dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Acknowledgments We are grateful to  M. Cailleret ,  B. Fady , and  N. Martin Saint Paul  for discussions and comments on a previous version of this manuscript. We thank  E. Walker  and  F. Bonneu  for statistical discussions and advices,  N. Mariotte  for wood core sampling, and  F. Guibal  for their analyses. SOM and HD were funded by the  EU ERA-NET BiodivERsA projects TIPTREE  ( BiodivERsA2-2012-15 ) and the  ANR  project  MeCC  ( ANR-13-ADAP-0006 ). CP received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No. 676876  (GenTree). Version 7 of this preprint has been peer-reviewed and recommended by  Peer Community In Ecology  (https://doi. org/10. 24072/pci. ecology. 100070).
This research was supported by the  University of Padova  in the framework of the Ph. D. studentship in History, Criticism and  Conservation of Cultural Heritage. The acquisition of the HSR instrument Rascan 5/7000 was funded by the project  CPDA141049  of the  University of Padova. Part of the experimental work was conducted at the  Ultraviolet Laser Facility at FORTH-IESL , supported in part by the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program LASERLAB-EUROPE  (Grant Agreement No. 654148 ) in the  Applied Holography-Metrology laboratory. The authors are very grateful to  Emanuela Faresin  for her support in the 3D optical scanner acquisition and would like to thank the  Angelo Orsoni Foundry in Venice  for the supply of the mosaic tesserae in the realization of the experimental model.
Bathymetry Various bathymetric sources were data used to build the bathymetric map come from: (1) the HOMONIM project for the main dataset, acquired using multibeam echosounders (resolution up to 1 m) or with a single beam sounder (resolution up to 100 m)  (Shom, 2015) ; (2) the NHDF (Normandie Hauts de France) lidar project 2016-2017 focused on the coastal fringe with a horizontal resolution of 1 m (Shom- The final bathymetric map was created using Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM 30N) conformal projection and WGS84 reference ellipsoid. The height reference (0 m elevation) was fixed on the low spring tide mean level in Goury (located on bathymetric map). The difference between the local Hydrographic zero and the terrestrial zero (IGN69) is 4. 827 m (reference: Référénce Altimétriques Maritimes du Shom).
These dunes are symmetrical, with a wavelength of 620 m and a height of 1. 9 m (transect f-f ′ Figure 6(D)). Their height is low compared with their wavelength according to the classification of  Ashley (1990)  and  Berné et al. (1989) , and are composed of cobbles and blocks with fixed fauna (photographs Figure  6 (D)) suggest that these dunes are currently inactive. Table  1. Dunes parameters with the location in Figure  6. As mapped on the Shom database, sediments are relatively rare in the area of maximum velocity. However, except for the last dune field, dunes are composed of rounded pebbles (photographs Figure  6(B,C  and E )), mainly of flint rocks suggesting the presence of sediment available for transport (located on the final map by fine yellow and blue lines). In addition, we observe rounded pebbles in fractures in the crystalline rocks.
Sample of Suicide Scenes The sample of suicide scenes used to test reliability was extracted from two databases. (1) The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) is the largest free collaborative film database in the world (2015). The platform inventories nearly 5. 3 million films that users (83 million are registered) can index according to their topic, style, or type. Following previously used methodology  [43] , we applied the keyword "suicide" to retrieve films tagged as dealing with suicidal behaviors. (2) The book Suicide Movies: Social Patterns 1900-2009  [44]  catalogs 1158 films from 1900 to 2009, depicting a scene of suicide. To date, this book offers the most comprehensive census of suicide-related films. One at a time, 30 films were randomly extracted from the merged databases and screened for eligibility.
This argument is presented below in two parts, through a study of the two most represented villages in both MS 609 and the manuscript's own historiography, Mas-Saintes-Puelles and Saint-Martin-Lalande (from hereonin respectively referred to as 'le Mas' and 'Saint-Martin'). A large-scale, comparative study of two villages will, I hope, allow us to escape the aforementioned problem of low sampling. The first part of the study presents a macroanalysis of the depositions, a technique facilitated by my edition of MS 609. 22 This macroanalysis looks for patterns of accusations across all 21 There is no consensus on what makes an edition 'natively digital' -scholarly opinion ranges from data-centricity to interactive presentation to paradigm shifts  (Boot et al. , 2017: 15-24, 37-46). It may best be glossed for purposes here by contrasting the edition of MS 609 to traditional print editions: the digital edition contains a system of unified markup of features such as people, places, dates  (Rehr, 2018:  Annex 2) which can be queried as a database as easily as the text itself may be read by a human.
Item. He said that he was with Bernard Alzeu and with many others at the Abbey of Saint-Papoul when they wanted to free two heretics held by the abbot of Saint-Papoul. This was about 4 years ago. Whatever Guilhem Ayalric might have said to inquisitors at Saint-Sernin, it was transmuted into a rigid structure describing specific, discrete events in the third person. This first generation of inquisitors codified who, where, what, and when, each within a restricted set of categories  (Arnold, 2001: 19-47; Pegg, 2003). The digital edition, beyond including the usual philological apparatus and historical notes, encodes this information as 'meta-data', linking it to a database of similar instances. In this way the digital edition provides technical methods to traverse, 25 Elements of the following sections on methodology first appeared in different form in chapter 2 "Une nouvelle cartographie d'un ancien territoire" of my mémoire  (Rehr, 2018: 39-61 ).
Even more provocative is the fact that inquisitors repeatedly settled for 'with many others' (cum pluribus aliis), and that none of the depositions from Saint-Martin mention that this was a joint expedition with men from Issel and Labécède. In short, Guilhem appears in his own deposition, implicates others, and disappears. If the problems of Guilhem's incrimination of others and his disappearance can perhaps be explained away -and historians do so by arguing that deponents commonly conspire and lie  (Abels and Harrison, 1979: 221-22; Given, 2001: 125-27) , or that inquisitors didn't have enough time to pursue all leads  (Biller, 2010: 107; Bruschi, 2009: 16 ) -the depositions of Ermengarde Boer of le Mas are resistant to  the nobility. This directionality can be tested against large databases using simple methods for investigating large networks of people.
Rather, the depositions describe actions. There are over 70 distinctly different types of action related to heresy within just the folios related to le Mas and Saint-Martin, from adoration, to eating with heretici, to letting heretici work in one's fields, to seeing a hereticus in someone's doorway. These are all tagged in the database, demonstrated at http://medieval-inquisition. huma-num. fr/ MS609/encoding. In summary, the heuristic for identifying a pattern of incriminations in MS 609 is straightforward: collect each instance where a deponent incriminates someone else under the inquisitors' own rubric as recorded in MS 609. We count incriminations by their degrees within each of the two villages, le Mas and Saint-Martin, to quantify a ' directionality' of accusations. This data is passed to a network analysis application to visualize patterns across thousands of records.
Macroanalysis -strong centralisation of incriminations The graphs of le Mas and Saint-Martin unequivocally demonstrate three clear patterns. The first is that the absolute number of people implicated in heresis by inquisitors in the two villages is far greater than historians have previously calculated. 42 Within this larger-than-anticipated demographic, a small, single subgroup of people are strongly incriminated. Moreover, these incriminations come from across the entirety of each respective village, and not just within the subgroup itself. Finally, although 40 All of the analysis, reports, and diagrams in this article are generated by Gephi, an open source network analysis and visualisation software. See https://gephi. org/. I have used version 0. 9. 1. All the algorithms deployed by Gephi are public domain, used by all network analysis packages under a common name system ensuring cross-compatibility of the data and files used here and available for download at http://medieval-inquisition.
This marks a rare opportunity in medieval historical research, let alone for the 'Cathar debate'. The famed difficulty and sheer scale of the manuscript, its historic lack of accessibility, and the deeply problematic transcriptions available until now, have allowed historians to judge its contents (and to select extracts from it) by expectations of what it should contain. The digital edition of MS 609 (and documents related to the social context of the inquisition) has been constructed in such a way as to maximize the opportunities for historians to investigate its contents, including by making the edition and its data available under Creative Commons. The methodology presented in this study, combining network analysis and close reading, is but one possible approach -in this case suited to the question of who accused who.
Image acquisition Three-dimensional data of the Regourdou 1 mandible and dentition, housed at the Périgord Museum of Art and Archaeology (Périgueux, France), were acquired through microtomographic scanning (SR-μCT) at the beamline ID 17 of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France (experiment SC1587c;  Macchiarelli et al. , 2006; Mazurier et al. , 2006; Bayle et al. , 2011). The mandible was imaged according to the following parameters: energy, 70 keV; projections, 1500 in half acquisition mode; integration time, 29. 91 ms. The final sections were reconstructed from sinograms and saved in a 32-bit floating-point raw format at an isotropic voxel size of 45. 5 µm. The SR-μCT record of the Regourdou 1 mandible is available at the NESPOS website (https://www. nespos.
Lastly, facets 10 and 13 correspond to medioprotrusive movements (MPT, colored in orange;  Kullmer et al. , 2009 Kullmer et al. , , 2012;; Fiorenza et al. , 2011c). The OFA analysis consists of five consecutive steps  (Fiorenza, 2009). The first one is the creation of a reference plane. This is achieved by translating and aligning the occlusal plane (defined by three landmarks selected on the lowest surface point of the second molars and central incisor) to the xy coordinate system  (Ulhaas et al. , 2004 (Ulhaas et al. , , 2007;; Kullmer et al. , 2009 Kullmer et al. , , 2012)). The second step consists of the manual identification of each facet and dentine area directly onto the polygonal model using the polyline tool in the IMEdit TM of Polyworks ® V12 (InnovMetric software, Québec, Canada), a 3D metrology software.
Once all facets and dentine exposures are identified, we measure the area by selecting all triangles within their perimeter (step 3). Successively we generate the average plane of each facet using the best-fit plane function in Polyworks ® V12. The facet inclination angle is measured between the facet and reference plane (step 4). Finally, we import the digital data into the IMInspect TM module for calculating the directions of each facet using facet normal vectors projected to the reference plane and afterward onto the individual facet planes (step 5). The final result of this last step is the creation of a three-dimensional occlusal compass of the facet pattern of each tooth that contains visual information on the direction of all facets and on their inclinations  (Kullmer et al. , 2009; Fiorenza et al.
To visually display a facet's major directions, we used the rose diagrams, which are circular histograms divided into sectors to display the data frequency and orientation  (Hammer and Harper, 2006). The ternary plot was created using the software PAST v. 3. 13  (Hammer et al. , 2001). Directional statistic results and rose diagrams were obtained using a circular statistic software program (Oriana TM v. 4. 00, Kovach Computing Services, Pentraeth, UK).
Acknowledgements The  Musée du Perigord (Perigueux)  kindly granted access for study and scanning to the Regourdou 1 partial skeleton; for this, we are deeply indebted to  F. Couturas ,  G. Marchesseau  and  V. Merlin-Anglade. For collaboration at the  ESRF beamline ID 17 (Grenoble) , we thank  A. Bravin ,  C. Nemoz  and  P. Tafforeau ; for collaboration at  NECSA (Pelindaba) , we thank  F. de Beer  and J. Hoffman. We also thank  E. Trinkaus  for access to high-resolution dental casts of Regourdou 1. For contributions to the documentation and analysis of the Regourdou 1 mandible, we acknowledge  P. Bayle ,  A. Bergeret ,  L. Bondioli ,  F. Gröning , and especially  V. Volpato , who performed the first analyses aimed at assessing its degree of structural asymmetry. For discussion, we also acknowledge  C.
To what extent is it possible to interpret the data of pronouncing dictionaries of the 18 th century in sociolinguistic terms? Several answers are provided by resorting to Labov's concepts of change from above and change from below the level of awareness. A systematic investigation of John Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791, 1809), the most complete and cumulative of all such dictionaries of the time, makes it possible to show that an orthoepist like Walker often reflects the pressure in favour of change from above for vowel quality and resistance to such a change in matters of stress placement. By preferring analogy to conservative pronunciations due to his bias in favour of a rational pattern, Walker also links analogy to the "vernacular instinct", promoting variant forms witnessing a change from below.
If the pronunciation variants that these authors tag as prestigious or undesirable are compared with the standard forms transcribed in today's pronouncing dictionaries  (Wells 1990 (Wells , 2000 (Wells , 2008)) , their survival or disappearance in today's main dialects of English can shed light on the direction and process of change. The abundance of explicit normative comments in John Walker's work naturally led us to examine language change brought by social factors, and specifically what  Labov (1994: 78)  calls change from above the level of awareness. Unlike most orthoepists who only provide a collection of transcriptions without any comment on their choices, Walker's attitude towards change is regularly made explicit in his discourse. For this study, we have used our own digitization of the 1809 stereotyped edition of Walker's dictionary as a lexico-phonetic database, and we also took into account other contemporary works such as  Buchanan (1766) ,  Kenrick (1773) ,  Barclay (1774 Barclay ( , 1792)) , and  Sheridan (1780).
Walker's dictionary Our research has been conducted on a database stemming from a fully computerized re-edition  (Trapateau 2015)  of John Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English language (1791, 1809) and providing exhaustive lists of lexical units belonging to a lexical set or to a stress pattern. Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary in its 1809 edition, published shortly after the author's death with all the corrections he had made and recommended, includes 38,768 entries, with a phonetic transcription and stressmarks, which make it comparable in size and quality to the pronouncing dictionaries of the 20 th century. The transcriptions provided illustrate the prescriptivism of the orthoepists of the second half of the 18 th century. It offers the prescription of the "best usage" on the basis of a critical comparison of previous dictionaries 10  of the century (see example (1) below), most of them based on Johnson's word list and definitions.
) equipment with an isotropic voxel size of 48. 5 µm. Following acquisition, a virtual transformation of each dataset was necessary to coherently orient the specimens by using Avizo© v. 8. 0. 0. (Visualization Sciences Group Inc. ). The articular (posterior) surface of the patella presents distinct differences in extant and extinct hominids  (Aiello and Dean, 1990; Lovejoy, 2007; Masouros et al. , 2010; Pina et al. , 2014; Pritchard, 1980; Standring, 2008; Ward et al. , 1995;  for a review, see  Pina, 2016). Accordingly, before detailing its inner structure, we virtually extracted the transverse section of SKX 1084 at its maximum medio-lateral breadth and performed a comparative geometric morphometric (GM) analysis of its unsmoothed outer equatorial contour with respect to the outlines extracted from the comparative material used in this study.
However, because of local bony discontinuities on the anterior surface of the South African specimen (Fig. 1 ), the anterior portion of its cross-section was reconstructed by two independent observers by using the preserved contours of the antero-lateral and medial regions as a guide. Accordingly, three outer outlines of SKX 1084 displaying an increasing degree of anterior convexity were generated (see Supporting information, Fig. S1 ). On each virtually reconstructed outline (a to c), 100 semilandmarks were placed following the sectional contour using the B-spline module in Avizo© v. 8. 0. 0. Using the package Morpho v. 2. 5. 1  (Schlager, 2017)  for R v. 3. 4. 0 (R Development Core Team, 2018), a generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) and a weighted between-group principal component analysis (bgPCA) based on the Procrustes shape residuals  (Mitteroecker and Bookstein, 2011)  were then performed to compare the three reconstructed versions of SKX 1084 and the human and chimpanzee shapes.
Acknowledgements For access to fossil and comparative materials, we are grateful to the curators of the  Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, Pretoria ; the  Pretoria Bone Collection at the Department of Anatomy of the University of Pretoria ; and the  Evolutionary Studies Institute at the University of the Witwatersrand. For the realization at the  ICTP Multidisciplinary Lab. of Trieste of scans of comparative human material stored at the  National Museum "L. Pigorini" of Rome , we acknowledge  F. Bernardini ,  L. Bondioli ,  C. Tuniz , and  C. Zanolli ; we also acknowledge  M. Nakamura  ( Kyoto ) and  Y. Shintaku  ( Inuyama ) for access to the Pan specimens used in this study. For their kind contribution during various analytical phases (including the intra-and inter-observer tests), we are especially grateful to  A.
Beaudet  (Johannesburg) and  C. Zanolli  (Toulouse). For collaboration and discussion, we also thank  L. Bam  (Pelindaba),  J. Braga  ( Toulouse & Johannesburg ),  L. Bruxelles  ( Toulouse and Johannesburg ),  R. J. Clarke  (Johannesburg),  J. Dumoncel  (Toulouse),  J. Heaton  ( Birmingham and Johannesburg ),  T. Jashashvili  (Johannesburg),  L. Kgasi  (Pretoria),  K. Kuman  (Johannesburg),  D. Marchi  (Pisa),  T. Pickering  ( Madison and Johannesburg ),  S. Potze  (Pretoria),  B. Zipfel  (Johannesburg). The comments from two reviewers significantly enhanced the quality of the first version of this study. We acknowledge the  DST-NRF  for the financial support (Grant #  UID23456 ) to establish the MIXRAD micro-focus X-ray tomography facility at Necsa. M. C. is funded by the  European Commission (EACEA) ,  Erasmus Mundus  programme, AESOP and AESOP+ consortia coordinated by  J.
It has long been known that English or French have a much stronger tendency to employ transitive verbs than for example Russian. Say (2014)  provides a precise picture of the variation in transitive prominence across European languages. As regards the languages of the world, some precise data are now available due to the Leipzig Valency Classes Project, whose database contains data from 36 languages worldwide. Haspelmath (2015)  discusses the classification of the 36 languages according to their degree of transitivity prominence on the basis of the sample of 80 verb meanings whose equivalents were systematically collected for all the languages of the project. For example, in this classification, Mandinka (illustrated in Ex. (2) above) ranks 20th on 36, immediately after Italian, which means that its moderate degree of transitivity prominence is comparable to that also found in some West European languages.
Acknowledgments The authors thank all co-organisers ( Frédéric Thibault-Starzyk (MFO/CNRS ),  Stéphane Jettot  ( MFO/Sorbonne University ),  Ludovic Halby  ( MFO/CNRS ) and  Michel Dubois (EpiDapo) , and funding agents ( CNRS, Sorbonne University  and  COST action CM 1406 Epigenetic Chemical Biology ). The authors also thank two anonymous reviewers for their enlightening comments, as well as  Timothy Daly, PhD  student in philosophy of science, who kindly helped us with the English, and  Julia  and  Zoé Arimondo-Lacroix  for proofreading the manuscript.
A slightly drier Quercus macranthera forest succeeds this up to ~2500 m, with Juniper woodland and the alpine meadows at higher elevations  (Akhani et al. , 2010; Encyclopaedia Iranica, no date). North of the Gharasoo River, semi-arid climate conditions prevail: dry and hot in the summer and cool in winter, with mean annual precipitation of 300 mm and mean annual temperature of 17. 5 ºC  (Honardoust et al. , 2011). The climate to the west is wetter and cooler, with up to 1850 mm of annual precipitation and mean annual temperatures between 15. 5 and 16 ºC  (Molavi-Arabshahi et al. , 2016). 3 Previous palynological and archaeological investigations 3. 1 Regional palynology and the Shahkileh and Gharasoo sequences Four previous palynological datasets span parts of the last 14,400 years (Fig. 1A ).
The oak may have originated from a steppe-forest habitat nearby the riparian zone where sufficient water was available, while some semi-desert or salinity-rich habitats (goosefoot family) were developed in the vicinity. Analyses of faunal remains from Komishan Cave by  Mashkour et al. (2011)  have also provided us with a window into the species exploited by Mesolithic hunters  (gazelle, saiga, boar, canid, bird, fish)  potentially between 12000 and 10700 cal. BC. Unfortunately, much of the data in this study come from heavily disturbed and undated contexts attributed to later periods. New botanical and faunal macro-remains obtained from well-dated Mesolithic and aceramic Neolithic contexts at Komishani Tappeh are presented below.
1B ). The cores were split and photographed and visually classified into different units based on their texture, colour and shell content  (Amini, 2012). For each unit, representative sub-samples were obtained. A Horiba-LA 950 Laser Scattering Particle Size Distribution Analyser at the laboratory of the Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Science (INIOAS) was used to measure the sediment grain size. Total organic matter content was calculated by adding Hydrogen Peroxide  (Schumacher, 2002)  and carbonate content was measured by acid attack and a Bernard calcimeter  (Lewis and McConchie, 2012). Sediment was classified based on grain-size results according to  Folk (1980)  using the Sedplot software  (Poppe and Eliason, 2008). The palynological sample volume was between 2 and 2.