dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Therefore, experiments are undertaken when either one or more of the parameters that characterize the geometry, the pressure and the power, are smaller than those in the original prototype system. 1 Therefore, scaled-down facilities are used to characterize the thermalhydraulic behavior of a NPP by investigating the local/component (Separate Effect test facility -SETF-) and overall/system phenomena (Integral Test Facility -IETF -). To assure the relevance of these tests, they should represent the NPP under the correct thermal-hydraulic conditions expected during postulated accident conditions. These tests should scale the phenomenon expected in the plant and the applicability of the data measured in the models to the conditions expected in the prototype is the origin of the terms 'scaling', 'scaling issue' and 'addressing the scaling issue'.
Number of loop scaling and main coolant lines scaling In relation to scaling the loop and main coolant lines, it is important to underline the configuration of the reactor loop. For example, in a simplified noding for safety analysis, typically, a three-and four-loop PWR is characterized such that each loop has a single HL, a single CL, a single U-tube SG, and a single Reactor Coolant Pump (RCP). A typical B&W-PWR may have in each loop a single HL, a single once-through SG, two CLs, and two RCPs in each loop. Typical CE-PWR has a single HL, a single U-tube SG, two CLs, and two RCPs. This type of layout should be realized in the IETF facility to obtain adequately simulated data to validate the computer code predictive capability. In case of multiple loops, the lumped loop representation may influence the core uncovery phenomena/process during SBLOCA, (NEA/ CSNI, 1989), and may suppress the effect of asymmetric boundary conditions between the individual loops on the evolution of the accident scenario.
SETF main characteristics are: • Desirable to have minimum scaling distortions (full/almost fullscale; prototype/almost prototype fluid conditions). • Instrumentation dedicated to characterize selected phenomena. • Well imposed boundary conditions necessary to simulate interactions with the other reactor components, and, not simulated in the experimental test-facility. SETF scaling distortions (facility scaling limits)  (Karwat and Austregesilo, 1985)  are mainly due to: • Scaling of external boundary conditions causing a distortion on the interacting phenomena at the facility boundary. • Possible initial condition deviations. • Local geometric distortions. • Discrepancies in fluid properties. In many cases, the data obtained from a SETF can be applied to the full-scale prototype, although the direct extrapolation at the full-scale prototype requires caution, considering the facility's scaling limits.
It is foreseeable that the influence of the facility's scale is observed in many SETF tests, and the LOCA phenomena easily are influenced by 2-D/3-D effects. 9  Therefore, a full-scale SETF such as UPTF is valuable to characterize multi-D phenomena. In addition, CTs for the same phenomenon also will provide confidence in extrapolating uncertainties to a full-scale plant. Recently, heavily instrumented SETFs were built to produce spatially and temporally fine-resolution data (called the CFDgrade experiment) for validating the CFD codes.
IETF An IETF is designed and scaled-down having as a reference a specific reactor and can be used to investigate: • The overall system behaviours and the related phenomena and processes. • The interaction of two or more components. • The local phenomena that are typical of the overall system design target function. IETF scaling distortions (facility scaling limits)  (Karwat and Austregesilo, 1985)  are mainly due to the scaling approaches used to design an IETF; several distortions will be present causing the partial or the total failure of properly simulating phenomena. In general, the data obtained from an IETF cannot be applied directly to full-scale prototype, if the validation of computational tools (code) is not ensured. The direct extrapolation at the full-scale prototype requires caution in considering the facility scaling limits and the appropriate methodology; using codes are necessary to do the extrapolation.
NPP data NPP data are scarce but they are the only data which actually allow a validation on real geometry, and actual physical condition. In this respect they play a role in the scaling assessment and in the validation of reactor nodalization. Transient data are measured with very limited instrumentation in NPPs during operational tests, e. g. commissioning, start-up, and various unplanned situations, including accidents. Although they are typically not suited for code assessment to the same extent as are basic experiments, SETF and IETF. However, NPP data do not suffer of any scaling limitations. It is to underline however that most of the data are proprietary (especially in relation to geometrical parameters) and the data provided usually is quite limited in relation to the accident of interest.
S-SOAR facility scaling considerations A comprehensive Appendix has been prepared in  (Bestion et al. , 2016)  to summarize the key parameters of the major test facilities in the world, mainly the IETF and selected SETF. The facility types considered are IETFs for each of PWR, BWR, VVER, advanced reactor and containment, with selected SETFs. Major design parameters and scaling information are given for reference. The focus of this database is on how scaling has been considered in the design and the experiment results and has been used for a better understanding of chapter 3. 2 (Scaling and experiments) of the  (Bestion et al. , 2016). Table  8  shows the list of Table collected in the Appendix A3 of (  (Bestion et al. , 2016). Here some information related to scaling have been in briefly discussed for reactor types.
Counterpart test and similar tests As data acquired in experiments at a single (scaled) test facility may be questionable due to inherent scaling distortions, the concept of CTs involving several IETFs or SETFs at different scales and design concepts have been considered important. It is desirable that the following minimum set of BC/IC values and related parameters are preserved between the CTs: • Thermal-hydraulic state and parameters (pressure, temperature, and flow condition) in each component of the facility; • Scaled values to power-to-volume scaling ratio (kv); • Characteristics of primary-and secondary-side safety and operational systems (e. g. accumulator injection and safety-injection systems (SIS) characteristics); • Heat-and mass-sinks or sources (e. g. location and size of break); • Timing of operator's actions based on pre-defined operational criteria.
The probability distributions of each uncertain parameter must be characterized. After qualification process is done for code, and the nodalization is established, the combination and propagation of uncertainties is executed. Finally, the scale-up effects in the method are evaluated by quantifying model uncertainties in facilities of different scales and uncertainties due to input. In UMAE, experimental data is related to the corresponding calculated results, and an 'error-scaling' procedure is performed. Therein a database is constituted by time trends of the relevant thermal-hydraulic parameters measured in IETFs with different scales and their 'qualified' code calculations. As some conditions are met, e. g. a sufficient number of experiments in different scales and the error of prediction is not scaledependent, then the error which shows a random character can be extrapolated to the NPP' conditions.
The results obtained are evaluated by regulators. The fidelity of predictions is estimated by aggregating the contributions of uncertainties from the code models, nodalization, numerics, user options, and approximations in the power plant's representation. Another scaling roadmap, proposed by (D'Auria and Galassi, 2010), is also described. In this approach, most elements in the Scaling Database and Knowledge Management constitute the major steps. Differences from the previous roadmap are that some qualitative-and quantitative-acceptability thresholds are embedded in the major steps. These safety requirements either are established by the regulator or first proposed by the licensee and accepted later by the regulator. Noncompliance of safety requirements leads to halting of the procedure and requesting for additional calculations, experiments, and/or R & D.
Conclusions The purpose of this state-of-the-art review is to survey the status of scaling technology from different perspectives. However, the technology continues to evolve, and new methods and approaches are being developed. Therefore, it is not appropriate to draw specific conclusions. A few broad conclusions are summarized as follows: 1. The information in scaling studies, namely the experimental database, is available for most reactor types but has not been fully exploited. 2. Scaling methods and models are available for specific targets or objectives. The application to a generic objective may suffer from the limitations of these methods. 3. Many non-dimensional scaling groups are derived in scaling methods and models: Knowing the hierarchy of these groups is important when applying scaling methods.
To resolve a safety issue related to a postulated reactor accident, the most reliable approach should combine the use of PIRT analysis, scaling analysis, analysis of a wide SET and IET experimental database (including CTs), and the use of a system code in a BEPU approach. In some cases a multiscale simulation using CFD tools may provide better insights into local 3-D phenomena. 1. The capability of SYS TH codes to predict facilities of different scales is needed to evaluate the safety of LWR. The recommendation is to include the scalability requirements in SYS TH code validation. The CTs will also be important asset for validating scalability of the codes. 2. The database of existing SETF and IETF CCVM, should be extended to include possibly data related to advanced reactors (including those using passive safety systems), radial transfers due to diffusion, dispersion of momentum and energy, and cross flows in the core.
Acknowledgements The following scientists contributing to the leading of the  S-SOAR: Bestion D. (CEA, Grenoble, France) ,  D'Auria F. UNIPI ,  Pisa, Italy , Editor),  Lien P. ( NRC, Washington D. C. , USA),  Nakamura H. ( JAEA ,  Tokai-Mura, Japan ). The following scientists contributed to the writing of the  S-SOAR :  Austregesilo H. ,  Skorek T. ( GRS, Garching, Germany ),  Bae B. U. ,  Choi K. Y. ,  Kim K. D. ,  Moon S. K. ( KAERI, Daejeon, South Korea ),  Martinez-Quiroga V. ,  Reventos F. ( UPC, Barcelona, Spain ),  Mascari F. ( ENEA, Bologna, Italy ),  Schollenberger S. ,  Umminger K. ( AREVA, Erlangen, Germany ),  Reyes J. N. ( OSU, Corvallis, Or, US ),  Rohatgi U. S. ( BNL, New.
Collective behaviour of tracked peaks The change in radial distance from the pattern centre was recorded for all 149 observed displacement events (note that some peaks showed multiple events), defined using a moving window comprising 5 data points and by applying a t-test at the 99. 9 % confidence level for all step changes in peak position in excess of 2 pixels in size. The 'events' thus defined are plotted against time in Fig. 4a. There is no significant difference between the number of events that displace the peak away from the pattern centre than those that bring it nearer (73 vs 76). A flurry of events is seen at around the 40 s mark, corresponding to the event seen at ~40 s in Fig. 3. Over much of the experiment, the rate of events is seen to increase with time. This is illustrated in Fig.
What these considerations also show is that while twinning can account for the significant bursts of deformation activity seen in the present experiment, smaller bursts of slip activity are also likely to be present within the dataset. Quantification of stresses, rotations and orientations will enable these points to be clarified. The present findings nevertheless point the way forward for developing twin nucleation and growth models capable of predicting the microstructure. Finally, we note that the present technique is readily extended. With minor alterations, it is amenable to collection of deviatoric strain tensors at the same time scale as employed here. Such a modification will undoubtedly come with a reduction in the number of grains probed. Evidently, a series of complementary configurations will need to be established.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the financial support from the  Australian Research Council   Discovery Grant   DP200100727  and  Laureate Fellowship   FL210100147. The support from the  Advanced Characterization Facility at Deakin University , as well as the allocated beamtime at the  IMBL beamline  of the  Australian Synchrotron , part of  ANSTO , are appreciated. The authors wish to thank  IMBL beamline Senior Scientist   Dr. Chris Hall  for his help with the experiment. The preliminary experimental trial carried out with the lab beamline system at the  InSitX Centre at the Institute for Frontier Materials at Deakin University  is also acknowledged. InSitX is a joint program between  Deakin and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)  for the development of new in-situ and in-operando Xray experiments to realise material design and discovery.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by grants from the  National Natural Science Foundation of China  (  52150610486  ,  51961033  and  11904188  ), the  Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region  (  CXJJS20094  ,  SZ2020113  ,  NJYT-20-A17  and  NJZY20025  ) and the  Inner Mongolia Normal University  (  2018YJRC002  and  2018YJRC003  ).
In this work, we evaluate the H 2 -performance of a non-hydrogen service Â65 pipeline steel. The cracking susceptibility of this steel grade has been evaluated at 100 bar H 2 using slow strain rate testing, Constant strain testing and fracture toughness measurements. Accompanying hydrogen permeation tests under pressure provide diffusion data and elucidate the discussion. Exposures were carried out in dry or wet H 2 and with or without H 2 S contamination at levels representative of biogas. The results underline that the impact of dry or wet hydrogen on this grade are moderate. The presence of traces of H 2 S together with humidity could risk seriously degrading the mechanical performance of the Â65 steel grade.
Slow strain rate tensile tests (SSRT) Published data on Â80 pipeline steel underline that embrittlement can be observed on smooth tensile specimens  [25, 53]. On this basis, and to evaluate the susceptibility of the material to crack initiation, slow strain rate tests were conducted on smooth tensile samples machined in the longitudinal direction. A slow strain rate test bench was set-up with an autoclave containing a tensile specimen. The same start-up procedure as the one described in section Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) tests was considered. After pressurizing the autoclave with the gas, the specimen was loaded to failure at a fixed extension rate of 10 À6 inch s À1. In all experiments, a NACE subsize specimen machined as per the schematic in Fig. 3  was used. This specimen has a gauge length of 1 inch leading to a strain rate of 10 À6 s À1 after reaching the yield point.
Acknowledgement We acknowledge Laurent Maron (Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse) for discussions at the early stage of this project. We acknowledge Maciej Korzynski (ETHZ) for a help with preparation of the manuscript. We acknowledge Elizaveta A. Suturina (University of Bath) and Aleksander Jaworski (Stockholm University) for the advices concerning quantum chemistry calculations in lanthanide complexes. We thank Martin Bröring (Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie) at TU Braunschweig for providing access to the SQUID magnetometer.
For the previous steps that are standardly performed at high temperature (above 500°C), low thermal budget processes were explored and are therefore available for the EZ-FET integration. However, the LT dopants activation is still challenging. To get past the limitations of this step, we proposed in  [2]  a junctionless EZ-FET where the S/D are left undoped, removing the dopants activation requirements. This paragraph of the first footnote will contain the date on which you submitted your paper for review, which is populated by IEEE. It is IEEE style to display support information, including sponsor and financial support acknowledgment, here and not in an acknowledgment section at the end of the article. For example, "This work was supported in part by the U. S. Department of Commerce under Grant 123456.
This emission is characteristic of the deexcitation of the metastable singlet oxygen to its triplet ground state. The integrals were computed using an absolute integration by mathematical trapezoid sum algorithm implemented in Origin 9. 5. 0 software package. 55  A s l ex and A ref l ex denote for the absorbance of the sample and of the reference at the excitation wavelength l ex. S s l ex and S ref l ex stand for the slope of the line of the function fðA l ex Þ = I l ex for the sample and the reference respectively meaning that S s l ex = I s l ex =A s l ex and S ref l ex = I ref l ex =A ref l ex. By plotting the function fðA l ex Þ = I l ex for at least 5 different concentrations, S s l ex and S ref l ex can be determined as the slopes of the lines. resulting mixtures containing complexes-DNA products were loaded onto 1% agarose gel in tris-Boric-EDTA buffer (pH 8.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by the  Labex ARCANE  ( ANR-11-LABX-003 ) and the  French Agence National de la Recherche  ( ANR-18-CE29-0012 PHOTOCHROMICS ). The  NanoBio  ICMG ( UAR2607 ) is acknowledged for providing facilities for mass spectrometry analyses (Amelie  Durand ,  Laure Fort ,  Rodolphe Gueret ) as well as the DCM (Departement  de Chimie Moleculaire, Plateau Technique de Synthese ) for the synthesis of the DHP precursors ( Martine Fayolle ,  Mathieu Curtil ,  Pierre-Yves Chavant ). We thank  Cecile Cottet  ( LBFA, Grenoble ) for confocal microscopy experiments and for giving access to flow cytometer. Clara Hermant ,  Samuel Decorps  and Remy Lartia ( DCM Grenoble ) are also warmly acknowledged for their help.
Data and code availability Crystallographic structure of DHP-Pt 2 can be obtained free of charge from The Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre via www. ccdc. cam. ac. uk/data_request/cif. CCDC-2240890 contains the supplementary crystallographic data for this paper. All other datasets, including experimental spectra and data are available in the supplemental information and are publicly available as of the date of publication. This study does not report original code.
Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge " Auvergne-Rhône-alpes région " for the grant to  Cristina Balogh  and the " Agence Nationale de la Recherche"  (project  ECOPHOS   ANR-17-CE09-0014 ) for grants to  Isis N ' Dala Louika  and  Iurii Suleimanov. Cristina Balogh  &  Isis N'Dala Louika  contributed equally to this work.
UHS was carried out by applying (in a single step) different currents for different holding times to induce Joule heating in the felt, as reported in Table  S1. The electric data was acquired with a digital multimeter (Keithley 2100) at 1 Hz. For comparison, conventional sintering experiments were carried out in air and Ar atmosphere at 1475 • C with a dwell time of 2 h. The comparison of a typical sintering profile for 3D printed parts produced from zirconia filaments and that recorded upon UHS is shown in Fig. S3.
Characterization Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) of the filament was carried out in Ar atmosphere with a heating rate of 20 • C min -1 (Netzsch STA 409 thermobalance). The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra (Jasco FT/IR-4200) of as-printed, partially chemically debided and UHSed samples were acquired in attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode with a resolution of 4 cm -1. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests were performed using a Mettler DSC30 calorimeter with a heating-cooling-heating cycle in the range 0 -300 • C at ± 10 • C·min -1 flushing nitrogen at 100 mL·min -1. The temperature and enthalpy of the endothermal and exothermal peaks were analysed by the Mettler Toledo Star software system. Raman spectra were recorded with a microscope using a 532 nm laser (ThermoFisher DXR Raman).
The investigation of the microstructure of the polished samples was carried out using a scanning electron microscope (FIB-FE-SEM, Tescan SOLARIS) after sputter coating with a thin layer of graphite. The evolution of grain size in sintered samples was assessed from measurements of at least 100 grains with the help of ImageJ software  [29]. The Vickers microhardness of the sintered samples was measured in 5 different regions on the polished cross-section using a Shimadzu micro hardness tester with a load of 300 gf for 15 s.
This gap in our knowledge is regrettable for several reasons. Firstly, because of the size of the gap. Indeed, recent developments in metagenomics, metatranscriptomics and large-scale database mining have uncovered thousands of unsuspected viral passengers  [6] [7] [8] , the vast majority of which do not induce overt symptoms. Among them, there is no doubt that a significant fraction benefit from vertical transmission. Secondly, several case studies indicate that inherited viruses can play a key role in the functioning of organisms and ecosystems. For instance, some viruses can have conditional or longterm beneficial effects. Examples of conditional beneficial effect include the induction of thermal tolerance  [9]  or the protection against pathogenic viruses  [10] , while long-term beneficial effects can be illustrated by the independent cases of viral endogenization (integration into wasp genome) and domestication (retention by selection) observed in certain parasitic wasps  [11].
Numerous studies focus on one or a very limited set of host species (for example :  [20] ), which may still enables testing of factors such as space and time  [21, 22] , but inevitably prevent testing the host species factor. On the opposite, a few recent large scale studies relying on public databases provided invaluable insights into viral diversity  [6] [7] [8]. However these insights only concerned RNA viruses because all rely on homology search using the universal RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase gene (RdRp) as bait (strategy that cannot be used to track DNA viruses since they do not share any universal gene). In addition, the identification of factors shaping the viral communities described in these huge datasets was limited either because most viruses derived from metagenomic or environmental datasets thus preventing inference of host species  [8] , or because of a lack of information regarding the ecology of the species used  [6, 7].
Localization in this tissue may not only favour vertical transmission along generations but also horizontal transmission in case of host sharing  [15, 30]. Finally, we also tested experimentally the transmission and phenotypic effect of one of the parasitoid viruses discovered in this survey. In total, our analysis uncovered 53 viruses, 37 of them being described for the first time. Thanks to the community-level approach, this dataset also provides valuable insight into the host range of previously described viruses, sometimes challenging previous interpretation made from monospecific datasets.