dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
XRD analysis XRD analyses were performed on the unreacted and the weathered samples for each experiment. Bulk analyses were performed on powder preparation. The DIFFRAC. EVA software with the PDF4 database has been used for the mineral identification. To determine the clay mineral nature on oriented preparation, each clay mineral sample was Ca-and K-saturated by using four saturation cycles of 0. 5 mol. L - particles dispersed in distilled water on glass slides and dried at room temperature (preparation referred as air dried -AD). The Ca-preparations were solvated by exposing the glass slides to ethylene-glycol vapor at 50°C overnight (Ca-EG). Concerning the K-saturated samples, each K-AD preparations were successively heated at, 110, 330 and 550°C in an oven for 4 hours. XRD acquisitions were obtained after each temperature step.
Acknowledgments This work was partly supported by the  Research Council of Norway through its Centre of Excellence funding scheme , project  223272. This project has received funding from the  European Union's Horizon 2020  ( H2020-COMPET-2015 )  Research and Innovation Program  under grant agreement  687302  (PTAL). This study is supported by the  Research Council of Norway  ( 235058/F20 CRATER CLOCK ). The authors would like to thank  B. Foroughinejad  ( Chemistry, University of Oslo ) for technical support setting up the experiments,  F Poulet  and  L. Riu  ( IAS-University Paris-Sud ) for access and help during the NIR measurements, and  H. Hellevang  and  H. Dypvik  ( Geosciences, University of Oslo ) for providing the sample. We would like to greatly thank the  Plateau Technique de Microscopie Electronique (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris)  for the SEM pictures and the EDS analyses.
4. What aspects do these successful strategies/procedures share, which could be recast in a generic QA frame? This informed the output from the project: Are the same points being made in both countries or are there major differences as a result of the two different contexts? The QualiCEFR project used a multiphase mixed methods research design  (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011)  combining qualitative and quantitative research. First, qualitative data were collected through document searches and semi-structured interviews. Second, as a form of confirmation, quantitative data are being collected with an online survey-this step is ongoing. This type of mixed design is often used in program evaluation to support the development of a specific program  (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). The approach follows a design-based research paradigm, combining empirical research with a theory-driven design through collaboration between researchers and practitioners  (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012; van den Akker, Gravemeijer, McKenney, & Nieveen, 2006).
Interview Data Analysis The third phase was the qualitative, thematic analysis of the data collected during the interviews. This analysis followed a multi-stage, iterative process that is explained in detail below. Preliminary observations. First, immediately after conducting each interview round (one in Canada and one in Switzerland), preliminary observations of the most relevant and recurring themes, patterns and issues that emerged from the interviews were recorded. This preliminary analysis served two purposes: (a) to use the content of these observations as a basis to devise the thematic categories for the coding stage, and (b) to formulate initial hypotheses and identify apparent similarities and differences between the two countries that could be verified during the detailed analysis stage.
Thematic categories. The next step was to devise an initial set of categories that would be used to code the interview data. Some categories were selected deductively starting from the research questions and the theoretical framework of the study while others were formulated inductively starting from the patterns that were noticed in the data. The final list features 11 overarching categories, with each category including several subcategories (see Appendix 1). Coding. Next, the interview data were coded with the draft thematic categories using the qualitative data analysis software NVivo. The coding team comprised three expert coders and two junior coders who initially carried out a test round of individual coding followed by discussion. Subsequently, the thematic categories were revised and more clearly defined and the coding process was organized in a spiral structure in which each cycle consisted of (a) independent coding, (b) checking and modifying the codes, and (c) refining and modifying the coding categories (see Figure  2 ).
This process was employed for approximately one third of the data, until the list of thematic categories was finalized and all coders were familiar with the categories and the coding process itself. The two junior coders then independently coded the remaining data and each expert coder checked the codes related to a specific set of categories. Data analysis. Once all the interview data were coded on NVivo, they were analyzed to find relevant patterns and trends that would provide the answers to the research questions. To do this, the data set was prepared in two forms. In one form, each of the 44 interview transcripts was treated as a single source. In the other form, the comments by the respondents were divided according to the different projects and initiatives they had talked about, which gave a total of 121 projects.
Information on the results obtained from the data analysis is provided in the Results section. Data interpretation. An NVivo analysis is qualitative; the numbers in Table  3  reflect the number of occurrences of a particular code, or, as preferred in this study, the number of projects referred to in which the code in question appeared. Before discussing the research questions, it is interesting to see similarities and differences in aspects of the CEFR referred to in the two countries, as shown in Figure  3. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the proportion of references to levels and descriptors is virtually identical. The biggest difference is that whereas in Canada there is a higher proportion of references to the introduction of communicative and action-oriented tasks, in Switzerland there is more mention of evaluation with defined criteria and of a plurilingual approach.
Finally, although there are in fact noticeable differences between responses from Canada and from Switzerland, particularly in relation to the use of an examination as a catalyst, as shown in Figures  4  and 5 , virtually every major point reported in the results section was made by respondents from both countries. This is encouraging in relation to the final research question: What aspects do these successful strategies/procedures share, which could be recast in a generic QA frame? Obviously, as with the CEFR itself and the body of materials surrounding it, any generic tool needs to be adapted and customized to a given context, but it does appear that there may be a common basis for advisory guidelines. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Special Issue: 22, 1 (2019): 103-128 122 The purpose of the final data collection stage of the QualiCEFR project-the survey-is to double check the extent to which there is consensus on the relative importance of the most significant points raised.
Les données ont été traitées à l'aide du logiciel Epi info7. 1. 3. 3 ® et Microsoft Excel 2010 ®. avaient une hyperuricémie (38,4%). Le type de dyslipidémie prédominant était le High density lipoprotein cholestérol (HDL c) bas, retrouvé chez 44 patients : soit 44,4% de notre population d'étude Table  1  (tableau I). La dyslipidémie survient indépendamment de l'âge (p > 0,05 pour chacun des types de dyslipidémie) et du sexe (p > 0,05 pour chacun des types de dyslipidémie). Nous n'avons pas trouvé́de relation significative entre le DFG et la cholestérolémie totale élevée (p=0,46), ou l'hypertriglycéridémie (p = 0,29), ou le HDL c bas (p = 0,37), ou le Low density lipopretein cholesterol (LDL c élevé) (p = 0,39). Après ajustement à la protéinurie, l'association devenait significative pour la cholestérolémie totale (p < 0,001), le HDL c bas (p = 0,01) et le LDL c élevé (p < 0,001); l'association entre le DFG et la triglycéridémie restait non significative (p = 0,05).
Acquisition of facial images and pre-processing At baseline and after the 28-days treatment, homogeneous crosspolarized pictures of both facial sides with a 30°angle were taken using a Visia-CR â device (Canfield Scientific, NJ, USA) and saved as high-resolution (3648 9 5472px) jpeg files. The position of the face was stabilized by holders. All pictures included a 48-colours reference chart (ColorChart, Newtone Technologies, Lyon, France). To prevent that small variations in lighting affecting colour analysis, a colour consistency analysis was performed using the colour chart. The differences between the known colour reference and the colour reference data from the pictures were used to perform colour corrections using the ColorSkin software (Newtone Technologies, Lyon, France). Classical determination of L*, a* and b* colour parameters Initial analysis of colour changes over the two time points focuses on four predefined regions of interest (Fig.
1 ): the forehead, the upper cheek, the middle cheek and the lower cheek. These regions were delimited on individual left and right face pictures of each subject using a template matching algorithm (Newtone Technologies, Lyon, France), and the average L*, a* and b* parameters over each entire region of interest was determined. These data were used to calculate the variations in the L*, a* and b* parameters between both time points for each subject. Finally, significance of colour changes was calculated by performing a paired Student's ttest or a Wilcoxon signed-rank test on these differences, differentiating the vehicle-treated group and the group treated with the emulsion containing the anti-ageing peptide. P-values below 0. 05 were considered significant.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the  Laboratoire Dermscan (Villeurbanne, France)  for recruiting the volunteers and performing the acquisition of facial images. They also thank  Dr. Philippe Crouzet ,  Estium-Concept , for scientific writing services. Disclosure P. Seroul  is a former employee of  Newtone Technologies , a company specialized in imaging solutions for life sciences. S. Gougeon  and  M. Cherel  are full-time employees of Newtone Technologies. R. Campiche  and  R. Voegeli  are full-time employees of  DSM Nutritional Products Ltd. , a global science-based company working in the field of health, cosmetology, nutrition and materials and the manufacturer of the anti-ageing peptide tested in the study. A. V. Rawlings is a consultant to DSM.
2. 2. 2. Prosodic & discourse analysis Prosodic analysis was conducted with the software Praat  (Boersma & Weenink: 2017). Pitch floor and ceiling were respectively set to 75 and 350 Hertz (Hz. ) as typical values obtained for fundamental frequency range from 200 to 220 Hz. for women  (Mount & Salmon: 1988; Takefuta et al. : 1972; Traunmüller & Eriksson: n. d. ). The cross-correlation method was used for pitch 3 analysis as it is optimized for voice research. 'Very accurate' analysis was selected in advanced pitch settings. Intensity range was set to 0-100 decibels (dB). Since Praat, like other voice analysis softwares, may not always accurately detect creaky voice  (Toshinori Ishi et al. : 2008) , creaked segments were first identified by ear, then observed with spectrogram representations and with pulse reports.
The COCA corpus is large, and covers a lot of colloquial sources, which makes it excellent to obtain an accurate picture of the Present-Day use of the way too construction. I used it chiefly in Section 1. 1. to sketch a broad portrait of the construction's usage, as well as in Section 3. 1. to derive the most complete possible Zipf's law associated with the construction. Given its limited temporal horizon , however, it is unsuitable for a diachronic investigation. For this purpose, the COHA corpus is one of the most reliable databases available. It has been cleverly designed, and all 'hits' of a query can be checked manually. It covers all decades from 1810-1819 to 2000-2009, even though not all decades are equally represented. The main limitation of this corpus is its size, which is relatively small, and often insufficient to conduct quantitative analyses in a satisfyingly robust way: 400 million words spread over 20 decades, to be compared with the COCA corpus and its 1 billion words for the last three decades.
8 The Google Books Ngram corpus seems to offer the advantages of both corpora: it encompasses a very large number of sources (155 billion words) and covers the English language from the sixteenth century. I mostly avoided using it however, except to occasionally pick up an attested example to illustrate some point under discussion. The reason for this is that Google Books Ngram is extremely unreliable: the data is made of n-gram counts (for each n-gram, and each year, the data provides the number of hits), so that the context cannot be checked. It also encompasses a large number of OCR errors. On top of that, the date associated with the texts is too often incorrect: a novel published within the last ten years can be dated from the 1950s for no reason, while recent academic reprints of past century works will be listed under the date of the reprint, often in multiple editions.
[2017] offered a way to automatize this selection), the parameter fit is over-sensitive to this choice, and finally, if the process is still ongoing by the end of the time period covered by the corpus, there might be no proper end point to rely on. This is typically the case with the way too construction. 44 Therefore, I chose to keep the two end points as free parameters and to rely on a least squares fit that minimizes the sum of squared errors (SSE), using the lsqcurvefit function in Matlab. However, the range of the data that should be fit still needs to be determined: taking into account all data points is potentially problematic, especially because the S-curve pattern can be preceded by a long latency period during which the frequency is non-zero but mostly stagnant  (Feltgen et al. [2017] ).
To select the most relevant range, I tried all possible starting points and performed the fit for each resulting data set, keeping in the end the fit with the smallest SSE, scaled by the number of data points. This procedure selected the 1950-1959 decade as the best starting point, which seems appropriate. Figure  1   The corresponding slope α is then equal to 2. 01 and t 0 is equal to 5. 1, which means that the mid-point of the process is reached at the beginning of the 1990-1999 decade. Furthermore, the fit predicts that the S-curve will plateau at 9. 0 tokens per million words, so that the process has nearly reached its peak by the end of the time period covered by the COHA (7. 7 hits per million words). This is consistent with the picture that emerges out of a simple Google Books Ngram Viewer query for the time period 1950-2019 (Figure  2 ), in which it is apparent that the process has reached its end by the very last decade.
Unfortunately, a quantitative comparison of the raw frequency is compromised by the uncontrolled nature of the Google Books data. Finally, these predictions are robust with respect to a different choice of data range (i. e. encompassing earlier data points while fitting the sigmoid). 46 To furthermore assess the reliability of the S-curve pattern, I performed the same analysis on the data from the COCA corpus, which covers three decades. Since three data points is insufficient to fit the sigmoid function, I partitioned the data into intervals of 5 years  (from 1990-1994 to 2015-2019). This partition is warranted by the relatively higher token frequency of way too in this period. As evidenced on Figure  3 , the sigmoid fit captures well the overall behavior of the data and the plateau is indeed reached by the end of the sampled period.
To perform such a match, I rescaled on Figure  4  the two curves so that they both go from 0 to 1, setting aside the frequency differences that arise from the specific nature of the two corpora, and extrapolated on the whole 1940-2029 range, beyond the range over which they have been fitted. Even though the agreement is not perfect, the COCA-based fit remarkably predicts that the frequency rise must have taken off in the 1960s-1970s, while the COHA-based fit successfully predicts that the frequency rise will come at a term by the 2010-2019 decade, which is empirically confirmed in the data from the COCA. 48 The S-curve pattern suffers nonetheless from a limitation: while it predicts a plateau at the end of a frequency rise, a small decline can be observed on both the COCA data and the Google Ngram query.
Does the Zipf's law hold for each decade of the constructionalization process? 61 Unfortunately, an accurate answer to these questions is made difficult due to the scarcity of the available data: in the COHA corpus, the type frequency for each decade from 1930-1939 to 2000-2009 is respectively equal to 1, 2, 4, 4, 9, 17, 51, 84. If furthermore we remove the hapax legomena, then there is only data for the four last decades, with type frequencies (hapax legomena remove) respectively equal to 1, 6, 19 and 32. Therefore, the Zipf's law can only be meaningfully fitted for the last three decades only. The results of these fits are summarized on Table  1. For all these three decades, the token frequency distribution over types behaves in a Zipf-like way, as attested by the high r² values of the linear fit.
84 vs. 1. 24), and is significantly below the Zipf's α coefficient found for entire texts. There are two possible explanations here. The first one is that the COCA data relies on considerably more colloquial sources, while the COHA data chiefly come from literary sources. Therefore, different registers might be associated with different α coefficients. The second explanation is that, as we shall see below, the empirical determination of the α coefficient is widely dependent on the sample size. Therefore, any direct comparison between these coefficients for different sample sizes is compromised. 3. 2. 2. Does the way too construction obey the same laws throughout the whole process? Interestingly, the Zipf's coefficient α resulting from the fit is increasing over time. Even though three data points is insufficient to empirically support this increase with a satisfying degree of certainty, this trend would indicate that the construction might become, at once, both applicable to a greater number of types, and tighter at the same time, as the most attested types become even more attested compared to the least attested types.
Robustness of the Zipf-like distribution across varieties of English The last question is to know whether this Zipf's law organization found in American English is also found in other varieties of English. Indeed, I have already argued that the way too construction most likely originates from the United States, so the construction has spread from there to other English-speaking countries. However, the way too construction could be adopted as a general schema, not as a complex frequency organization governed by a specific ranking between its different types. It is therefore worthwhile to investigate the robustness of this ranking over the different varieties of English. To do so, I rely on data from the GloWbE corpus, a corpus compiled over Internet text productions of various sorts (blogs mostly, but newspapers as well) from the years 2012-2013.
This is both true in synchrony, as attested from the COCA corpus, and in diachrony: the Zipf's law is attested for each relevant decade, and the ranking between types that it implies is mostly conserved throughout the constructionalization process. This Zipf's law, however, is not static, and becomes steeper as time goes by: that is, the most frequent items become even more frequent with respect to the least frequent ones as the process goes on. Even though the application scope of the construction is widening, the construction becomes paradoxically more specialized overall. This study is, of course, not without limitations. First, the scarcity of the data associated with the way construction in the COHA corpus prevents the conclusions that I drew to be firm and definitive. The same analyses should therefore be conducted on other constructions that show a wider attestation over the whole period covered by the COHA corpus.
Methods: A single center retrospective study was performed on patients who  Pour évaluer l'influence de la chirurgie de cataracte combinée à la vitrectomie sur le gain fonctionnel, une analyse de variance comparant le type de chirurgie « vitrectomie seule » ou « chirurgie combinée » a été menée dans le sous-groupe des patients phakes. Un seuil de significativité de 5% a été retenu. Les analyses ont été conduites à l'aide du logiciel SAS (version 9. 4, SAS Institute Inc. , Cary, NC, USA).
Offline analyses Maps were analysed retrospectively using a non-commercial version of the Rhythmia software. Signals > 0. 02 mV (twice laboratory noise level) were annotated. Activation maps during VT and SR/pacing were annotated to the high-frequency nearfield bipolar signals. Areas of scar (defined as <0. 8 mV and dense scar as <0. 2 mV(4)) and of LAVAs were annotated on each substrate map. Late activation was defined as that occurring after the QRS. LAVA were defined as sharp high-frequency ventricular potentials, occurring anytime during or after the farfield ventricular electrogram and distinct from it, in SR or pacing  (5). Lumipoint algorithms were then applied. In addition to voltage and activation time annotation, each electrogram was processed to detect all activity. This results in a continuous trace which reflects the presence of deflections for each time point and provides the basis for further inspection.
Statistics Continuous variables are presented as mean +/-SD for normally distributed data and median and interquartile range (IQR) for non-normally distributed data. Continuous variables were compared using analysis of variance. Categorical variables were expressed as counts or percentages. Analyses and comparisons of continuous data were performed using ANOVA, whilst the Fisher exact test was used to compare categorical data. A two-sided probability level of <0. 05 was considered significant. All calculations were performed using SPSS 20. 0 (IBM Software, USA).
Méthodes statistiques Les tests statistiques ont été pratiqués à l'aide du logiciel SAS 9. 4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, EU). Les données qualitatives ont été exprimées sous forme de nombres et de pourcentages. Les données quantitatives ont été exprimées sous forme de moyennes (± écart type) lorsqu'elles étaient normalement distribuées et de médianes (avec les extrêmes) dans le cas contraire. Le test t de Student ou celui de Wilcoxon ont été utilisés pour les variables continues et le test du Chi-deux ou test de Fisher exact pour les variables catégorielles. Les analyses multivariées ont été pratiquées par régression logistique conditionnelle pas à pas ascendante. Les variables avec p<0,2 de l'analyse univariée ont été introduites dans les modèles d'analyse multivariée. Les intervalles de confiance ont été calculés à 95%.