dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Iron-nickel isotope evolution simulations Each of the 100 Monte Carlo simulations plotted in Fig. 4  traces the evolution of the terrestrial core and mantle during two steps of Earth formation, namely accretion of outer Solar System pebbles and the Moon-forming giant impact. Group IIIAB iron meteorites and CI chondrites are used as isotopic proxies for inner and outer Solar System planetesimals and pebbles (starting composition in each simulation), respectively. Ureilite meteorites have been taken as a proxy for the inner-disk composition in earlier studies  4. However, limited Ni isotope data exist for ureilites and these are plagued by large uncertainties  85. Thus, we use group IIIAB iron meteorites as a proxy for the composition of the disk material at early times. This is a reasonable assumption as group IIIAB iron meteorites are modelled to have accreted in the inner disk within the first million years of Solar System evolution  86.
Acknowledgements Financial support for this project was provided by grants from the  Carlsberg Foundation  ( CF20_0209 ) and the  Villum Fonden  ( 00025333 ) to M. S. and grants from the  Carlsberg Foundation  ( CF18_1105 ) and the  European Research Council  ( ERC Advanced Grant Agreement 833275 -DEEPTIME ) to M. B. A. J. acknowledges funding from the  European Research Council  ( ERC Consolidator Grant   724687-PLANETESYS ), the  Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation  ( Wallenberg Scholar Grant   2019. 0442 ), the  Swedish Research Council  (Project Grant  2018-04867 ), the  Danish National Research Foundation  ( DNRF Chair Grant   DNRF159 ) and the  Göran Gustafsson Foundation. We thank  E. van Kooten  for discussion.
For example, the pressure resolution is limited to ~40 GPa at the maximum reported compression rate (160 TPa/s) with current detector technology, whereas 3 µs exposure times would be required for a resolution of ~0. 5 GPa. Although the next generation of photon counting detectors promises a ~10-fold increase in collection rate, this is still far from what is required to utilize the full dDAC capabilities. Synchrotron experiments are also limited by the available flux, where high frame rate data collection is limited to mid-or high-Z materials  (Husband, O'Bannon et al. , 2021; O'Bannon et al. , 2022)  as low-Z materials require much longer exposure times (e. g. ~100 ms for H2O  (Méndez et al. , 2021)  and ~1 s for Li  (Frost et al. , 2019) ). The ability to collect meaningful data at strain rates above ̇ ~ 10 -1 s -1 requires access to faster X-ray diagnostics such as those available at the European XFEL.
, 2020; Liermann et al. , 2021; Hwang et al. , 2021). However, these experiments did not have access to pulse-resolved XRD capabilities, and consecutive diffraction patterns the pulse train were accumulated in a single image. Here, we describe the integration of the latest generation of dDAC drivers into the DAC platform at the HED instrument. An Adaptive Gain Integrating Pixel Detector (AGIPD)  (Allahgholi et al. , 2019)  is used to collect pulse-resolved XRD data from dDAC compressed samples at the intra-train repetition rate of the European XFEL, providing time-resolved structural information during compression/decompression of the sample. Results from the fast compression of gold (Au) are presented to illustrate how X-ray heating can be minimized even in high-Z systems, which is important for kinetic studies in which the P-T path must be well constrained.
Experimental platform The following section describes the integration of two different types of dDAC drivers (section 2. 1) in the DAC platform in interaction chamber 2 (IC2) at the HED instrument. The set-up inside IC2 consists of three dDACs installed in a revolving sample exchanger alongside an optical microscope that is used for sample visualization and alignment (section 2. 2). Pulse-resolved XRD data are collected using an AGIPD detector positioned outside of IC2 behind an Al window (section 2. 3), and the relative timing between the dDAC compression and the XFEL pulse train is controlled by an electrical drive scheme (section 2. 4).
g. LaB6), a set of W round edges for focus characterization, and a YAG screen for visualization of the XFEL beam via X-ray fluorescence. When installed inside the chamber, the piezoelectric actuators of the three dDACs are connected to a high voltage switchbox via individual hermetic feedthroughs mounted on a CF-type flange, which allows for the amplifier output to be switched between different actuators at the switchbox (section 2. 3). Alignment of samples to the X-ray beam is performed using an optical microscope (Navitar) equipped with a modified Basler CMOS camera, which is installed downstream from the revolver (Fig. 2 ). The microscope assembly is equipped with its own set of motorized translation stages which are used to align the camera to the X-ray beam, where the vertical translation stage enables the objective to be removed from the beam path during data collection.
AGIPD A 500K Adaptive Gain Integrating Pixel Detector (AGIPD) prototype  (Allahgholi et al. , 2019)  is used to collect pulse-resolved XRD images during compression. The AGIPD is capable of collecting up to 352 images at the maximum intra-train repetition rate (up to 4. 5 MHz) and read out at the train repetition rate (10 Hz), allowing for XRD data to be collected from consecutive pulse trains. The AGIPD 500K consists of eight 128x512 pixel modules with Si sensors (500 µm thick) and a 200x200 µm pixel size which are arranged in a 2 (horizontal) x 4 (vertical) configuration. Images collected when the pulse train is incident on the sample are subsequently extracted via the unique train ID. The AGIPD is positioned outside of IC2 on the detector bench, above the X-ray beam path. The detector bench allows for horizontal positioning of the AGIPD parallel and perpendicular to the X-ray beam.
5 MHz or lower (i. e. 2. 2, 1. 1, 0. 5,. MHz). Synchronization of the drive voltage and the X-ray trains is achieved using the XFEL timing system, which provides 10 Hz trigger signals synchronised to the XFEL trains. A deterministic scheme is used to trigger the waveform generator and pulse picker unit (PPU) on a specific train ID, which allows for a single pulse train with a unique train ID to be transmitted to the sample. The trigger signal for the waveform generator has a local adjustable delay, so that data can be collected during different portions of the compression cycle. In the simplest mode of operation, timing of the voltage waveform is controlled by a single trigger signal (i. e. the waveform continues until completion) and data are collected using a single pulse train. Alternatively, the waveform can be defined in multiple segments which are triggered individually, so that data can be collected during several different sections of a compression cycle (e.
XFEL parameters The experiment was performed using a photon energy of 18. 105 keV and an intra-train repetition rate of 1. 1 MHz, which corresponds to an 888 ns spacing between XFEL pulses. The X-ray beam was focussed using a series of compound refractive lenses to a focal spot size of ~50 (h) x 50 (v) µm, which was determined from edge scans using a polished W rod. XRD data were collected using the AGIPD at the intra-train repetition rate of 1. 1 MHz, which was chosen to maximize the data collection window based on the 352-image limit of the AGIPD. The pulse train length was limited to 191 µs in this experiment, which provided a total of 216 pulses per train. The sample-to-detector distance (SDD) and orientation of the AGIPD were calibrated using a LaB6 NIST diffraction standard in conjunction with the DIOPTAS software  (Prescher & Prakapenka, 2015).
Compression details The cells were pre-compressed in the dDAC housing by applying a 5. 0 (2. 5) N m torque to the DESY (LLNL) dDAC assemblies prior to compression. Samples were compressed/decompressed using a trapezoidal voltage waveform with the same rise, hold, and fall times (Table  1 ) which was controlled by a single trigger, and data were collected during compression using a single ~191 µs pulse train. The waveform was triggered before the start of the X-ray pulse train, and the delay time was chosen to target the pressure range of interest. Table  1  Details of the dynamic compression experiments described in this study. The average pulse energy is corrected to account for absorption by the upstream diamond anvil using the attenuation length of diamond at 18. 105 keV assuming the ambient pressure density of diamond  (Henke et al.
Diffraction data analysis A total of 216 diffraction images were recorded for each run, which were radially-integrated using DIOPTAS  (Prescher & Prakapenka, 2015)  to produce 1D diffraction profiles from each frame. For runs performed using an X-ray transmission of >1%, the diffraction images were normalized to the IPM signal to account for intensity fluctuations of the incident beam energy during the pulse train prior to integration. This method of normalization was not possible for runs collected at lower X-ray transmissions because there was not sufficient signal on the IPM. The sample pressure was determined from the unit cell volume of the sample and/or pressure marker based on an EoS from the literature. With the exception of β-N2 and α-Ti, unit cell volumes were calculated from the peak position of the most intense diffraction peak, as other peaks were typically too weak for the peak position to be accurately determined.
Galvez In order to evaluate the extent of X-ray heating to be expected during the dDAC experiment, the maximum allowable X-ray fluence for data collection was evaluated prior to the actual compression for each of the sample materials. This procedure is illustrated here for Au, a high Z element (Z=79) which is highly absorbing at 18. 105 keV with λ = 5. 24 µm  (Henke et al. , 1993). Au is of particular interest for DAC experiments because it is chemically inert and does not undergo any structural transitions in the pressure range accessible in DAC compression experiments. For this reason, it is commonly used as an internal diffraction standard for pressure determination. The Au sample was prepared in an LLNL-type DAC equipped with standard cut diamonds with 300 µm culets mounted on a tungsten carbide (WC) backing plate on the upstream side and a cubic boron nitride (cBN) seat on the downstream side.
Discs of 5 µm thick Au foil and 3 µm thick W foil were loaded into stainless steel gasket with a 150 µm hole diameter, and Ne was used as a PTM. XRD data collected at P02. 2 indicated the initial pressure to be 0. 9 GPa using the EoS of Au  (Anderson et al. , 1989 ) and 1. 2 GPa using the EoS of W  (Dewaele et al. , 2004). A series of 216 XRD images were collected at 1. 1 MHz at a given X-ray transmission (here 0. 8% = 2(1) µJ) without compressing the sample to evaluate heating (Fig. 5 ). The starting pressure was estimated to be 3. 3 GPa from Au, which is below the solidification pressure of Ne  (Klotz et al. , 2009). The ~2 GPa pressure increase from that measured at P02. 2 is most likely due to the pre-torque applied to the cell. The temperature increase was determined from the thermal expansion of the Au  (Anderson et al.
, 1989)  assuming the pressure remained constant throughout the run. If sample heating of >50 K was detected, the test was successively repeated at a lower X-ray transmission until an appropriate transmission was found (here 0. 3%, below the detection limit of the IPM (<0. 5 µJ)). Only then were XRD data collected during dynamic compression. The Au sample was compressed using the LLNL dDAC with a 340 µs rise time up to a 1000 V piezo voltage. XRD were collected 200 µs after the start of the voltage ramp, providing data coverage during the last 140 µs of the voltage rise and ~50 µs of the plateau (Fig. 5 ). The pressure increase was limited to ~2 GPa in the first 200 µs of the ramp, most likely related to a number of factors: the response of the dDAC assembly; the reproducibility of the amplifier response at such short rise times; and the volume drop associated with Ne solidification.
7 ). All reflections could be identified as originating from α-Ti, LiF, cBN, or the gasket. Unfortunately, none of the LiF or cBN reflections were observed across the entire dataset, highlighting a potential issue when low Z pressure markers are used to avoid X-ray heating; the (110) LiF reflection was obscured by the (0002) α-Ti reflection in all patterns, the (200) reflection overlapped with one of the gasket reflections at the start of data collection, and the (111) cBN reflection become too weak to be clearly identified at the end of data collection (Fig. 7  (a)). The pressure was therefore estimated from the unit cell volume of α-Ti  (Errandonea et al. , 2005). The sample pressure increased to 4. 7 GPa in the first 760 µs (before the start of data collection), further increasing to 11.
The compression experiment described here focussed on the low-pressure behaviour, specifically the pressureinduced solidification of N2. The N2 sample was loaded into an LLNL-type DAC equipped with standard type diamonds with 500 µm culets mounted on a cBN (WC) backing plate on the downstream (upstream) side. The DAC was prepared using a stainless steel gasket with a 30-40 µm thick, 150 µm diameter sample chamber, and a small grain of LiF was added as an internal diffraction standard. A small ruby sphere was added to the sample chamber to determine the pressure after loading  (Mao et al. , 1986). XRD data collected at P02. 2 determined a pressure of 1. 5 GPa based on the EoS of LiF  (Dong et al. , 2014) , and diffuse scattering from liquid N2 was clearly visible in the integrated diffraction patterns.
A series of 216 XRD images collected at 75% X-ray transmission (220(60) µJ) resulted in a <60 K temperature increase in LiF  (Liu et al. , 2007) , which was deemed acceptable for this experiment. The LiF reflections were very weak, and so their peak position was determined from the sum of four diffraction images. N2 was compressed in the LLNL dDAC using a 340 µs rise time to a 1000 V piezo voltage, and XRD data were collected 150 µs after the start of the voltage waveform. Solidification of N2 was clearly observable in the XRD patterns (Fig. 8  (a)), where β-N2 reflections were present from 223. 92 µs until the end of the XRD series. The EoS of LiF determined a solidification pressure of 2. 7 GPa, which is 0. 3 GPa higher than that observed in static compression studies  (Zinn et al. , 1987).
Heating of H2O could not be assessed due to the absence of ice reflections. A pressure of 1. 3 GPa was determined from cBN  (Goncharov et al. , 2007) , which is above the H2O solidification pressure. However, this could be related to the high bulk modulus of cBN, which makes it insensitive to small pressure changes. The sample was compressed using an 840 μs rise time up to a 700 V piezo voltage, and XRD data were collected 440 μs after the start of the voltage waveform using 25% X-ray transmission (60 (20) µJ) (Fig. 9 ). No ice reflections were observed during the first 125 µs of data collection, suggesting that H2O was still in the liquid phase. No evidence of ice VI was observed during compression; instead, the sample transformed directly from liquid to ice-VII. Accurate determination of the pressure from cBN was prevented due to its partial overlap with the gasket peaks (Fig.
Outlook The dDAC platform at the HED instrument was successfully commissioned as part of DAC community proposal #2592  (Liermann and Jenei) , which demonstrated that this set-up can be used to collect time-resolved XRD data from a wide range of materials as they are dynamically-compressed using piezo-driven dDACs. The ability to collect XRD data at the intra-train repetition rate of the European XFEL (1. 1 MHz) provided a temporal resolution of 888 ns, which corresponds to a pressure resolution of <0. 1 GPa/frame at the compression rates accessed in this study (up to 87 TPa/s). This section describes future developments which will extend the capabilities of this set-up to a provide a more versatile platform. Several upgrades are anticipated for the dDAC platform. A planned update of the high voltage amplifier will provide higher currents up to 20 A, leading to shorter rise times and faster compression rates.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge European XFEL in Schenefeld, Germany, for provision of X-ray free-electron laser beamtime at  Scientific Instrument HED (High Energy Density Science)  and would like to thank the staff for their assistance. We acknowledge  DESY (Hamburg, Germany) , a member of the  Helmholtz Association HGF , for the provision of experimental facilities. Parts of this research were carried out at PETRA III (beamline  P02. 2 ). We thank  M. W. ( DESY ) for his help with the design of the electrical wiring scheme. The authors are indebted to the  HIBEF user consortium  for the provision of instrumentation and staff that enabled this experiment. This research was supported through the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation Programme  ( ERC  grant  864877 ) as well as  UKRI STFC  grant  ST/V000527/1.
HEK293 cells and SH-SY5Y human dopaminergic neuroblastoma cell line Human dopaminergic neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line (ATCC Cat# CRL-2266 RRID: CVCL_0019) was obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). HEK293 cells were generous gift from Dr. Mohammed Ayoub Akhli. Both HEK293 cells and SH-SY5Y cells were grown in DMEM supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS, 2 mM L-glutamine, 50 U of penicillin, and 50 μg/ml of streptomycin.
Statistical analysis: All in vitro data were determined from three to eight biological replicates. GraphPad 5. 0 was used for statistical analysis with p ≤ 0. 05 considered statistically signi cant. Two-way ANOVA was used for comparing multiple groups and ordinary-one-way ANOVA was used for the rest. In most cases, Bonferroni post analysis was applied. For comparing 2 groups, Student's t-test was used. Where the normality assumption was violated, we conducted nonparametric tests, however, in no case did the nonparametric results change the overall interpretation of parametric results.
At the end of incubation, individual wells were washed twice, and then, 100 µL of anti-VEGF-A, anti-IL-6, or anti-IL-8 detection antibodies were added and incubated at RT for 1 h on a microplate shaker. After washing, 100 µL of avidin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were loaded onto the plate and incubated for 30 min at RT in the dark; then, 100 µL of substrate were added and incubated for an additional 10 min. The reaction was stopped by adding 100 µL of stop solution (H 2 SO 4 , 1N), and then, the absorbance was measured at 450 nm using Perkin Elmer Multimode Plate Reader Envision. To calculate the cytokine concentrations, the standard curves for each assay were plotted with GraphPad Prism 8. 3. 0 software (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, USA) using the 4-parameter sigmodal curve fit.
2% Triton 100×. After washing with TBS 1× containing 0. 2% Triton 100×, coverslips were mounted in Prolong ® Gold Antifade with DAPI (P36941, Invitrogen, Thermo Fisher, Waltham, MA, USA) in the dark for 24 h. Images were acquired with AxioImager M2 (Zeiss) and analyzed with Zen 3. 6 (blue edition, Zeiss, Rueil Malmaison, France) and Icy (v2. 4, Institut Pasteur and France-BioImaging, Paris, Montpellier, France) software.
Flow Cytometry ARPE-19 cells were seeded and treated in 12-well plates as previously described. After treatments, cells were collected and viable cells were stained with fixable viability stain 520 (564407, Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) for 15 min at RT in the dark. After washing, cells were permeabilized with glacial methanol for 10 min on ice. Nonspecific sites were blocked for 10 min at RT with a saturation buffer (PBS 1×, 1% BSA, and 0. 2% Triton 100×), and then, cells were incubated with Alexa Fluor ® 647 anti-p-histone H2A. X (Ser139) antibody (613408, BioLegend, San Diego, CA, USA) in the saturation buffer (1:100) for 30 min at RT. After washing, an analysis was performed using an Aurora cytometer (Cytek ® Biosciences, Fremont, CA, USA) with Spectroflo ® software (Biosciences, Torrance, CA, USA), and the data were analyzed using FlowJo v10 software (version 10, Tree Star, Ashland, OR, USA).
Statistics Data were expressed as the means ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for at least three independent experiments (2-4 biological replicates per independent experiment). Statistical analyses were carried out with GraphPad Prism 8. 3. 0 software (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, USA). Data were compared among experimental groups using oneway ANOVA followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test, two-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test, or the Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn's post hoc analysis as appropriate after having checked the data for normal distribution (Shapiro-Wilk test) and variance homogeneity. All p-values were two-tailed, and p-values less than 0. 05 were considered significant (* p < 0. 05, ** p < 0. 01, *** p < 0. 001, and **** p < 0. 0001).
Regarding RSV, it reduced, to a similar extent, the H2O2-induced VEGF-A levels (29% vs. 20% for RSV and 30 µg/mL RWE, respectively) but was less efficient than RWE at 50 and 100 µg/mL. After treatments, the cells' viability was assessed by crystal violet staining (G), and the VEGF-Asecreted levels were measured in cell supernatants by ELISA (H). For the viability assays, data are expressed as a mean percentage relative to the control cells (treated with vehicles alone) ± SEM of three independent experiments (4 biological replicates per independent experiment). For kinetics (A,B,E,F), the p-values were determined by a two-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test and compared to the 6 h timepoint. (C,G) The p-values were determined by a one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test.
Similarly, AAPH induced the same foci of γH2AX after 6 h of treatment with 600 µM of AAPH (Figure  3B ). Interestingly, pretreatment with three concentrations of RWE (30, 50, and 100 µM) for 24 h before oxidative stress induction prevented the appearance of green fluorescence, reflecting the increase in γH2AX foci (Figure  3A, B ). A quantitative analysis of MFI measured with Icy software (v2. 4) showed that H 2 O 2 and AAPH induced significant increases in γH2AX foci by +108% and +37% compared to the control cells (cells treated with the vehicle alone). In addition, we observed that RWE pretreatment, whatever the concentration used, significantly prevented H 2 O 2 -and AAPH-induced rises in γH2AX foci by, respectively, around 25% and 30% (Figure  4A, C ). In order to confirm the induction of DNA damage, we stained RPE cells with Alexa Fluor ® 647 anti-γH2A.
At the end of the treatments, the cells' viability was assessed with crystal violet staining (A), and the supernatants were collected to measure by ELISA the secreted levels of (B) IL-6 and (C) IL-8. For the ELISA assays, the data were expressed as the mean in pg/mL ± SEM of 3-5 independent experiments (2-4 biological replicates per independent experiment). The p-value was determined by a one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test. **** p-value < 0. 0001 comparing the data to LPS/IFN-γ-treated cells. For cell viability, data were expressed as the mean percentage relative to the control cells (treated with the vehicles alone) ± SEM of three independent experiments (4 biological replicates per independent experiment). The p-values were determined by a one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Imaflow platform for the flow cytometry analysis,  Ruth Hornedo Ortega  for supplying the malvidin 3-glucoside standard and thank the  Bordeaux Metabolome Facility  and the  MetaboHUB  ( ANR11-INBS-0010 ) Project, and  Suzanne Rankin  ( CHU Dijon ) for the editing and critical reading of the manuscript.