dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
2 sources to select major mergers, reporting a population of ∼ 15% of misclassified sources, and was used in other works, as mentioned above. From the established limits we can see again how sensitive the diagram is to spatial resolution and data depth, changing significantly between the ground-and space-based surveys. While in COSMOS the contamination by normal galaxies in the region assigned for major mergers, does not exceed the values measured by the authors (even at higher redshifts), in the analysed ground-based surveys the contamination can be > 70%. When applying the M20 -GINI diagram to classify galaxies and select mergers, we highly recommend to use it always with additional criteria when dealing with ground-based data, among which: a combination with other morphological diagrams, a careful selection of the control sample and evaluation of the diagram effectiveness, and/or application of probabilistic approaches.
0. The combination of only ASYM and SMOOTH gives high contamination levels even in the case of COSMOS (as showed in Fig. 17  and Table 2 ). We suggest the consultation of Table  2  and Fig. 11  to 17 when using diagnostic diagrams in morphological studies, especially if they are based on 2 -3 parameters. We discussed in Sec. 4. 3 the effectiveness of a particular diagnostic diagram in the ground-based surveys and noted that in cases similar to both ALHAMBRA and SXDS, special care has to be taken into account when classifying galaxies at all magnitude cuts (redshifts). Our suggestion when using ground-based data is to avoid the diagnostic diagrams based on 2 -3 parameters, and to apply instead all morphological parameters simultaneously, and to use the statistical approaches providing a probability for a galaxy to belong to a given morphological type (e.
g. , approaches similar to that used in the galSVM code and tested in  Huertas-Company et al. 2008). Diagrams that include M20 moment of light showed to be more affected by spatial resolution, and less effective in separating galaxies. Moreover, the noise should be taken into account if using ASYM and SMOOTH parameters. In space-based surveys similar to COSMOS, even at the The red cross-hatched, blue hatched, and green solid histograms correspond to the ET, LT et, and LT lt galaxies, respectively. As it can be seen, λ 1 is the main morphology discriminator, whereas λ 2 only slightly improves the classification for the LT et galaxies. highest magnitude cuts (F814 24. 0), in all diagnostic diagrams the contamination levels are significantly lower than at the brightest magnitudes in the ground-based surveys.
The observational bias is insignificant for all parameters at magnitudes brighter than F814 = 21. 0 (except for the youngest spiral and irregular galaxies), as shown in Sec 4. 3; however when going to fainter magnitudes the contamination increases. Therefore, even when dealing with data sets similar to COSMOS, we remind that eventual contamination levels are present at fainter magnitudes; the diagnostic diagrams that show to be more effective in this case are CCON -CABR, CCON -GINI, CCON -SMOOTH, and/or CABR -ASYM. To apply again, when possible, different diagnostics will minimise the effect of the observational bias.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In this paper we present for the first time a systematic study of the impact from spatial resolution and depth on the six morphological parameters commonly used for galaxy morphological classification: Abraham concentration index, Gini coefficient, Conselice-Bershady concentration index, M20 moment of light, asymmetry, and smoothness. We studied how strong the impact is for three data sets that have different spatial resolutions and depth: ALHAMBRA and SXDS, as an example of ground-based data, and COSMOS, as an example of deep space-based data. Our results correspond to maximum analysed redshift values of: 1. 0, 2. 2, and 1. 6 in the three surveys, respectively, where the provided values describe the distribution of 95% of each sample. We used a sample of 3000 early-and late-type local galaxies, with the available visual morphological classification, and we measured their parameters in 2 cases: -first, the reference values, that correspond to the real galaxy redshifts (magnitudes), and -second, the simulated values, obtained after moving the local galaxies to the observational conditions and magnitude/redshift distribution of three selected surveys.
-We stress that ASYM and SMOOTH are more sensitive to noise effects. Survey noise should be taken into account carefully when using these two parameters in morphological classification of galaxies, especially when dealing with ground-based data. -M20 results to be also significantly affected in all surveys, changing both the shape and range of its distribution at all brightness levels. However, M20 -GINI is the most used diagram for selecting interacting (merging) systems. We highly recommend the use of this diagram simultaneously with other morphological parameters, when dealing with ground-based data sets, and in spacebased surveys like COSMOS at least when studying sources fainter than F814 = 23. 0. -CCON shows to be more sensitive to the spatial resolution in comparison to GINI and CABR.
It works therefore better for space-based data, whereas the other two concentration indexes behave better for ground-based surveys. -In surveys similar to ALHAMBRA, when analysing the highest density regions of early-and late-type galaxies in the main morphological diagnostic diagrams, the impact from spatial resolution and data depth introduces contamination levels of 5 -25% for ET and 3 -35% for LT galaxies (depending on the diagram), for the brightest galaxies with F613 20. 0. The diagrams that seem to work the best in this case are those that do not include M20 moment of light. At the faintest analysed magnitudes (F613 23. 0) the contamination levels increase significantly, being as high as 60 -100%, making each of the diagnostics useless if used separately. Similar results are obtained in the case of SXDS, but at higher magnitude cuts (of order 1 -2).
Moreover, in both surveys, at all magnitude cuts, classification ot LT lt galaxies suffers very high levels of contamination. Taking all this into account, when dealing with groundbased data sets, we suggest to avoid the use of 2 -3 parameter diagnostic diagrams in morphological classification, and to apply instead the use of all morphological parameters simultaneously, and to use statistical approaches based on probability distributions that the galaxy is ET or LT. -In space-based surveys similar to COSMOS, even at the highest magnitude cuts (F814 24. 0), the contamination levels are significantly lower than those at the brightest magnitudes in the ground-based surveys. The observational bias is insignificant for all parameters at magnitudes brighter than F814 = 21. 0 (except for the LT lt galaxies).
However, when going to fainter magnitudes the contamination increases, and depending on the diagram it changes from 2 -25% at F814 23. 0, to 6 -35% for ET, and 20 -70% for LT galaxies at F814 24. 0. In surveys similar to COSMOS, we again suggest to use several diagnostics to classify galaxies when going to magnitudes fainter than F814 = 23. 0. -Through LDA analysis we obtained that the combination of CABR, GINI, and CCON parameters, is the most effective to distinguish between different morphological types. The results presented in this paper can be directly applied to any survey similar to ALHAMBRA, SXDS and COSMOS, and also can serve as an upper/lower limit to take into account when classifying galaxies using shallower/deeper data sets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank  Chris Lintott  for accepting to review this paper, giving us constructive comments that in our believe improved the paper significantly. We also appreciate that he signed his report. We thank  Kaz Sekiguchi  and the  SXDS team  for informing us about the stage of the photometric redshift measurements. MP acknowledge financial support from  JAE-Doc program  of the  Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) , co-funded by the  European Social Fund. This research was supported by the  Junta de Andalucía  through project  TIC114 , and the  Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO)  through projects  AYA2010-15169 ,  AYA2013-42227-P , and  AYA2013-43188-P. The work uses the observations collected at the  Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto , operated jointly by the  Max-Planck Institut fur Astronomie  and the  Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC).
The CEFCA is funded by the  Fondo de Inversiones de Teruel , supported by both the  Government of Spain  ( 50% ) and the  regional Government of Aragón  ( 50% ). In this work, we made use of Virtual Observatory Tool for OPerations on Catalogues And Tables (TOPCAT). IRAF is distributed by the  National Optical Astronomy Observatories , which are operated by the  Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. , under cooperative agreement with the  National Science Foundation.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the  European Commission  through the  Marie Curie Actions Contracts Nos. PIEFGA-2011-30096  (R. O. ) and PIEFGA-2008-219175 (J. P. ), by the  Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación  under contracts  FPA2009-13377-C02  and  FPA2011-29854-C04 , by the  Spanish MEC  Consolider -Ingenio 2010, Project No. CDS2007-00042  (CPAN), by  FWO-Vlaanderen (Belgium) , by  GOA/2010/010  ( BOF KU Leuven ), by the  Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme  initiated by the  Belgian Science Policy Office (BriX network   P7/12 ), by the  European Union Seventh Framework Programme  through ENSAR, contract no. RII3-CT-2010-262010 , and by the  German BMBF  under contracts  05P09PKCI5 ,  05P12PKFNE ,  05P12RDCIA  and  06DA9036I. R. O. , R. C. , J. F. W. L. , V. L.
We quantified this observation showing that the effect is so relevant that the current constraints from KASCADE or CASA-MIA experiments-which naively would appear to constrain some DDM scenarios-are still at least several times too weak. Ideally, an exposure only marginally better than the above mentioned ones, but at an observatory located in the Southern hemisphere, would be much more promising in this respect. We also argued that anisotropy may offer an independent handle to constrain DDM (as well as other similar scenarios): the expected γ-ray flux induces an anisotropy in the overall cosmic ray flux only a few times smaller at ∼ O(100) TeV (and about one order of magnitude at ∼ PeV) than the current measurements of the dipolar anisotropy routinely performed in EAS experiments. Turning the argument around, existing data are already sensitive to DM lifetimes of O(10 27 ) s, only one order of magnitude away from the value needed to fit IceCube events (∼ 10 28 s), showing the power of anisotropy analyses and motivating an attempt to improve over the current situation.
Some progress is expected from the experimental point of view. For instance, the IceTop facility at the top of the IceCube detector can look at the Southern sky. Unfortunately, while located at the South Pole, the GC is not in standard analyses involving the IceTop array: the IceCube detector plays the role of penetrating muon detector for IceTop facility, which requires that the axis of air shower should pass through the volume of IceCube. This requirement leads to a cut on the zenith angle of shower ∼ 30 • for IC40 configuration  [54] , with the possibility of increasing to ∼ 45 • for the whole IC86 configuration. At the South Pole, the GC is located at zenith angle ∼ 61 •. Although the expected sensitivity of IceTop, after 5 years of data taking, is close to the CASA-MIA limit at ∼ PeV (see figure  14  at  [54] ), due to the closeness of the field of view to GC, IceTop can still moderately improve the limits.
Acknowledgments We thank  M. Cirelli ,  P. Panci ,  M. Taoso  and  F. Vissani  for useful discussions, and  P. Blasi  for discussions and comments on a preliminary version of this manuscript. A. E. thanks  Sebastian Wild  for several helps on PYTHIA. At LAPTh , this activity was developed coherently with the research axes supported by the  Labex  grant ENIGMASS. For A. E. this research was partially supported by the  Munich Institute for Astro-and Particle Physics (MIAPP)  of the DFG cluster of excellence " Origin and Structure of the Universe ". The author would like to express a special thanks to the  Mainz Institute for Theoretical Physics (MITP)  for its hospitality and support.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank  M. Matsuo ,  J. Meng ,  P. Ring ,  H. Sagawa ,  S. Sasaki ,  J. M. Yao ,  Y. Zhang , and  S. -G. Zhou  for useful discussions. This work was partly supported by the  Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows  under the program numbers 24•3429 and  24•02201 , the  Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology  by  Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research  under the program number (C) 26400263, and the  RIKEN   Foreign Postdoctoral Researcher Program. The work of Y. T. was also supported by the  Japan Society for Promotion of Science for Young Scientists.
It is apparent that The code used in this paper can be found at https://github. com/artemic/Bubbly. git † E-mail:artemic@iac. es the study of these multiple components of an emission line, related to different kinematic phenomena, is relevant to a wide range of astrophysical problems. Massive stars in OB associations and star-forming regions inject large quantities of mechanical energy into the surrounding interstellar medium in the form of intense winds and supernova explosions that sweep up the material around them. This creates an expanding shell of dense material leaving a cavity of hot low density gas inside. The individual bubbles created by each star combine quickly into one big superbubble associated with the region. A definition by  Chu (2008)  by which a bubble is blown by the stellar winds while a superbubble also has input from supernova explosions, can be used to make a formal separation between the two.
Note that  Meaburn (1980)  called large shells around bursts of star formation 'Giant Shells'. These are the 'Superbubbles' of  Chu (2008)  and not to be confused with the 'Super-Giant Shells' of  Meaburn (1980). As the purpose of this article is to explain our detection technique we will not go more deeply into the subject here. In the present article we have used observations of the Antennae galaxies, where the linear resolution is such that objects smaller than a few tens of parsecs are not readily detectable, so that all our detections in this article are of superbubbles or giant shells, although the method is equally applicable to bubbles or expanding shells, given data on galaxies sufficiently close. Both phenomena have been studied theoretically and observationally for a long time  (Dyson & de Vries 1972; Weaver et al.
1 ). We also weed out all pairs between which the profile does not reach an intensity above a threshold signal to noise ratio (SNR). Once we have the final choice of zero pairs we estimate the initial values and ranges as explained in the previous section and feed them to the algorithm for multiple Gaussian fitting. Our algorithm has been constructed using modified versions of functions specifically developed to fit Gaussians created by Adam Ginsburg for his gaussfitter Python program. This program is a wrapper with multiple options (such as upper and lower limits to the parameters) to the MPFIT module for Levenberg-Marquardt least squares fitting 1. As a result we obtain multi-component line emission surface brightness, velocity and velocity dispersion maps. Since the process is done individually on each spatial point the number of detected components will vary over the field.
However in kinematically complex environments, where there may be a number of peaks with comparable intensities, one can obtain artificial jumps in the velocity map using our algorithm, because it selects the brightest of these peaks, regardless of whether this represents the overall underlying velocity, while the moments method finds an average, and smooths the differences. In this section we have included an example of the application of BUBBLY to a data cube and the results that originate from it to demonstrate the detection capabilities of the program. The selected object is the Antennae pair of galaxies, which exhibits very interesting results on superbubbles originating from powerful current star formation. A paper analysing the superbubbles in depth and comparing the detections to previous work on them is in preparation.
2002)  and in many cases it is difficult or impossible to find the OB association corresponding to the superbubble. This is not the case for our method which traces the superbubbles from the ionized gas, so we find young superbubbles clearly associated with the cluster. In this manner, it can be said that HI observations and ours are complementary, each detecting superbubbles in different stages of their evolution. Of course, the method for multi-peak detection can be applied to HI data cubes without problems, but to detect superbubbles we would have the problem of lacking a main peak associated with the emission of the region and therefore a reference velocity for the secondary peaks. This could be solved using the velocity field of the galaxy for comparison, which is in fact a normal product of the analysis of this data.
It would certainly be possible to adapt our code to be run on HI data cubes to apply the method and yield the expansion maps. We are limited in the range of application by the faint nature of the secondary components we try to detect and the spatial resolution necessary to see the structure of the superbubble, which is required in order to decouple the shell signature from complex non-expanding kinematic structure along the line of sight. The first problem prevents expansion detection at some points where one of the components is not observed, though careful examination of the profiles of the regions clearly shows that in most of these points one of the pair of secondary peaks that make up the expansion signature appears, or even both, with one of them having a lower intensity and falling below the minimum SNR required by the program.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has been supported by the  Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO)  under the grant  AYA2007-67625-CO2-01 , and by the  Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias  under project  P/308603. JEB acknowledges financial support to the DAGAL network from the  People Programme  ( Marie Curie Actions ) of the European Union's  Seventh Framework Programme FP7 /2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number  PITN-GA-2011-289313. The William Herschel Telescope is operated on the island of  La Palma  by the  Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos  of the  Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. We thank the referee,  John Meaburn , for very helpful comments which have enabled us to make a significant improvement in the paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank  Hugo Flayac  and  Naotomo Takemura  for fruitful discussions. The work is supported by the  Swiss National Science Foundation  under project No. 153620 , the  Quantum Photonics National Center of Competence in  Research No. 115509  and from  European Research Council  under  Polaritonics  project No. 219120. The POLATOM network is also acknowledged.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank  Jacques-François Jacquinot  for stimulating discussions and suggestions. This research has received funding from the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the European Community's  Seventh Framework Programme  (FP7/2007-2013),  ERC  Grant  205119  ( R-EvolutioN-M-R)  to D. S. and Grant  279519  ( 2F4BIODYN ) to F. F. , as well as from the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  ( ANR-DYN-IDP ).
Electronic structure calculations for N 2 H The electronic structure calculations reported here were performed using the GAMESS code  [13]. The basis set included a 6 -311G(d, p) on each N plus diffuse functions and a 10s4p1d basis on H; there were 69 total basis functions. Using the notation of Talbi  [7]  for the molecular orbitals, the orbital occupancy of the ground state of N 2 H + is 1s 2 a 1s 2 b (NN) 2 (SP ) 2 (NH) 2 2 x 2 y | , where the vertical bar (|) signifies the highest orbital occupied in the ion core. The orbital occupancy of the lowest N 2 H dissociating state is 1s 2 a 1s 2 b (NN) 2 (SP) 2 (NH) 2 2 x 2 y | (NH * ) 1. The Rydberg states of N 2 H have one electron in a highly excited orbital outside of the ion core: 1s 2 a 1s 2 b (NN) 2 (SP) 2 (NH) 2 2 x 2 y | (NH * ) * x * y (NN * ) (Ryd 1) 1 (Ryd 2) (Ryd 3).
We also performed a smaller number of calculations with a larger active space, denoted the Big Active Space (BAS): Frozen Core : (1s a )(1s b )(SP)(NN) Active Space : (NH)( x )( y )(NH * )( * x )( * y )(Ryd1)(Ryd2)(Ryd3) (4) Virtual Space : (NN * ). The calculations with the BAS include Rydberg orbitals in the active space and, as expected, produce more accurate Rydberg potentials. However, the MRCI calculations with the BAS (including single and double excitations) using the C s point group have 3,922,296 CSFs (Configuration State Functions). These jobs are very large and many roots are required (over 70 for values of R d ≤ 1. 750 Å). Many of these jobs take between five and 12 days to complete running on XSEDE supercomputers. Fortunately, comparison of the SAS and BAS calculations indicates that the smaller calculations are adequate for calculating the necessary dissociating curves.
The 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals of S were frozen. With this active space, using the C 2v point group, and including all single and double excitations, our MRCI calculations involved 3,114,864-3,130,904 CSF's (Configuration State Functions), depending on the state symmetry. For accurate energy calculations we used the Dunning-type correlation consistent basis sets augmented by an n = 4 diffuse function on S and an n = 2 diffuse function on H, that is, the aug-cc-PvTZ basis set as implemented in the GAMESS code used the present calculations. This basis set ensured n = 4 molecular Rydberg orbitals of localized character all along the dissociating coordinate, allowing for their easy identification all along the dissociation path. Figure  6  shows our most recent calculations of the lowest SH doublet states.
Excited SH states of the same symmetry interact strongly, particularly the lowest two excited 2 states. The analysis of the corresponding CI wave functions reveals strong mixing between Rydberg and valence states. The goal of this preliminary work was to validate the design of our ab initio calculations, and we have obtained very satisfactory agreement of our asymptotic limits with the NIST atomic spectra database of S, as well as with previous calculations of the excited states of SH  [18]. Our work has also revealed that a thorough treatment of the DR processes of ground state SH + and a diabatization of the states concerned will require the consideration of additional higher Rydberg states, such as the 3d series and also the Rydberg series converging to the first excited 1 state of the ion.
The authors thank  Ch. Jungen  for his constant scientific support and fruitful discussions. They acknowledge support from the  International Atomic Energy Agency  via the  Coordinated Research Projects "Light Element Atom, Molecule and Radical Behaviour in the Divertor and Edge Plasma Regions " and " Atomic and Molecular Data for state-Resolved Modelling of Hydrogen and Helium and their isotopes in Fusion " and contract no 16712, from  Agence Nationale de la Recherche via the projects "SUMOSTAI"  (No. ANR-09-BLAN-020901 ) and " HYDRIDES " (No. ANR-12-BS05-0011-01 ), from the  IFRAF-Triangle de la Physique  via the project " SpecoRyd ," and from the  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique  via the programs " Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire " and the  PEPS projects  " Physique théorique et ses interfaces" TheMS and TPCECAM.