dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
2019 ). The red line shows the best fit to the SFMS at z = 1-3 following  Leja et al. (2022)  and  Whitaker et al. (2014). The REQUIEM-2D galaxies are shown with the circles. For these galaxies, the stellar masses are the total stellar mass formed in all spatial bins and the SFR is sum of the SFRs of individual bins (see Sections 2-4). MRG-M2129 is on the SFMS because it has a dust-obscured star-forming component (see Section 5). Both parameters are corrected assuming a linear gravitational magnification. We use the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) to access all publicly available HST WFC3 and Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) data (see Table  1 ) along with the REQUIEM-2D Cycle 26 HST program (HST-GO-15663). All HST and Spitzer data are reduced using the "Grism redshift & line analysis software for space-based slitless spectroscopy," or Grizli  (Brammer 2016).
Constraining Photometric Fluxes and Morphologies After reducing HST and Spitzer data, we measure photometric fluxes that are major components of our joint spectrophotometric fitting. We first construct HST point-spread functions (PSFs) using Grizli. In this step, Grizli registers predefined empirical PSFs, retrieved from MAST  (Anderson 2016) , of each filter for the existing mosaics using the spatial resolution and orientation angles of the contributing exposures. We also construct Spitzer PSFs in a similar way to the HST PSFs. To build our Spitzer PSFs, we first utilize the rich data set in the GOODS-S field and construct the "base" empirical PSFs in each filter on a 0 1 pixel scale. Then, we mimic the visits of the telescope over the REQUIEM fields, building our position-dependent PSFs on a 5″ × 5″ grid, in a box with (a minimum of) 30″ on a side around the target.
g. , Figure  2  in  Akhshik et al. 2021, around 0. 01 Gyr). We explicitly check this effect for MRG-P0918 by changing this timescale from 0. 01 to 0. 015 and 0. 02 Gyr and refit the model. The artifacts move in a consistent manner, appearing at the assumed dust1 timescale. To avoid adding artifacts into the recovered SFH, we instead define 20 time bins for all samples in the model. 24  We note, however, that the requiem2d code is fully capable of fitting the finest lookback time resolution (∼70-90 bins) produced by FSPS if required. For those targets with Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) 1. 3 mm detections, MRG-M0138 and 22 Using smaller apertures is not suitable when the galaxy has color gradients. The radius here is only measuring distances perpendicular to the axis of symmetry, and the full size of the banana aperture is indeed larger (see Figure  2 ).
We also use the average gravitational magnification to avoid making the aperture large perpendicular to the axis of symmetry in the case of extreme magnifications such as MRG-M1341. MRG-M2129, we carefully examine the distribution of the dust continuum emission. In both sources, the dust emission is unresolved in the ∼1-1 5 ALMA data  (Whitaker et al. 2021). While this resolution is significantly coarser than our spatially resolved bins, the fact that the emission is pointlike implies that there is some information about the spatial distribution of the 1. 3 mm flux in the existing data. We performed a number of tests to determine the level of dust emission in each resolved bin that would be consistent with the existing ALMA data, jointly fitting for the 1. 3 mm flux density of a series of unresolved point sources with positions fixed to the centers of each of our resolved bins.
This analysis suggests that for both MRG-M0138 and MRG-M2129, the 1. 3 mm emission is associated with the three central bins, though the distribution of flux among these bins is essentially unconstrained. In other words, the existing ALMA data constrain the total dust emission in these sources and localize it to the central three bins in each source. Therefore, in our fitting procedure we sum the predicted 1. 3 mm flux density of the central three bins and compare this to the observed 1. 3 mm emission, while for the exterior bins we use only upper limits on the millimeter flux. We implement the ALMA semi-resolved flux in the Bayesian model using the integrated likelihood (e. g. , Section 4. 3 of Stan Development Team 2020); i. e. , for those bins with only an upper limit detection, the integral of the flux likelihood up to that upper limit is included in the Bayesian fitting.
Results The requiem2d code provides the posterior of different parameters as well as the posterior predictive distributions. We show the spectral energy distributions (SEDs), the 1D collapsed grism spectra, and the posterior predictive distributions of each REQUIEM-2D target in Figure  3  here and Figures 9-14 in Appendix C. The SED fit to the REQUIEM-2D sample is shown in the left panels of Figures  3  and 9 -14. We include the Spitzer IRAC channels 1 and 2 as constraints by imposing likelihoods for the global fluxes that are normally distributed with the observed global values and their uncertainties as means and standard deviations, and they are modeled by the summed fluxes of the individual bins. In other words, these data points are not spatially resolved like the HST photometric bands.
Therefore, contamination from nearby sources in WFC3/G141 grism data remains significant for three targets: MRG-P0918, MRG-S1522, and MRG-M0454. We show the collapsed 1D spectrum of the contamination in green. The contamination is modeled and removed before fitting following  Akhshik et al. (2020) , but this procedure is not perfect and therefore the shape of the 1D collapsed spectra is affected to some extent for the mentioned targets (Figures  11, 12 , and 14, right panels). However, these irregularities in the shape of spectra are modeled by fitting the polynomial along with the FSPS model (with reduced χ 2 values of 0. 8-1) to ensure that they do not affect the estimated ages. We finally note that the full requiem2d model is constructed and fit in the native 2D space of the WFC3/G141 spectra whereas the 1D collapsed spectra are constructed only for visual purposes.
We do not detect gradients in either of these dust parameters for the majority  and (f)), both having a centrally concentrated 1. 3 mm ALMA detection. A V is only greater than 1 magnitude for the central region of MRG-M2129, which appears to host a dust-obscured star-forming region, producing the significant observed 1. 3 mm ALMA flux. It is perhaps surprising that one data point can have such a significant impact on the fit. This will be explored in more detail in a future paper (R. Popescu et al. 2022, in preparation). We are able to constrain the ages and the SFHs of the REQUIEM-2D galaxies at different physical radii thanks to the morphological diversity of the targets. The variation of the magnification-corrected physical distances across the galaxies can be used to combine the age gradients for the full sample.
Measured spatially-resolved age differences for the REQUIEM-2D galaxies vs. the distance and normalized distances to the half-light radii. δt 50 is the difference between the age of the corresponding bin and age of the center for each target in gigayears, i. e. , δt 50 = t spatial bint center , and the median age, t 50 , is defined to be ( ) ( ) ò ò = dt t dt t 0. 5 SFR SFR t t 0 0 50 0 , where t 0 is the observing lookback time. r c denotes the half-light radius, and the black dashed line and shaded region are the best fit and the 1σ width of the linear fit to all data points. The red dashed line is the same fit excluding data points for MRG-S1522, which is the only target showing a significant age difference beyond the half-light radius. β denotes the slope of the linear fit and its 1σ posterior uncertainty with a prior of ( ) b ~ 0, 100.
Summary In this paper, we present the novel analysis of deep 5-15 orbit grism spectroscopy from the REQUIEM-2D survey of eight strongly lensed quiescent galaxies ranging from z = 1. 59 to z = 2. 92. By combining the grism spectroscopy with HST and Spitzer imaging, we perform a spatially resolved spectrophotometric analysis, developing and publicly releasing the requiem2d software package. With this methodology, we can robustly constrain the star formation histories in the inner cores of distant galaxies in order to constrain signatures of formation and quenching. Our conclusions from this analysis are detailed as follows. 1. The REQUIEM-2D galaxies are not dusty (A V < 1) and have attenuation curves that are steeper than the  Calzetti et al. (2000)  law in the UV and flatter in the IR. We cannot reject flat metallicity gradients in the REQUIEM-2D survey.
g. ,  Li et al. 2015; Setton et al. 2020). While this asymmetry may have significant implications for quenching, we note that by combining data points azimuthally, it washes out any statistically significant gradients. We also note that some massive rotationally supported star-forming galaxies at z ∼ 2 show slight disturbances in their morphology  (Girard et al. 2018 ). 6. While the combined age gradients for the REQUIEM-2D sample are consistent with younger stellar populations in the inner half-light radius, only one galaxy (MRG-S1522) samples the age beyond the half-light radius. A larger sample with more independent data points at or beyond the half-light radius is required to reach a robust conclusion. This trend in combined age gradients is driven by only a single galaxy, MRG-S1522, which further supports the necessity of a larger sample to provide stronger evidence.
04. However, systems 2 and 3 have unknown redshifts. We model the mass distribution of PSZ1 G295. 24-21. 55 using the latest version (v7. 1) of the public LENSTOOL software 31   (Jullo et al. 2007 ). Following previous work on cluster lens models (e. g. ,  Richard et al. 2014) , we assume the total mass distribution to be a combination of double pseudoisothermal elliptical mass (dPIE) profiles parameterized with a velocity dispersion σ * , a core radius r core , and a cut radius r cut  (Suyu & Halkola 2010). The HST images show that the cluster is dominated by a central brightest cluster galaxy, and we therefore model the smooth cluster-scale mass distribution using a single dPIE mass distribution. Galaxy-scale mass components are added as individual dPIE profiles, where we select galaxies based on the cluster red sequence from HST color F555W -F814W.
As the largest impact on the G141 bandpass is at higher redshifts, we test the impact by using the same Illustris SFHs for 71 quiescent galaxies selected following  Akhshik et al. (2020). However, we now additionally randomly draw and assign a redshift from a uniform distribution between z = 2 and z = 3. We follow the same procedure to generate mock data and add noise. The result of this test is shown in Figure  8. There are no noticeable systematic biases in the recovered ages, consistent with  Akhshik et al. (2020). Therefore, we demonstrate that requiem2d can reliably recover the mock ages for quiescent galaxies at z = 2-3 (with a variation of less than 0. 1 dex). We also do not notice any biases in the recovered age estimates as we vary redshift (Figure  8 , right panel). We conclude that for the redshifts of z = 2-3, similar to the REQUIEM-2D galaxies, the requiem2d code should provide unbiased estimates of ages as validated using Illustris SFHs.
M. A. gratefully acknowledges support by NASA under award No 80NSSC19K1418. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. , under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. M. A. gratefully acknowledges support from STScI grants GO-14622 and GO-15633. K. W. wishes to acknowledge funding from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. S. T. and G. B. acknowledge support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme (project ConTExt, grant number No. 648179). The Cosmic Dawn Center is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation under grant No. 140. The Dunlap Institute is funded through an endowment established by the David Dunlap family and the University of Toronto.
15 ± 0. 04, when excluding data near the edge of the cluster. We find a significantly stronger alignment of the central galaxy with the cluster dark matter halo at low redshift and with higher richness and central galaxy absolute magnitude (proxies for cluster mass). This is an important demonstration of the ability of large photometric data sets like DES to provide direct constraints on the intrinsic alignment of galaxies within clusters. These measurements can inform impro v ements to small-scale modelling and simulation of the intrinsic alignment of galaxies to help impro v e the separation of the intrinsic alignment signal in weak lensing studies. Universe. The recent growth in data volume from Stage III surv e ys, such as the Dark Energy Surv e y (DES), 1  the Kilo-Degree Survey, 2  and the Hyper Suprime-Cam Surv e y 3  has significantly lowered the statistical uncertainty in the lensing signal.
Shape catalogues We use a fiducial shape catalogue that is calibrated with the META-CALIBRATION method, which uses available imaging data directly without the need for significant prior information as a function of galaxy properties  (Huff & Mandelbaum 2017 ; Sheldon & Huff 2017 ). The METACALIBRATION implementation used in DES Y1 was described in detail in  Zuntz et al. ( 2018 ). Limitations in the DES Y1 implementation of METACALIBRATION lead to a residual mean multiplicative shear bias estimate of m = 0. 012 ± 0. 013, which is due primarily to the effects of neighbouring light on the shear reco v ery. This mean correction is applied to the measurements in this work. For IM3SHAPE , we divide the mean shear signal by the mean of 1 + m , where m is the calibration factor inferred from simulations, and for METACALIBRATION , we divide the mean shear signal by the mean value of 1 2 (1 + m )( R 11 + R 22 ), where m is the shear bias estimate abo v e and R the response inferred from the METACALIBRATION process.
These fall into two categories: 1) the alignment of the cluster shape with the tidal field, and 2) the alignment of satellite galaxies, using the cluster centres as a proxy for the peaks of the local tidal field. Better measurements of the 1-halo intrinsic alignment signal are necessary to inform and constrain such a be yond-perturbativ e model, ho we ver, which is the goal of this paper. While most measurement attempts have focused on objects with spectroscopic redshifts, which suffer from limited data volumes, we present several complementary measurements of these alignments using a fully photometric galaxy cluster and satellite catalogue that selects red-sequence galaxies and spans o v er 1000 de g 2 to redshift 0. 7.
We also find a stronger tendency to align for lower redshift clusters, and while there are significant differences in bins of colour, there isn't a clear trend in alignment versus colour. These results are consistent with the weak trends seen in the volume-limited sample. The trends of η for the full sample are also qualitatively similar to  Huang et al. ( 2016 ) , with a slightly better agreement in the low-z tertile selections that better matches the redshift range of the SDSS REDMAPPER clusters studied in that paper. In  Huang et al. ( 2016 ) , they find η = 35. 07 ± 0. 28 • , while we find η = 35. 82 ± 0. 69 • , though still extending to higher redshift than the SDSS cluster sample. The higher volume probed by the DES data allows us to demonstrate these significant trends across redshift and magnitude for the first time.
C O N C L U S I O N S As cosmological studies seek to utilize smaller-scale information in the lensing signal, which can contribute significant additional constraining power, it will be key to form a better empirical understanding of the small-scale intrinsic alignment of galaxies. This is particularly true for cluster lensing studies, which probe the most e xtreme density re gions of the Univ erse. The DES Y1 photometric data set is a powerful tool for these studies, due to the large volume probed in which to identify galaxy clusters and the large number of galaxies o v er that volume with robust shape measurements. The DES Y1 redMaPPer cluster catalogue extends to nearly z = 1, providing a wide range of redshift o v er which to study the evolution of the intrinsic alignment signal in galaxy clusters.
The orbiting and positioning of probes in deep-space exploration missions cannot be separated from the support of a software platform for precise orbit determination. The development of a software platform is essential in engineering and scienti c applications. Thus, the Wuhan University planetary geodesy group has independently developed a software platform, called Small Body Precise Orbit Determination Toolkit (SPOT), in response to the demand for spacecraft precise orbit determination. Moreover, based on the goal of serving the rst asteroid exploration mission to be implemented in China will enrich China's scienti c radio science outputs. This paper brie y introduces the design concept, core structure, and main functions of SPOT, and subsequently focuses on some simulation experiments and real tracking data analysis based on SPOT.
The functionality and self-consistency of the SPOT were veri ed through simulation experiments, and construction of some new measurement models and inversions of small body gravity elds. The reliability of the software platform was further veri ed from the processing of radio tracking data and landmark data from the Rosetta mission, as well as from the Neptunian gravity estimated from the motion of Triton based on astrometric observations. The computational e ciency and accuracy of SPOT have reached international equivalent level.
, 2018; Scheeres, et al. , 2020). GEODYN-II, developed by the Goddard Flight Center, is widely used to solve gravity eld models for celestial bodies such as the Moon and Mercury  (Goossens, et al. , 2019; Mazarico et al. , 2014)  after more than half a century of development. In China, the development of precise orbit determination software for deep space spacecraft started relatively late as compared with mainstream aerospace institutions in America and Europe. The Beijing Aerospace and Xi'an Satellite Control Centers are the satellite measurement and control units in China. They have developed and continuously updated precise orbit determination software to meet the requirements of China's deep space exploration projects  (Hu et al. , 2010; Cao et al. , 2022). In addition, the Shanghai Astronomical Observatory developed the MARSOD software system for orbit determination independently and has also participated in China's deep space exploration missions  (Huang et al.
, 2009 (Huang et al. , , 2014;; Peng et al. , 2022). Over time, China's lunar and Mars spacecraft precision orbit determination and lander precision positioning software has matured through the Chang'e missions and the successful implementation of the Tianwen-1 mission,  (Cao et al. , 2010 (Cao et al. , , 2022;; Huang et al. , 2014). These independently developed software all focus on high-precision orbit calculation during the mission implementation periods to meet the engineering and implementation needs of China's space missions. To further fully study the scienti c application of probe orbit data, Ye et al. (2017) developed a lunar spacecraft orbit determination system (LUGREAS), based on GEODYN-II. This system has been iteratively updated through multiple versions for use when processing lunar and Mars spacecraft tracking data  (Liu et al.
, 2019; Yang et al. , 2019). The current software platforms in China have reached an international level in terms of engineering implementation in space missions and are comparable to JPL's MONTE and Goddard Space Flight Center's GEODYN-II platforms, ensuring the successful implementation of China's deep space exploration missions. Further development however, is still needed for application in the elds of astrodynamics, planetary science, and geodesy research. Moreover, the current domestic precise orbit determination software needs improvement in function extension, and must overcome in exible interfaces. Furthermore, most of the software is written in Fortran 77, which hinders cross-platform portability  (Cao et al. , 2022). To overcome these shortcomings and enrich the scienti c output of China's deep space exploration efforts, the Planetary Geodesy Group at Wuhan University has independently developed a system called Small Body Precise Orbit Determination Toolkit (SPOT), for precise orbit determination of deep space probes and small body gravity eld inversion to serve future asteroid exploration missions.
This software was developed with C + + and python, and supports e cient and high-precision orbit determination and positioning suitable for various probes of celestial bodies within the solar system. SPOT also meets the requirements of cross-platform portability, easy scalability and upgradability, providing access to core functionality through Python interfaces, making it appropriate for astronomical and planetary science research. This paper presents a brief introduction to the development and functionality of SPOT, as well as an overview of the existing research results based on this software. The structure of this paper is as follows: section 1 provides an overview of SPOT software, brie y describing the design principles and concepts behind this precise orbit determination software platform, focusing on the core architecture and functionality of SPOT; section 2 introduces the simulation experiments conducted using SPOT, including those conducted on new multi-probe tracking modes for precise orbit determination and inversion of the gravity eld of small bodies; section 3 deals with the data from deep space exploration missions, including the processing of radio tracking data from the European Space Agency's Rosetta probe and the astrometric data from Triton for a Neptunian gravity solution; nally, the paper concludes with a summary and outlook.
Overview of SPOT The Small Body Precise Orbit Determination Toolkit (SPOT) is a software system for precise orbit determination of probes and small body gravity eld solutions through simulations of future missions and data from successfully implemented deep space exploration missions. This toolkit addresses the technical di culties of gravity inversion for small bodies and precise orbit determination for deep space probes. These challenges include modules for precise coordinate and time reference frames, highprecision dynamic models, relativistic light time solutions, measurement models, numerical integration, and least squares. The system is based on an object-oriented design approach and currently consists of over 70,000 lines of code, including core functional code, test code, and example code, and is constantly being improved, maintained and updated.
To achieve this functionality while being extensible (allowing for easy development and expansion) and customizable (adaptable to the needs of different research and practical projects), the software designs four core classes and ve modules. The core architecture and functional modules of SPOT are shown in Fig. 2. The four core classes shown in Fig. 2  are the Integrator, ObservableManager, ParameterManager, and Estimator. These classes de ne the work ow of orbit determination. In addition to these core classes, SPOT includes ve modules for each core class to use: a dynamic model, measurement model, parameter model, relativistic light time, and frameworks and coordinate systems. Each module will be brie y discussed as follows. In the parameter model module, SPOT constructs the dynamic and measurement parameters involved in precise orbit determination and gravity eld solutions for small body exploration missions, and also derives analytical formulas for the partial derivatives of the measurement models with respect to the parameters and implements the code.