dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Variations in the average background rate can show clouds passing under the balloon, as demonstrated in Fig. 15. Clouds tend to be more reflective than the ground or ocean. At night they scatter light from airglow, stars and other sources, and appear in the FT as regions of higher average background rate. The telemetry bandwidth for data downloads was reduced when one of the two Iridium Pilot data links failed. Thirty of the 40 hr of data recorded on board were downloaded. The downloaded data included 175,000 recorded triggers. To optimize bandwidth prioritization, most of the data from the last 3 nights were not downloaded because the  instrument was over high-cloud weather systems with poor viewing conditions. The flight was extended by controlled ballast releases. Unfortunately, the combination of the balloon leak and the emptied ballast hoppers led to an early controlled termination into the Pacific Ocean on May 6.
The effect of the lower altitude was twofold. It reduced the highest energy aperture by about a factor   A simulated energy distribution, based on the duration and nighttime altitudes of the SPB trajectory and the cosmic ray spectrum from  [38] , is shown in Fig. 18. The distribution yields expected an event rate of 0. 76 ± 0. 03 event/25. 1 hr when scaled to the duration of the mission flown, and assuming a clear atmosphere and low background conditions. (A total of 25. 1 hr of FT data were downloaded and analyzed. ) The uncertainty in the event rate is statistical, driven by the number of events in the simulation. For part of the mission, the balloon flew over high clouds that obscured the field of view. This effect  [39] [40] [41]  was estimated to reduce the event rate by about a factor of 2 for an expected rate of 0.
4 event/25 hr. Two independent searches for EAS events were performed on this data set. One search  [42]  involved scanning the data for triggers of potential interest, which were then classified into seven types. Of these triggers, 4128 were identified as having a duration between 3 and 50 GTUs and were visually scanned in detail. None showed a signature of a small or elongated cluster of pixels moving in a nearly straight line  in the PDM at a speed consistent with that of an EAS, which moves through the atmosphere infinitesimally close to the speed of light. The second search for EAS events involved using a feature extraction method to form a simpler representation of an event, after which data were classified as EAS or noise using established machine learning techniques  [43]. A training data set combined simulated EAS samples and noise samples from EUSO-SPB1 data.
The null observation of EAS events was consistent with an expectation of about 0. 4 EAS events for the data downloaded. This expectation value included an estimated factor-of-two reduction due to obscuration effects from high clouds. The mission raised the technical readiness level of the camera system flown and applied novel methods to test and characterize the fluorescence telescope in preflight field tests in the desert. Data from the field tests and the flight have also inspired the instrument design and mission planning of EUSO-SPB2 and future missions.
Acknowledgments This work was partially supported by  NASA ,  United States  grants  NNX13AH52G ,  NNX13AH53G ,  NNX13AH54G ,  NNX13AH55G ,  NNX16AG27G ,  80NSSC18K0477 ,  80NSSC18K0464 ,  80NSSC18K0246 , and  80NSSC19K0626 ; the  French Space Agency (CNES) ; the  Italian Space Agency (ASI)  through the  ASI INFN  agreement  2017-8-H. 0 ; the  Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation ; the  Basic Science Interdisciplinary Research Projects of RIKEN  and  JSPS   KAKENHI Grant  ( 22340063 ,  23340081 , and  24244042 ); the  Deutsches Zentrum für Luft-und Raumfahrt  and the  Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP)  funded by the  Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association (Germany) ;  National Science Centre Poland , grant  2017/27/B/ST9/02162.
LPC2E, CNRS, Université d'Orléans, Orléans, France. Titan, Saturn's biggest moon, is an ocean world, covered by organic materials and therefore one of the most promising astrobiological target in the Solar System, likely holding clues on the origin of life on Earth. That is why NASA has selected the Dragonfly mission to send in 2027 a rotorcraft lander to Titan and investigate its prebiotic chemistry and habitability. Making multiple flights (up to 24 in 2. 5 years, starting in 2034), Dragonfly will explore a variety of locations, from the Shangri-La dune field to the rim of the young impact crater Selk  (Lorenz et al. , 2018) , and therefore sample materials and determine surface properties in different geologic settings. The two permittivity probes -called DIEL-on board the Geophysical and Meteorological package (DraGMet) will be especially useful to characterize Dragonfly landing site environment.
In all campaigns, the dye laser was frequency stabilized to a HighFinesse WSU-10 wavelength meter. Given the large hyperfine splittings of the 𝐼 = 7∕2 + states, the laser wavelength was chosen to keep the Doppler-tuning voltage between 0 and 2 kV. Hyperfine structures were thus obtained by recording the number of photon counts observed by a Photo-Multiplier Tube as function of the wavelength in the rest frame of the atoms. Regular reference measurements were performed on 109 Ag using beams from an offline ion source  [26]  to detect possible drifts in wavemeter calibration or the ion beam energy. For all odd-𝐴 silver isotopes, two states could be observed in the hyperfine spectra (see Fig. 1 ). The analysis was performed using the SATLAS package  [27]. By taking the magnetic dipole 𝐴 and electric quadrupole 𝐵 constants in ratio with the moments of 109 Ag, the magnetic dipole (𝜇) and electric quadrupole (𝑄) moments of the isotopes of interest can be extracted.
Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by the  STFC  Grant Nos. ST/M006433/1 ,  ST/P003885/1 ,  ST/V001035/1 ,  ST/P004598/1  and  ST/P004423/1 , and by the  Polish National Science Centre  under Contract No. 2018/31/B/ST2/02220. RPDG received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under the  Marie Skłodowska-Curie  grant agreement No  844829. We acknowledge the  CSC-IT Center for Science Ltd. , Finland , for the allocation of computational resources. This project was partly undertaken on the Viking Cluster, which is a high performance compute facility provided by the  University of York. We are grateful for computational support from the  University of York High Performance Computing  service, Viking and the Research Computing team.
The funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under grant agreement No. 771036  ( ERC CoG MAIDEN)  and  Academy of Finland  (Grant Nos. 314733 ,  320062 ,  318043 ,  295207  and  327629 ) are gratefully acknowledged. We acknowledge  W. Nörtershäuser  for the use of the charge-exchange cell.
Data and MC samples The analysis is performed using the data collected between August and October 2022 with the ATLAS detector, in 𝑝𝑝 collisions at √ 𝑠 = 13. 6 TeV. After applying data-quality requirements  [31] , the data sample corresponds to an integrated luminosity of 29 fb -1. The average number of inelastic 𝑝𝑝 collisions in the dataset is about 42. MC simulated samples are used in the analysis to optimise the event selection, estimate the selection efficiencies and correlation for the efficiencies of identifying and reconstructing two 𝑏-tagged jets, represented by the 𝐶 𝑏 parameter, and predict contributions from various background processes. If not stated otherwise, a top-quark mass of 𝑚 𝑡 = 172. 5 GeV is used, in the MC simulated samples and cross-section calculations. The production of 𝑡 t events was simulated using the POWHEG BOX v2  [32] [33] [34] [35]  generator at next-to-leading-order (NLO) with the NNPDF3.
They were matched with the SHERPA parton shower  [49]  using the MEPS@NLO prescription  [50] [51] [52] [53]  using the set of tuned parameters developed by the SHERPA authors. The NNPDF3. 0NNLO set of PDFs was used. Decays of 𝑍∕𝛾 * → 𝑒 + 𝑒 -, 𝑍∕𝛾 * → 𝜇 + 𝜇 -and 𝑍∕𝛾 * → 𝜏 + 𝜏 -were simulated. The inclusive cross sections of the MC samples are normalised to NNLO in QCD and NLO in EW predictions, calculated using the MATRIX  [54]  program with the PDF4LHC21 PDF set. In both the MC generator requirement and in the MATRIX calculation, leptons before QED radiation are used. In the fiducial phase-space defined with lepton 𝑝 T > 27 GeV, |𝜂| < 2. 5 and 66 < 𝑚 𝓁𝓁 < 116 GeV, the predicted cross-section at NNLO in QCD and NLO in EW is 𝜎(𝑍) fid. = 746 ± 0. 7(integration) +3  -5 (scale) ± 21(PDF) pb for the 𝑍-boson decaying into a single lepton flavour and leptons before QED radiation.
0NLO set of PDFs. The events were interfaced with PYTHIA 8. 307 using the A14 tune and the NNPDF2. 3LO set of PDFs. Single-top-quark 𝑠-channel production was modelled using the POWHEG BOX v2  [33] [34] [35] 62]  generator at NLO in QCD in the five-flavour scheme with the NNPDF3. 0NLO  [36]  PDF set. The events were interfaced with PYTHIA 8. 307 using the A14 tune  [39]  and the NNPDF2. 3LO PDF set. However, 𝑡-channel and 𝑠-channel productions contribute only via fake and non-prompt leptons. The production of 𝑊 +jets was simulated with the SHERPA 2. 2. 12 generator with the same settings as the 𝑍-boson sample. The events were normalised to NNLO in QCD with NLO EW corrections calculated using the MATRIX software with the PDF4LHC21 PDF set. Samples of diboson final states (𝑉 𝑉 ) were simulated with the SHERPA 2.
307. The events generated with EPOS used the EPOS LHC tune, while the PYTHIA 8 events used the NNPDF2. 3 LO set of PDFs and parameter values set according to the A3 tune  [66]. PYTHIA simulates events that contain at least one high transverse momentum (𝑝 T ) jet, isolated photon or lepton from the decay of 𝑏-hadrons, while EPOS simulates all remaining events in the sample. The events are generated independently and a filter is applied to EPOS generated events to veto the events simulated by PYTHIA. The simulation has been reweighted to match the distribution of the number of primary vertices seen in data. After the event generation, the ATLAS detector response is simulated by the toolkit GEANT4  [67]  with the full simulation of the ATLAS detector  [68]. The simulated samples are processed with the same software framework as the real data.
[72]. The electron (muon) momentum is corrected using calibrations obtained from Run 2 (Run 3) with conservative uncertainties. Trigger SFs for both electron and muon triggers are measured in Run 3 in various data-taking periods and are applied to the simulation reflecting the relative luminosity of the individual periods. Jets are reconstructed using a Particle Flow algorithm  [73]  that exploits both the calorimeter and ID information. The anti-𝑘 𝑡  [74]  jet algorithm is used with radius parameter 𝑅 = 0. 4 implemented in the FastJet  [75]  software. The calibration of jets uses simulation, representing the Run 3 conditions, to correct the jet-energy scale in both simulation and data. Furthermore, the jet-energy scale in data is corrected using the in-situ calibration measured in Run 2  [76].
Acknowledgements We thank  CERN  for the very successful operation of the LHC, as well as the support staff from our institutions without whom ATLAS could not be operated efficiently. We acknowledge the support of  ANPCyT, Argentina ;  YerPhI, Armenia ;  ARC, Australia ;  BMWFW  and  FWF, Austria ;  ANAS ,  Azerbaijan ;  CNPq  and  FAPESP ,  Brazil ;  NSERC ,  NRC  and  CFI ,  Canada ;  CERN ;  ANID, Chile ;  CAS ,  MOST  and  NSFC, China ;  Minciencias, Colombia ;  MEYS CR, Czech Republic ;  DNRF  and  DNSRC ,  Denmark ;  IN2P3-CNRS  and  CEA-DRF/IRFU, France ;  SRNSFG, Georgia ;  BMBF ,  HGF  and  MPG, Germany ;  GSRI, Greece ;  RGC  and  Hong Kong SAR, China ;  ISF  and  Benoziyo Center, Israel ;  INFN, Italy ;  MEXT  and  JSPS, Japan ;  CNRST, Morocco ;  NWO, Netherlands ;  RCN ,  Norway ;  MEiN, Poland ;  FCT, Portugal ;  MNE/IFA, Romania ;  MESTD, Serbia ;  MSSR ,  Slovakia ;  ARRS  and  MIZŠ, Slovenia ;  DSI/NRF, South Africa ;  MICINN, Spain ;  SRC  and  Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden ;  SERI ,  SNSF  and  Cantons of Bern and Geneva, Switzerland ;  MOST, Taiwan ;  TENMAK ,  Türkiye ;  STFC ,  United Kingdom ;  DOE  and  NSF ,  United States of America.
In addition, individual groups and members have received support from  BCKDF ,  Canarie ,  Compute Canada  and CRC, Canada;  PRIMUS 21/SCI/017  and  UNCE SCI /013 ,  Czech Republic ;  COST ,  ERC ,  ERDF ,  Horizon 2020 ,  ICSC-NextGenerationEU  and  Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions ,  European Union ;  Investissements d'Avenir Labex, Investissements d'Avenir Idex and ANR, France ;  DFG  and  AvH Foundation, Germany ;  Herakleitos ,  Thales  and  Aristeia  programmes co-financed by  EU-ESF  and the  Greek NSRF, Greece ;  BSF-NSF  and  MINERVA, Israel ;  Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014-2021 ,  Norway ;  NCN  and  NAWA ,  Poland ;  La Caixa Banking Foundation ,  CERCA Programme Generalitat de Catalunya  and  PROMETEO  and  GenT Programmes Generalitat Valenciana ,  Spain ;  Göran Gustafssons Stiftelser, Sweden ;  The Royal Society  and  Leverhulme Trust, United Kingdom.
In the last decade, space missions have brought fascinating new data which challenge our concepts of impacts in the Early Solar System. The mission Rosetta at comet 67P, for instance, has revealed a complex cometary world where collisions, from small to catastrophic, played a significant role. Recent work  [3, 4]  suggests that the topography of cometary nuclei and potential layering are shaped by processes which are primarily ancient. Current erosion does not appear sufficient to create features such as deep pits and tall cliffs over the lifetime of a comet in the Inner Solar System. Could they be due to impacts ? Or early activity in the Centaur phase ? On a larger scale, dynamical simulations argue that objects like the Jupiter Family Comets may have been totally disrupted by catastrophic collisions.
While models show that the high porosity and volatile content of cometary nuclei would survive such impacts, it is not clear whether the deeper structural features like layers can be preserved. From the same data set, different authors come to different conclusions with respect to collisions in the early outer planetary system (summarized in  [5] ). Furthermore, different modeling approaches  [6, 7, 8]  lead to distinct results. Overall, there is quite some confusion as to how to interpret the cratering record on very porous, icy objects, in the Outer Solar System. This is further complicated by the fact that we may not be able to properly recognize impact features on such bodies. Here we report on the results obtained by the OCEOSS (Outcome of Collisions in the Early Outer Solar System) ISSI group.
Study location The incised viscous flow feature (51. 24 • W, 42. 53 • S), which was noted by  Berman et al. , (2021, their Fig. 7) , is located in western Nereidum Montes, in Mars' southern mid-latitudes. Nereidum Montes is a mountainous region, which forms the northern margin of the ancient Argyre Planitia impact basin (Fig. 1 ). It hosts abundant deposits interpreted to comprise subsurface water ice, including VFFs and ice-rich mantling deposits  (Milliken et al. , 2003; Berman et al. , 2021). Subsurface ice has been detected in these deposits at sites within and near to Nereidum Montes, both from subsurface reflections detected by SHARAD  (Berman et al. , 2021)  and in natural exposures formed by active mass wasting within a gully  (Khuller and Christensen, 2021). Additionally, 'ice consistency' maps from the Subsurface Water Ice Mapping project, which combine multiple orbital datasets and techniques to derive a measure of the consistency of those datasets with the presence of subsurface ice across regions, find moderate ice-consistency values across Nereidum Montes, in both the 1-5 m and > 5 m depth zones  (Putzig et al.
Basemap data and digital terrain model Structures on the surface of the incised VFF are visible in both 6 m/ pixel Context Camera (CTX;  Malin et al. , 2007)   Following the procedure of  Kirk et al. (2008) , we used the USGS Integrated Software for Images and Spectrometers (ISIS 3) and BAE Systems SOCET SET to generate a 1 m/pixel digital terrain model (DTM) and a 25 cm/pixel orthorectified image from HiRISE stereo pair images ESP_051036_1370 (0. 264 m/pixel) and ESP_015947_1370 (0. 254 m/ pixel). Based on the approach of  Kirk et al. (2008) , we estimate the vertical precision of our HiRISE DTM to be 0. 20 m, given a stereo convergence angle between the input images of 14. 8 • , and assuming an RMS pixel matching error of 0. 2 pixels. To minimize distortions for our structural analyses (Section 3.
We supplemented these data with a row of additional points 150 m from the eastern headwall of the VFF, in which the bed elevation is set to the surface elevation of the VFF at the point minus the inferred VFF thickness based on the depth of the gully incision. These additional inferred points were needed to preserve the break of slope between the headwall up-ice of the VFF to the east (visible just upstream of transect b-b' in Fig. 5 ) and the base of the gully. They also prevented negative calculated ice thickness if the bed elevation was interpolated solely from marginal elevations. Our model domain (Fig. 9A ) encompassed the southern flow unit, but did not cover the entirety of the northern flow unit due to the diminishing constraints on bed topography away from the gully incision. We initialized ISSM by calculating the isothermal steady-state velocity of the VFF using the mean annual present-day surface temperature at ~40 • S of 210 K (from Mars Climate Database;  Forget et al.
Acknowledgements This manuscript was prepared while FEGB was in receipt of a  Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellowship. FEGB also acknowledges financial support from the  Région Pays de la Loire GeoPlaNet  project, which facilitated an in-person collaboration visit with SJC in May 2019 (convention No 2016-10982). SJC is funded for her HiRISE work by the  French Space Agency CNES. JMD gratefully acknowledges  UK Space Agency  support ( ST/R002355/1 ;  ST/V002678/1 ;  ST/W002566/1 ;  ST/ W002566/2 ). We thank  Stefano Nerozzi  and  Joe Levy  for thoughtful reviews which improved the manuscript. We also thank  Isaac Smith  for insightful discussions on SHARAD radar, and  Bryn Hubbard  for discussions on structural glaciology. We gratefully acknowledge the hard work of the various teams who brought Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to fruition, and who continue to deliver fascinating data more than one and a half decades after MRO's arrival at Mars.
Data availability Orbital datasets used herein are freely available from the NASA Planetary Data System at https://ode. rsl. wustl. edu/mars/. CTX images are available from the University of Arizona at http://viewer. mars. asu. edu/viewer/ctx, and HiRISE products are available from the HiRISE website at https://www. uahirise. org/. The HiRISE DTM and orthoimage we generated for this study are available at https://doi. org/10. 15131/shef. data. 23741973. v1. The Ice Sheet and Sea Level System Model (ISSM) used herein is available at: https://issm. jpl. nasa. gov/.
Dataset ChemCam measures the chemical composition of targeted rocks and soils within a few meters of the rover using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Quantification of eight major rockforming oxides is performed routinely  [12]. Each ChemCam analysis consists of a raster of several points a few millimeters apart from each other, and each point itself consists of a series of laser shots (typically 30). For bedrock targets, this approach allows removal of unwanted contributions from Ca-sulfate veins or soil material by discarding the corresponding points [e. g. , 8]. On sol 3007, ChemCam experienced a technical issue, which required halting the use of the laser during the time of the investigation, while imaging and passive spectroscopy activities continued. LIBS analyses on Mars targets resumed on sol 3107, in the Mont Mercou area (Fig.
Introduction The development of VESPA in the Europlanet 2024 program encompasses the improvement of Virtual Observatory (VO) services to enlarge and update its content. VESPA services use the EPN-TAP protocol defined for Planetary Science and Heliophysics. As a restriction of the more general TAP protocol, such services benefit from TAP-compliant tools and protocols previously defined in the VO  [1]. The development of three Planetary services will be described here. The creation of a service providing outputs of a model of topography of exoplanets called EXOTOPO, and the update of two services providing profiles of various parameters of Mars atmosphere : SPICAM data and MCD simulations. These services are provided with user manuals linked in their description to explain the main search criteria that can be used.
Dataset: The new service EXOTOPO gives access to simulation results based on a statistical model of topographies of (exo)planet surfaces (3D visualisator :  [2] ). The model is based on 3 parameters (H : degree of smoothness, C1 : degree of intermittency, alpha : degree of multifractality), see Landais et. al 2018  [3]  for more information. A new data set was generated to provide a larger range of parameter variation  [4]. For each combination of parameters (H, C1, alpha and the Random Seed identifier), 5 types of data outputs are provided (see Fig. 1 ): An elevation map ; An earth-like colorized texture with continents and oceans, with and without hill-shading ; A gray texture map, small body-like, with and without hill-shading ; additionally, two spherical plots of altitude in 3D with the hill-shaded textures are provided as thumbnails of elevation maps.
Implementation : The server hosting DaCHS is deployed on Docker from a VM (Virtual Machine) in ESPRI data center. A reverse-proxy on ESPRI redirects the server address to https://dachs-vo. ipsl. fr for outside. Data files are directly uploaded by ESPRI and linked in the service. The topographic map is provided in fits format with geological referencement and texture maps are provided in png, both are readable by VO tools like Aladin.
Datasets : The MCD (Mars Climate Database  [5] ) is a database of Mars atmospheric parameters based on a modelization of Mars atmosphere developed in LMD (Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique). The database provides various quantities (pressure, temperature, wind, radiative fluxes, composition,. ) for a list of scenarios of dust and storm and for Martian years 24 to 32 (see the user manual  [6]  for more information). The MCD can be accessed through a web interface, or a full version can be downloaded and interrogated by a Fortran function. The VO service implemented in VESPA provides an alternative access to the MCD which allows the selection of data subsets using various research criteria.
Implementation : The servers for MCD and SPICAM services are administered directly at the LMD and LATMOS laboratories, on VM that runs on debian 10 and hosting gavodachs2, and Apache configured for cgi (Common Gateway Interface). Data from SPICAM measurements are directly uploaded using Apache whereas MCD profiles are computed on-the-fly using cgi-scripts in python to call mcd and generate queried profiles. Both data from MCD and SPICAM are provided in VOtable format  [11]  which can be handled by VO tools such as TOPCAT and be clearly referenced.
Conclusion : The Virtual Observatory (VO) addresses the issue of providing FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) access to scientific data. VESPA services apply this paradigm to resources in Planetary Science and Heliophysics, with uniformed metadata, a powerful query interface to select data, and specialized formats for various data types. Furthermore, the VO provides the SAMP interface, a very simple way to plot and compare data that can be obtained from various services. The Europlanet-2024 Research Infrastructure project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 871149.