dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Introduction Ernest Roume was born in Marseille in 1858. The son of a merchant, he entered the Council of State (Conseil d'État) after graduating from the École Polytechnique. During his career in the administration, he became Director for External Trade, and Director for Asian affairs at the Ministry for the Colonies. He then held the position of Governor General for the Federation of French West Africa, from 1902 to 1908. After a leave from the administration, he governed Indochina from 1914 to 1917 (Arch. nat. , Base de données Léonore, LH//2392/4). Jules Carde began his career in Algeria, where he had been born in 1872 as the son of a colonial administrator. From 1892 to 1895 he was a clerk, at the very bottom of the colonial administrative hierarchy. He went to Madagascar in 1895, where he slowly climbed the hierarchy until he became a colonial administrator in 1907.
He then spent a year in Martinique before being posted in French West Africa. He spent the rest of his career in colonial central administrations, mostly in French Equatorial Africa. He reached the rank of governor in 1916, being given French Congo and later Cameroon. From 1923 to 1930, he was Governor General for French West Africa and then Governor General for  Algeria from 1930 to 1935 (Arch. nat. , Base de données Léonore, 19800035/60/7418). What could explain such different careers? Roume was a metropolitan civil servant, with a very high status, as evidenced by the university he attended and his subsequent career, yet he had no colonial experience. Carde's career was very different: he did not graduate from a prestigious university and began low down in the hierarchy of the colonial administration, with none of the support from his corps that Roume had received.
We rely on the optimal matching technique to distinguish typical sequence models and identify nine common career trajectories that can be grouped into four main clusters. We show that the rise of the colonial cluster during the Interwar period corresponded to the peak of the administrative autonomy in the imperial ecology, which is consistent with the broader history of French colonization. We argue that this autonomy comes from both professional and organizational logics. The remainder of the article is organized as follows. Section "Professionalization processes in colonial administrations" describes the colonial administration and draws on the literature to explore autonomization processes in colonial administrations. Section "Data and research design" reports data sources and the dataset construction, and the design of the research.
The dictionary provides information about each step of alumnis' career. The dictionary only provided us with information on 150 individuals (Table  1 ). We then turned to the Léonore database, produced by the French Ministry of Culture, which records all individuals admitted to the Legion of Honour since 1802. People seeking the decoration assembled their professional records and sent them to the selection committee. Among other things, a résumé, a birth certificate, and an employment record are often included. We further supplemented this source with information derived from administrative career records from the Archives nationales d'outre-mer (ANOM), biographical databases of French parliamentarians, and various other sources (Table  1 ). 5 If information was not consistent across sources, we gave priority to administrative records over other sources.
8. 8  We removed all individuals for whom we had less than 15 years of career before their first appointment as colonial governors. To analyze the sequences, we used the TraMineR package developed by  Gabadinho et al. (2011). We first computed pairwise dissimilarities between our sequences, before performing a dendrogram (hierarchical cluster) analysis to determine the optimal number of clusters (Online Appendix B, Figure  B1 ). 9 We then added a grouping variable to each observation and plotted the distribution of sequences by cluster to identify patterns in our data and highlight the different professional careers that preceded an appointment as a colonial governor. 10 Various quality statistics, such as the Calinski-Harabasz index and the Hubert C coefficient, indicate that the optimal number of clusters lays between three and five.
Supplementary material. To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi. org/10. 1017/ssh. 2022. 20 Archival sources. Archives nationales (site de Pierrefitte-sur-Seine) Arch. nat. , Base de données Léonore, LH//2392/4, notice Ernest Roume. Arch. nat. , Base de données Léonore, 19800035/60/7418, notice Jules Cardes. Arch. nat. , Base de données Léonore, LH//2062/14, notice Pierre Pasquier. Archives nationales d'outre-mer (site d'Aix-en-Provence) ANOM, EE/II/974/1, dossier Nicolas Gaden. ANOM, EE/II/4108, dossier Georges Rey. ANOM, Gouvernement G1 AEF C/1209/MARCHESSON. ANOM, EE/II/3718, dossier Jules Brévié. ANOM, EE/II/1772/3, dossier Joseph Bride. ANOM, EE/II/5450/PETITBON, dossier René Petitbon. ANOM, EE/II/1089/6 et EE/II/3017/10, dossier Henri Lejeune.
5, we show that there were no major differences in terms of recruitment across these colonies, except for colonies in North Africa where the proximity with the metropole and the status of Algeria altered the general pattern. 5 Base de données des députés français depuis 1789: www2. assemblee-nationale. fr/sycomore/recherche. Base de données des anciens sénateurs de la Troisième République: www. senat. fr/senateurs-3emerepublique/index. html.
Delimitation and measurement of entheses This paper employs the V. E. R. A. protocols for delineating entheseal areas on the bones, which were introduced in previous research (e. g. ,  Karakostis and Lorenzo 2016; Karakostis et al. 2017 Karakostis et al. , 2019a, b), b). The steps of this method are described in detail in a recent literature review by  Karakostis and Harvati (2021). The first step involves the development of a 3D surface scan of each bone to be analyzed. An Artec 3D Space Spider scanner (Artec Inc. , Luxembourg) was used together with the associated Artec Studio Professional 14 software. Then, each of the nine entheses located on the six bones was virtually isolated and their surfaces were measured in square millimeters with the Meshlab software (CNC Inc. , Rome). Figure  1  shows the location of each enthesis and Table  2  explains the properties of each related muscle.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) For investigating whether the observed entheseal differences between sexes and ancestries in our sample are statistically significant, a series of MANOVAs were applied on the raw 3D area measurements as well as on the data adjusted for overall size using the geometric mean approach. Initially, a comparison between males and females revealed that the size-adjusted dataset does not present significant sexual dimorphism in our sample's left-and right-hand bones (see below, in the "Results" section). Based on this finding, and considering the admittedly limited size of our sample, the analyses focusing on ancestry relied on individuals from both sexes. All assumptions required for MANOVA were met, including the absence of outliers, approximate normality, and homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices  (Field 2017).
Principal component analyses (PCAs) Considering the significant differences observed in the sizeadjusted measurements of the right anatomical side (see the "Results" section), we used PCAs to investigate the multivariate patterns among entheses that lead to this ancestryrelated variation in our sample. This analysis was performed in the software PAST  (Hammer et al. 2001) , relying on a correlation matrix. A total of four PCAs were conducted (two for each anatomical side), involving raw and size-adjusted measurements (based on the geometric mean procedure; see above). The left and the right side were analyzed separately, to study the possible influence of activity impacting one side more than the other one. In all PCAs, the number of the PCs that were taken into account for each PCA was determined using standard scree plots in the software PAST  (Field 2017).
The entire sample was included in the analysis and individuals were color-labeled by ancestry. Therefore, all four PCAs conducted in this study did not assume groups a priori. In the PCA on the size-adjusted dataset, all individuals showing extreme PC scores (i. e. , above 3 or below -3) were excluded from the analyses (e. g. , see Field 2017). After 1 3 excluding them and re-running the PCAs, one more case plotted slightly above 3 on PC2 (see Fig. 2 ). To fully ensure that this borderline extreme value did not considerably affect the distribution of individuals in the PCA plot and the associated PC loadings, we re-run the PCAs again without them. As the PCA patterns did not alter in any way, we maintained this very slightly extreme value in our plots (Fig. 2 ), to avoid further decreasing the small sample size of our study.
Importantly, in our size-adjusted dataset, differences between ancestries (African and European) were statistically significant in our South African sample, explicitly for the entheseal multivariate patterns of the right-hand side. This difference is distinctive both in the statistical output of the MANOVA tests (Table  8 ) as well as in the PCA plots assuming no prior group differences (Fig. 2 ). Overall, these findings suggest that ancestry has a significant effect on the multivariate correlations among entheses in our small South African sample. Moreover, an observation of the PCA loadings (Table  9 ) suggests that this variation between individuals of different ancestries might be likely more driven by ancestrybased differences in habitual manual activities rather than genetic variation.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank  Yann Heuzé  ( CNRS, UMR 5199, Pacea), Ericka l'Abbe (University of Pretoria ),  Gabi Krüger  ( University of Pretoria ),  Clarissa van der Merwe  ( University of Pretoria ), and all the  Bakeng se Afrika and Pacea team  who made this research feasible.
Acknowledgments This work has been partially supported by the  French "Agence Nationale de la Recherche " through the  "Investissements d'avenir" program  ( ANR-10-EQPX-37 MATMECA Grant ). The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of  XTechLab , the experimental platform dedicated to the use of Xray techniques for scientific and technological research, hosted by the  Agence de Développement de Sèmè City in Benin.
General data A total of 79 Roman sites were explored during the four survey campaigns of which 35 were classified as potential amphora workshops. Of these, only 23 could be corroborated by the methods described above (Fig. 3 ). Previous research, according to the map published by Carreras and Funari (1998) based on surveys by M. Ponsich, G. Chic and J. Remesal, recorded 29 amphora workshops. Paradoxically, although it was assumed prior to the project that fieldwork would yield more workshops, the final result, on the contrary, saw a reduction of their number. However, the systematic review of each site enabled a finer level of analysis. Dr. 20 amphora production generated such an extraordinary amount of sherds that they are found scattered beyond their points of production into surrounding areas.
Acknowledgements This study was carried out within the framework of the  OLEASTRO research program  funded by the  Laboratory LabEx Archimède  ( ANR-11-LABX-0032-01 ) of the University of Paul Valéry Montpellier 3 and the  Casa de Velázquez in Madrid. Authorisations for the surface surveys and excavations were granted by the  Delegación Territorial de la Junta de Andalucía of Córdoba  ( AAPunt 08-2016 ,  AAPre 92/2017 ,  AAPunt 13/ 2018 ). Our heartfelt thanks go to all the students and collaborators who participated in the archaeological operations.
Methodology The data used in this study is based on elicitation sessions from two native deaf signers (one woman and one man), in their late 40s living in the area of Barcelona. We used the Rimpersonals questionnaire, in written language, as a starting point to elicit a representative range of possible constructions used for agent-backgrounding. The questionnaire probes a number of contrasts that are known to be relevant cross-linguistically in the distribution of different impersonal human subjects. In order to minimize transfer effects from the questionnaire language (written Spanish) to the language under examination (LSC), we provided a wider context for each example and proceeded using the following four steps. In step 1 we provided the context in LSC. In step 2 we showed the target sentence in written language.
Acknowledgments This work was partly supported by the  Franco-German ANR-DFG  project ' Towards a typology of human impersonal pronoun'  ( ANR-11-FRAL-0011 ,  2012-15 ); the  SIGN-HUB  project, which has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under grant agreement No  693349 ; the  Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and FEDER Funds  ( FFI2015-68594-P ); and the  Government of the Generalitat de Catalunya  ( 2017 SGR 01478 ). We are grateful to  Delfina Aliaga  and  Santiago Frigola  for their contribution in the elicitation sessions and for the fruitful discussions of the LSC examples. All remaining mistakes are our responsibility.
Samples from the New Kingdom are especially over-represented. Apart from the samples analysed in this study, no analytical data is available on kohl samples from the Old Kingdom and 1st Intermediate Period. Notably, our analyses show that the synthetic component laurionite  11  was already used in the Old Kingdom, which is much earlier than previously known. The narratives of kohl production have largely been centred on inorganic minerals in previous case studies. In contrast, our study represents the first systematic study of organic components in kohls. It yielded six (out of eleven) specimens that likely consist predominantly of organic materials. All samples bar one (UC7890a) contain plant oils; three samples additionally contain animal-derived fat. Animal fats are consistent with written records, which indicate that a variety of animal extracts were used in eye ointments, most commonly goat, but also pig, tortoise, vulture and others  9.
Conclusion and perspectives Our multi-analytical study of the contents of eleven containers indicates that kohls were heterogeneous mixtures that were obtained following a variety of recipes much more complex than initially thought. The methodologies employed in this study allowed for the systematic characterisation of both organic and inorganic fractions from a single microsample. Collating data on a large enough ensemble of kohl containers, alongside having robust geographical and chronological information, is crucial to start investigating with confidence possible patterns in kohl recipes in relation to their location and/or their time period. The case study at the Petrie Museum may be considered as a starting point to such endeavours. Materials collected and/or produced in Ancient Egypt often had multiple utilisations.
Samples were also spun at 15 rpm to improve statistics. Phase identification was performed using the X'pert Highscore plus software (PANalytical) together with the PDF-2 ICDD database (International Center for Diffraction data, Powder Diffraction Files 2). Due to the low amount of material available for the analyses, the samples were not grinded, contrarily to what is traditionally done for powder X-ray diffraction, to avoid losing material. This leads to two difficulties for the identification of the minerals: despite a high counting time, the diffraction peaks are often low in intensity, and the grains do not present every orientation to the beam so some diffraction peaks may be missing, or intensities may be very different from those of the mineral database. GC/MS. Samples underwent organic extraction using a saponification and acidification reaction  57.
2 mL/min. MS parameters were: electron impact ionization (EI) of 70 eV; ion source temperature 230 °C; interface temperature 280 °C; and a scan range of 50-700 m/z. The injection volume was 2 µL. Peak areas were obtained through AMDIS automatic spectral deconvolution, in Simple analysis mode. Peak assignment for the GC/MS was based on comparisons to mass spectra libraries (NIST 11 main EI MS library and an AMDIS mass spectra library) and published data  19, 39, 42, 43, 45, 51, [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69]  (Supplementary Table  S13 ).
To summarize, up to this date in classical literary sources and contemporary scientific studies, the only data regarding the use of Brassicaceae seed oil in the context of ancient Egypt are related to its use as an illuminative agent or as a dietary supplement. Hence, for the first time in a narrow scientific community engaged in the study of animal mummification, the authors of this paper argue that cruciferous oil obtained from the seeds of Brassicaceae plants could also be used as an embalming agent in the context of mummification practices in Roman Egypt. If we take into account the fact that, indeed, there is no mention of oils obtained from the seeds of Brassicaceae plants in the context of animal mummification in ancient Egypt, but rather as a means of illumination, the importance of the present study is twofold: (i) providing valuable insights about the possibilities of molecular analyses in identifying complex molecular compositions of new and unknown ingredients, and (ii) contributing new datasets comparable to the already existing, but narrow, corpus of knowledge concerning organic substances used for animal mummification  [6] [7] [8] [9].
Materials and Methods All nine samples were extracted from six gazelle mummies using a clean scalpel that was decontaminated before and after each sampling procedure. Afterwards, the extracts were deposited and stored in glass vials. All solvents and reagents were of analytical grade. Tetrahydrofuran, hexane, and N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide/Trimethylchlorosilane (BSTFA/TMCS) were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich. Ethanol, dichloromethane, and diethyl ether were supplied by Merck. Given the preservation state of the archaeological objects in focus, it was possible to obtain samples from several different points within individual gazelle mummies, which further allowed additional data assessment related to processing possible variabilities in the composition of the embalming substance within a single gazelle, and, of course, to address the question of mummification of these animals within the whole context.
FT-IR A preliminary assessment was initiated using micro-destructive Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, where samples (<1 mg) were mixed and homogenized with 150 mg of KBr (VWR International, USA) and then pressed under 10 T/cm -2 in order to obtain a KBr pellet. Measurements were performed using a Thermo-Nicolet iZ10 FT-IR spectrometer (Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France) in transmission mode with a deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) detector with OMNIC software. Three FT-IR spectra were performed per sample, and due to the repeatability/reproducibility of the obtained results, a representative spectrum per sample was presented in this study. All FT-IR spectra were collected in the middle infrared region (400 to 4000 cm -1 ) recording 32 scans at 4 cm -1 spectral resolution. No spectral pre-processing was performed on the spectra.
A GC fused silica capillary column Thermo trace GOLD TG-5MS (5% diphenyl/95% dimethylpolysiloxane, 30 m length × 0. 25 mm i. d. × 0. 25 µm film thickness) was used. The carrier gas was helium with a constant flow of 1 mL. min-1. One microliter of each sample was injected in splitless mode. Mass spectra were recorded in electron impact mode with an electron ionization voltage of 70 eV, an ionization time of 25,000 µs, and a mass range of  40   C and held isothermally for 3 min. All of the injections were realized in triplicate  [44]. The peak assignments were realized based on comparison with retention times and mass spectra of pure standard compounds and by using the NIST database (NIST MS Search 2. 0). Samples were additionally analyzed through saponification and solid phase extraction in order to observe the possible presence of characteristic biomarkers of beeswax (saponification: long-chain fatty acids, fatty alcohols, palmitic wax esters, etc.
Regarding the presence of bitumen in analyzed samples extracted from all six gazelle mummies, the main diagnostic chemical families (saturated hydrocarbons such as n-alkanes, linear and/or branched; polyaromatic hydrocarbons; tetracyclic saturated hydrocarbons, steranes; pentacyclic terpenoids, hopanes) in this substance were not detected  [8, 48, 49]. The presence of natron or lime was observed through FT-IR data analysis of samples from two gazelle mummies, namely 90002282 and 90002283. That being said, we can acknowledge that the two aforementioned gazelle mummies differed from the others in terms of the use of inorganic agents in addition to existing organic ones. In addition to this, we also noticed that mummy number 90010003 was completely different from the others in terms of the absence of markers characteristic of oils derived from the cruciferous seeds of Brassicaceae plants.
This research was financially supported by  Marie Skłodowska - Curie Innovative Training Network , The ED-ARCHMAT European Joint Doctorate, H2020-MSCA-ITN-EJD ED-ARCHMAT Joint Doctorate (Project  ESR10 , grant agreement no  766311 ), and was carried out in connection with MAHES Program supported by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  from the  « Investissement d'Avenir » program   ANR-11-LABX-0032-01  LabEx ARCHIMEDE. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Not applicable.
That's as maybe. But one of the curiosities of language is that it allows people to label actions and describe behaviours in ways that implies that the words used are sufficient to comprehend what is being evoked and yet, as Wittgenstein noted in his Philosophical Investigations  (1953) , to understand what is meant by some word or phrase necessitates knowing something already known about the life in question, about the doings labeled by the words. So it is with 'Skype'. To ask why someone makes a 'Skype call' is not to label an activity that is yet to be properly described or understood by the people posing the question. Someone does not make this query because they do not know what 'Skype' means. The question is asked because they are wanting to know why some individual would behave in some particular way given what 'Skype action' is known to be.
To this extent, the deployment of a word like Skype is a gloss for all types of video connection. Using such a gloss is not, we are saying, a way of labeling an activity; it is to marshal stocks of knowledge about the doings of the world that enables the constituting of observed acts through the use of that word in common language and talk. One should not forget either that, in being used in talk, doing so also provides a mechanism for this stock of knowledge to be brought to bear collaboratively -through the turns talk in which the gloss is used. To talk about Skype is to make a constitutive scheme through which a world in common that has Skype as a feature is both produced and shared. To put it another way, to ask why someone Skypes is to formulate through language how to see the world such that understandings about certain types of behaviour and intentional stances 'typically' and 'ordinarily' deployed in activities related to that term can be used as a resource to make sense of particular actions at hand or in the offing.