dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The logistics of the MCN, including standard operating policies, funding for mentoring visits and on-line support in the form of a virtual learning environment is in place. In order to support the integration of the MCN with existing services, programme managers at the Ministry of Health and the District Health Management Team (DHMT) will be engaged to arrive at a mutual understanding of roles. We will use a natural experiment model and compare annually over the next 5 years; data from all districts will be collected at baseline and annually until 2020 as the specialists of both cadres take up posts. A comparison of data for the period before and after, as well as between the districts will be done. Districts will be analysed as posts are filled according to which category they fall that year.
Acknowledgements The  Ministry of Health, Malawi , for its full support and collaboration during the development and implementation of this programme, including providing salaries for MOH staff during training. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit  ( GIZ) GmbH  for scholarships for BSc for CO PCH 2013-2014 intake and the salary of a paediatrician to provide training to this cadre. University of St Andrews Global Health Implementation  programme for funding BSc PCH 2013-2017. University of Edinburgh  for funding BSc PCH 2013-2016. The  Scottish Government  for funding the virtual learning environment for this cadre. Nchima Trust  for funding BSc PCH 2014 intake. ELMA Philanthropies for funding MMED scholarships for specialist paediatricians. ELMA Philanthropies for funding BSc 2015-2018 intake, funding for supervision and mentoring visits.
Clinical data obtained post-marketing authorization (MA) are intended to supplement or expand registration trial data. Such post-marketing studies are critical to update clinical benefit risk evaluation throughout the life cycle of the drug and to record the long-term safety of the drug. Therefore, post-registration studies are expected to differ from pre-approval studies in design, population enrolled, and so on. To determine the relative efficacy of a therapeutic class, network meta-analyses (NMAs) can be conducted to generate comparative evidence from multiple randomized clinical trials (RCTs) assessing the same efficacy outcomes and indication, but involving different interventions  (4, 5). However, these evaluations usually include both direct and indirect comparisons based on different types of studies (preand post-MA studies).
Study selection and antidepressants evaluation In order to define a homogeneous pool of treatments between the two time periods only the following new generation antidepressants for which the MA was obtained before 2002 were included: citalopram, escitalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, milnacipran, mirtazapine, paroxetine, reboxetine, sertraline, and venlafaxine (pooled IR and XR) Placebo was also considered. Clinical studies were retrieved from a systematic review performed on MDD. Non-English publications were excluded from the systematic review. Studies were also excluded if they did not report subgroup data for depression in an adult population (in case of larger patient selection) or did not report any of the outcomes of interest, or if they examined the continued use of antidepressants for relapse or recurrence prevention, or if they included B30 patients per treatment group.
Imputation methods If any values were not reported in the original data source, queries were made to find the data. In addition, imputation rules were defined for cases where data were missing for the year of publication or the standard deviation (SD) of the change from baseline to 8 weeks on the MADRS. Missing years of publication data were imputed by the date of the clinical report plus 1 year or the date of study completion plus 2 years. Missing SD values were either recalculated from the standard error (SE) or 95% Credible Interval (CrI) values, or imputed by 10 (value defined by the observed mean of the SD across studies and treatment arms). When necessary, the change from baseline was recalculated as the difference between endpoint and baseline values (SD imputed by 10, corresponding to the rounded value of the average of the SDs observed across all studies and treatment arms).
However, the methods used in the Cipriani report have limitations that may influence the outcomes and should be taken into consideration, including bias in study selection (data from placebo-controlled comparisons were excluded if they did not include an active comparator)  (13, 14) , choice of outcome (the definition of the response may be inconsistent and general withdrawal was considered instead of withdrawal due to AE which is closer to tolerability), and differential drug exposure (further profiling studies in specific patient subpopulations may improve the response of a more established drug, patients that are non-responders/intolerant to a comparator may be excluded, and there may be bias towards response with a more established drug[functional unblinding])  (15). In contrast to the Cipriani study, which included only acute phase studies and head-to-head trials with active comparators, study selection for the MTC analyses reported here also included studies with placebo as the only comparator.
Furthermore, the database used for the MTC data reported here included all publications up to 2007 and excluded studies presenting only HAM-D outcomes. Such differences in study selection may explain changes in the ranking of specific antidepressants, such as the improved ranking of reboxetine, compared with the Cipriani report  (11). Typically, any variation in the tolerability of drugs should not be as prominent as for efficacy as it is expected that drugs will have similar tolerability profiles across slightly varying patients' populations or disease's characteristics. For illustration, variations in tolerability observed in the current analysis may arise from the possibility that patients with improved symptoms, particularly those with severe MDD, will choose not to withdraw from the study despite the onset of AEs.
A policy decision of the EP is categorized as being of high news importance if the news exposure on the day of the decision is above the median for the set of decisions under consideration. Fang and Peress (2009)   ). The list of broadsheets is taken from Lexis Nexis and excludes Sunday papers as these would give a biased result for that one day of the week which is not a trading day. We search the Lexis Nexis database for the following terms: EU ETS, climate change, carbon emission, and CO2. When the search term EU ETS was used on its own very low counts were made so that such data was too sparse, hence a wider selection of search terms were used. For an article to be counted at least one of these four search terms must have occurred three times in the article. This provides an objective way to ensure that the article is actually about the EU emissions market and not merely referring to it while discussing other emissions related topics, such as the Chinese emissions trading schemes for instance.
Background: Goal attainment of guideline-recommended low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is suboptimal. Little is known about how patient factors influence physicians' treatment decision-making in hypercholesterolemia. We examined physicians' treatment recommendations in high-risk patients whose LDL-C remained uncontrolled despite statin monotherapy. Methods: Physicians completed a questionnaire prior to randomization into period I of a two-period randomized controlled trial evaluating LDL-C goal attainment in patients whose LDL-C remained ≥100 mg/dL after 5 weeks' treatment with atorvastatin 10 mg/day (NCT01154036). Physicians' treatment recommendations were surveyed for two hypothetical and one real scenario: (1) LDL-C presumed near goal (between 100-105 mg/dL), (2) LDL-C presumed far from goal (~120 mg/dL), and (3) observed baseline LDL-C of enrolled patients.
e. , uptitration, ezetimibe add-on, or switch to a more potent statin), have been published previously (NCT01154036)  [23]. Here we report the findings of the questionnaire-based survey, which assessed physicians' treatment recommendations and prognostic factors involved in decisionmaking for two hypothetical and one real scenario: (1) LDL-C presumed near goal (between 100-105 mg/dL), (2) LDL-C presumed far from goal (~120 mg/dL), and (3) observed baseline LDL-C. The survey was conducted just prior to randomization of each patient into the RCT, thus providing a unique opportunity to compare estimated outcomes based on treatment choices made in a real-life clinical setting with those obtained under strict protocol guidance during an actual RCT.
Study design This questionnaire-based survey was performed in the context of a phase III, two-period, multicenter, doubleblind RCT (NCT01154036), published previously  [23]. The questionnaire was pre-specified in the study protocol and, along with the RCT, was approved by the institutional review boards at each site (Additional file 3). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. In brief, high-risk patients with hypercholesterolemia (either treatment-naïve with LDL-C 166-190 mg/dL, or on stable lipid-lowering therapy with historic lipid values within a range that might reasonably meet the randomization criteria) were enrolled into a 5-week runin period on atorvastatin 10 mg/day (Figure  5 ). At the end of the run-in period, patients with LDL-C levels ≥100 and ≤160 mg/dL, and triglyceride levels ≤400 mg/dL, were randomized to ezetimibe 10 mg plus atorvastatin 10 mg, atorvastatin 20 mg, or rosuvastatin 10 mg daily for 6 weeks (period I of the RCT).
Multiple choices and write-in choices were also permitted. The questionnaire also asked physicians to specify which patient factors they would consider in deciding their real-life treatment choice(s): LDL-C close to the goal; LDL-C far from goal; desire to achieve more aggressive goal; cardiovascular risk factors; obesity/metabolic syndrome; low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; high triglyceride; concerns regarding side effects; prior good response to statin; prior poor response to statin; age; sex; patient preference; cost of medication to patient; and reimbursement status. The questionnaire also collected data on patient age, gender, and prior history of CVD, as well as physician characteristics such as type and duration of clinical practice. Estimated percent change in LDL-C based on the patient's observed pre-randomization (visit 3; 1 week prior to randomization) LDL-C and the treatment choice recommended by the investigator was compared to the observed percent change in LDL-C following 6 weeks of randomized treatment in period I.
Outcomes were defined as the percent change in LDL-C from randomization to Week 6, and the proportion of patients during this period who achieved LDL-C <100 mg/dL or LDL-C <70 mg/dL. The estimated percent change in LDL-C for a recommended treatment choice was calculated from the patient's pre-randomization (visit 3) LDL-C and the expected incremental change in LDL-C 6 weeks after initiation of the treatment choice recommended by the physician, based on product labeling information and published data (Table  4 )  [31, [45] [46] [47] [48] [49]. Estimated outcomes i. e. , the proportion of patients achieving LDL-C <100 or <70 mg/ dL, were calculated based on the percent incremental benefit that would be expected if the recommended treatment were applied to the observed LDL-C value at visit 3 (1 week prior to randomization) for each patient treated with atorvastatin 10 mg.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank  Joe Triscari PhD  of  Merck & Co. , Inc. for scientific input. The study was funded by  Merck & Co, Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ,  USA. Medical writing and editorial assistance were provided by  Melanie Jones of Prime Healthcare, Knutsford, Cheshire, UK. This assistance was funded by  Merck & Co. , Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ,  USA.
Study population The participants in the present study are a subset from the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS), a prospective panel study of health and aging in Mexico. The aim and design of the MHAS have been published previously. 10 Briefly, the baseline survey was conducted in the summer of 2001, and followed-up in 2003 and 2012 It was derived from the fourth wave of the National Employment Survey and it is regarded as a nationally representative sample of Mexicans aged 50 and older and their spouse/partners regardless of their age. It considers subjects from both urban and rural areas. Data were obtained from direct face-to-face interviews and individual audits, and proxy interviews were conducted when poor health or temporary absence prevented a direct interview. The MHAS is only representative of community-dwelling people.
In the case of Mexico, it is not an important omission because, according to the 2000 National Population Survey, less than 1% of people aged 60 years and older live in an institution. The MHAS includes data from 15 230 interviews (9 806 index cases and 5 424 spouses/partners). It contains self-reported information regarding health measures (functional status and health related behaviors [e. g. smoking and drinking history]), access to health services, depressive symptoms, pain, cognitive performance, and anthropometrical measurements. The MHAS was supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Aging. The study is a collaborative effort among researchers from the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Maryland, and the University of Wisconsin in the US and the Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI) in Mexico.
Incidence of IADL disability was also adjusted for baseline mobility disability, whereas for the analysis of incident ADL disability, baseline mobility and IADL disability were included. Probability of death without depending on the status of frailty survival was estimated by Kaplan-Meier method. Cox proportional hazard model was performed to estimate the risk of death, and later was also performed using all variables mentioned above, including the three domains baseline disability, with frailty status as the main explanatory variable. All statistical tests were performed at the 0. 05 level and 95% confidenceintervals (CI) were given. All statistical tests were performed using the SPSS software for Windows (SPSS Inc. , Chicago, IL, version 16. 0).
For the first time the systems of cities in seven countries or regions among the largest in the world (China, India, Brazil, Europe, the Former Soviet Union (FSU), the United States and South Africa) are made comparable through the building of spatio-temporal standardised statistical databases. We first explain the concept of a generic evolutionary urban unit ("city") and its necessary adaptations to the information provided by each national statistical system. Second, the hierarchical structure and the urban growth process are compared at macro-scale for the seven countries with reference to Zipf's and Gibrat's model: in agreement with an evolutionary theory of urban systems, large similarities shape the hierarchical structure and growth processes in BRICS countries as well as in Europe and United States, despite their positions at different stages in the urban transition that explain some structural peculiarities.
Standardized databases for comparing urban systems according to an evolutionary concept of cities Harmonised databases derived from an evolving concept of the city are a prerequisite for comparative urban studies. In our perspective of spatio-temporal compar-isons, we define a city as a place in which the daily activities of most residents are concentrated. Its delineation constitutes a spatial "envelope" that evolves through time, generally in expansion. For each time period, we select an urban delineation that is suited to the local regime of socio-spatial interaction: thus, before the 19th century, administrative units (communes, municipios, or places) are sufficient to define "cities without suburbs" (see  [1] , p. 291) that represent a dense body of population having requested and/or having been granted legal recognition by the political power.
The form taken on by this recognition and the conditions depend on the political and institutional setting (for instance, request to be incorporated into the United States, or demographic threshold in Europe, or political decision as observed more recently in the USSR or China). With the industrial revolution, the city became a dense human group extending outside administrative boundaries, and it then requires a morphological definition (i. e. urban agglomeration) so as to reflect this continuity of built-up area. More recently, interactions linked to the use of car transport and long-distance commuting by people living in peri-urban settings but still working in the city centres led on to a functional description of the city (i. e. functional urban area)  [6]. The present development of urban databases for the seven study zones is based on common principles, while at the same time allowing for adaptation to local constraints and political and administrative contexts  [33].
Wherever possible, we have used population numbers derived from the finest possible administrative level (the basic units in the databases) and we performed aggregations of these elementary entities in order to follow the evolution of the urban object in the seven selected countries over long arXiv:1501. 06408v1 [physics. soc-ph] 26 Jan 2015 time spans (see Figure  1 ). Table I sums up the final content of these databases and the method used to adapt our generic definition to the information available in each country. Few of these countries provide data based on a functional definition of the urban object, and the information is available only for certain dates (USA, Brazil). The database for Europe, which covers a longer historical time span, groups entities according to a morphological definition.
Certain countries only give information at administrative level, fortunately in fairly wide units that are able to evolve (Russia:  [9] ). Different aggregation methods have been implemented to harmonise these databases: morphological aggregation on the basis of aerial photographs or satellite images (Europe, India, FSU); for South Africa, since the morphological definition lacks relevance in the case of the Apartheid city, entities that were functionally linked to the city, such as the black townships, were integrated  [29]  ; the database for the USA uses an evolving definition of the city, considering legal entities alone until the change to urban agglomerations in 1870 and finally metropolitan areas (which are functional areas) from 1940  [5] ; For China, the principle of urban agglomeration was applied, adjusting delineations of built-up areas collected on satellite images on the administrative grid of the qu, shi and xian  [27].
The United States appear as an exception, with far less urban units than expected from their total urban population. That huge concentration of the urban system can be explained by the historical process of settlement in the "New world" as well as by the very large size of the elementary spatial units aggregated in SMA's (the counties). Even if we had included in the database the urban agglomerations instead of the SMA's, the exception would remain, since there are 1380 "urbanized areas and urban clusters" over 10 000 inhabitants for a total of 237 million urban population (US Census Bureau, 2014)  [34].
Forms of urban hierarchy and growth processes There is a vast corpus of literature about the forms taken on by urban hierarchies, and in particular the descriptions that refer to Zipf's rank-size rule. Recent syntheses  [20, 26]  have not reached a consensus on the universal nature of this rule, nor on the factors that might explain its wide applicability, or the main reasons for the variations that are observed. A first obstacle to the construction of scientific knowledge on this issue is the extreme heterogeneity of the samples of cities that have been used to perform the tests, and sometimes the doubtful quality of the definitions and delineations used to measure city size. We do not claim here to provide a final solution to this problem, but we do bring more credible results by using databases that are as comparable as possible, applying this to a large number of cities over fairly long time spans and for a variety of large countries of the world.
Macro-level analysis of urban hierarchies explained by territorial history Our main results widely confirm the results reported by Moriconi-Ebrard  [18]  who used the Geopolis database to compare states across the world. They also go against the idea of a historical convergence towards a regular Zipf model with a slope of -1 as suggested in a recent article by Berry and Okulicz-Kozaryn  [4]. Indeed, slope values for rank-size adjusted on these distributions vary, clearly differentiating countries and continents according to how long-standing their settlement is. The value of the rank-size slope is an index of size inequalities of cities. The variations of this index of urban size amplitude in a given territory can be fairly well explained by differences in the speed of transport systems enabling exchanges among cities, at the time when the urban networks become established: the lowest values (absolute value, i.
These trends are partly determined by the stage As a result, the weights of urban population of these countries in the total urban population of the world have been relatively increasing as shown in Figure  4  that compares their evolution over almost half a century. These contrasted evolutions explain the very rapid turnover in rankings among the mega-cities (above 10 millions inhabitants), which are always the subject of controversy because the delineations chosen to measure these large urban areas have a considerable impact on their rank  [35]. We can consider here the subset of these seven large countries included in the harmonised database to demonstrate the upheavals caused by unequal demographic growth over the last four decades. In the 1960s, the three largest cities by size were located outside the BRICS, with populations of 10.
Conclusion When dealing with complex systems, it is important to relate the configurations of urban hierarchies observed on macro-geographical scale of States to the trajectories of the urban entities they comprise on micro-geographical level. This paper thus demonstrates the usefulness of constructing a harmonised database enabling the description of the evolution of urban entities and their spatial extension over time. We provide for the first time a comparable overview of the systems of cities in the five BRICS countries. Using Zipf's distribution of city sizes and Gibrat's urban growth models as benchmarks for the comparison, we have demonstrated that the dynamic urban processes in BRICS during the last fifty years were rather similar to those observed for instance in Europe or the United States.