dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
To this end, we analyze the distribution of all notarial deeds in six European cities of different sizes  (Paris, Toulouse, and Mende in France, and Turin, Florence, and  Livorno in the Italian peninsula) in the year 1751. We supplement this evidence with smaller datasets from other localities and other dates to explore further spatial and temporal differences in notarial activities. This descriptive approach, we show, generates valuable results. First, it alerts historians to the fact that the deeds which notaries recorded varied, sometimes 1 A recent special issue devoted to marriage contracts is an exception  (Béaur 2011). This awareness, and interest in notarial deeds, was more acute among medievalists than early modernists  (Bautier 1948; Bautier and Sornay 1968-74 ; see also  fn. 3, 5).
A Tale of Six Cities We chose the year 1751 as our benchmark for both practical and substantive reasons. A study by Philip T. Hoffman, Gilles Postel-Vinay, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal (2000)  inspired us to pursue this research and gave us a leg up in our data collection. Their book uses notarial records to show that sophisticated private credit markets existed in preindustrial France in spite of the absence of banks. It builds on a database called ARNO, which classifies all surviving notarial deeds from Paris in 1751 and which they generously shared with us, together with its additions. 7 Given the size of the French capital, having access to ARNO gave us an incomparable advantage. Records from the mid-eighteenth century are generally well-preserved and readable and 1751 was one of the few years of peace in eighteenth-century Europe.
Of course, in 1751 each of the cities we survey found itself at a different point in their respective historical arc. To curb the arbitrariness associated with this choice, whenever possible, we gathered data for a few additional years. Naturally, Paris cannot be taken to be representative of the entire kingdom of France, not only because of the size and composition of its population but also because of probable regional differences in notarial traditions. Notaries were used earlier in the South, where the "written law" of Roman origins prevailed, than in the North, which retained its "customary law. " Over time, royal edicts and the work of legal scholars lessened this regional divide and led to the creation of a "general law" (droit commun)  (Bastien 2016 ). Enduring differences, however, are presumed to have persisted.
To test this assumption, we include in our dataset the notarial archives of Toulouse and Mende, two cities in the southwestern province of Languedoc, and those of some towns in northern France drawn from Poisson's works. In principle, we could have compared French cities with any other place to offer a taste of the heuristics of this exercise. We chose the Italian peninsula because of the expertise of one of the authors and the fact that it has the oldest notarial tradition in Europe and is generally regarded as holding among the richest notarial collections. We do not claim that our six cities capture the diversity that is likely to exist in the entire universe of European, let alone non-European, notarial records. However, we believe that these six cases, together with their accompanying smaller datasets, prove the diversity of notarial styles and go a long way toward demonstrating both that this diversity was fairly stable over time and that the local scale (rather than the territorial state) is most relevant to analyze it.
The driving principle of our categorization process has been to remain as close as possible to the language of the original documents, but not so close as to hinder comparisons. We entered in our database the labels that notaries or public officials placed next to each deed, although we had to make small adjustments. Across the six cities we survey, emic categories are most consistent in Turin, Toulouse, and Mende, where clerks from a central office rather than single notaries categorized all deeds. In Florence and Livorno, the emic categories come from longestablished Latin formulas (although the deeds are written in vernacular); however, the same notary or clerk occasionally used slightly different labels for the same type of deed, as did two notaries or two clerks. Similarly, in Paris, whereas one used the generic term "lease" or "purchase of annuity," another noted the specific type of lease or annuity mentioned in the deed (figures 1-2).
Sometimes one deed contained more than one type of transaction. Paris is the most problematic case because ARNO was compiled by multiple archivists for a purpose different from our own. To the extent possible, we restored the original labels. 16  "Constructed emic categories" (a deliberate oxymoron) is how we call the typologies of notarial deeds we devised to compare the data from our six cities. Three criteria inspired the creation of our categories. First, we eliminated scribal errors and spelling or wording variations. Second, we grouped deeds by their dominant label. That is, when the original label specifies not only the object of the contract (e. g. , a dowry or a power of attorney) but also the stage in the life of that contract (e. g. , the return of a dowry or the revocation of a power of attorney), we classified the deed by the object of the contract.
20 To address the issue of change over time, we classified all surviving deeds for Livorno in 1674-75 and 1761 and for Paris in 1761 and 1851 according to the same categories we adopted for 1751. We also examined the deeds drafted by the eight most active notaries in Paris in 1751 so as to assess variations between notarial offices within the same city. To analyze this larger dataset, we used principal component analysis (PCA) and clustering techniques so as to evaluate the similarities and differences in the shares of deeds between all 19 cities, 5 additional dates, and 8 notaries. 21  PCA permits us to visualize patterns of similarities and differences between types of deeds (figure  7 ) and between localities and notarial offices (figure  8 ). The left-right axis represents the main oppositions in the data.
This visualization confirms that, even if percentage shares varied from year to year, the typological distribution within a certain city remained fairly stable over time. Thus, the distribution of deeds in Livorno in 1674-75 is more similar to the distribution in Livorno in 1761 than to that of any other city. The same is true when we compare Paris in 1751 and 1761. The only notable difference is the massive number of constitutions de tontines (a specific form of life annuity issued by the crown), which account for a quarter of all deeds in 1761 and an increase of 14,777 minutes from 1751 to 1761. The emission of public debt instruments made 20 For these additional locations, we created a new dataset (see table A. 8 in the online supplementary materials) limited to the deeds that counted for at least 5 percent of those recorded in at least one of our six principal cities in 1751.
21 Our PCA treats the 18 cities observed between 1745 and 1751 as active individuals, and all data from Paris and Livorno for years other than 1751 as well as the eight Parisian notaries and Bonifacio in the 1770s as illustrative individuals. We made this choice to avoid having Paris and Livorno weigh disproportionally and to focus on one period. Treating only our six main cities as active yields similar substantive results. The analysis was performed using the FactoMineR package  (Husson et al. 2010). Parisian notaries busier but did not alter the range of their other activities in any significant way. By contrast, the types of deeds drafted by Parisian notaries in 1851 were quite different from those recorded a century earlier, and more similar to those drawn up in Turin and Toulouse in 1751: all three locations fall in the area of the graph characterized by relatively high shares of transfers, discharges, and obligations and low shares of operations on annuities.
22 We performed a cluster analysis on the first five dimensions of the PCA, using the hcpc procedure in the R-package FactoMineR: a variant of the hierarchical ascending classification that stabilizes results thanks to k-means based on class paragons. The results were robust when we made marginal changes to the list of deeds or cities included in the analysis. locality) on the right. The line connecting L'Arbresle and Mende, the farthest on the right, indicates that those two are the most similar localities in terms of typological distribution of deeds. Toulouse and Chambéry (Savoy) are one step removed from them, followed by a group that includes Turin, Honfleur, and Rouen. By contrast, Florence and Livorno differ the most from all the other places: the first two branches of the tree, starting from the left, are one for Tuscany and another for all the other localities.
For 1761, the ARNO database uses numeric codes rather than words for the original labels (with a combination of codes indicating for example "transfer of annuity"). Gilles Postel-Vinay kindly shared the key to the codes with us; some records also include textual labels. We were therefore able to use the same categories for 1751 and 1761. For 1761, the archivists included details on the objects of powers of attorney (e. g. related to a sale or a transaction on an annuity). For the sake of consistency with 1751 (when no such detail was available) and with cities other than Paris, we grouped all powers of attorney from 1761 in the "powers of attorney" category. Note: This table includes the eight offices (études) with the largest number of deeds in the database (ranging from 855 for étude 28 to 1,474 for étude 82).
Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to  Gilles Postel-Vinay  for sharing generously both his knowledge and unpublished data; to  Marie-Françoise Limon-Bonnet  and  Aurélia Rostaing  of the Archives Nationales in Paris; and to  Luciano Allegra ,  Guillaume Calafat ,  Simona Cerutti ,  Jean-François Chauvard ,  Philip T. Hoffman ,  Naomi Lamoreaux ,  Anthony Molho ,  Jean-Laurent Rosenthal ,  Emma Rothschild , the participants in the 2021  Caltech Early Modern Group  and the  Paris School of Economics' Economic History Seminar , as well as four anonymous referees for their feedback on earlier versions of this article.
Minutier central des notaires, series MC/ET. Note: the original labels come from 1751, but were similar in 1761. Tontines are grouped with annuities in the principal component analysis (Figures 8-10). testaments/codicilles, traité d'office, transactions, generic transports) Total 59,726 100% 74,503 100% Source: ARNO databases for 1751 and 1761, assembling all minutes preserved in Archives Nationales, Paris,.
Population and Procedure This cross-sectional study was conducted online. The participants were recruited over ∼1 year via the social media of three psychology students and two researchers (i. e. , Facebook, Twitter, blogs, and forums) of the University of Tours (France). The participants were self-selected, and their participation was voluntary. They were considered eligible for inclusion if they were at least 18 years old, used the Internet at least once a week, gave their informed and signed consent, and completed the questionnaire in its entirety. The participants were provided with a brief text giving them information about the study, including the aims and methods, the inclusion criteria (as defined above), and the confidential and anonymized nature of the data. The eligible participants were assessed using self-administered questionnaires, which were designed and completed online using LimeSurvey software.
Socio-Demographic and Internet Activity Data We collected socio-demographic data, including age, gender, marital status, and employment status. The participants were asked to report their marital status (among the proposals specified in Table  1 ) and their employment status: "employed" (including full-time employment, part-time employment and irregular work), "unemployed" (including unemployed and retired), "students" and "other situations" (included disabled and others situations). The participants were also asked to report their favorite Internet activity: e-mail-related activity, social media use (i. e. , Facebook, Twitter, Instagram), taking or looking at photographs, watching videos, playing games, using search engines, reading news, downloading, online purchasing, watching pornography online, online gambling, and using online dating sites.
Statistical Analyses Analyses We conducted a multiple regression analysis to determine whether the quantitative variables (adult ADHD symptoms, anxiety, depression, five impulsivity sub-dimensions, and two emotion regulation sub-dimensions) were predictors of PIU (IAT score as the dimension). As there were no latent variables in the proposed models, mediation analyses with a regressionbased approach were performed using the PROCESS macro (version 3. 5. 3) for IMB SPSS Statistics 22 (41) rather than structural equation modeling. The regression assumptions were confirmed, outliers were removed, and normal distribution and homoscedasticity were ensured through the square root transformation of the dependent variables. Bootstrap sampling was conducted using 5,000 resamples. We assessed collinearity between variables by making sure that variance inflation factor (VIF) was under 5 as recommended (42).
This study has some limitations. The cross-sectional design and the lack of investigation of the comorbid addictive behaviors prevent any conclusions about causality. Future studies should opt for a longitudinal design and plan investigation of comorbid addictive disorders to ensure that the differences between groups are associated with PIU, not other addictive behavior. Future investigations should also screen for comorbid psychiatric disorders. The study was carried out with a sample of nonclinical adults, and it would be beneficial to conduct further investigations with a clinical population of adults with diagnosed ADHD or PIU, who have more marked psychopathological features. Additionally, all data was collected online, and the participants were recruited on the social media. We did not have access to the number and the characteristics of the total potential participants, for which the questionnaire was visible.
All first-and second-round respondents were eligible for the third in July 2021  (28). In this third wave, 85,032 participated in the third wave (79. 0% from the second wave and 63. 3% from the first one) and served as the basis for this analysis. We focused on people living in metropolitan France and aged 18 and over since vaccination was allowed only for adults at the time of the survey. In all, 80,971 (95. 2%) individuals were included in our study. The survey was approved by the CNIL (French independent administrative authority responsible for data protection) on April 25th 2020 (ref: MLD/MFI/AR205138) and by the "Comité de protection des personnes" (French equivalent of the Research Ethics Committee) on April 24th. The survey also obtained an agreement from the "Comité du Label de la statistique publique, " proving its consistency with statistical quality standards.
The impact of trust on not refusing to be vaccinated was even more marked among people at the top of the social hierarchy, thus reinforcing social inequalities in vaccination. With regard to the social barriers to access to vaccination, we should first of all note that the lower vaccination rates among younger people are likely to be related to a shorter access period. Indeed, data was collected in July 2021, at a time when COVID-19 vaccines were available in France for any individuals aged 18 and over as of May 12th 2021 (12th April for people over 55, and 18th January 2021 for people over 75). Secondly, it is interesting to note that social differences in vaccination practices overlapped with the social distribution of vaccine reluctance observed in France 8 months earlier, except for gender differences (16).
This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. (101016167), ORCHESTRA (Connecting European Cohorts to Increase Common and Effective Response to SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic). NB has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. [856478]), and from Horizon 2020 European research Council (Gendhi-Synergy grant agreement No. [SGY2019-856478]). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors warmly thank all the volunteers of the EpiCov cohort. We thank the  DREES  and INSEE teams for the creation of the sample, the calculation of the survey weights and the logistics of the survey. We thank the staff of the IPSOS team that have worked with dedication and engagement to collect and manage the data used for this study. We thank  Frédéric Robergeau ,  Inserm , responsible for the management of the database and  Carmen Calandra ,  Inserm , project manager.
Gender representation and profession of Twitter users Gender representation as well as the average number of interactions on Twitter over the ten years studied were assessed for Twitter users who were grouped by professional qualifications. The profiles were classified, when relevant, using the following categories: PhD students, post-doctoral researchers, PhD holders, associate/assistant professors, professors, radiotherapists/radiographers/radiation therapists (RTT), physicists/clinical scientists or clinicians. This categorisation was performed based on the presence of specific keywords shown in Supplementary Material B, in the username, Twitter handle or description. The data extraction and subsequent analysis were performed using Matlab software (v. R2021b).
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank  Chiara Gasparotto , deputy  CEO of ESTRO , for providing assistance with ESTRO resources and statistics which put the present findings into perspective and greatly improved our study. This work was only possible because of the techniques developed in separate project, the  IMAGE-INE  project, which was generously supported by 1) The  Chief Scientist Office Scotland IMAGE-INE  grant ( TCS/ 17/26 -CSO  Award) and 2) the  NHS Lothian Edinburgh  and  Lothians Health Foundation  ( SC007342 )  Jamie King Uro-Oncology Endowment Fund.
As Neubauer et al. [38]  state, "In cycles of reading and writing, of attending to the whole of the text and the parts, the hermeneutic researcher constructs an understanding of the lived experience" (p. 95). The thematic analysis process followed six steps: familiarization with data, generating initial codes, searching for themes among codes, reviewing themes, defining/naming themes, and producing the report  [39]. As the first step of getting familiar with the data, we independently familiarized ourselves with the data set. Two authors (RJ and LK) read all the transcripts. Next, the data were entered into ATLAS. ti Scientific Software Development GmbH (Berlin, Germany; version 22. 1. 0. 222 ), which helps with coding, organizing, and managing data. Then we began conducting thematic analysis  [39] , developing a preliminary codebook with emergent codes for analysis.
Next, all relevant data were connected for each code, and then potential themes were searched for and codes were gathered into themes (e. g. , expectations vs. learning outcomes, emotions and feelings in learning, virtual learning environment, multilingual communication, different approaches to interculturality). During data analysis, passages evidencing the themes were highlighted and pseudonyms were created for the students. While presenting the data the logbook citations are verbatim (uncorrected), and all names given are pseudonyms. Since we see knowledge as an intersubjective construct  [40] , we must remain aware as researchers of the strength of our own possible presumptions and interpretations when conducting the analysis: We are documenting researchers' interpretations of others' interpretations of their lived experiences.
The explicitly expressed intention to create a "safe space" for learning, as well as the initial ice-breaking activities and relationship-building exercises given to the groups, were designed to set up favorable conditions for learning, but future research might seek to look more directly as students' feelings in relation to this. It appears that, at the beginning of the course, participating in an online environment did indeed cause anxiety and possibly withdrawals  [45]. Fortunately, this time most of these anxieties were alleviated during the course, but the overall experience does remind us that the teacher has an important role in noticing these emotions and attitudes in time  [45, 46]  and knowing how to react to them. We also feel that a useful complement to the declarative data could be recorded footage of the meetings held by the groups for their assignments, allowing the researchers direct access to the behavior of students outside the more formal virtual classroom setting.
By isolating lithic projectiles with the strongest evidence of impact and by recording wear attributes on them in detail, we could establish that the hunting equipment used during the Level 3 occupations involved both lithic weapon tips and composite points armed with lithic inserts. By contrast, the Level 2 assemblage reflects a heavy reliance on composite points in hunting reindeer and other game. Instead of an entirely new weapon design, the Level 2 collection therefore marks a shift in weapon preferences. Using recent faunal data, we discuss the significance of the observed diachronic change from the point of view of prey choice, seasonality, and social organisation of hunting activities. Our analysis shows that to understand their behavioural significance, typo-technological changes in the lithic record must be viewed in the light of functional data and detailed contextual information.
This is largely due to the fact that despite considerable experimental and analytical efforts, secure identification of archaeological lithic projectiles remains a challenge  [8, 11] , and the available datasets are not comparable to each other in terms of methodological rigour. Shifts in armature typology therefore remain poorly understood in terms of weapon design and hunting tactics. Fully preserved Palaeolithic weapons are exceptional finds and methods for reconstructing hunting weaponry in detail based on lithic data are still largely in development [  see 14]. In this paper, we address the question of Upper Palaeolithic weaponry through the study of Recent and Final Gravettian lithic material from Abri Pataud, one of the key sequences for Western European Upper Palaeolithic. By applying detailed attribute recording of impact damage developed in the recent years  [8, 14] , we aim to 1) securely identify lithic armatures among backed tools by relying on combinations of macroscopic and microscopic use-wear features, and 2) determine whether the artefacts with convincing evidence of projectile use were hafted as weapon tips or lateral inserts on composite points.