dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Acoustic differences between types of clauses The three (resp. four) verbs of the pairs of sentences in conditions 2-1 (resp. 4-3) correspond to: the end of the subject relative clause, the end of the (or the two) object relative clause, and the end of the final main clause. Boxplots in figures 2 and 3 illustrate the distributions of the differences for four acoustic measures, according to the position of verbs across the syntactic structure, and depending on the considered syllable (penultimate or final). Three measured F 0 differences exceed 10 semitones because of the presence of creaky voice in the final syllable of sentences in conditions 1 and 3: they were discarded from the dataset, granted that if we kept them they would not alter the conclusions, but introduce a statistical bias. Acoustic differences between pairs of sentences in conditions 2 vs.
EEG was also recorded over left and right mastoid sites. EEG was referenced on-line to a vertex electrode and later re-referenced to an average of the left and right mastoid channels. Impedances were maintained below 10 kΩ. EEG was amplified and digitized at a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz (Brain Products). After recording, data was down-sampled to 500 Hz and filtered with a bandpass of 0. 1-30 Hz. ERPs were averaged off-line within each experimental condition (control, role reversed and incongruous) for each subject at each electrode site in epochs spanning -200 to 1000 ms relative to the onset of the target stimulus. Epochs characterized by eye blinks or excessive muscle artifacts were rejected by Brain Products Analyzer System depending on the experimenter's visual inspection. Accuracy was computed as the percentage of correct responses (min 95%).
These findings, together with data presented in previous studies dismiss the possibility of a direct Neandertal ancestry for the Manot 1 hominin and confirm its affiliation with modern Homo sapiens. The calvaria has been shown to be more similar to later Upper Palaeolithic Homo sapiens than it is to the earlier Levantine populations of Skhul and Qafzeh. The late Middle Palaeolithic date of Manot 1 provides an opportunity to discuss the recent trends in human cerebral morphology and organization.
, 2015 (Hershkovitz et al. , , 2017)). As the internal surface of the skullcap bears imprints of the vascular network and external brain morphology (e. g. ,  Grimaud-Hervé, 1997 , 2004; Holloway et al. , 2004; Grimaud-Hervé and Lordkipanidze, 2010; Balzeau et al. , 2013; Bruner et al. , 2015 Bruner et al. , , 2018)) , it can provide important information regarding the taxonomic affinity of the Manot 1 specimen. Endocast morphology provides data regarding species-specific characters as well as intragroup variations. A brief description of the endocast was published in  Hershkovitz et al (2015, Supplementary Information). Here, we provide a detailed description of the morphology, organisation and vascularisation of the endocast. We carried out a comparative study of Manot 1 with a large sample of fossil hominins and extant humans.
A 3D surface mesh of Manot 1 was segmented and reconstructed from a micro-CT scan (VISCOM X8060 (Germany) µCT scanner: 130kV, 200µA, 1400msec, diamond high performance transmission target, 0. 5mm copper filter, spatial resolution 28. 2µm) in the Amira software (v. 6. 3). The external surface of this incomplete calvaria was manually deleted to reveal the "positive" model of the endocranial surface which reproduces details of the cortical morphology. Different orientations and lighting directions were used within the MeshLab software to enhance the endocranial features.
General description The morphological description of the Manot 1 endocranium is based on both the virtual model produced by the micro CT data and on direct observations made on the corresponding internal surface of the original skullcap, used in a complementary manner in order to better appreciate a greater proportion of reliefs and depressions. Special attention was paid to the position and relative expansion of each cerebral lobe, to the degree of expansion of some particular cerebral features (for example frontal or parietal reliefs) and to the vascular patterns including the sinusal imprints and the middle meningeal system (following to the Terminologia Anatomica, 1998).
Shape analysis (landmark-based geometric morphometrics) A shape analysis was performed using landmark-based Geometric Morphometrics. The landmarks used in this analysis (Table  3  & Figure  3 ) are described in  Grimaud-Hervé & Lordkipanidze (2010). Landmarks which are not present on the Manot 1 endocast were excluded from the study. In order to maximize the number of individuals, only the landmarks digitized on the left hemisphere were considered, as this hemisphere was better preserved on most of the incomplete specimens under consideration. Landmark coordinates were collected on the virtual endocasts of Manot 1, Qafzeh 9 and Nahal Oren 16 in the Viewbox software. The position of each landmark was visually checked twice by two of the authors (D. G. H. and L. A. B. ), following their initial digitization and adjusted when necessary.
The data for the rest of the comparative sample was collected by D. G. H. on endocasts, using a Microscribe. Landmark coordinates were uploaded in the R environment and a Procrustes superimposition analysis was performed using the gpagen function of the Geomorph package  (Adams et al. , 2016). Procrustes distances between the aligned individuals were plotted with the plotOutliers function of Geomorph, and the configurations of the outliers were checked individually for errors in landmark placement (e. g. inversions in the order of bilateral landmarks. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was then performed on the entire sample (including Manot 1) in order to assess morphological variations in the sample and Manot 1's place relatively to the different groups within the shape space. A between-group PCA was also performed in order to highlight the main differences between the sample's groups.
For example, Manot 1 differs from the earlier Levantine Homo sapiens (Qafzeh and Skhul) in manifesting considerable parietal bulging, a condition largely due to the presence of a well-developed supramarginal gyrus. This latter feature, in combination with its parallel lateral walls, lends the Manot 1 endocast its typically Homo sapiens pentagonal transversal outline in posterior view, with strong parietal eminence protruding on endocast as on calvaria observed in Manot 1 as on Predmost or Mladec specimens. This could argue the hypothesis of  Hershkovitz et al. (2015)  who conclude that the morphology of the Manot 1 calvaria suggests that it is not affiliated to the earlier Levantine groups of Homo sapiens from Skhul and Qafzeh. Although purely morphological data is insufficient to conclude with certainty on this hypothesis due to the large amounts of variation displayed by different groups of extant and archaeological Homo sapiens, the affinities of Manot 1's calvaria suggest closer ties to the later populations of Palaeolithic Europe.
Herskhovitz et al. (Hershkovitz et al. , 2015)  suggested that Manot 1 was displaying a supraniac fossa that would correspond to the Neandertal features. Thanks to the microCT data used here we could examinate the internal structure of the bone in this anatomical area. Previous work has allready identified some traits that are specific for the Neandertal suprainiac fossa. In Manot, the depression has some external features that slightly differ from the Neandertal classic shape in terms of extension and borders but more importantly it corresponds to a thinning of the external table. As a result, the depression observed in Manot is not a Neandertal trait. Future discoveries of Levantine AMH remains dated from a similar period as Manot 1 will be crucial to the understanding of the affinities between the population represented by Manot 1, earlier Levantine populations, and Upper Palaeolithic European populations.
Acknowledgments The following individuals provided help during the research:  Ofer Marder  from  Ben-Gurion University  and  Omry Barzilai  from the  Israel Antiquities Authority  for reading, discussing and commenting on this manuscript. Funding This work was supported by the  Dan David Foundation ,  Binational Science Foundation  (grant no. 2015303 ),  Israel Science Foundation  (grant no. 2632/18 ),  The Leakey Foundation ,  CARE Archaeological Foundation ,  Case Western Reserve University  and  Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (Projet Transhumances ).
To look into these questions, we present selected data from a one-year study of plurilingualism across the disciplines at WCU in which we analyzed interviews with students and instructors, and students' writing samples. Our discussion in this article is framed around the following two research questions: 1. How are French and other languages used in class by instructors and their students? 2. How do instructors perceive and respond to the following dilemma about their role: are they disciplinary experts and/or French immersion teachers?.
The study We present data from a one-year study of plurilingualism across the disciplines at WCU. Classes being taught in English and French were studied. For this specific article, the focal participants are two FLP instructors and 13 of their students. The data collection process began with the recruitment of the two FLP instructors of political science courses, who were contacted by email. The instructors allowed a member of the research team to attend eight hours of their classes as a non-participant observer, during which time the researcher took field notes and got to know the students and the focus of the teaching. The instructors also facilitated the recruitment of students for interviews by making time in their classes for students to read the study details for the project and sign consent forms to take part in interviews and share their written texts for analysis.
Data analysis We began by analyzing selected excerpts from the interviews with the two instructors in which they discuss aspects of their practice of relevance to the research questions. These excerpts were organized thematically around key themes of interest that relate to our research questions. We followed this with a thematically organized analysis of student participants' interviews and written texts. Students were invited to contribute examples of their written texts, which we present selectively in this article. We decided not to include the field notes taken during classroom observations as we did not find adequate links to the scope of the analysis in this article. Interview excerpts are presented with no changes to grammar or vocabulary. A parallel translation in English follows each French interview excerpt.
The Students The student interviews took place around the same time as the interviews with the instructors. Student interviews were not used to develop themes that came up in interviews with the two instructors or vice versa, nor to confirm or disconfirm information. We do, nonetheless, attempt to make some connections between the two data sets where commonalities and differences emerge. One such connection can be made between the instructors' perceptions about the dual purposes of the FLP (to learn disciplinary content, learn through French immersion, or a combination of the two) and the extent to which this duality is evident in students' reasons for taking the course.
Students' reasons for taking the FLP A general discourse pervades institutionally at WCU that the main reason for students to take the FLP is to get a job in the federal government, which requires high degrees of French-English bilingualism. This view was stated by Dominique in the following excerpt -which has been included in the section on student participants' data to foreground their responses: Dominique: La majorité m'ont dit qu'ils voulaient être fonctionnaire … J'ai pas senti que c'était nécessairement dans l'amour de la langue de Molière. [ou] que c'est assez normal au Canada de parler français puisque la bilinguisme fait partie d'une des valeurs du Canada. [Most have told me they want to be civil servants … I haven't sensed that it was necessarily for the love of the language of Molière … (or) that it's quite normal in Canada to speak French as bilingualism is a Canadian value.
The fact that student interviewees described the same learning spaces quite differently is of interest. It shows that the interview data reflect individuals' perceptions of discursively constructed practices and norms in the FLP program, as well as in the broader university. They are also the result of knowledge that is co-constructed within the context of an interview between students, instructors, and researchers: co-constructed interViews  (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009)  through which interviewers and interviewees share, converse, joke, and interpret.
Conclusions and implications In the sections above, we have analyzed findings from a one-year study of plurilingualism across the disciplines at WCU, focusing on instructors and students taking the FLP, a French-medium program taught at a multilingual, multicultural, Anglophone university in Metro Vancouver, Canada. We described the dual content-language aims of the program and how instructors responded in different ways to the challenges of teaching around such dual program goals. In interviews, students described how they communicate in and outside of FLP classes, with some providing samples of their note-taking texts. We analyzed the data from the study through the theoretical lenses of plurilingualism and plurilingual competence, highlighting how different aspects of this theoretical analysis found representation in the data.
ZooMS analysis. The eraser waste obtained during sampling was analyzed through previously described ZooMS protocols  20, 33, 53. In short, eraser waste was centrifuged for 1 min and incubated with 100 µL of 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate solution (NH 3 CO 3 ) for 1 h at 65 °C. 50 µL of the supernatant was transferred into a new Lo-Bind tube (Eppendorf). 1 µL of trypsin (0. 5 µg/µL, Promega) was added to the gelatin extract and incubated at 37 °C for 18 h. After digestion, each sample was acidified using 1 µL of 10% TFA and cleaned on C18 ZipTips (Thermo Scientific). Subsequently, the eluted peptides were spotted in triplicate on a MALDI Bruker plate with the addition of matrix solution (CHCA). MALDI-TOF MS analysis was conducted at the IZI Fraunhofer in Leipzig and spectra were identified in comparison to a database containing peptide marker masses for all medium to larger sized mammalian genera in existence in Europe during the Pleistocene 53.
The intensity of force and the rate of erasing movements during the experiment were recorded by a self-made instrumented stage that reads the force applied to bones. The stage is composed of a load cell (5 kg CZL635, Tinkerforge, Stukenbrock, Germany) mounted between two 1 cm thick aluminium plates. The load cell has a precision of 0. 05% across its full range of 49. 04 N (equating to 5 kg). The load cell output is amplified by a HX711 load cell amplifier (SparkFun, Colorado, USA), which is then connected to an Arduino Nano microcontroller (Arduino, Ivrea, Italy). The stage interfaces with a laptop computer through two custom programs: one program to read the forces and one to calibrate the load cell. Force data is recorded at a rate of 10 Hz. The force sensing stage was secured to the laboratory bench using two screw clamps to limit the movement or vibrational noise.
Before each sampling session the load cell calibration was checked using a series of known weights (Supplementary Fig. S1 ). In order to provide a reference point for comparison, the force applied during the erasing of pencil traces from paper was measured. Peak forces, above a threshold of 0. 5 N, for each contact event between eraser and bone surface were identified using the SciPy library in Python 3. 9 and the "find_peaks" function. This allowed the identification of the frequency of contact events and the peak force associated with each event (Fig. 2 ).
Qualitative microscopy (digital microscopy). Cut and control areas on each bone specimen were assessed using a digital microscope (Smartzoom 5 with lens PlanApoD 1. 6/0. 1FWD 36 mm, Zeiss) and photo images were taken using the Smartzoom 5 software version 1. 4 (Zeiss), in a standardised manner, before and after EEM using a digital zoom of × 34/100 (Supplementary Fig. S2 ). The magnification was standardised for all bone specimens and ROIs, and the position and orientation of the bone specimens were normalized by their inclusion into their styrofoam block. The intensity, orientation and inclination of the light source were kept consistent across samples. The focus was adjusted manually and the segmented ringlight was used on different fixed positions for all images (full, top, bottom, right and left ringlight).
The area without cut marks (control area) was scanned in a similar manner along the same axis for each bone specimen. Scans were reviewed for quality and accepted for further study if 95% or more of the surface points were measured. Those with lesser accuracy were re-measured by altering exposure, brightness, gain, or pitch values until 95% of the surface was captured. Within MountainsMap Premium v. 8. 1. 9369 Analysis software by Digital Surf (Besançon, France), meshed axiomatic 3D models of each scan were constructed using the following procedures: extract layers (topography layer), leveling (LS-plane), outlier removal (isolated outlier removal, with normal strength, and fill in non-measured points) following the pre-processing algorithms as described previously  48, [55] [56] [57]. To compare the same scan area before and after eraser sampling, the following three pre-processing operators were included in the workflow: build series of surfaces (settings: copy after, use X/Y-offset, T-axis spacing 2), shift surface (settings: fixed reference studiable, offset settings manually defined, intersection set as kept area), and extract surfaces (settings: all surfaces of the series).
We applied a goodness of fit check to ensure that specimen and measurement location random effects were adequately modeled using multivariate Gaussian distributions. For additional model details see Martisius et al. 48. We estimated effects by a Hamiltonian Markov-chain Monte Carlo method, using the library rstan version 2. 21. 2  60  of the statistical computing language R version 4. 1. 0  61. We allowed a 2000-iteration warm-up for four chains generating 1000 parameter samples per chain resulting in 4000 posterior samples for inference. We examined scaled and squared Mahalanobis distances between observations and predicted values to check for goodness of fit, and compared these distances to theoretical quantiles of the F-distribution 62 using a quantile-quantile plot (Supplementary Fig. S4 ).
Acknowledgements We thank the  National Museum of Natural History, Sofia (Bulgaria)  for supporting the  Bacho Kiro Cave fieldwork and laboratory analysis. We thank the  IZI Fraunhofer ,  Stefan Kalkhof , and  Johannes Schmidt  for access to the MALDI-TOF MS instrument. Thanks to  Mark N. Grote  for assistance with statistical modeling and constructive conversations. Thanks to  Karen Ruebens  for constructive comments on the final draft. F. W. received funding from the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the European Union's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  (grant agreement no. 948365 ). N. L. M. is funded by the  National Science Foundation (NSF-SBE ; Award ID: 2004818). This study was funded by the  Max Planck Society.
A total of 72 samples were taken from the oldest layer dated from the second half of the sixth millennium BCE. Parasitic markers point to a high concentration area in a dwelling, indicating a specific zone of domestic and fecal waste matter (Figure  4A ). This hot spot demonstrates a tendency to manage waste at the household level. Despite their willingness to concentrate waste, the inhabitants present a high rate of infestation and show co-occurrence of several gastrointestinal parasites  [51, 52]. intestinal parasites  [51, 52]. More recently, a larger-scale study was carried out on the site of Zurich Parkhaus Opera, with a set of 124 samples analyzed from the only layer of the site, dating from 3176 to 3153 BCE. The possible dissociation between the domestic context and circulation paths for data processing revealed a set of information.
In contrast, very frequent occurrences of blunt, direct face-threatening acts should be a sign of negative relationships, but the absence of face-threatening acts is also a bad sign as it signals that students are not comfortable to expose themselves. In a well-working group, we should see a rather high amount of face-threatening acts, but most of which should be mitigated by politeness strategies, excluding maybe some cases of "playful rudeness", going along with both broadening and deepening of the argument. The DIALLS data offer a view into the discussions of student groups in very diverse classrooms and age groups all over Europe and Israel. The amount of variation that is likely to be seen in these discussions, along with the theoretical considerations and operationalizations of this chapter, will allow the testing of the hypotheses regarding the relationship between social and cognitive aspects of argumentation.
(2017)  which proposes to perform the semantic segmentation of the image pixels in order to determine the land/water interface by processing the histogram of RGB channels. Nevertheless, most of these algorithms remain strongly constrained by the multiple environmental variabilities (luminosity, contrast, rain, fog, presence of users, boats, dirty lenses, etc. ) and therefore require the action of a human operator to fine-tune the parameters before being applied to a new site. To overcome such limitations, the present research proposes the use of deep learning techniques to be applied to a large dataset of remote sensing images from coastal VMS for mapping nearshore intertidal topography. Many advances have been made in the field of image classification, notably with the rise of the use of convolutional neural networks (CNN) as reported in various academic articles  (Chen et al, 2019 (Chen et al, , 2020;; He et al.
, 2017; Huang et al. , 2019; Kirillov et al. , 2020; Wang et al. , 2020). More specifically, if trained using enough data, the algorithm called Mask R-CNN  (He et al. , 2017)  can detect and delineate concepts as abstract as coastline delimited bodies of water on images under various conditions, unaffected by the presence of objects and people. During this study, Mask R-CNN was used for mapping the nearshore topography in three megatidal coastal areas characterized by different morphological properties with the aim to propose a fully automated method for monitoring coastal morphology using VMS. This paper is structured as follows: following this introduction, section 2 describes the 3 study sites, the dataset and presents the new methodological approach used to determine the nearshore intertidal topography.
The algorithm's learning performance is evaluated during learning steps by comparing the detected masks to the manually digitized ones. This is done using a set of metrics including class loss, mask loss and boundary box loss, each of which is calculated separately for both the training and the validation datasets. The evolution of these metrics helps to prevent the model from overfitting. The detection is considered satisfactory when the algorithm plateaus at a minimum value of loss. The influence of the human labeling bias on the algorithm's results is considered negligible as the mask output provided by Mask R-CNN will mandatorily be 28 × 28 pixels in size, as constrained by the neural network's architecture, before being upscaled to the image's original size. Therefore, an aliasing effect can sometimes be visible (Fig.