrichment and annotation generate a need firstly for the corresponding databases to be monitored and developed, and secondly for metadata to be organised, to enable the effective use of the processed, aggregated and correlated data. Lastly, the data, which have been produced in vast quantities, independently of any particular hypothesis, often requiring large budgets that support a wide range of different research projects, become what are called community resources, and for which maintenance and access are essential for the collective action of the group. However, while 10% of the available data from experiments are provided via publications, 90% remain on the hard drives of computers. Data do not circulate quickly enough in the scientific world. Regardless of the disciplines, too many results remain unpublished and much of the data are under-used or lost.
Data sharing and the scientific commons movement The dissemination of knowledge first took place through circles of scholars and then via exchanges between academies of science. 11 Scientists could debate directly via the accounts of their experiments and they thus became a community  12. The raw data were shared and replicated because they were outside any exclusive appropriation. It was customary to say that the mousetrap was patented, but that the data from the experiment were not. The market for scientific data, raw or not, did not yet exist. But in the last few years, following the explosion of Big Data and the emergence of databased science, the recognition of their value or even their monetisation, and the resulting legal guarantees, have prompted the scientific community to become organised in order to reaffirm the principles of openness and availability of data.
There are many legal or technical obstacles to the dissemination of data: either the major databases are subject to rights of access, or the data are available in formats that are closed or require proprietary software. For this reason, in 2005 a community of researchers, aware of the resistance encountered during the implementation of open data policies, launched a global initiative to effectively create Science Commons, with tools and methods (access platforms, standard author contracts, etc. ) to accelerate the circulation of results and reuse of the data on which they are based. 13 milarly, what has become known as the "Open Data Protocol" (which rather meant "data sharing") emerged in the research arena: this also effectively encourages the members of the global scientific community to pool their resources, regardless of their legal status.
For researchers in these disciplines, this means that general policies on opening public data are not compatible with the customs of the community to which they belong, and they can contribute to them only by defining the limits of their practices. On the other hand, researchers must benefit from public open data promoted by the state. Public data, especially in health, are destined to become scientific data that the researchers can use. Thus the SNIIRAM  25  is defined as the world's largest database on health: for decades it has been populated by the information generated from the delivery of all healthcare and hospitalisations in France. These data are by definition sensitive: they have therefore undergone anonymisation procedures. However everyone -and particularly any researcher -knows that these procedures are not 100% reliable.
In other disciplines, the data belong to non-identifying datasets, but if they are combined this can lead to re-identifications that require procedures for the possible change of data "status": identifying or nonidentifying. Similarly, the protection of "anonymity" imposes other types of guarantee (commitment by institutions and researchers not to use the identifying characteristic of the data, in the event of re-identification). In any case, the researcher must inform the subjects of the impossibility of guaranteeing the strict anonymity of the data, and give them an assurance that all efforts will be made to ensure that measures are taken to protect their rights. Lastly, the issue of the contribution of each party requires the unique, unambiguous and persistent identification of the researchers, which, by giving them credit for these contributions, will thereby also indicate their responsibilities (see the ORCID initiative, for example).
Although subject to the principles of sharing and openness, the data are not free: whether or not they are structured in the data bank, they possess a market (economic) or non-market (ethical) value. Like published material, they are increasingly concerned by copyright. It is therefore necessary for the producer to explicitly define the restrictions or exceptions to researcher reusers. In addition, when they are sensitive, the data must strictly adhere to personal data protection policies throughout their processing, to avoid causing problems for subsequent uses. Researchers have discovered that the opening of data -but also the software, ontologies and metadata that enable them to be exploited -implied a new responsibility: to take particular care over the quality of the information and data offered as well as the clarity of the accompanying documentation.
31 ho owns the data? The laboratory? The researchers? The agencies? Are all the necessary means (software, algorithms) available to use and reproduce them? The change of scale also necessitates real international data infrastructures, which further complicates their governance. Thus the rights concerning data and data banks are not homogenous, or even harmonised at European level. There is therefore a shift in the centres of gravity of scientific activity, which calls for continued deliberations, not only in terms of strategy but also in terms of ethics. As was rightly noted in an article on this subject in 2014, "the current trend towards the commercial exploitation of scientific results, with the emphasis on intellectual property, goes in the opposite direction to that of data sharing". 32 The intention of this opinion is to sound the alert against these practical contradictions facing the world of public research.
5. It recommends that the CNRS should ensure the existence of sustainable infrastructures enabling management of the data platforms in the long term at the team, laboratory or network level. It suggests that the CNRS encourage its researchers to participate in the establishment and activity of international bodies to process metadata using unique, lasting identifiers for these data. The costs of sharing data, assistance with the creation and maintenance of data warehouses or databases, and the construction and maintenance of multi-use platforms or open archives must be taken into account when the organisation is allocating the appropriate resources (grants, subsidies, etc. ) to teams, without prejudice to any pricing of on-demand and customised data processing. The COMETS recommends that a discussion be held with the French Data Protection Authority (CNIL) and the data protection representative at the CNRS, as well as with Etalab, in order to take account of the specificity of the data and their processing in the world of research.
Purpose The CNRS, in conjunction with the Cabinet Alain Bensoussan, decided to draft a White Paper on "Digital Science and Law" in response to issues raised by the legal framework covering the ISTEX Investments for the Future project ANR-10-IDEX-0004-02 (www. istex. fr). This project raises many legal questions due to its potential in terms of TDM, interdisciplinarity, content aggregation and its aim of making its databases explorable. This White Paper aims to propose a legal framework for scientific data in order to address the concerns of the scientific communities (data publication and uses, laws governing science platforms, text mining, etc. ), and thereby contribute to the French Digital Republic Bill. Initially, the Cabinet Alain Bensoussan and the DIST will establish working groups and conduct hearings to gather information about the community's uses and the current state of exploitation practices.
National (or European) Data Library Today, the majority of data collected during research projects is escheated or deposited in dispersed databases or directories. If data are to be deposited in a specific National (or European) Library, then the associated publications must be deposited with the data. A European Library would have greater value for disciplines such as medical research, for which sharing data on a national level is not particularly relevant. It could take a long time to set up a European Data Library; Jean Chambaz therefore recommends that this factor be included in the current debate concerning the Juncker Plan, and endorses the CNRS's conclusions on this point. New legal aspects to be taken into account in the scientific process Today, moral codes, religion and ethics have varying degrees of impact on new rights in the scientific field.
If we want to argue in favour of the creation of a global warehouse for free data, we must provide justification that the warehouse is a common universal asset. It is essential that scientists should be able to carry out TDM on scientific data. If this possibility depends on publishers, researchers will be subject to strict controls with no apparent limits. Publishers are currently worried about the dangers that abusive TDM could represent concerning large community databases (data extraction, pirating, etc. ). However, the solution to this problem involves educating users, not controlling access. Establishments, organisations and laboratories must educate and train their staff, researchers and students concerning the use of TDM as a scientific, economic and cultural tool. To enable TDM, the data must be labelled intelligently so as to be reusable and widely shared.
Ethical data Processing and labelling data creates a new mission for public researchers. They must not only conduct scientific research but also deposit the data processed, which represents an additional cost in time and human resources. Researchers must therefore not only conduct research but also ensure the digital transfer of data for the benefit of the community. Alain Bensoussan notes that a new concept is currently coming to the fore; the notion of "ethical" data. This means data that has been "fairly" collected, data that allows for sustainable development. Data for sustainable development should not be destroyed but tracked and deposited in a database. Scientific communities should be educated and trained in adopting a sustainable development approach as regards the data they collect for their research projects.
Overview of the approach The CNRS, in conjunction with the Cabinet Alain Bensoussan, decided to draft a White Paper on Digital Science and Law in response to the issues raised by the legal framework covering the ISTEX Investments for the Future project ANR-10-IDEX-0004-02 (www. istex. fr). This project raises many legal questions due to its potential in terms of TDM, interdisciplinarity, content aggregation and its aim of making its databases explorable. The new law on science has a specific exception concerning copyright: the legal status of scientific results and notably data and metadata. This White Paper aims to propose a legal framework for scientific data in order to address the concerns of the scientific communities (data publication and uses, science platform law, text mining, etc.
Legitimate appropriation and misappropriation The University of Strasbourg is acknowledged for its research in the field of chemistry. The university owns many resources, such as experiment data and databases in which a considerable number of properties concerning chemical reactions are recorded. The latter can be of great interest to private companies; for example, the pharmaceutical industry is increasingly interested in the catalogues of chemical reactions, with a view to reusing this information for its own purposes. These data must be protected. Scientific communities are not yet aware of this danger, notably in universities. Renaud Fabre highlights that we must differentiate between legitimate appropriation and misappropriation. A specific text concerning Open Science could define what constitutes misappropriation.
istex. fr), which involves two actions: ○ a vast programme concerning the acquisition of scientific resources, in the form of national licences; ○ the creation of a digital library with remote access for all members of higher education and research establishments. • This project raises many legal questions due to its potential in terms of text and data mining, interdisciplinarity, content aggregation and its aim of making its databases explorable. • The White Paper aims to propose a legal framework for scientific data in order to respond to the concerns of scientific communities (data publication and uses, law governing science platforms, text mining, etc. ) and thereby contribute to the French Digital Republic Bill. • The Cabinet Alain Bensoussan and the DIST are establishing working groups and conducting hearings to gather information about the community's uses and the current state of the art regarding exploitation practices in order to establish a matrix concerning the relevance of analyses and practices, which will be compared to the current normative framework in order to assess discrepancies with the law and make proposals for the Bill.
TDM is not in itself a new activity. It just involves reading and extracting information and meaning from documents. It is not really so different from gathering information manually, which has been the way of research since the birth of science. However, TDM often requires the creation of copies and content storage, which constitutes reproduction in terms of copyright law. Carrying out computerised processing of content repositories, whatever its nature (text, data, static or moving images, music, sounds, etc. ) means taking possession of the content and storing it in order to search through it, or carrying out substantial data extraction, as regards the rights of database producers.
The current normative framework does not allow TDM to fulfil its potential: The individual management of rights is not adapted to such a large mass of data. In view of the many different sources and the large volumes processed, it would be impossible for the data miner to seek authorisations one by one. The contractual solution is not satisfactory. The agreements proposed by scientific publishers severely restrict the uses that are authorised and sometimes set significant constraints and prohibitions: Researchers are required to declare their research, which goes against all scientific ethical codes (research confidentiality, etc. ). Researchers are dependent on scientific publishers, which propose platforms with extremely limited services that are criticised by researchers. Contractual agreements make it difficult, if not impossible, to search between different repositories and datasets.
Overview of the approach As mentioned during the ISTEX legal seminar of July 2014 and in the Executive Committee meeting, the Cabinet Alain Bensoussan, in conjunction with the DIST and the CNRS Legal Affairs Department, has undertaken to draft a White Paper entitled Open Science in a Digital Republic, in response to issues raised by the ISTEX project. This approach is based on the issues raised at the ISTEX seminar in July 2014 on legal security, on the themes: objectives and management of databases; text and data mining (TDM); interdisciplinarity; and content aggregation. These themes are of course included in the Digital Republic Bill drawn up by Axelle Lemaire, Secretary of State for Digital Affairs. The purpose of the White Paper is to contribute to an examination of the legal framework for scientific data in order to address the concerns of the scientific communities (data publication and uses, laws governing science platforms, TDM, etc.
Renaud Fabre indicates that TDM is widely known and recognised as a practice, and has inspired considerable writing and led to strong positions being taken by such organisations as the ADBU, academic libraries, and all the directors and STI associations of research institutions. In the framework of the consultation on the Digital Bill, TDM as a tool for investigating the immense quantities of data and publications via electronic processing is a crucial issue for the future of research. Most of the major countries in research (Germany, Canada, United States, United Kingdom, etc. ) have adopted such legal provisions: France cannot impose measures that set it apart from the international scientific community. Jean-Marie Pierrel indicates that researchers acquire TDM tools to search through texts or datasets in order to explain phenomena in extreme detail and to be able to use electronic processes to bring them to light.
Grégory Colcanap suggests that, concerning research data that are to be made available, some provision could be introduced in the funding mechanism stating that when data are produced in the framework of a project funded by a public body they must become public at the end of the project (or of an embargo period). The embargo period on articles by the publishers of scientific journals must be removed, but not that on books. This approach is based on the issues raised at the ISTEX seminar in July 2014 on legal security, on the themes: objectives and management of databases; text and data mining (TDM); interdisciplinarity; and content aggregation. These themes are of course included in the Digital Republic Bill drawn up by Axelle Lemaire, Secretary of State for Digital Affairs. The purpose of the White Paper is to contribute to an examination of the legal framework for scientific data in order to address the concerns of the scientific communities (data publication and uses, the law governing science platforms, TDM, etc.
The version on which an embargo period could be applied is the publisher's version, that is to say the one that the publishing house has helped to format. These reflections also led Claude Kirchner to point out that the current transformation that scientific communication is undergoing reveals three fundamental facts: Publishing a text, a result, a study, or data involves making these items public by definition. Publishing may be preceded or followed by qualification and validation as explained below, but it is fundamental to note that today, anyone can publish. People can tweet, post texts on their blogs or their webpages, publish articles in a magazine, give papers at a conference, post opinions or texts on a scientific social network, etc. Qualification: A document, a text or a dataset, whether published as explained above or not, can be reread to assess the quality, originality, the contribution compared to the state of the art, the referencing, the quality of writing, etc.
This qualification can be carried out by a journal's editorial board or by the programme committee of a conference, in which case we speak of peer-reviewing. But this qualification is also often carried out elsewhere: in correspondence exchanged between a small group of people, on scientific social networks, in discussion forums specific to a community or in workshops. It can also be done during the assessment of research proposals for the French National Research Agency (ANR), the European Research Council or Horizon 2020, for example. In the framework of citizen science, it may be the result of different processes, such as voting. Validation or certification: Following a qualification process, a community of researchers such as, for example, the editorial board of a journal or the programme committee of a conference may decide to validate (or "certify") the document or the dataset.
" 3. "For the purpose of information analysis ('information analysis' means to extract information, concerned with languages, sounds, images or other elements constituting such information, from many works or other such information, and to make a comparison, a classification or other statistical analysis of such information; the same shall apply hereinafter in this Article) by using a computer, it shall be permissible to make recording on a memory, or to make adaptation (including a recording of a derivative work created by such adaptation), of a work, to the extent deemed necessary. However, an exception is made of database works which are made for the use of a person who makes an information analysis. ".