dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
1‰ to -13. 7‰), however, is significantly larger than in South America (5‰, ranging from -29‰ to -24‰). This dramatic difference may result from the disparity in diversity of the artiodactyl clade samples across the two continents (4 vs. 19 species in our dataset, in South America and Africa, respectively), but we note that artiodactyls also are much more diverse in Africa due to their long history on that continent and the extremely recent arrival of the group in South America. The δ 13 C diet of primates in both continents differs significantly, but the difference in means is only 1‰ (mean δ 13 C diet = -28‰ for SA rainforest primates, -27‰ for African rainforest primates; Table  1 ). Moreover, fewer species were sampled in Africa, so this difference could be reduced or disappear with a more extensive sampling of other African rainforest primate species.
Body protein tracks dietary protein, whereas bioapatite tracks bulk diet (i. e. , the combination of all three macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). Diets with high lipid content will decrease the δ 13 C of the whole diet because lipids are 13 C-depleted relative to other macronutrients. This more negative δ 13 C diet will then be imprinted in the δ 13 C bioapatite (thus now closer in its δ 13 C value to proteinaceous tissues). Even though low e* bioapatite-keratin among some frugivores might also be interpreted as reflecting omnivory, in the current paradigm, omnivores would not be expected to show lower e* bioapatite-keratin values than carnivores or insectivores (e. g. , in our dataset, some primate and rodent species have smaller e* bioapatite-keratin values than felids and canids; Fig.
Indeed, Pleistocene megafaunal extinction was suggested to be responsible for expansion of modern deer into their current δ 13 C diet niche within temperate North American habitats  (51). Alternatively, given the more extensive sampling of Amazonian mammals, the question may not be why they do not show δ 13 C diet values <-30‰, but rather why some African mammals do. Indeed, those highly negative values are only observed in a few African mammal species only from the Ituri Forest, both small-and large-bodied, and have not been recorded elsewhere. This observation would further highlight our conclusion that δ 13 C diet <-30‰ cannot be used as an indispensable indicator of a rainforest. Other potential explanations for the restricted isotopic occupation observed in the modern Amazonian mammalian herbivore community might include inherent traits reflecting their narrower feeding diversity compared to equatorial African mammals, or a sampling bias (some Amazonian species are represented by small sample sizes, although the same is true for the African dataset).
Materials and Methods We analyzed δ 13 C from dental bioapatite (enamel for all mammals except xenarthrans [see below]) of 45 mammalian species (n = 176 individuals), δ 13 C and δ 15 N of hair keratin of 35 species (n = 125), and δ 13 C bioapatite , δ 13 C hair , and δ 15 N hair from matched samples of a smaller subset of taxa (31 species, n = 82; Tables 1-3 and Dataset S1). All but four specimens sampled are from closed-canopy rainforest habitats in western Amazonian localities in Peru, including the well-known biodiversity hotspots of Tambopata National Reserve and Manu National Park, both in the Madre de Dios region. Specimens (only adults) were sampled from the mammalogy collections of the Museo de Historia Natural in Lima, Peru, and the American Museum of Natural History in New York, NY.
With few exceptions, only late-erupting molars, ever-growing teeth, or canines were sampled. Our criteria for species selection are described in the SI Appendix. All samples were analyzed at the Stable Isotope Research Facility at the University of Utah. For the two extant sloth genera, the δ 13 C bioapatite was sampled from the orthodentine, whereas, for the five species of anteaters and armadillos (toothless or with such small teeth that sampling was not possible), the proxy δ 13 C of their "enamel" was projected from bone δ 13 C values. We transformed bone δ 13 C data to corresponding dental enamel values using regression equations obtained from a separate analysis of the matched samples (SI Appendix, Fig. S1 ). All raw δ 13 C data (for bioapatite, hair, and comparative plant values for both South American and African samples) were corrected for anthropogenic CO 2 and set to preindustrial values (to the baseline year of 1750; δ 13 C 1750 ).
In order to make data comparable among herbivorous taxa, the CO 2 -corrected bioapatite δ 13 C (i. e. , δ 13 C 1750 ) was converted to dietary δ 13 C (δ 13 C diet ). This was done by using the body mass-dependent equations determined by a previous study  (41)  to calculate the diet-bioapatite δ 13 C enrichment (e* diet-bioapatite ) specific to each species (the calculated e* diet-bioapatite values for the herbivores in our study range from 10. 3‰ to 13. 7‰). Reported δ 13 C values for secondary consumers reflects the δ 13 C 1750 (and not the reconstructed δ 13 C diet ) pending development of reliable methods for estimating e* predator-prey that allow confident dietary reconstructions for these feeding guilds. δ 15 N hair data are presented as raw values (Fig. 3 ). All raw data and equations are presented in Tables 1-3 and Dataset S1.
Data from African mammals (3-5) also were standardized following the criteria described above. The same criteria were used for selecting data from African and Amazonian mammals (SI Appendix). Mammals were classified into six dietary categories: folivores (including browsers and grazers), frugivores, omnivores, carnivores, piscivores, and insectivores. Except for omnivores, animals were binned into one of these categories when a dietary component (e. g. , fruits for frugivores) represented >50% of the total diet. The term "herbivore" includes both folivores and frugivores. Statistical analyses, within and between orders, across continents, and between dietary guilds, were conducted with both parametric (t test, ANOVA) and nonparametric (Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis) tests for significance (SI Appendix).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This work was funded by the NSF-Inter University Training in Continental Scale Ecology ( EF-1137336 ) through a research in residence program,  Columbia University  and  Richard Gilder Graduate School  (AMNH) fellowships granted to J. V. T. , and the  Frick Fund (Division of Paleontology, AMNH). We are indebted to five anonymous reviewers and the editor for thoughtful suggestions that significantly improved the quality of this contribution. We thank  J. Ehleringer , IsoCamp instructors,  F. Smith , and faculty at the  CSI-UNM  for fruitful discussions during manuscript preparation;  R. MacPhee  and  N. Duncan  at the  American Museum of Natural History ; students at the  Museo de Historia Natural-UNMSM ; and  S. Chakraborty  at  SIRFER  for help during sampling collection and analyses.
This ranking of the world's 'top' 500 universities was drawn up by four researchers from Shanghai Jiao Tong University who published it on their university's website in June 2003. The designers of this ranking began by conducting a benchmarking exercise on existing league tables and types of indicators selected from 1999 to 2001. They designed and produced this ranking with limited resources using databases accessible online. The ranking criteria are based on the number of Nobel laureates and Fields medallists 1 in addition to bibliometric data, notably the number of citations in the journals Nature and Science  (Liu and Cheng, 2005). Two thousand educational and research institutions were included in the review out of the seventeen thousand institutions listed worldwide; the designers of Academic Ranking of World Universities chose these institutions because they satisfied the ranking criteria (Nobel Prize winners, Fields medallists, publications in certain journals, etc.
In this way, the mainstream and specialised print media are players in debates on higher education & research  (Fridenson, 2010, p. 53)  because they are read by stakeholders in academia and offer them forums for their expression. In pursuit of these different hypotheses, I set out to identify which press agencies and newspapers contributed to the dissemination of the Shanghai rankings. To do so, different newspaper databases have been consulted in order to retrieve all the articles, interviews and opinion pieces dealing with the ranking. Attention has been focused on the panoply of media motivations and on the players' different strategies as expressed in their discourses in order to reveal the plurality of rationales involved in the media coverage process and, more particularly, their link with the debates on higher education & research.
The analysis of the discourses and interviews enabled to highlight the plurality of the different concurrent rationales: the rankings as a journalistic resource making it possible to create a 'buzz' and attract attention; the rankings as a judgement tool capable of shaping the prestige enjoyed by higher education institutions; the rankings as a political argument for reforms and a communication tool for certain university presidents. Given the scope of these issues, the criteria chosen to constitute the documentary corpus have not favoured any predetermined type of print media outlet, thereby enabling us to list all statements related to the rankings and to identify the newspapers and news agencies at the forefront of this media coverage. Several databases have been searched to be sure to analyse all the articles, interviews, opinions diffused over the period (Factiva, Europress, the archives of Le Monde, Libération and AEF, a press agency specialising in education) using full-text searches with different terms (in French): 'classement mondial' (world ranking), 'classement international' (international ranking) and 'classement de Shanghai' (Shanghai ranking), and using different spellings for 'Shanghai' ('Shanghai', 'Shangai', 'Shanghaï').
As the use of textual statistics tools implies that the documentary corpus is closed, monitoring work since 2014 has been carried out to complete the corpus, using online notifications and systematic collection of references to the ranking when the results are published each year on 15 August (national or regional daily press, magazines) 6. The analysis of the press corpus (press and press agencies) has been combined with the analysis of interviews with journalists and individuals active in higher education & research to be able to understand what the journalists' sources were and what goals they were pursuing in their articles. Interviews of individuals active in higher education & research were also precious to understand the wider context of the media coverage process. The press corpus provides access to a variety of data relating to: the type of media outlets, the deployment and intensity of media coverage over time, the profile of the individuals cited or of those who expressed themselves in opinion pieces and the discursive characteristics of the statements.
In order to examine the different actors in this co-development process and test the hypotheses, I will start by focusing on the specifics of its dissemination in the press from 2003 to 2014 before examining the profiles of the different players who have referred to this ranking in order, ultimately, to highlight the socio-discursive practices to which it has given rise. A derogatory framing and two-step media coverage process: the critical juncture of 2007 Seven months were to elapse between the publication of the ranking in China in June 2003 and the first reference to these league tables in the French media. The study of the data derived from the documentary corpus and, in particular, an analysis of the temporal distribution of references show that the media coverage process occurred in two stages.
Interviews with journalists highlighted that the simplicity of the ranking criteria-chiefly bibliometric data (taken from the Science Citation Index (SCI) and Arts & Humanities Citation Index databases), as well as success in obtaining awards enjoying strong international recognition such as the Nobel Prize or Fields medal -were considered a guarantee of recognition and credibility. If the performance of French institutions, qualified as 'poor' became a journalistic resource to create an event, the No. 1 position enjoyed by Harvard University was considered to be axiologically consistent with representations of academic prestige and reinforced the legitimacy given to the results of the ranking. It should be noted that the desire to create a 'buzz' (i. e. , create an event and increase media attention), linked to the framing of the results in terms of underperformance, confirms the results of other studies, such as those conducted by Frédéric Pierru on the media coverage of hospital rankings  (Pierru, 2004)  or those conducted by Xavier Pons on the OECD PISA survey  (Pons, 2015) , underlining the importance of the derogatory framing in how the event is construed, as well as the seriousness of debates and reforms in the areas concerned.
It should be noted that in May 2017, a report from the General Inspectorate of National Education and General Inspectorate of the Administration of National Education & Research (Inspection générale de l'éducation nationale, or IGEN, and Inspection générale de l'administration de l'éducation nationale et de la recherche, or IGAENR) on international rankings 23 was sent to the Minister of Higher Education & Research and the Minister of the Economy, indicating continued interest in academic rankings and, in particular, in the Shanghai ranking. In February 2019, the Minister of Higher Education, Frédérique Vidal, sent a letter to the President of the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) requesting that the most internationally cited researchers, according to the highly cited researchers (HiCi) database 24 , should highlight their university affiliation in their first signature rather than that of the CNRS 25 because account is only taken of the first signature in the Shanghai ranking 26 … a request that confirms the significance of this ranking and its prescriptive dimension.
24 https://hcr. clarivate. com/ 25 Les Echos, Pourquoi la France va remonter dans le classement de Shanghai ('Why France will rise in the Shanghai ranking'), 28 February, 2019, p. 2. 26 This is linked to a change in methodology in 2014 that led the producers of the ranking to give a weighting to the influence of the new database, see http://www. shanghairanking. com/fr/ARWU-Methodology-2014. html (accessed May 2019) for further details. 27 Research organisations are public research establishments, such as the CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, or National Centre for Scientific Research). 28 This was one of the points highlighted in interviews with the journalists who wrote the articles. 29 It was ranked 385th in the 2004 edition and 334th in the 2018 edition. 30 Professor of biochemistry and molecular biology, university president of Paris VI (UPMC) from 2001 to 2006 (source: educpros.
Participants A total of eighty-five children (aged 5 -6 or 9 -10) participated in this experiment: 54 children were between 5 and 6 years old (mean age_5; 7, SD_0. 29, 27 girls and 27 boys) and 31 children were between 9 and 10 years old (mean age_9; 6, SD_0. 22, 20 girls and 11 boys). For each age group, half of the children performed a temporal bisection task (judgments of duration) while the other half completed a spatial bisection task (judgments of distance). Group assignment was counter-balanced across participants. Note however that as the tasks proved to be very difficult, 10 children did not complete the experiment and their data were not included in the study (6 young children did not understand the task instructions in the temporal condition). All children were enrolled in kindergarten and primary schools located in the south of France (vicinity of Montpellier, Herault), where they followed the normal academic program.
Stimuli and Procedure The experiment took place in a quiet room of the children's school where tables and chairs were adjusted to their size. Participants were invited to sit in front of a computer (17-inch screen) running E-Prime 2. 0 software  [34]  to control stimuli presentation, timing operations and data collection. Verbal responses of participants were collected by the experimenter who reported the response by clicking on the left and right mouse buttons. Stimuli were drawings of faces whose emotional facial expression was manipulated across trials. The faces represented either anger or neutral emotional facial expressions (see Figure  1 , panel (b)). We used schematic faces instead of photographs because it has been shown that the use of such faces displaying only the basic facial components of emotional expressions (e.
Statistical Analysis Given participants' age and task difficulty, data were trimmed to discard from statistical analyses responses from children who showed extremely low performance on the anchors (shortest duration or distance and longest duration or distance). We calculated for each participant the proportion of Long responses (thereafter p(long)) separately for the shortest distance or duration and the longest distance or duration (depending on the task). We expected p(long) to be close to 0 for the shortest anchor and close to 1 for the longest anchor. We then computed the difference between p(long) at short and long anchors. The higher the difference score, the better the performance. The data of children with a difference score below 0. 3 were excluded from statistical analyses. Given that the task proved clearly difficult for many children, this led us to discard data from 10 additional participants (6 young children in the temporal bisection task).
Consequently, the data of twenty-one 5 -6-year-old children and twelve 9 -10-year-old children were analyzed for the temporal bisection task, and the data of sixteen 5 -6-year-old children and sixteen 9 -10-year-old children were included in the statistical analyses of the spatial bisection task. We performed a repeated measures ANOVA on the proportion of "long" responses with the factors "Task" (Spatial vs. Temporal), and "Age" (5 -6 years old or 9 -10 years old) manipulated between participants, and with the factors "Emotion" (Angry; Neutral), and "Magnitude" (Distance 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or Duration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) ma-nipulated within participants. Then, to further explore the influence of emotional face stimuli on time and space perception, we computed for each participant and every experimental condition the bisection point (BP -also referred to as the Point of Subjective Equality, PSE).
Each BP value was calculated from a slope and an intercept, obtained by fitting the psychometric raw data with the Pphy package on R  [36]. Pphy is an R package that uses the model-free package to fit the data locally per subject, which were included as a random effect to account for the repeated-measures nature of the design as well as individual differences in response scale use. The slope, the bisection point and the JND (just noticeable difference) are extracted per subject and condition. BP represents the theoretical value in which the probability to judge a distance or duration as being long is 0. 5. A low BP value refers to an overestimation and a high BP value to an underestimation. To assess perceptual sensitivity, Weber ratios (WRs) were calculated by dividing the JND with the BP for each participant and in every experimental condition.
* Our work is partly supported by the projects  ANR-14-CE24-0007-01   CoCoRICo-CoDec  and  IDEX ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL* MIFID , as well as the LAMSADE internal project programme. The main ndings of this paper were discovered when H. Berkay Tosunlu was Lang,  Vincent Merlin ,  Hervé Moulin  and participants of the Dagstuhl Seminar 19381 on Application-.
Data For each country, we used the most appropriate longitudinal data available to link the economic situation and the partnership history. 5  Three retrospective surveys were used: the Divorce in Flanders survey  (2008)  for Belgium (Flanders region), the Family and Employers survey  (2004) (2005)  for France, and the Family and Social Subjects survey (2009) for Italy. These surveys contain precise retrospective occupational, marital, and fertility histories and separation dates recorded every year for individuals from age 18 onwards. For Germany, we used data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP), a panel study that includes both retrospective and prospective data obtained from yearly interviews of households conducted from 1984 onwards. Formation and dissolution of unions were deduced by comparing the household composition between two consecutive waves.
We assumed that a union was dissolved if the respondent lived with a partner at time t, but not at time t+1. We only included those who started a new union after entry into the panel to observe them throughout the entire relationship. For Finland, the register data were best suited to the study's needs. Registers of non-marital unions and marriages are available from 1990 onwards. Despite their very different nature (retrospective data for Belgium, France, and Italy, panel data for Germany, and register data for Finland), all data sources provide comparable information. The current employment situation and unemployment spells are observed yearly (or even over shorter periods) from union formation until separation, or until the last date of the survey or last year of register data in the case of censoring.
Sample Creating a homogenous and comparable sample of unions in each country is a challenge and was done with great care. In each country, we selected all unions. Most of the partnerships in our data were formed in 80's and 90's. The union order (first or higherorder union) was then controlled for. A couple relationship is defined as a marital or nonmarital union that lasted at least one year. A union is considered dissolved on the date when the partners stop living together, rather than on the date of the legal divorce, which may sometimes occur several years later (depending on the country's legislative framework). Censoring occurs at the date of (last) interview (for Finland: at the date the register was drawn). All analyses were conducted separately for women and men. Unfortunately, in some countries, information on unmarried couples was not available for the entire period.
Beyond the country-specific welfare contexts, this result may also mean that the way unemployed individuals are judged varies according to the norms and values attached to job loss and the importance of work. Confidence in the future and economic recovery (i. e. , the level of pessimism) may also differ significantly. This work is a first step that calls for further comparative studies and data to fully understand the link between economic conditions and union dissolution in a cross-national context. A1 to A5 ). The predicted probabilities are measured for most recent cohort and married couples, all other covariates being fixed at their mean.
different adoptions of IT innovation, including "collaboration technologies, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), Open System, Database Machine, Medical innovation, E-commerce IT, Database management, Geographic Information Systems, etc. "  (Hameed et al. 2012, pp. 375-390). These characteristics can be organized into five factors: (i) innovation; (ii) organization; (iii) environmental; (iv) individual (CEO); and (v) user acceptance.