dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank  M. Botje ,  J. C. Collins , and  J. Rojo  for valuable discussions. V. B and A. G. are particularly grateful to  A. Mitov ,  A. Papanastasiou , and  M. Ubiali  for many stimulating discussions on the role of the bottom-quark threshold for bottom-initiated processes at the LHC. We acknowledge the hospitality of  CERN ,  DESY , and  Fermilab  where a portion of this work was performed. We are grateful to the  DESY IT department  for their support of the xFitter developers. This work was also partially supported by the  U. S. Department of Energy  under Grant No. DE-SC0010129. V. B. is supported by an  European Research Council   Starting Grant  " PDF4BSM ". A. L. is supported by the  Polish Ministry under program Mobility Plus , grant no. 1320/MOB/IV/2015/0.
When using a FEG gun, the electron beam diameter is a few nanometer size. For instance in the conditions used here: ∅ ≈ 3 nm at 2. 5 keV and ∅ ≈ 1. 5 nm at 30 keV according to SEM manufacturer specifications. The best accuracy in CL diffusion experiments are achieved according to different strategies in the cases (i) of the semiinfinite 3D medium formed by a cleaved cross-section or (ii) of the quasi-2D systems formed by FIB thin slabs. Table  1  shows the calculated values of σ by using Monte-Carlo simulations (Casino software  (Drouin et al 2007) ) of electrons accelerated on a bulk ZnO crystal or on thin slabs of 100 and 20 nm thicknesses (supplementary materials figure  S2 ). In the bulk case (i), σ increases with E 0 , so that low acceleration-voltages are preferred. In case (ii), at high acceleration-voltages the thin lamellae become transparent which strongly reduces σ.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank  D Troadec  from  IEMN, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France  for the FIB bevel preparations and their thickness measurements. The authors are grateful to  C Vilar  for her precious technical help on the SEM-CL set-up, to  E Chikoidze  for Hall effect measurements and to  M Phillips  for stimulating discussions and to  J Chevallier  for his critical reading of the manuscript.
A novel algorithm to reconstruct neutrino-induced particle showers within the ANTARES neutrino telescope is presented. The method achieves a median angular resolution of 6 • for shower energies below 100 TeV. Applying this algorithm to 6 years of data taken with the AN-TARES detector, 8 events with reconstructed shower energies above 10 TeV are observed. This is consistent with the expectation of about 5 events from atmospheric backgrounds, but also compatible with diffuse astrophysical flux measurements by the IceCube collaboration, from which 2 -4 additional events are expected. A 90 % C. L. upper limit on the diffuse astrophysical neutrino flux with a value per neutrino flavour of E 2 • Φ 90% = 4. 9 • 10 -8 GeV • cm -2 • s -1 • sr -1 is set, applicable to the energy range from 23 TeV to 7.
ANTARES data have been used to set constraints on, e. g. , the all-sky diffuse muon neutrino flux  [15, 16] , the strength of a possible Galactic component of the flux discovered by IceCube  [17] , and the possible neutrino flux from the region of the Galactic Ridge  [18]. Furthermore, several searches for clustering and large-scale anisotropies in the neutrino arrival directions, as well as for temporal and/or spatial correlations with known astrophysical sources have been carried out  [19] [20] [21] [22]. This paper presents a reconstruction algorithm for neutrino-induced particle shower events and reports on the first application of such an algorithm to ANTARES data. The reconstruction method has been employed to search for a diffuse astrophysical neutrino flux using 6 years of data collected from 2007 to 2012.
The ANTARES detector is described in Sec. 2. The detector simulation and the developed algorithm are presented in Sec. 3 and Sec. 4, respectively. The data selection is discussed in Sec. 5, while the analysis method and the discussion of systematic uncertainties can be found in Sec. 6. The results of the search are reported in Sec. 7, while Sec. 8 summarizes and concludes the paper. The presented work is used as input to more advanced reconstruction algorithms based on updated simulations which are in development  [23].
Data selection The reconstruction algorithm described in the previous section was applied to data collected from February 2007 to December 2012. This includes the construction and commissioning phase of the detector and therefore several detector configurations, each comprising a different number of active lines included in the data taking. All of these configurations have been reproduced by the detailed run-based simulation procedure described in Sec. 3. The data analysis was designed blindly, i. e. the neutrino selection criteria have been developed using the simulations only. A fraction of 10 % of the data runs (test data), sampled from the full data collection time range, was compared to simulations to validate the selection criteria. These test data were excluded from the neutrino search described in Sec.
Analysis method and systematic uncertainties The presented analysis used 6 years of ANTARES data to search for an excess over the atmospheric background of upward-going astrophysical neutrinos inducing high-energy showering events. The method is complementary to the first searches for a diffuse neutrino flux performed with ANTARES  [15, 16] , which selected only the track-like event signatures of upward-going muons induced by ν µ CC interactions. Even though NC interactions of atmospheric ν µ contribute to the background for the presented search, the small value of the ratio of atmospheric ν e to ν µ fluxes at TeV energies  [54]  reduces the overall background compared to the earlier analyses. We treat the search for astrophysical neutrinos as a simple counting experiment, and derive confidence intervals using the unified approach of Feldman and Cousins  [51].
Results Summing up the discussed atmospheric background contributions and correction estimates (cf. Tab. 1), n b = 4. 6 +2. 8 -3. 0 background events are expected. For the full dataset of 1247 days, this analysis yields a sensitivity to an astrophysical neutrino flux of: E 2 • Φ90% = 2. 2 +0. 9 -0. 7 • 10 -8 GeV • cm -2 • s -1 • sr -1 per flavour, assuming an unbroken E -2 power law spectrum and flavour equipartition at Earth. Fig. 3  shows the reconstructed zenith-angle distribution. The cuts discussed in Sec. 4 and Sec. 5 were applied. The measured distribution compares well to the MC expectations from the atmospheric muon and neutrino backgrounds. The zenith-angle distribution of the atmospheric neutrino background is asymmetric with respect to the horizon, which results from the convolution of the assumed atmospheric neutrino flux model  [52]  and the detector acceptance.
Sec. 6) have been taken into account following the method detailed in Refs. [57, 58]. The relative uncertainties on the signal and background efficiencies, calculated as the average of their systematic error intervals, are evaluated to 29 % for the astrophysical signal and 42 % for the atmospheric background. This increases the 90 % C. L. upper limit of the confidence interval to 11. 4 events. For the unblinded data set of 1247 days, the upper limit on the diffuse astrophysical neutrino flux per neutrino flavour is then evaluated to: E 2 • Φ 90% = 4. 9 • 10 -8 GeV • cm -2 • s -1 • sr -1. The limit is valid under the assumption of flavour equipartition at Earth and for an unbroken E -2 spectrum in the energy range from 23 TeV to 7. 8 PeV. This range was obtained from the simulated neutrino energy spectrum of all astrophysical shower-like events by determining its central 90 % interval.
Summary and Conclusion A novel event reconstruction algorithm has been presented, which allowed for the first time to select and reconstruct particle-induced shower events in data taken with the ANTARES neutrino telescope. The algorithm achieves a median angular resolution of 6 • for shower energies below 100 TeV. The median value of the true over reconstructed shower energy ratio, E MC /E rec , is 1. 5 -2 for shower energies up to 1 PeV, while the 90% quantile increases from 3 to 20 for energies between 500 GeV and 1 PeV. The fraction of successfully reconstructed events among all triggered shower-like events increases from 50 % to 90 % as a function of the shower energy in the range from 1 TeV to 3 PeV. Using 1247 days of ANTARES data, a 90 % C. L. upper limit on a diffuse astrophysical neutrino flux per flavour was evaluated to:   [59] , Baikal NT-200  [60] , and ANTARES ν µ  [16] ) and 2 different measurements of a diffuse astrophysical neutrino flux reported by IceCube (solid blue lines, IC ν x /3  [5] , and IC ν µ  [6] ).
energy [GeV] The limit is valid in the energy range from 23 TeV to 7. 8 PeV, assuming an unbroken E -2 neutrino spectrum and flavour equipartition at Earth. It has been calculated using the Feldman-Cousins approach  [51]. Systematic errors have been taken into account following Refs. [57, 58]. Fig. 5  illustrates the obtained upper limit in comparison with previously set limits by the AMANDA  [59]  and Baikal  [60]  experiments. The upper limit obtained in this work almost coincides with those obtained previously with ANTARES, using only upward-going muons recorded in 855  [16]  and 334  [15]  days, although the sensitivity of the present dataset is about a factor of two and three better, respectively. Also shown are the two most recent IceCube measurements of an astrophysical flux that have been obtained either with analyses selecting contained events  [5]  or using through-going muon tracks originating from the Northern sky  [6].
All flux limits and measurements are given per flavour and represent the sum of neutrino and antineutrino fluxes. For comparison, the conventional atmospheric ν µ flux (black solid line with the gray shaded area showing systematic uncertainty) according to the Bartol neutrino flux model  [52]  and the measured atmospheric ν e flux  [61]  is indicated. The reported measurement of 8 events is statistically in agreement with the expected background of 4. 6 +2. 8 -3. 0 events from atmospheric muons and neutrinos. Assuming an astrophysical flux as reported in Ref. [6]  (  [5] ), additional 2. 1 (4. 4) signal events are expected, which reduces to 1. 7 (4. 2) events assuming a cut-off at 3 PeV. In all cases, the addition of an astrophysical neutrino signal is compatible with our measurement. Though not yet sufficiently sensitive, the presented first shower analysis using the initial 6 years of data taken with the ANTARES neutrino telescope demonstrates the potential of ANTARES to independently confirm and complement the measurement of a high-energy astrophysical neutrino flux, as performed by IceCube.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the financial support of the funding agencies:  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ,  Commissariat  à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA),  Commission Européenne (FEDER fund and Marie Curie Program) ,  Institut Universitaire de France (IUF) ,  IdEx program  and  UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cité  ( ANR-10-LABX-0023  and  ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02 ),  Labex OCEVU  ( ANR-11-LABX-0060 ) and the A* MIDEX  project ( ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02 ),  Région Île-de-France (DIM-ACAV) ,  Région Alsace  (contrat CPER),  Région Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Département du Var and Ville de La Seyne-sur-Mer, France ;  Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) ,  Germany ;  Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Italy ;  Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie (FOM) ,  Nederlandse organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO) , the  Netherlands; Council of the President of the Russian Federation  for young scientists and leading scientific schools supporting grants,  Russia ;  National Authority for Scientific Research (ANCS) ,  Romania ;  Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) :  Plan Estatal de Investigación  (refs.
These results contrast with evidence from the Apollo high-Ti lunar glass 74220 that implies a lunar interior with water contents similar to those of Earth's mantle  (14, 15). Mechanisms for evaporative loss of volatile elements consistent with available Zn isotope data include a giant impact  (8)  or loss from a magma ocean  (6). Possible evidence for isotopically light Zn on the surface of trinitites at the Trinity test site suggests that the latter mechanism would predict the presence of isotopically light condensates on the lunar surface, and more heterogeneous distribution of volatiles within the Moon. In contrast, giant impact evaporative loss would imply homogeneous "dry out" of materials accreting to form the Moon. The evidence for evaporative fractionation of Zn and other volatile and moderately volatile elements, combined with the presence of high water contents in some lunar samples, implicates heterogeneous distribution of volatiles in an otherwise "dry" Moon.
Trace element abundance analyses were done using a Thermo Scientific iCAP Qc quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer in standard mode. Analyses were standardized versus reference material BHVO-2 that was measured throughout the analytical run. In addition, reference materials were analyzed as "unknowns" (BHVO-2 and BCR-2) to assess matrix matching, external reproducibility, and accuracy. For trace elements, reproducibility of the reference materials was generally better than 5% (relative SD) and in line with standard data measured in the laboratory  (29).
Acknowledgments: We thank the two reviewers for their constructive comments. Funding: This work was supported by the  NASA   Emerging Worlds program  ( NNX15AL74G ) and a visiting professor position in the  Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris  to  J. M. D. D. Author  contributions:  J. M. D. D. designed the project and wrote the manuscript. J. M. D. D. and F. M. performed the measurements. A. P. M. , O. V. P. , and D. R. P. provided the samples, and all authors contributed to the discussion and interpretation of results. Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Data and materials availability: All data needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper and/or the Supplementary Materials. All data used in the present article are available by contacting  J.
PoS(ICRC2017)830 Optimal measurement of charged particle momentum from multiple scattering Denis Bernard these data is obtained with the following expression  [10] : σ p p ≈ 1 √ 2N 4 1 + 256 p p 0 4/3 σ 2 X 0 N∆x l 2 2/3 , (2) σ is the single measurement spatial RMS precision and N the number of measurements. The method is also of interest for the high-precision measurement of muon momentum in large, finely instrumented liquid argon detectors for long-range neutrino studies such as DUNE  [11]. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the support of the French National Research Agency (ANR-13-BS05-0002).
The solution was dried over MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. These two collected organic phases were mixed, and a minimum of tetrahydrofuran was added until a clear solution was obtained. The catalyst was then separated from the reaction products by a reusable steric exclusion polymer column composed of poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) eluted by tetrahydrofuran (around 100 mL). The POM-IL was the first to be recovered and, after the evaporation of THF, the catalyst was directly reused in another cycle. The oxidation products were collected right after the POM-IL from the column. When necessary, purification of reaction products was performed by recrystallization, pentane washing or silica plate. All data of the synthetized products are in accordance with those of compounds commercially available from Aldrich (Saint-Louis, Missouri, USA) and their analytical documents (see Aldrich website: https://www.
The catalyst was then separated from the reaction products by a reusable steric exclusion polymer column composed of poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) eluted by tetrahydrofuran (around 100 mL). The POM-IL was the first to be recovered and, after the evaporation of THF, the catalyst was directly reused in another cycle. The oxidation products were collected right after the POM-IL from the column. When necessary, purification of reaction products was performed by recrystallization, pentane washing or silica plate. All data of the synthetized products are in accordance with those of compounds commercially available from Aldrich (Saint-Louis, Missouri, USA) and their analytical documents (see Aldrich website: https://www. sigmaaldrich. com).
This paper is devoted to the development of a gas cell prototype installed in the beam path of the receivers of the 40 m ARIES telescope. It was designed to study the spectroscopy and chemistry of cold plasmas, with or without the action of UV photons. Section 2 describes the experimental setup, the data acquisition system, and its performances. Calibration procedures are explained in Section 3 while in Section 4 we describe the expected molecular thermal emission in the gas cell. Finally, in Section 5 we present the results obtained under static or flow modes with, or without, cold plasma or UV irradiation conditions.
Data acquisition The prototype of the gas cell was installed in the receiver room of the 40 m IGN radio telescope as shown in Figure  4. The receiver beam width along the axial axis of the cell (at 1/e intensity level) was always smaller than the diameters of the gas cell windows and the coil, allowing standard radio astronomical observations, if needed, during the experiments (see below and Figure  5 ). Three different experimental runs were carried out between October 2015 and November 2016. Observations were performed with a dual-polarization (left and right circular polarization) single-pixel 45 GHz receiver mounted in the Nasmyth focus. The feed horn, orthomode transducer and HEMT amplifiers of the receiver were cooled at cryogenic temperature (15 K) in a cryostat. The front end provides an instantaneous bandwidth of 9 GHz, from 41 to 50 GHz for each polarization but the intermediate frequency (IF) stage limits it to an instantaneous band of 2 GHz.
The software monitors the status of all devices, including the pressure sensors at the gas cell and the power of the radiofrequency oscillator when used. All parameters were stored in a database per scan for logging purposes. Data were recorded in ASCII files and converted on the fly into GILDAS compatible spectra and some status parameters were used to populate the headers of each scan. CLASS was later used for the analysis (see, http://www. iram. fr/IRAMFR/GILDAS).
Spectral sensitivity The measurements have been performed by frequency switching (for long integrations), or by switching between the cell filled with the experimental gas and the cell completely empty (for fast data acquisition), or by swiching the plasma on and off (see above). The switching speed depends on the stability of the re- Fig. 6. Effect on the system temperature of the windows used in the experiment. The receiver temperature was measured between 41. 5 and 49 GHz. The Quartz windows, which are best suited for high vacuum, have a poor performance and introduce a significant loss of sensitivity. The Upilex windows have a very good behaviour concerning transmission but are much more sensitive to stress when the chamber is evacuated. The thick lines correspond to the predicted receiver noise temperature by the model described in the text.
First, as discussed below, CS 2 could dissociate into CS and S. Both species can react with CS 2 and with the walls of the cell. In turn, CS could be photodissociated into C and S. Although wall effects have to be considered in order to study the whole chemistry in the cell, we have noticed that without UV light the CS 2 remains in gas phase as measured with the mass spectrometer for times much longer (the longest experiment under these conditions was one hour) than those of the experiment with UV light (minutes). The data shown in Figure  16  indicate that CS reaches its maximum abundance at ≃200 seconds, decreasing smoothly afterwards. The observed maximum intensity corresponds to a partial pressure of CS, P(CS), of ≃10 -3 mbar. The line broadening is produced essentially by the remaining gas, which, according to mass spectrometric data, is composed mainly of CS 2 , which partially photodissociates, and water desorbed from the walls under UV irradiation, maintaining nearly a constant total pressure, during the experiment.
Acknowledgements. The research leading to these results has received funding from the  European Research Council  under the European Union's  Seventh Framework Programme  (FP/2007-2013) / ERC-SyG-2013 Grant Agreement n. 610256 NANOCOSMOS and from spanish  MINECO   CSD2009-00038  (ASTROMOL) under the  Consolider-Ingenio Program. We also thank spanish  MINECO  for funding under grants  AYA2012-32032 ,  AYA2016-75066-C2-1-P ,  FIS2013-48087-C2-1-P ,  FIS2016-77726-C3-1-P ,  FIS2016-77578-R ,  MAT2014-54231-C4-1-P.
Introduction Computer simulations guide the development of nuclear facilities, such as fusion reactors and accelerator-driven systems for nuclear waste incineration. They provide estimates of observables, such as production rates of atomic elements and neutron multiplication factors, which help optimizing design characteristics with respect to efficiency and safety. An important prerequisite to perform a simulation is evaluated nuclear data in the form of an ENDF file. If this ENDF file contains besides cross sections and related quantities also the associated uncertainties as covariance matrices, the latter can be propagated through the simulation by means of perturbation theory. The additional information about uncertainties in the simulation results is of great value. For example, one wants to know whether an obtained neutron multiplication factor of 0.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A portion of this work was performed at the  Laboratoire National des Champs Magnétiques Intenses  of the CNRS, member of the  European Magnetic Field Laboratory. Another portion of this work was performed at the  National High Magnetic Field Laboratory , which is supported by the  National Science Foundation  Cooperative Agreement No. DMR-1157490 , the  State of Florida , and the  U. S. Department of Energy. O. C. C. was supported by a fellowship from the  Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). D. L. thanks  Agence Nationale de Recherche  ( UNESCOS  project  ANR-14-CE05-0007 ), the  Laboratoire d'Excellence LANEF  ( ANR-10-LABX-51-01 ) and the  Université Grenoble-Alpes  ( SMIng-AGIR ) for their support. L. T. thanks  ESPCI-ParisTech, Université Paris-Sud ,  CEA-Saclay  and the  Collège de France  for their hospitality and support, and the  École Polytechnique  ( ERC-319286 QMAC ) and LABEX  PALM  ( ANR-10-LABX-0039-PALM ) for their support, while this article was written.
Accordingly, the probability of emitting Bremsstrahlung gamma rays is increasing. In this manuscript we report gamma ray glows detected from an A340 aircraft at 12 km altitude over Northern Australia. Data from ground-based lightning location networks were synchronized with the data obtained on board with the measured 15 ms precision. It is shown how a distant lightning discharge terminates the glow and triggers another discharge from the aircraft. We mapped the aircraft path on a cloud temperature map and reconstructed the events timeline using onboard video camera. At the end we present the measured spectrum and discuss the possible physical mechanisms behind the glows.