dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The Hipparcos catalogue resulted in a major improvement in prediction accuracy, as it removed systematic zonal errors in star catalogues that affected both the positions of stars, and asteroids. The availability of the Tycho and Hipparcos catalogues, and subsequent catalogues based on the Hipparcos reference frame, resulted in a 10-fold increase in the annual number of observed occultations over the period 1997 to 2003. Today, predictions for asteroids are based on Tycho, Hipparcos and UCAC catalogues, for a total of about 4 × 10 6 stars at V < 12, usually computed by the specialized program Occult by D. Herald, available from the website of the International Occultation Timing Association (IOTA)  36. The same program can perform sophisticated operations of event selection, data reduction and access to past observations.
This will make it possible to set up many observers to record an occultation with high confidence, allowing a detailed profile to be measured. Current plans, including the measurement by Gaia of bright stars, will mitigate their degrading position accuracies, a result of the uncertainties in old catalogues such as Tycho2, UCAC4 and PPMX, used to determine proper motions. Today, the observational results are collected by four regional coordinators: Australia/New Zealand: J. Talbot (Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand) 39 ; Europe: E. Frappa (Euraster) 40 ; Japan: T. Hayamizu (JOIN, Japan Occultation Information Network); USA: B. Timerson (IOTA). The observations are periodically uploaded to the Planetary Data System for diffusion to the scientific community 41. 38 This rough estimate results directly from the prediction of occultation using the currently usual approach (asteroids > 40 km, Hipparcos stars.
2. 4). Data reduction usually proceeds with an automated relative photometry of the video by comparing the target brightness to other sources in the field  42. Alternative acquisition techniques can be adopted by using digital cameras, in fast imaging mode or in "Track Delay Integration" mode (i. e. , by shifting the charge on-chip toward the read-out register, at an appropriate constant rate). Alternatively, telescope tracking can be stopped or run at modified speed, with the image being recorded using a standard CCD imaging camera with the shutter opened and closed at known times  43. One of the most notable, systematic surveys adopting non-tracked images is run by the automated TAROT telescopes North and South (A. Klotz, E. Frappa -results on the Euraster website). Typical analog video cameras as those mentioned above are sensitive enough to observe stars at V∼12 with 0.
The observing planner and technique The ideal goal is to observe all asteroids with a T J < 3 and a constraint on the magnitude limit, solar elongation and Jupiter MOID. Candidates fulfilling the right criteria are automatically extracted from two lists: the Minor Planet Center Orbit (MPCOrb) database  44  , which contains orbital elements of minor planets that have been published in the MPC circulars, and the MPC Near Earth Object Confirmation Page (NEOCP). The latter is checked on a daily basis and the candidate list is immediately sent to the observers, as time is a critical factor for observation. Indeed, if a coma is detected, an IAU circular can be directly published (electronic telegram, CBET  45  ), stating the comet discovery. From this screening step, an "Observing Planner" is issued to the team twice a month, indicating the asteroid designation, perihelion date, T J , number of observed oppositions, orbital semi-major axis, eccentricity and inclination, current sky position and magnitude, geocentric and heliocentric distances, solar elongation and Jupiter MOID.
How to contribute Broad PRO-AM collaborations have been underway for the last 25 years under the International Outer Planets Watch, which currently hosts a large database of giant planets observations performed by amateurs. The database, called the Planetary Virtual Observatory and Laboratory (PVOL) 49 , is documented in  [105]. Additional databases mainly in the amateur community store many individual observations and are commonly consulted by professionals (Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers in Japan (ALPO-Japan) 50 , Société Astronomique de France (SAF) 51 and Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers (ALPO) 52 ). News about current topics of interest are posted regularly on that site and detailed reports on the Jovian atmosphere are posted at the BAA website regularly. The distributed geographical location of observers allows for global monitoring of Jupiter and Saturn close to their opposition (see Fig.
The ice giants' methane absorption bands are relatively broad, allowing the visibility of belts even with so-called R+IR filters (> 600 nm). Up to now the best results have been obtained with IR-pass filters from 685 nm, where the contrast is greater. In all cases, the orientation of the image should be known accurately and precisely. If intriguing details appear, tests must be applied to the observation to discard potential artifacts or processing effects (verify the orientation, assess whether the behaviour is as expected due to rotation, etc). Simultaneous independent observations are especially important in order to confirm ambiguous observations. ALPO has designated the 15th of each month to be a special time when people should try to image Uranus and Neptune. Negative data is also important.
Cometary orbits are perturbed by gravitational and non-gravitational forces, the latter ones resulting from a combination of the nucleus rotation and activity. Amateur astronomers have always played an important role in the observation of comets. For many years, amateurs discovered most of the new comets, and they continue to contribute actively to discovery and imaging of comets. Moreover, they also still provide most of photometric and astrometric data on comets. With the improvement of their instruments and the development of CCDs and digital cameras, they can provide accurate measurements for the different databases available to the community.
Databases The ICQ (International Comet Quaterly 63 ) collects mainly visual observations, which are vitally important to link information about comets observed in the past and in the present. These observations include the magnitude and the appearance of comets. All the details about the instrumentation, the conditions and the method of 60 See, e. g. , http://www. observatorij. org/CCDPhot/iwca5. html or http://www. icq. eps. harvard. edu/CCDmags. html 61 ftp://ftp. lowell. edu/pub/bas/starcats/loneos. phot 62 See, e. g. , http://www. aavso. org/sites/default/files/Transforms-Sarty. pdf for more details. 63 http://www. icq. eps. harvard. edu/icq. html observation, and reference stars (visual magnitude) are required to submit the observation. The format of observations sent to the ICQ is carefully codified  64.
Since 2002, a new extended format has been introduced for the CCD observations. It provides a means for sending observation reports of fainter comets. Other databases such as the CARA (Cometary ARchive for Afrho  65  ) are devoted to the collection of A f ρ measurements. Unusual events are often announced in different mailing lists that include both amateur and professional astronomers  66  , in order to trigger an alert for follow-up observations.
Contributing but not observing Amateur astronomers, or even the public at large, can participate in KBO science by performing analysis tasks that cannot be fully automated and that professional astronomers do not have the resources to achieve. A nice example of such public involvement was the IceHunters 71  project which helped the New Horizon KBO search team to look for potential targets for a flyby by the New Horizon probe after its close approach to Pluto in July 2015. The Ice Hunters project was replaced in 2012 by its successor Ice Investigators, which was supposed to search the data from the spring and summer 2013 observations. These projects, like PlanetHunters  72  or Moon Mappers, Vesta Mappers or Mercury Mappers 73  use the image analysis skills of the human eye and brain to go through a huge amount of data and detect specific patterns of interest.
Not all surveys can use this approach to involve the general public. Large-area surveys for KBOs or Centaurs need a fast analysis and detection pathway to be able to acquire follow-up observations in a timely fashion. Work achieved by an open community cannot guarantee an almost real time analysis; and these surveys must rely on their own forces to achieve their goals. In its initial form, the New Horizon KBO search was well adapted to open-community involvement as it is interested only in objects that will be within reach of the probe and part of a well populated component of the Kuiper Belt. Looking at a restricted area without propagation is well known meaning that even a 6-month to 1-year delay in detecting the KBOs was not a problem. Now, with the approach of the Pluto encounter and the New Horizon maneuver, any delay in data processing becomes problematic.
They present TTV with an amplitude up to one day. After the end of the Kepler mission, expected for 2016, it might be interesting to follow these systems up with a network of amateur astronomers. This could permit the systems to be better characterized: only upper-limits on planets' masses have been constrained so far. However, a serious difficulty is combining non-uniform datasets for TTV studies. The correct approach is to have a homogenous dataset, observed in the same band, by the same telescopes over a long period of time. Such projects would require close coordinations between amateurs and professionals to be fruitful.
Acknowledgements O. M. acknowledges support from  CNES. RH, ASL and SPH were supported by the  Spanish   MICIIN  project  AYA2009-10701  and  AYA2012-36666  with  FEDER support, Grupos Gobierno Vasco   IT-464-07  and  UPV/EHU UFI11/55. A. S. acknowledges the support by the  European Research Council/European Community  under the  FP7 through Starting Grant  agreement number  239953. D. B. and S. B are supported by the  Partenariat Hubert Curien/French-Moroccon volubis program   PHC 24675QJ. G. F. was supported by the  Austrian Science Fund FWF , project  P24325-N16. G. O. was supported by awards from  NASA  to  JPL/Caltech.
Information sharing protocol Profile Hidden Markov Models (pHMMs) are widely employed to model nucleotide or protein sequence families, in particular for database search  [1, 2]. In numerous applications (see e. g. [3] [4] [5] ), a sequence family classified into subfamilies is given, with each subfamily being modeled separately by one pHMM (i. e. only the information comprehended in the respective subfamily is used). If enough information is available about each subfamily (i. e. it consists of a sufficient number of sequences) this approach is feasible. Otherwise, the model is unable to *Correspondence: ingobulla@gmail. com 1 Institut für Mathematik und Informatik, Universität Greifswald, Walther-Rathenau-Straße 47, 17487 Greifswald, Germany 2 Theoretical Biology and Biophysics, Group T-6, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA Full list of author information is available at the end of the article detect sequences stemming from subfamilies composed of too few sequences  [4].
Application to CRF04 In order to verify that jpHMM prob is capable of handling full-length sequences which exhibit a recombination pattern observed in a real recombinant, we apply jpHMM semi , jpHMM prob , and jpHMM ml to the sequence AF119819 classified as recombinant of type CRF04  [30, 31]  in the LANL database. CRF04 is one of the CRFs whose genome Figure  10  The stratified performance of different versions of jpHMM on T rec. The performance (measured in s tot ) of jpHMM ml , jpHMM semi , and jpHMM prob on T rec is shown, with the semi-artificial recombinant sequences T rec being stratified by which small-and which large-size subtype was used for the generation of the respective sequence.
Discussion and conclusions In this paper, we presented a novel information sharing protocol, realized in the form of a probabilistic model, for estimating the emission probabilities of pHMMs. We incorporated this protocol into the recombination detection program jpHMM and applied it to semi-artificial and real-world HIV-1 Group M sequences. As we were able to confirm an improvement of the prediction accuracy of jpHMM by our protocol, we demonstrated the value of the protocol for a crucial biological and medical application employing pHMMs.
Testing We have applied i) the novel version of jpHMM incorporating our information sharing protocol, ii) former versions of jpHMM, and iii) the established recombination breakpoint detection tools Simplot and Bootscanning to i) sequences designated (in the LANL HIV database) as originating from a pure subtype, ii) semi-artificial recombinants of two real-world subtype sequences, iii) a fulllength sequence of CRF04. In total, we compared the novel version of jpHMM with three formerly introduced ones, differing with regards to how they estimate the emission probabilities: i) a machine learning approach using linear discriminant learning, ii) a heuristic approach of scaling the pseudocounts, iii) the original approach without adaptions for small-size subtypes. The results were compared using appropriate performance measures.
Introduction During the last 10-15 years, the amount of data recovered from the Martian surface has increased exponentially. The first images were obtained by NASA Mariner-4 in 1965 and the later Mariner-6 and Mariner-7 in fly-by missions  (Carr, 2006). The first successful Mars orbiter (so the first operative artificial device orbiting another planet) was  Mariner-9, launched in 1971. It provided about 6000 images, versus the less than 300 obtained in previous missions. This milestone was broadly surpassed by the over 50,000 images acquired from the 1975 Viking twins orbiters. The post-Viking datasets acquired from orbit have displayed an exponential increase in quality and diversity  (Bibring et al. , 2005; Jaumann et al. , 2007; Malin et al. , 2007; McEwen et al. , 2007; Murchie et al. , 2009).
This improvement was accompanied by a significant increase in the knowledge of the features and processes that shape Mars' surface. With such a large amount of high-resolution planetary data, scientists are now able to produce more detailed maps with a great degree of confidence regarding the geomorphological and compositional features of the Martian surface. In this study we provide a detailed 1:1,000,000-scale map of the Ariadnes basin, which has considerable scientific interest as explained hereinafter. This map has been compiled using the latest planetary data that were obtained by the Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) missions to Mars. Ariadnes basin is a site of peculiar scientific interest since its sedimentary infilling records the aqueous episodes that occurred during the Late Noachian/ Early Hesperian epochs, a critical period in Martian history about 3.
Data As a cartographic base for our mapping, we used topographic data from two different instruments and high-resolution images and hyperspectral data from three cameras (Figure  2 ) that were recovered from the NASA's Planetary Data System (PDS, http://pds. jpl. nasa. gov/) and ESA's Planetary Science Archive (PSA, http://www. rssd. esa. int/). Topographic and image datasets were integrated into a Geographic Information System (Esri ArcGIS 10) by conversion and correction of data as described below. We used the Mars 2000 spheroid geographic coordinate system (semi-major axis: 3,396,190. 0 m; Semi-minor axis: 3,376,200. 0 m; Inverse flattening: 0. 0058860) and the equidistant cylindrical projection system with a central meridian at 1808.
Context camera (CTX) The Context Camera (CTX) is an instrument onboard NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) spacecraft designed to obtain grayscale images of the surface of Mars with a resolution of 5. 0 to 6. 5 meters per pixel and a swath width of about 30 to 40 kilometers from an altitude of about 290 km  (Malin et al. , 2007). The CTX camera provides the spatial context for other MRO instruments. Since its orbit insertion in 2006, the CTX has obtained images that cover over half of the planet's surface. This extensive coverage in combination with other medium to high-resolution images makes this dataset highly suitable for regional studies. Available images within the study area (≈58% coverage, Figure  2 ) were downloaded from the PDS. The Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers (ISIS) software  (Torson & Becker, 1997)  distributed by the US Geological Survey (USGS) was used to perform noise removal and radiometric and geometrical corrections as well as map projections, following their recommended procedures (USGS Astrogeology Team, 1999).
High-resolution stereo camera (HRSC) The European Space Agency's (ESA) mission Mars Express (MEx), orbiting Mars since December 2003, is equipped with a High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) to acquire high-resolution images of the Martian surface in stereo and color. This multi-sensor push broom instrument is composed of nine charge-coupled device (CCD) line detectors mounted in parallel on a focal plane, which allows near-simultaneous high-resolution stereo, multicolor and multi-phase imaging data during a single overpass  (Jaumann et al. , 2007; Neukum, Jaumann, & HRSC Co-Investigator and Experiment Team, 2004). The average spatial resolution of HRSC images is commonly between 10 and 20 meters per pixel at the nominal periapsis altitude of 250 km. The swath width of a typical HRSC image is 60 km.
Mars orbiter laser altimeter (MOLA) The Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) is an instrument onboard NASA's Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) mission  (Smith et al. , 2001; Zuber et al. , 1992). MOLA transmitted infrared laser pulses at a frequency of 10 Hz toward Mars' surface to recover a topographic dataset with a vertical precision of 30 cm, which has been used to generate topographic maps of the whole planet. To create the Ariadnes basin map, we have prepared the dataset in a GIS-ready elevation model of 128 pixels per degree (Mission Experiment Gridded Data Record, MEGDR)  (Smith, Neumann, Arvidson, Guinness, & Slavney, 2003) , which is equivalent to 463 meters per pixel at the Martian equator.
Geologic mapping Our geologic mapping of the Ariadnes basin follows the cartographic criteria common in planetary geology based on texture and relief of the planetary surface. We differentiated geologic (material) units and geomorphic features  (Hansen, 2000; Wilhelms, 1990). Geomorphological unit boundaries were determined using a digitizing table and following differential morphological and topological patterns as identified in the image and topographic datasets. The symbolization is based on USGS guidance for planetary geology features  (FGDC, 2006). The study area was divided into eight units whose boundaries were differentiated depending on whether the contacts between units were clearly observed or only inferred by geomorphic changes. Such units were mapped following their characterization in previous publications.
Ridge crests were identified mainly as linear features with positive topography with a cross-sectional profile that is much sharper than that of winkle ridges. Furthermore, shallow depressions, which are inferred as the geomorphological record of valleys carved by water, were mapped as linear features following the most topographically depressed points of the 'stream bed'. The delineation of the knob fields in Ariadnes Colles was performed using a semi-automated boundary detection method. For this purpose, we prepared squares of ≈50 × 50 km HRSC images and exported them to Vextractor software. In this software, a brightness threshold was used after applying a blur effect and image segmentation to differentiate light-toned knob materials from the surroundings. Subsequently, we applied a de-speckle filter and an algorithm to remove the isolated spots, followed by edge detection, vectorization, and export to a shapefile.
Software The Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers (ISIS) software and 'isis2world' script, both developed by USGS, were used to process the data. ArcGIS 10 Desktop was used for mapping and the layout development, with HRSC2GIS extension used for ESA Mars Express HRSC data conversion. The software used for a semi-automatic delineation of knobs was Vextractor. Finally, the 'CraterTool' ArcGIS extension  (Kneissl et al. , 2011)  and 'Craterstats2' software  (Michael & Neukum, 2010)  were used for statistical analysis of crater size-frequency distributions.
This paper describes an innovative solution for geovisualization of the demographic and administrative history of French municipalities, named "communes" in French. This solution allows for the open dissemination of such data. The challenge is to provide a web interface for unskilled users in order to help them understand complex information about the demographic evolution of French territories. Our approach combines interactive thematic, spatial, and temporal views. We describe our architecture, based on open-source technologies, and the organization of this imperfect geo-historical information in our spatiotemporal database. Our second contribution concerns the concept of an acquaintance graph that has been used to obtain an efficient design with good performance in our geovisualization website.
Rumsey  [30]  has argued that interactive maps could be helpful for pedagogical purposes, provided their use was intuitive enough  [24]. In France, GeoPeuple is a project that aims to take a fresh look at historical French censuses. GeoPeuple combines historian-demographers (LaDéHis Laboratory of the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences, EHESS) and computer scientists (team MALIRE from LIP6 laboratory) with researchers that specialize in geographic information science (COGIT laboratory of the French Mapping Agency, IGN). One of the aims of the GeoPeuple project was to digitize historical topographic maps (such as Cassini and Etat-Major maps) in order to build a vector-based spatiotemporal database and provide spatiotemporal analysis of the collected topographic and demographic information at the same time  [29].
Handling hierarchies of evolving territorial units Census data is collected on territorial statistical units having a name, a code, and a boundary. Frequently, these units may be grouped together into a hierarchy in order to form wider territorial statistical units, up to the state level. This hierarchy of territorial units is termed a nomenclature. In the European Union, the nomenclature for territorial statistical units (NUTS) is widely in use. NUTS has been updated at least seven times since its creation in 1980. In France, the COG  [14]  (Code Officiel Géographique) is based on the French municipality as the smallest territorial unit. The COG has been used since 1801, but has only been fully documented by INSEE (French National Institute for Statistical and Economical Studies) since 1943.
The complete demographic and administrative history of communes from 1791 to today has been collected by historian-demographers like Claude Motte  [22]. This substantial undertaking required the collection of census data for every commune, as well as information about the history of their various designations (toponyms), and relationships to other territorial entities. This database captures many different types of spatial events (absorption, reincarnation, merge, split, redistribution) in the evolution of communes, along with names, census figures, and other relationships to the COG and other nomenclatures. A commune can belong to multiple nomenclatures that may be current or no longer existing. For instance, communes, which generally correspond to ancient parishes, have belonged to a specific hierarchy called "généralités" in French.