dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Acknowledgments We thank  M. Verweij  for help in lipid analyses,  M. Grego  for support in algal culturing,  S. Vreugdenhil  for help in RNA extraction,  A. Abdala  for assistance in bioinformatic analyses and  R. Langelaan  from  Naturalis  for help in electron microscopy. We thank  Utrecht Sequencing Facility (USEQ)  for providing sequencing service and data. USEQ is subsidized by the  University Medical Center Utrecht, Hubrecht Institute  and  Utrecht University.
Funding This research was funded by the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the European Union's  Seventh Framework Program  ( FP7/2007-2013 )  ERC  grant agreement [339206]. Financial support from the  Netherlands Earth System Science Centre (NESSC)  is provided to S. S. and J. S. S. D. The  French National Research Agency  supports J. L. and E. M. ( ANR-10-LABEX-04 ;  ANR-11-BTBR-0008 ;  ANR-17-EURE-0003 ).
Acknowledgments This work was performed, in partnership with the SAS PIVERT, within the frame of the  French Institute for the Energy Transition (Institut pour la Transition Energétique (ITE) P. I. V. E. R. T. (www. institut-pivert. com)selected as an  Investment for the Future ("Investissements d'Avenir "). This work was supported, as part of the Investments for the Future, by the  French Government  under the reference  ANR-001-01. The authors thank as well the members of the  laboratory « Biologie Intégrative du Métabolisme Lipidique, INRA ,  UMR1319 ,  Jouy-en-Josas ,  France »  for providing the JMY5578 strain used in this study.
, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The transmission spectra were obtained in the range of 600-4000 cm -1 at a resolution of 4 cm -1. An average of 10 scans was carried out for each sample to obtain a spectrum. All of the samples were tested in duplicate with plain KBr pellets as the blank. The acquisition and processing of spectra were carried out using the Agilent MicroLab PC software v. 5. 3 (Agilent Technologies Inc. ). Total solid (TS) content was determined after drying the samples in an air oven (Thermoline Scientific Equipment, Wetherill Park, Australia) at a temperature of 105 • C to a point where the weight no longer changed. Dried burgers were fired in an electric furnace (Labec Laboratory Pty Ltd. , Marrickville, NSW, Australia) at a high temperature of 550 • C to burn all organic matter and determine the mineral content.
The small difference is likely due to the electrical contact between the NiO x film and the electrodes rather than the intrinsic activity of the catalyst. The TOFs of Au-NiO x -Fe and GC-NiO x -Fe are largely independent of the quantity of NiO x (Figure  S8 ). These data validate the treatment of NiO x as a support in the calculation of TOFs of our catalysts and show that it outperforms all alkaline OER catalysts reported so far. The specific activity (J s ), which is the current density averaged by the electrochemical surface area, is a parameter that is complementary to TOF in evaluating the intrinsic activity of electrocatalysts. 8 For a direct comparison, the specific activities of our NiO x -Fe catalyst and NiFeO x deposited on the same supports (NF and GC) were measured (Supporting Information).
For NF-AC-NiO x -Fe, Au-NiO x -Fe, and GC-NiO x -Fe, each sample is measured 2-3 times, and the raw data are shown in Tables  S1-S3. For all iron-containing samples except G-FeCoW, iron is assumed as the active species; for G-FeCoW, Co is taken as the active species. n/a indicates not available, due to lack of data or influence by mass transfer. b NiFeO x was prepared according to the method reported in the literature  11  (Experimental Section). Each sample is measured 2 times, and the raw data are shown in Table  S4. c TOFs were taken from the samples on GC reported in the literature. 11 J s values are taken from the continuously deposited film on Au reported in the literature  9  (for a calculation of J s , see the Supporting Information). These numbers represent the highest reported numbers among various samples (see Table  S6 ).
Acknowledgements The present work is carried out in the framework of a PhD thesis funded by  Air Liquide. It was the result of collaboration between the  Institute of Electrochemical Process Engineering  ( IEK-3 ) of the  Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH , and the  Institute  for techno-economics for energy systems (I-tésé) of the CEA. The work of the IEK-3 was supported by the  Helmholtz Association  under the  Joint Initiative  " EnergySystem 2050-A Contribution of the Research Field Energy.
■ EXPERIMENTAL SECTION Fabrication of BiVO 4 Thin-Film Photoanodes. Thin films of BiVO 4 were deposited on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrates via spray pyrolysis. The details of the experimental procedure can be found elsewhere. 18 In short, FTO substrates were first coated with ∼80 nm of SnO 2 while the substrate temperature was kept at 425 °C, and subsequently coated with 200 nm of BiVO 4 while the substrate was kept at 450 °C. The samples were then annealed in an air-flushed tube furnace for 2 h at 460 °C. X-ray Raman Scattering Spectroscopy. All X-ray Raman scattering spectroscopy data were gathered using the dedicated large solid angle spectrometer at the ID20 beamline of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. 19 These experiments were performed in air under atmospheric conditions.
After 12 h, the electrodes were removed from the electrochemical cell, quickly dried under a flow of nitrogen, and moved to the experimental hutch for the XRS measurements. The preparation procedure was performed very quickly to ensure the XRS measurements could start less than 15 min after the sample was removed from the electrochemical cell. During the XRS measurements, the incident energy was scanned at a fixed analyzer energy of 9. 7 keV to create energy losses in the vicinity of the core-electron excitations of interest (L 2,3 of V and K edge of O). The data collected by three pixelated Maxipix detectors  20  were integrated over appropriated regions of interest, then averaged over the 36 Si(660) analyzer crystals, and treated with the XRS-tools program package. A background accounting for the valence Compton profile was subtracted as described elsewhere.
21 Finally, a normalization over an area of 40 eV across the edge was applied. Eight energy loss scans per sample were measured at room temperature, each one at a new sample position to avoid beam radiation damage. All XRS measurements were checked for consistency prior to summation to rule out radiation damage of the sample induced by the X-ray beam. Ab initio XRS simulations at the O K edge were performed with the finite difference method near-edge structure (FDMNES) software package. 22, 23 The calculated spectra were compared to both photocharged and dark samples. The input parameter files of the calculations are reported in the Supporting Information (SI). The vanadium L edges were simulated with Crispy 24 using a multiplet analysis approach. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy. XPS spectra were obtained using a Thermo Scientific K-Alpha apparatus equipped with an Al K-Alpha X-ray source and a Flood Gun for charge compensation of the sample.
Parameters used for the measurements were: spot size, 400 μm; pass energy, 50 eV; energy step size, 0. 1 eV; dwell time, 50 ms; 10 scans in the vicinity of the Bi 4f, C 1s, Na 1s, O 1s, and V 2p orbital binding energy with alternative scan numbers for B 1s (200 scans) and the valence band (50 scans). Samples were rinsed and dried before measuring. UV-Vis Spectroscopy. UV-vis transmission measurements were performed on the reference, dark, and the photocharged BiVO 4 samples using a PerkinElmer Lambda 900 UV/Vis/NIR spectrometer. The transmission measurements were performed inside an integration sphere in the transmittance mode (%T). Data were recorded with a 15°tilt in the sample, with respect to the incident light beam to minimize reflection. A scan rate of 250 nm/min and an integration time of 0.
The broadening of the mixed metal sp-O 2p peak implies the existence of multiple orbitals that partly overlap in energy. This can be caused by the presence of multiple V oxidation states that all have molecular orbitals of slightly different energy. The main difference between the dark and PC-BiVO 4 XRS spectra is the filling with electrons of the V 3d states of the dark sample, as observed from a difference in peak height ratio between the pre-edge peak (V 3d-O 2p) and the main peak (mixed metal sp-O 2p) in the O K edge spectrum. This lowering of the pre-edge peak implies a filling of the d states, resulting in a higher concentration of electrons for the dark sample compared to the reference and photocharged samples. The reason for this difference is not immediately obvious, so to further elucidate and quantify the influence of the photocharging treatment on the electronic structure of BiVO 4 , ab initio simulations at the O K edge were performed with the FDMNES program package.
Instead, the screening parameter can help making the trends of the spectra quantifiable. The effect of changing the screening parameter is shown in Figure  S7. If the effects of the dilatorb and the screening value are now combined, it is possible to effectively simulate the XRS spectra. The best fitting simulations are shown in Figures  4  and S8. The reference spectrum (Figure  S8 ) was fitted with a dilatorb value of 0. 1 and no screening potential. The dark sample is fitted with a screening value of 0. 1 and the dilatorb set to 0. 1. The photocharged sample, on the other hand, is fitted with a screening parameter of 0. 2 and a dilatorb value of 0. 1. The default value for the screening parameter is 0 in the FDMNES software, so the lack of a defined screening value in the reference sample should be understood as full screening.
The XRS results from this work suggest that there is a severe alteration in the surface electronic structure when BiVO 4 comes in contact with an electrolyte, even without illumination. This is also supported by the changes visible in the data obtained from XPS and HR-SEM. The initiator of this surface restructuring could be the surface adsorption of electrolyte anionic species, borate in the case of the PC-BiVO 4 and hydroxide in the case of dark BiVO 4. The heterojunctions formed as a result of this surface adsorption improve the charge separation close to the surface and thus suppress surface recombination. Since other metal oxides  13, 14, 16  were also shown to photocharge like BiVO 4 , these findings could be generalized. Additionally, this time-dependent surface layer formation shows that the metal oxide/electrolyte interface is very dynamic.
Electrophoresis gel image processing The electrophoresis gel was scanned by a Chemidoc MP device (BioRad, Hercules, USA) and processes by the software Imagelab ver. 5. 1. (BioRad, Hercules, USA) with the following parameters: 30 s exposure time, "Red epi" illumination and 695/55 filter. The relative band intensity values were calculated relatively to the control sample (no HHP treatment corresponds to 100%).
Micro-differential scanning calorimetry (Micro-DSC) A precise amount of extract of about 500 mg was introduced in a micro-DSC device Setaram MicroDSC III (Caluire-et-Cuire, France) with linear temperature profile of 0. 5 K minute -1 from 25 °C to 100 °C. The data treatment software associated with the device and used for the peak integration is SETSOFT2000 v. 1. 2. The parameters measured on the thermograms are: peak temperature (Tp), peak onset (Ton) and peak offset (Toff) temperatures and peak enthalpy (through integration). One measurement was done per repetition, which is equivalent to 3 measurements per pressure level.
Statistical analysis The statistical analysis of Micro-DSC data, principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchic cluster analysis (HCA) were performed using the software Statistica v. 8. by StatSoft, Inc (Paris, France). The statistical analysis of other data was processed by XLStat v. 14. 0. by Addinsoft (Paris, France). Regardless of the software used, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and confidence intervals were performed to determine significant differences between the samples for a given parameter. Significance was established at p < 0. 05. ANOVA showing significant differences lead to the use of Newman-Keuls pair test.
Experiments The experiment procedure based on measurements using a DLTS spectrometer The Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) was developed in 1974 by DV Lang  [3] , to investigate "deep" level in the space of semiconductor structures load in PN junction or Schottky barriers. The DLTS technique is connected on the measurement of transient capacitances resulting from the relaxation process after electrical excitation as a function of temperature. The experiment procedure based on DLTS spectrometer is what follows: at first, the internal electronic defects are filled during a voltage pulse applied onto the semi-conductor junction, in a second phase starting after the pulse, the output voltage is measured. In diode or simple semi-conductor junction, the recorded data responds to an Arrhenius law that allows the determination of the main parameters of the defects as the activation energy and the effective capture section.
In complex systems as PV modules in which we are concerned, the recorded data allows the determination of the behavior of the module after the appearance of a disruption of its operation. Characteristics of the PV modules under test and experimental conditions In this experiment, we used commercial solar modules 4x4 (16 cells) 2V, 60 mA and 0. 12W, collected from the local consumer market. The experimental procedure is schematically presented in Fig. 2. In a first phase, the modules are stressed as explained in Refs  [1, 7]. The experimental conditions of this "stressed phase" are that the electric stress was created in modules by injecting in dark environment and during 10mn for each level of stress, an inverse electric current equal to 20mA, 30mA. We have applied this procedure at various fixed temperature levels equal to RT, 50°C, 75°C.
Computational Details We performed DFT calculations of bulk rutile TiO 2 , bulk anatase TiO 2 , and their corresponding surface slab models using the projector augmented wave (PAW) method as implemented in the Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Package (VASP)  (Kresse and Furthmüller, 1996; Kresse and Joubert, 1999). A plane-wave expansion of 500 eV was used. The electronic iterations were continued until the energy difference from the previous step became smaller than 10 -7 eV, and the geometry optimization was iterated until all atomic forces became smaller than 0. 02 eV/Å. We optimized the bulk structures using the PBE functional  (Perdew et al. , 1996a)  with the Ŵ-centered k-mesh, with grid size of 0. 4 Å -1 (6 × 6 × 4 and 5 × 5× 2 for rutile and anatase phases, respectively). We then employed these PBE-relaxed geometries to obtain the α parameters of scPBE0 and the self-consistent U parameters.
To obtain the α of scPBE0 for each phase, we calculated the static dielectric constants using the perturbation expansion after discretization (PEAD) method  (Nunes and Gonze, 2001; Souza et al. , 2002). Since convergence of the dielectric constant is slower than that of total energy, we used the grid size of 0. 3 Å -1 for the k-mesh in the PEAD calculations. We employed Quantum Espresso (QE) code  (Giannozzi et al. , 2009 (Giannozzi et al. , , 2017) )  to obtain the self-consistent U parameters, while all other calculations were performed using VASP. This was due to the lack of implementation of the calculation of the selfconsistent U parameters in the official VASP code. During QE calculations, we used PAW potentials and the PBE functional in a manner analogous to that used for the VASP calculations.
We employed the Poisson-Boltzmann model to include the dielectric screening effect of the medium, as implemented in VASPsol code  (Mathew et al. , 2014; Mathew and Hennig, 2016). We considered an electrolyte consisting of an aqueous solution of monovalent anions and cations in 1M concentrations, by using a relative permittivity of 78. 4 and a Debye length of 3 Å. Figure  4B  shows the band alignments of TiO 2 aligned with respect to the theoretically determined absolute electrode potential of 4. 6 V  (Mathew and Hennig, 2016)  instead of the vacuum level. We first compared the band edge positions with the reduction potential of H + /H 2 (0. 0 V vs. NHE) and the oxidation potential of O 2 /H 2 O (+1. 23 V vs. NHE). From the PBE and scPBE+U results, the VBMs of the rutile (110) surface lie at a lower potential than the oxidation potential of O 2 /H 2 O, which is inconsistent with a previous experimental finding that TiO 2 is one of the most-active water-splitting photocatalyst materials  (Zhao and Liu, 2014; Ge et al.
FUNDING This work was supported by the  Creative Materials Discovery Program  (Grant  2017M3D1A1039378 ) and the  French-Korean STAR Program  (No. NRF2017K1A3A1A21013734 ) through the  National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF). We also acknowledge the grant funded by the  Ministry of Science and ICT of Korea (MSIT)  (No. NRF-2017R1A5A1015365 ).
Indicators and data selected for the current research In our study, we rely on the use of what is known in the literature as transport sustainability indicators  [2]  [4] [6]  [8]. The ones chosen for our research reflect sustainability principles and help to detect whether countries move away from or towards a sustainable transport sector. For this purpose, we employ panel data  to detect trends and, thus, to conclude based on the detected trajectories. The paper does this by employing three main indexes: i) carbon intensity of transport sector (CIT), ii) carbon footprint of transport sector (CFT), and iii) transport sustainability index (TSI). Carbon intensity of transport sector is assessed as CO 2 emissions from transport in tonnes per one million units of current USD GDP (latest data from OECD Transport Statistics).
Statistics Statistics was performed using GraphPad prism 5. 0 (San Diego, CA, USA) and R  [36]. One-way and two-way ANOVA were used to test the statistical significance of mean differences among different species and over time. The level of significance was always set at 5%. The logistic function  [37, 38]  was fit to the biovolume versus time curves, and the maximal cell biovolume (i. e. , the biovolume at the plateau) and the specific growth rate (µ) were obtained in order to make quantitative comparisons between the species. Correlation matrices, using Pearson's coefficient, were computed using the package "corrplot"  [39]  present in R to investigate the relationship among structural parameters (obtained from CLSM) and biofilms macromolecular composition (FTIR ratios). All results are reported as mean and standard deviations of several independent biological replicates.
Biofilm Biochemical Characterization by ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy and Correlation Analysis with Structural Data The average FTIR spectra of the biofilms at the different sampling times (days 2, 7, and 11) are reported in Figure  S3. C. autotrophica and P. purpureum were the species that presented the greatest macromolecular changes over time. b, d, f, h ) coverage of four different monospecific microalgae biofilms after 2, 7, and 11 days of maturation. The vertical profiles are reported as the percentage of coverage of cells or of EPS obtained from the z-stacks acquired at the confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The vertical profiles are reported as the mean and standard deviation of at least four independent biological replicates. In addition, the depth of the maximum cell density presented a positive correlation with the average biofilm thickness (R 2 = 0.
Therefore, the selection of a microalgae strain for further cultivation in biofilm-based systems is a crucial step for the whole process, as specific structural features may be more or less advantageous under a certain set of culture conditions. Future studies will be required to address how hydrodynamics and the fluctuating light conditions, which are characteristic of outdoor cultivation systems, influence the structures and composition of algal biofilms. The data recorded in this study may be used to feed and calibrate photosynthetic growth models.
Acknowledgements This work has been performed in scope of  International Doctoral Program in Functional Materials (IDS-FunMat, Erasmus Mundus)  and funded by the  European Union. We would like to express our gratitude to the Fundação para a Ciência e  Tecnologia (FCT)  for the funding under the contracts  M-ERA. NET/0002/2012  and  UID/QUI/00100/2013. We would also like to acknowledge M ª  Joao Carmezim ,  Sabine Goma  for performing the GIXD experiments,  Catherine Denage  and  Philippe Dagault  for their general assistance,  Stephane Le Blond de Plouy  for performing SEM images at the  Centre de MicroCaractérisation Raimond Castaing  ( UMS 3623 , 3 rue caroline Aigle, 31400 Toulouse, FRANCE),  Marion Gayot  for performing TEM images at  PLACAMAT (Plateforme Aquitaine de Caractérisation des Matériaux UMS 3626 CNRS-Université de Bordeaux , 33600 Pessac, FRANCE),  Philipe Legros  and  François Weill (PLACAMAT)  for their SEM and TEM assistance.
3 ). The patterns only show the presence of pure TiO 2 with anatase and rutilecrystal structures, which is in good agreement with the standard data from the JCPDS PDF card 00-021-1272 and 04-003-0648, respectively. Fig. 4  presents the XPS spectra of the Au 4f and Pd 3d XPS regions in the catalysts. Different Au 4f and Pd 3d photoelectron peaks corresponding to surface gold and palladium species were found depending on the catalysts' formulation. Because Au and Pd can easily form alloys, they can affect the binding energy of each other. 28 n all the AuPd catalysts, the Au 4f 7/2 photoelectron peak was located at a BE value between 83. 22 and 85. 99 eV, as reported in Table  2. These values are typical of metallic Au 0 and oxidized Au d+ species, respectively. 29, 30 The curve tting of the Au 4f corelevel spectrum was performed by using two spin-orbit split Au 4f 7/2 and Au 4f 5/2 components, separated by 3.
Samples of acetylated lignin were thus dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (THF, 1 mg/mL), filtered through a 0. 45 µm filter (Whatman, Maidstone, UK), and then 20 µL of the solution was injected in the chromatograph (Shimadzu Prominence HPLC system, Kioto, Japan) equipped with a UV detector at 280 and 254 nm. A column sequence consisting of a Shodex GPC KF-G guard column (Munich, Germany), a Shodex GPC KF-806L column (Munich, Germany) and a Phenogel™ 5 µm 100A column (Le Pecq, France) operating at 30 • C were used to eluate lignin with a THF flow rate of 1 mL min -1. Standard polystyrene samples were used to plot a calibration curve. Data were collected and analysed with LabSolutions LCGC (Shimadzu, Kioto, Japan) software.
The mixture was heated at 120 C during 19 hours and washed by centrifugation in Isopar G. 23, 24  X-Ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were carried out on a PANalytical X'PERT PRO diffractometer equipped with an Xcelerator detector, using Cu(Ka 1 /Ka 2 ) radiation with a back lter to avoid the uorescence of Co ions/atoms when copper source is used. The diffractograms were recorded on 5-120 2q range with a time per step chosen in order to get 10 000 cps in intensity for the main diffractogram peak. Diffractograms were rened with the Rietveld renement method using FULLPROF® program package. 25, 26 The unit-cell parameters, the atomic positions, the cationic distribution (cation inversion parameter) were then rened (with xed Debye Waller factors) on the basis of the Fd 3m space group corresponding to the spinel structure.