dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
C3 has been evaluated by means of two manifold learning criteria called the K-intrusion and K-extrusion  [33]. They are based on other criteria called continuity and trustworthiness  [34]. These criteria reveal DR behavior in terms of its ability to preserve the data manifold structure. We have first sampled randomly 10 thousands spectra from our hyperspectral images, where each spectrum is a vector of dimension D. Then we have modelled the manifold by a graph where each node is a vector and each edge is the pairwise distance. We used the Euclidean distance as the pairwise distance. For the rest of the paragraph we note by x i a point from the original manifold, ν K i its neighborhood of size K, xi the same point from the manifold after a DR and νK i its corresponding neighborhood of size K.
Finally, C6 is related to supervised pixel classification of the hyperspectral image. We have considered the least square SVM algorithm  [11]  as a learning technique, with a linear kernel or RBF kernel, where the RBF kernel is initialized for each DR technique using cross validation. For each supervised classification run, we used for the AVIRIS Indian Pine Image 5% of the available data as a training set and the remaining 95% to validate. For the ROSIS Pavia University image we use a subset of 50 spectra (about 1% of the available data) per class as a training set and the remaining spectra to validate.
The objectives of this study are: (1) to establish a methodology of detection and characterisation of cirrus clouds using a micropulse lidar (MPL) data, (2) to retrieve cirrus clouds properties using the MPL database from 2008-2013, in order to construct a cirrus cloud climatology over Lille, (3) to compare the retrievals properties with CALIOP measurements, and finally (4) to evaluate the potential of the MPL to study high level clouds.
Spaceborne lidar CALIOP The CALIPSO mission (Cloud Aerosol and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) was launched in April 2006 to measure global profiling of clouds and aerosols. The CALIOP lidar is a two-wavelength (532 nm and 1064 nm) polarization-sensitive lidar set on CALIPSO satellite. CALIOP is a three-channel elastic backscatter lidar. The vertical resolution of CALIPSO data is 30 m from the surface to 8. 2 km and 60 m from 8. 2 km to 20. 2 km. The layer products are generated at three different spatial resolutions: 1/3, 1 and 5km. The temperature used in CALIOP products is derived from the GEOS-5 data product. In order to compare cirrus clouds properties obtained from CALIOP measurements to those obtained from the ground-based lidar over Lille from 2008 to 2013, we used the CALIOP Level 2 v3.
Accepted Article This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. part of the axial zone and orthogonal to the main structures (Fig. 1c ). Classical thermometry based on Fe-Mg exchange between garnet and biotite (Fig. 4i, Table 4 ; Ferry & Spear, 1978 using the dataset from Holland & Powell 1998) has been combined with Raman thermometry on organic matter (Fig. 4j ; RSCM;  Beyssac et al. , 2002). Thermal gradients along the three cross-sections (Fig. 5 ) were calculated using orthogonal projections of the sample location onto the profile and parallel to the main structures (Fig. 6 ). Cross section 1 is located near Castanet le Haut and is defined as the Northern Espinouse Profile (NEP; Fig. 5a ). It is a 2 km-long N-S cross section that cuts across the pinched metapelitic unit from the Espinouse sub-dome toward the Graissessac basin.
Accepted Article This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. graphitization, the analyses graphitic carbon record peak metamorphic temperatures  (Beyssac et al. , 2002). The significance of temperature obtained from Grt-Bt thermometry is more uncertain and may correspond to peak metamorphism or retrograde mineral reequilibration. In addition, the Grt-Bt gradient is obtained with less than twice the data for the RSCM gradient (Fig. 6c ). We suggest that the temperature gradient of 29°C. km -  (~ 96°C/GPa -1 ) obtained along the southernmost cross-section from Raman spectroscopy may represent the lowest temperature gradient that prevailed before late ENE extensional shearing. The question of the cause for this low temperature gradient then arises. It could be also envisaged that the micaschist envelope did not have sufficient time to thermally reequilibrate owing to rapid exhumation.
and the amount of water used in the P-T pseudosection calculations was estimated from a T-M(H 2 O) pseudosection so that the assemblage is just watersaturated below the solidus at mid-crustal pressure and that free water disappears within 10-20 °C once the solidus is reached (White et al. 2002). The database of Holland & Powell (1998; thermodynamic database of THERMOCALC, version 3. 21) was used, including recent updates.
Saline fluid conductivity is not very sensitive to temperature and pressure in the range of the forearc mantle (0. 5-2 GPa, 573-973 K), and a simple second-order polynomial expression was fitted to experimental  (Quist et al. 1968 ) and molecular dynamics data  (Sakuma and Ichiki 2016 ) with a 30 % precision similar to discrepancies between datasets logσ f ¼ 1:538 þ 0:7386 logm-0:05277 logm ð Þ 2 ; ð2Þ where m is the NaCl molality in aqueous fluid. These relations express the tradeoff between fluid fraction and salinity that cannot be independently determined for a given conductivity (Fig. 2b ). The correction to saline fluid conductivities from molecular dynamics data  (Sakuma and Ichiki 2016)  results in a 50 % increase of maximum salinities with respect to former estimates  (Hyndman and Shearer 1989; Reynard, et al.
( ANR-11-IDEX-0007 ) of the French government operated by the  National Research Agency (ANR). This work was also supported by  "Programme National de Planétologie" of the "Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers", CNRS. Careful comments by two anonymous reviewers and  BO Mysen  helped in improving the manuscript. PE Wannamaker kindly provided the magnetotelluric profiles used in Fig. 3.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT used to measure both the anisotropy magnetic susceptibility and the bulk susceptibility. The software ANISOFT (offered by AGICO) has been used to conduct Jelinek statistics  (Jelinek, 1981)  and to calculate the orientation of the three principal axes (k 1 , the long magnetic axis and magnetic lineation; k 2 , the intermediate magnetic axis; k 3 , the short magnetic axis and the pole of the magnetic foliation), the shape parameter (T) and the anisotropy degree (P J ) of the AMS ellipsoid. In addition, the hysteresis loops of the rocks from the Nanyue and Baishifeng plutons have been measured in the Paleomagnetic laboratory of the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris.
A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT co-operated by ISTO and BRGM (Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières) following the analytical procedure established by  Cocherie et al. (1998). The analysis was conducted with 20 kV acceleration voltage, 100 nA beam current and with a 150 ppm for U, Th and Pb absolute errors. Individual grain age and data sorting were realized by using EPMA/ex program written by  Pommier et al. (2003). Owing to the low Pb content and small variation of Th/U ratio, a representative isochron cannot be acquired using the Th/Pb-U/Pb diagram  (Cocherie and Albarede, 2001). The average monazite age was calculated at 106 ± 4 Ma (Fig. 14b ) in the gneissic granite sample SC274. Result validity is given by comparison of theorical and calculated Mean Square Weight Deviation (MSWD) indicating a well constrained result (Fig.
Description of the test site and available datasets The Terrieu experimental site, which is situated approximately 15 km north of the city of Montpellier (France), has been set up to investigate the hydrodynamic behaviour in the Lez aquifer which has served as the major water supply for the Montpellier urban area since the mid-19th century. The Lez aquifer is a fractured and karstic reservoir and consists of massive Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous limestones  (Leonardi et al. , 2011 , Jourde et al. , 2014). The hydraulic properties of this aquifer are dominated by the fault system in the area and are complex (Fig. 1 ;  Roure et al. , 1992; Petit and Mattauer, 1995; Watkinson et al. , 2006). The Terrieu site is located between two major faults in the Lez aquifer (Fig. 1 ). This experimental site is about 1500 m 2 (30 m x 50 m) in size (Fig.
Fracture mapping Detailed fracture mapping on the test site pavement rocks has been conducted by Jazayeri Noushabadi (2009) and later completed by  Wang et al. (2014, Fig. 2 ). Their results indicate that two major fracture sets are present: one oriented ENE-WSW and the other NW-SE. New fracture data collected by the present authors from the areas up-and down-stream of the test site along the Terrieu River are in agreement with the Terrieu pavement fracture database. This work confirms the presence of the two major fracture sets in the local region. The rose diagrams for both the fracture frequency and cumulative length based on the mapped fracture data at all stations have been plotted in the Fig. 3. These diagrams clearly reveal the structural anisotropy at the field site scale. This fracture pattern will be compared to the inverted transmissivity fields in later sections.
Well logging and packer tests During last two decades, extensive hydrogeophysical studies have been conducted at the Terrieu site using temperature, electrical conductivity, borehole video loggings and straddle packer tests (Fig. 4  and Fig. 5b ). Temperature and conductivity logs were recorded in all the boreholes; videos were recorded in 10 boreholes; and packer tests were performed in 5 boreholes. The borehole video data show that the fractures are generally steep and stop preferentially at bedding surfaces. The fractures are oriented in two major directions which are similar to the fracture patterns observed in outcrop on the test site pavement (Fig. 3 ). This justifies the use of surface fracture data to characterise the fracture network within the underlying unit. In addition, intense karstification has been observed either along major fractures and bedding planes or at the intersections between fracture and bedding planes.
11b  and Fig. 17 ). Two possible reasons for this are: firstly, from the geological point view, it may reflect the fact that the grid size, i. e. 0. 25m, is close to or falls below the scale of the major features (these are as large as 0. 2-0. 3m as can be seen in the borehole video data; see Fig. 4  for reference) controlling the groundwater flow. Alternatively, from the point of view of numerical calculation, this reduction of grid size from 1m by 1m to 0. 25m by 0. 25m may have led the model being over-discretised thereby reaching the limit of the SNOPT algorithm in solving the overestimated nonlinear inverse problem. In addition when a finer grid size is used, the complexity of the inverse problem may overwhelm the sparse database employed to constrain the problem. It follows that when limited field data are available it is important to determine the appropriate parameterisation when modelling highly heterogeneous fractured/karstified aquifers.
Such large-scale inverse problems have rarely been addressed in the water resources literature, except for some recent work conducted by Kitanidis and coworkers (e. g. Lee and Kitanidis, 2014). However, we recognise that results were achieved by using a dense borehole network in a limited area and an extensive hydraulic dataset, even though the hydraulic data are still apparently sparse compared to the large number of hydraulic unknowns (2160 in the coarsest model) in the largescale inverse problem addressed in this work. This may imply that based only on this case study it is difficult to claim that the hydraulic tomography technique is a generally applicable method for aquifer characterisation in fractured media and that its applicability need to be further tested using other datasets. Results have shown that the use of the initial connectivity information derived from pumping tests significantly improves the inversion results.
In future work, it will be useful to apply derivative-free methods such as the Markov chain Monte Carlo (McMC) approach to take into account the non-uniqueness solution and the uncertainties of the inverse modelling. The inversion results and effectiveness of both the gradient-based and derivative-free approaches could then be compared. Furthermore, as the fracture network at the Terrieu site has been mapped and statistically characterised, it would be worth constructing a set of DFN/DFM models and to apply the hydrodynamic datasets used in this work to condition them to invert the distribution of aperture for fractures in the network. Such approaches would not only allow the major controls of the geometry and connectivity of the main flow paths to be determined, but would also enable the complex channelling behaviour of multiphase flow that may have a major impact in fractured oil/gas reservoirs on the fluid exchange between the conductive flow paths and the bulk fracture rock, to be captured.
Acknowledgements This work was performed within the framework of the MEDYCYSS observation site, part of the  KARST observatory network  (www. sokarst. org)initiated by the  INSU/CNRS , which aims to strengthen knowledge-sharing and to promote cross-disciplinary research on karst systems. We acknowledge funding from  Total  for the PhD project of the first author. We thank the reviewers for providing useful comments which improve this paper.
Materials and methods Quantification of Lobophora-corals association. Eight species of Lobophora, commonly encountered in the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia were selected to quantify their association with corals and for the bioassays, i. e. L. abscondita, L. crassa, L. dimorpha, L. hederacea, L. monticola, L. nigrescens, L. undulata, and L. rosacea (Fig. 6 ). 78 belt transects, as described by English et al. 42  , each 10 m long, were deployed across coral dominated reefs in the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia. Within a belt transect, a 2500 cm 2 quadrat (50 × 50 cm) was placed consecutively left and right along a defined line, and photographs were taken directly above each quadrat using a Lumix Panasonic digital camera (12 megapixels) mounted on a photoquadrat framer. In each quadrat, the frequency of Lobophora -coral associations was assessed by placing 16 points per quadrat using a stratified random point count method using the software "Coral Point Count with Excel extensions"  43.
Acknowledgements M. Gaysinski  and  S. Greff  are deeply acknowledged for recording NMR and HRMS data respectively. C. Vieira  is a PhD fellow of the  University of Pierre  and  Marie Curie and Ghent University  and is part of MARES, a Joint Doctorate programme selected under Erasmus Mundus coordinated by  Ghent University  ( FPA 2011-0016 ).
A dipole-dipole arrangement was chosen because it allowed the greatest number of measurements for the number of electrodes present, which was advantageous for data inversion. Moreover, the dipole-dipole array was highly sensitive to horizontal changes in resistivity but relatively insensitive to vertical changes. For each resistivity measurement, an electrical current was passed between two adjacent electrodes (dipole AB), and the potential difference was measured between two other neighboring electrodes (dipole MN). The bulk ER ρ a of a half-space measured with a dipole-dipole electrode array is ρ a = 2π V I 1 (1/MA -1/MB + 1/NB -1/NA) = k V I , (1) where I is the intensity of the current passed between electrodes A and B, V is the potential difference measured between electrodes M and N, and k is the "geometric factor", whose value depends on the type of array.
ERT data processing Inverting resistivity measurements is an essential step before interpreting them because the raw resistivity measurements rarely reveal the true structure of the soil. Thus, resistivity sections were inverted with the software RES2DINV  (Loke and Barker, 1996)  using a smoothness-constrained least-squares method to produce a 2-D subsurface model. In the first iteration, a homogeneous earth model was used as a starting point from which partial derivative values of resistivity could be calculated analytically. For subsequent iterations, a quasi-Newton method was used to estimate the partial derivatives, which reduced computing time. In this method, Jacobian matrices for the homogeneous earth model were used for the first iteration, and those of subsequent iterations were estimated with an updating technique.
Since the variation range of WS parameters is unknown for the toposequence studied, a sensitivity analysis was performed using the range of the parameters presented by  Garré et al. (2011). Their study examined four horizons of an Orthic Luvisol developed in a loess parent material from Germany. Orthic Luvisol has relatively similar pedogenesis and texture to those observed in our toposequence, especially in the upslope zone. For each parameter of the WS model, three values (Table  1 ) were tested, leading to 27 simulations. VWC values were calculated for each extracted cell grid. Using the retention curves from  Ghazavi et al. (2011) , measured in the soil horizons of this studied toposequence, we also converted soil matric-potential data into VWC. Experimental retention curves (Fig. S4 ) were fitted using the Van Genuchten model  (Van Genuchten, 1980)  from Eq.
Discussion Predicting VWC from ERT has become a classical approach widely used by geophysicists. The method developed has several steps summarized in Fig. 10 , from data acquisition to processing. ERT, matric potential and groundwater level measurements were performed over the studied period. Particle-size distribution (PSD), bulk and root density were also characterized along the toposequence. Changes in ER over time were predicted without removing the effect of soil temperature variations over the study period, since these data were missing. PDFs of ER and matric potential were helpful for analyzing the statistical range of data and selecting the relevant monitoring time. The most contrasting times, corresponding to the wettest (T06) and driest (T10) states, were analyzed. ER and matric-potential data from the unsaturated zone were extracted to analyze the relationship between ER and matric potential (Fig.
The exploitation and consumption of fossil fuels have increased exponentially, especially coal exploitation (e. g. ,  Zhang et al. , 2014) , although large uncertainties remain in the magnitude of greenhouse gas emissions (e. g. ,  Liu et al. , 2015). In contrast, the decrease of rice cultivation area  (Verburg and Denier van der Gon, 2001; Kai et al. , 2011)  and changes in agricultural practices  (Chen et al. , 2013)  can lead to reduced CH 4 emissions from rice paddies. Total methane emissions from China remain uncertain as illustrated by discrepancies between global inventories and between bottom-up inventories and recent atmosphericbased analyses (e. g. ,  Kirschke et al. , 2013). The Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Center (EDGAR, version 4. 2, http://edgar. jrc. ec. europa. eu/overview.
1 • spatial resolution. To do so, we compiled activity data at county or province levels for eight major source sectors: (1) livestock, (2) rice cultivation, (3) biomass and biofuel burning, (4) coal exploitation, (5) oil and natural gas systems, (6) fossil fuels combustion, (7) landfills and (8) wastewater. We also compiled regional specific EFs for each source sector from published literature in English and Chinese. We then estimated annual CH 4 emissions and their uncertainty for the eight major source sectors and for total emissions. Finally, we produced annual gridded maps of CH 4 emissions at 0. 1 • × 0. 1 • for each source sector based on socioeconomic drivers (e. g. , rural and urban population, coal exploitation, and gross domestic product (GDP)). Note that this inventory only includes annual anthropogenic CH 4 emissions and has not included the seasonality of CH 4 emissions yet, which is worth being investigated in future study.
Biomass and biofuel burning CH 4 emissions from biomass and biofuel burning mainly come from burning of firewood and straw in rural households. In our inventory, this sector includes emissions from firewood and crop residues burnt as biofuel in households and from disposed crop residues burnt in the open fields. Province-level firewood consumption are extracted from the China Energy Statistical Yearbook. Because no firewood data are available after 2007 and firewood consumption in China is stable after 2005 (China Energy  Statistical Yearbook, 2004 -2008; Zhang et al. , 2009 Zhang et al. , , 2014)) , we assumed that the consumption of firewood from 2008 to 2010 is stable and equal to the average of 2005-2007 emissions. For crop residue burning, we distinguish crop residues used as biofuels in the houses from those burnt in open fields, fol-lowing  Tian et al.
Biomass and biofuel burning For the CH 4 emissions from biomass and biofuel burning, EDGARv4. 2 has a value 2 times larger than EPA and our estimates in the 1980s (Fig. 2d ). Previous studies reported 1. 9-2. 4 Tg CH 4 yr -1 emissions from biomass and biofuel burning by the same method but independent estimates of activity data  (SDPC, 2004; NDRC, 2012 NDRC, , 2014;; Zhang and Chen, 2014a, b). Tian et al. (2010)  conducted emission inventories of atmospheric pollutants from biomass and biofuel burning during the 2000s in China and indicated that CH 4 emissions from biomass and biofuel burning increased from 1. 9 Tg CH 4 yr -1 in 2000 to 2. 2 Tg CH 4 yr -1 in 2007. Compared to the Global Fire Emission Database (GFED) v4. 1 products, our estimates of CH 4 emissions from crop residues burnt in the open fields (0.
g. ,  Cheng et al. , 2011; Su et al. , 2011). This parameter increased from 3. 6 % in 1994 to 5. 2 % in 2000, based upon data of hundreds of individual coal mines  (Zheng et al. , 2006). In our inventory, we assumed that the recovery of CH 4 from coal exploitation kept increasing from 5. 2 % in 2000 to 9. 2 % in 2010. This assumption is consistent with the register of validated CBM and coal mine methane (CMM) projects in China which started from 2004 and increased in 2007/2008 (http://www. cdmpipeline. org/overview. htm,CDM/JIdatabase). The total reduction of CH 4 emissions by the implementation of CBM and CMM in China derived from the CDM/JI pipeline database is ∼ 0. 3 Tg CH 4 yr -1 in 2006 and ∼ 0. 9 Tg CH 4 yr -1 in 2010, which is close to our estimates of increased CH 4 recovery in 2006 (0.
, 2012). The fast recovery of CH 4 in the late of 2000s suggests a possible overestimation of CH 4 emissions from coal exploitation and manure management in our estimates, because we assumed a conservative or linearly increased recovery fraction for CH 4 from coal mining and manure management (see Sect. 2. 2). In the CDM database, ∼ 0. 4 Tg CH 4 yr -1 landfill gas is utilized in 2010, and most of the projects of landfill gas utilization started from 2007 in China. The consumption of natural gas has exponentially grown in China  (NDRC, 2012). The urban population using natural gas from pipeline network has tripled in the 2000s, and the total length of gas pipes construction has doubled in the past 5 years with fast urbanization in China  (China Energy Statistical Yearbook, 2014). Between 1980 and 2010, urban population has tripled in China and may reach 1 billion in 2050 (UN, 2014).