dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
g. ,  [15]. These datasets allow for the development of strategies for the safeguarding of natural habitats, plants, and animal species (e. g. ,  [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] ). Although a great return is guaranteed, remote sensing performed by standard satellites is very expensive  [21] , and is thus affordable only to countries and large consortia able to ensure expensive, long-term operations. The high costs are due to large volumes and masses (>1 m 3 , >500 kg) of the standard satellites, which imply the need for powerful launchers. In the late 1980s, the technological advancement of small satellites  [22] , classified in different classes depending on their masses (cf. Table  1 ), allowed for space programs to also become accessible to countries, communities, and private institutes with limited funding (e.
This was the case, for instance, for the Disaster Monitoring Constellation First Generation (DMC-1G), an international partnership based on a Know-How Transfer and Training program for Third Countries, featuring expense and problem sharing, and remote sensing data exchange between all the partners. The DMC-1G constellation was made up by five micro-satellites (~100 kg each), which were launched within a time window from 2002 to 2005, into a 686 km sun-synchronous orbit (SSO), and resulted in being particularly effective during the large-scale Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004) and Hurricane Katrina (2005) disasters  [40]. The combination of commercial appeal and low unit cost brought small satellites to the center of attention in 2010, and stimulated proposals for new applications and business models  [22].
The advent of small satellite constellations coupled to the Internet, Cloud storage, advanced processing, and distribution methods has fostered the change from science to commodity. The evolution of small satellite EO companies, e. g. , RapidEye, SkyBox, BlackBridge, and Planet (Labs), has demonstrated the rapid changes and their market volatility. Specifically, RapidEye was operative since 2008 until a couple of years ago. It represented a major milestone in the EO industry, for being the first fully commercial operational class EO system using a constellation of five micro-satellites (~150 kg), which provided exceptional performance for their class and a full end-to-end system. A dedicated Spacecraft Control Centre and an 80 Mb/s X-band data downlink ground station service was able to organize, acquire, and process up to 5,000,000 km 2 of images every day from the five-band multispectral imager (RGB, Red Edge, and NIR bands), with 6.
An updated database is thus crucial to study the evolution of the ecosystems formed by the meadows  [209] , and to safeguard and manage such habitats and biodiversity  [189, 210]. Remote sensing would be very effective in obtaining a spatial and temporal survey of the meadows, through the generation of a broad and synoptic view of the coastal system, and a complete study of biotic and abiotic variables  [200, [211] [212] [213] [214]. Aquatic ecosystems are indeed characterized by strong optical signals deriving from the distinctive photosynthetic pigments of the various plant groups, from phytoplankton to submerged or emerged macroalgae, from marine phanerogams to coastal-terrestrial plants  [215]. However, a good optical depth of water is a necessary condition for mapping the meadows on the sea floor, urging the emergency of contrasting coastal pollution and anthropogenic activities  [200].
Such processing allows the presence of a non-negligible coherent component in the backscattered sea surface signal to be highlighted by evaluating the corresponding Rice Factor (RF) image of the area under study  [267]. The RF represents the coherent-to-incoherent received power ratio of the backscattered signal, and therefore the pre-processing stage consists in evaluating the RF of the calibrated SAR image. The pre-screening stage is based on a vessel search by applying the "bright anomalies" method on the RF images  [255, 268]. Because it was proven that the RF image follows a log-normal distribution, a threshold can be straightforwardly set according to a constant false alarm rate (CFAR) approach to remove false positives  [266]. A similar approach is also used for change detection (CD) in urban areas, which adopts a convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithm to process the SAR-generated dataset and retrieve changes of urban structures and buildings (e.
In detail, the heave and pitch motions in a seaway can be estimated starting from the survey of the amplitudes of the ship vertical motions in a point of known coordinates, located on the centerline plane, using the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), and pitch acceleration, using a gyroscope  [281, 282]. The pitch acceleration allows to determine the pitch motion amplitude of the ship (by double integration in the time domain), and, from the vertical translational motion (composed by heave and pitch motions), it is possible to compute the heave motion amplitude of the center of mass. These data allow to determine the response spectra related to the heave and pitch motions in the encounter wave frequency domain  [280, 281, 283]. The response spectra as a function of the absolute frequency can be evaluated on the basis of two additional input data, namely the vessel speed, which is measured by the GNSS, and the encounter angle between the true course of the ship (determined by GNSS system) and the prevailing direction of the sea, which is derived from images obtained by the SAR systems.
g. , classification and change detection), where surface features can be extracted and re-arranged; and (iii) decision level (e. g. , fusion of data acquired by multiple sensors-optical, SAR, and LiDAR), where the results from multiple algorithms are combined and fused into one single, fused decision  [284, 287, 288]. Such an increase in the degree of data fusion level brings the current trend out, where this approach has become a fundamental tool for data analysis, partly due to the increase in the number of the launched satellites (eventually in constellation configuration), to the improvement of the spatial and spectral resolutions of space sensors, and to the opportunity of validating and integrating the remote sensing data with ground data  [284]. In this framework, the DORA project can greatly benefit from the data fusion techniques outlined above.
However, since its initial conceptualization, data fusion has become an essential tool to process data acquired by small satellites, which can (i) guarantee a great ground coverage by means of constellations, and (ii) ensure a wider utilization of the final data products, because they are cheaper. An example can be provided by the SkySat constellation (in the case of SkySat 16 to 21, the resolutions of the panchromatic and the spectral bands are 0. 57 m and 0. 75 m, respectively). See Table  2  for more examples. Here, we present the results of pan-sharpening applied to panchromatic and multispectral images taken by Pléiades HR-1B, a large satellite that acquired images at the spatial resolutions of 0. 5 m and 2 m for the panchromatic and multispectral filters, respectively, i. e. , similar to those achievable with small satellites.
Radiometric Model as Tool for DORA Feasibility Study In this paper, we have presented a selection of study cases that are not exhaustive of all the possible marine, atmospheric, and oceanographic research topics, but they have been selected for being quite wide-ranging to carry out the feasibility study of the DORA project. In Table  3 , we summarize the state-of-the-art of the presented study cases, which will highlight how new space missions, such as the one studied within the DORA project, can be of great benefit for their investigation and progress. Indeed, current remote sensing data are only partially available because of the high costs of the large satellite data acquisition and/or the still limited use of small satellites. The possibility of having a constellation of platforms with a very short revisiting time (2-3 h) VHR images at lower costs Generally, for all the cases considered here, the remote sensing system should include instrumentation operating in the spectral range from VIS to NIR and in MW range, and on a global coverage, in order to accurately investigate and monitor the terrestrial environment.
Conclusions In this paper, we reviewed several environmental applications in marine, atmospheric, and oceanographic thematics, and selected both for having pivotal advancements by using remote sensing data and for being quite comprehensive to evaluate the capabilities of deployable optical systems. In particular, we focused on the Deployable Optics for Remote sensing Applications (DORA) project, which is currently under development, and tested its optical performances through radiometric analysis. The analyzed study cases show how past and current small satellites can be of great benefit to improve such topics, in terms of data resolutions, revisiting times, and lower acquisition costs. On the other hand, manufacturing constraints imposed by small satellites, i. e. , size and weight limitations, might severely limit data quality (high spatial and spectral resolutions) with respect to the requirements needed for a specific application.
Discussion The data presented are from a subset of landowners across the CCP areas in Ireland which is indicative of where curlew are breeding within the Irish landscape. The Curlew is facing rapid declines across Europe in Ireland in particular  (BirdLife International, 2020). The drivers of this decline in Europe are similar to those in Ireland (agricultural intensification, increased predation)  (Grant et al. , 1999; Ławicki & Wylegała, 2011; Brown, 2015; McMahon et al. , 2020). Following on from the objectives stated previously, we consider how the knowledge gathered from this study can be applied to improve practices within agricultural settings which benefit the sustainable use of resources which would be exemplified by the existence of waders such as Curlew. The majority of landowners in this study were cattle rearing (suckler)  farmers.
It is likely that the best way forward would be one that includes a form of financial support, even if it is likely that the motivations and goals of farmers are not financially driven. It also appears that landowners would be in favour of receiving non-financial assistance in the form of expert advice on the best practices to improve sustainability of some farming systems. It is interesting to note that landowners perceived a local increase of Curlew numbers in this survey. The reason for this may largely be due to the fact that only landowners in CCP target areas were addressed, where Curlew numbers may be more apparent. The overall perception of national curlew numbers is a general decline. Of the four dominant values, intrinsic values were listed most often, with instrumental values (such as finance-related values) ranking second lowest.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank  Beatriz Arroyo  and two annoymous reviewers for comments which inproved drafts of this paper. Thank you to  Roisin Sheehy  for her help on this paper. Thank you to  Michaela Cox  for her MSc work on this study. This research was funded by the  National Parks and Wildlife Services  'Research on the ecology and conservation requirements of breeding curlew in Ireland -Project ID1211_ecr17'. Thank you to all members of the  Curlew Conservation Programme  who helped make this study possible: to members of the  NPWS  who conducted the initial project design of this questionnaire and to members of the  CCP  who carried out the data collection stage of the study.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank  Prof. Galila El Kadi  as the tutor of Liang Peng Ph. D thesis for guiding to complete her research, thanks to  Prof. Gilles Guiheux  at  Université de Paris ,  Prof. Françoise Ged  at ' Cité de l'architecture et du patrimoine ' ,  M. Roland Chih-Hung Lin  at  World Heritage Center of UNESCO ,  Prof. Anna Madoeuf  at  Université de Tours ,  Prof. Sylvie Denoix  at  CNRS ,  Ms. Isabelle Longuet  who is former President of  Mission Val de Loire , for reviewing Liang Peng thesis and giving their comments. Thanks to the  laboratory CESSMA of University of Paris (Université Paris Cité)  for supporting the field survey of  Val de Loire , and a tip of the hat to Senator Yves Dauge.
Data Collected Each teacher completed a questionnaire asking for socio-demographic information, teaching experience, and teaching practices. The researchers also conducted semistructured interviews with each teacher at the beginning and the end of the schoolyear in order to explore their beliefs about spelling, spelling teaching practices, and Twictée. For each class, we videoed and transcribed either a Twictée cycle (experimental group) or five spelling lessons (control group). In the case of the Twictée cycles, we also collected students' individual dictations, group productions, tweets, and assessment dictations, mainly for qualitative analysis. We also videoed students' group work in some classes. The third dataset included in our analyses consisted of the students' pretest and posttest spelling evaluations.
Students. The classes in our sample included a total of 997 students, 406 of whom attended Priority Education Network schools. Excluding ten students who were still in 3 rd grade and all the students who were absent for the pretest and/or posttest gave a final sample of 893 students (see Table  4 ). We collected several types of sociodemographic data for the students, including date of birth, gender, and mother's and father's professions. Of these 893 students, 832 (93. 2%) spoke French at home (66. 6% spoke French only; 26. 5% spoke French and another language at home).
Data Analysis We used the Factorial Analysis for Mixed Data (FAMD) principal components method to impute missing data in the covariates (see Table  4 ). After examining the distributions of co-variables, we dichotomized Teaching Experience and Class Size, as we did not expect to find a linear relationship between these variables and the students' performances. Due to the absence of a theoretical or empirical cut-off point, we used median values to dichotomize these variables. To simplify the statistical models, and because the modalities were unbalanced, we also recoded the four socioeconomic status categories into two modalities, labeled Disadvantaged (combining the initial Very Disadvantaged and Disadvantaged categories) and Advantaged (combining the initial Intermediate and Advantaged categories).
Materials and Methods (Design/methodology/approach) Aim of this paper is to investigate if machine learning approaches are suitable for on the one side the reconstruction of trees and on the other side that of buildings. These approaches have shown their efficiency with images, therefore it was predictable that image-based segmentations would greatly inspire cloud-based segmentation solutions. Taking advantage of the expanding deep learning solutions and the relatively ease to implement for non-specialists, the PointNet++ neural network  (Qi et al. , 2017)  has been chosen for a first experiment, to address the objectives of the study. With the aim to automatically detect the geometric and physiological characteristics of urban trees, complementary information added to the XYZ coordinates of the point cloud (like RGB and normal), might bring interesting knowledge but also learning databases for artificial intelligence tools.
9 The bibliographical work necessitated considerable fieldwork, particularly in the less well-known French provincial libraries. Each year, he led a research team to a series of strategically important collections for weeks at a time which enabled the full description of tens of thousands of volumes. As the work progressed, it became increasingly clear that the barrier between what constituted a religious edition and what was to be excluded was difficult to determine. In the first of a series of expansions, it was decided to include all vernacular texts in the database. He then resolved that earlier printed books should be examined and the chronological bracket pushed back to the beginning of printing. The breadth of this new overview was highly ambitious, but it allowed Andrew to have a perfect overview of the place and importance of polemical books within the broader print scape.
The bibliographical work itself was published in two large volumes as short title catalogues, to which further endeavours on French books in scholarly and other languages, as well as Netherlandish books were added. 11 Brought together in an expanded version, they were launched as part of a wider European database containing datasets from other great national projects from around Europe for the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries. The result became available open access online as the Universal Short Title Catalogue in 2011. 12 Andrew likes to quote one of Mark Greengrass's mantras that in the career of an academic there should be one or two publications that are done as a service to the research community, such as a translation, or an edition of sources. For him, the USTC was precisely this type of work.
The fact that he has since continued to add to the database by pursuing grants from diverse sources in order to widen the chronological scope (currently including all imprints up until 1650), and has sought to have existing data enriched, demonstrates his commitment to this type of work. The many millions of searches carried out on the website emphasise the worldwide success this has been. The end of the first stage of the project and the publication of the database coincided with a further shift in Andrew's historical writing. The breadth and depth of the bibliographical work encouraged him to present a new book that sought to rethink how the first century and a half of print should be considered. 13 In typically bold manner, he consciously minimised the role of the scholarly book which he felt had taken up too much attention in conventional narratives, preferring to emphasise the central role of economics and of conflict in all its forms, to the frustration of some traditional scholars.
His interest in ephemeral print led him to organise and edit the papers of a workshop addressing the issue of single-sheet items, the imprints most prone to poor survival rates, and one of the annual conferences to lost books. 16 The issue of what has been lost over the centuries was already part of the bibliographical work undertaken as part of the USTC. Indeed, the database published in 2011 also included items for which not a single surviving copy was known. The question of survival was also addressed thanks to a specific grant obtained to identify the rarest items in the collections of a series of partner libraries. By highlighting these cases, Andrew sought not just to help with their preservation, but also to emphasise their past prominence within the print industry. This underlines one of the recurrent themes that he regularly returned to and is one of his long-term contributions to the field of book history: the importance of everyday books for all readers, rather than the scholarly and social elites.
French Books III & IV. Books published in France before 1601 in Latin and languages other than French (2 vols, Leiden: Brill, 2012). 12Thedatabase can be consulted on the project website: www. ustc. ac. uk. 13Andrew Pettegree, The Book in the Renaissance (London: Yale University Press, 2010). 11 Andrew Pettegree, Malcolm Walsby and Alexander Wilkinson, FB. French vernacular books. A Bibliography of Books published in the French Language before 1601 (2 vols. , Leiden: Brill, 2007). Andrew Pettegree and Malcolm Walsby, NB. Books published in the Low Countries and in Dutch Abroad before 1601 (2 vols. , Leiden: Brill, 2010). Andrew Pettegree and Malcolm Walsby,.
Many data sets have already been collected and reviewed for DVCS  [20, 21]  and DVMP  [22] , while the first measurement for TCS has been completed recently  [23]. Although several datasets are already available for fits, the extraction of GPDs is far from being satisfactory. The main reasons are: i ) sparsity of available information. GPDs are multidimensional functions, so one needs much more data to constrain them in the phase-space of kinematic variables, comparing to e. g. one-dimensional PDFs. Furthermore, one needs to cover this phase-space by data collected for various processes and experimental setups, which is required to distinguish between many types of GPDs and contributions coming from various quark flavours and gluons. ii ) complexity of extraction. In order to fully benefit from available sources of information about GPDs, such as data collected in exclusive measurements, PDFs and EFFs for boundary conditions, lattice QCD, one needs to know and implement links connecting those sources with GPDs.
Acknowledgements The authors thank  Valerio Bertone ,  Feliciano Carlos De Soto Borrero ,  Jose Manuel Morgado Chávez ,  Markus Diehl ,  Cedric Mezrag ,  Pepe Rodriguez-Quintero ,  Jorge Segovia  and  Jakub Wagner  for valuable discussions. H. M. acknowledges the support by the  Polish National Science Centre  with the grant no. 2017/26/M/ST2/01074. P. S. is supported by the  Polish National Science Centre  with the grant no. 2019/35/D/ST2/00272. The computing resources of  Świerk Computing Centre, Poland  are greatly acknowledged. This project was supported by the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No  824093. This work is supported in part in the framework of the  GLUODYNAMICS  project funded by the " P2IO LabEx  ( ANR-10-LABX-0038 )" in the framework " Investissements d'Avenir"  ( ANR-11-IDEX-0003-01 ) managed by the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR), France.
Therefore, choice will be made for the present paper to adjust the analysed data with a variable n exponent power law. The methods used to determine the weight-gain can be categorized depending on measurement scale: either specimen scale or local scale (cladding thickness at a given position). Among global weight-gain measurements one can find: -hydrogen release measurement, assuming no hydrogen pickup during high-temperature oxidation [LEM57, BAK62, URB78], -specimen weighing before and after high temperature oxidation [URB78, KAW78, NAG03, GRO10, GUI10, GUI21]. Weight measurements before and after the test are extremely accurate but are sometimes affected by specimen edge effects, which must be carefully corrected. The temperature influence on specimen weight is also affected by spatial heterogeneities of its temperature.
Main datasets and validation of the method A large set of steam oxidation experiments from five different bibliographical sources has been selected as summarized in Table  3. Some of them provide characterization of oxidation scale thicknesses ((O) and ZrO 2 ) and other provide weight-gains based on specimen weighing before and after the test. Authors have not been able to fully reconstruct the Leistikov data and there is a possibility that some of the specimens were both characterized by metallography and weighing. Many specimens from an IRSN program have been characterized both by metallography and weighing. It is thus decided to calibrate the metallographic weight-gain measurement method based on these measurements. Inner and outer oxidation layers are characterized independently using optical microscopy for most of the tests.