dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Research Arsenic exposure through drinking water in Peru Christine Marie George et al. More detailed information should also be collected on well depth, to determine whether there is any correlation with arsenic concentrations in the water. This type of programme may also provide an opportunity for the surveillance of arsenic-induced skin lesions and for information to be disseminated on the health implications of arsenic. All collected information should be compiled into a national water arsenic database that can be used by the government for strategic planning and arsenic mitigation. Potential mitigation options in Peru could include well switching, arsenic removal devices for household or community use, large-scale surface water treatment and rainwater harvesting. Well switching has been the most commonly used arsenic mitigation strategy in Bangladesh; it might be a good option for Peru as well, because of the heteroge-neous distribution of arsenic in well water detected in the present study.
The selected sample villages are surveyed using a non-invasive rapid assessment method to estimate their level of onchocerciasis endemicity. In each selected village a sample of adults is examined for the presence of palpable subcutaneous onchocercal nodules and the prevalence of nodules is calculated. Previous studies had shown that the severity of onchocercal disease in the community, and thus its public health importance, is related to the level of onchocerciasis endemicity as also reflected in the prevalence of nodules  [2, 66, 67]. Based on available data on this relationship, an expert committee recommended in the early 1990s that, in order to control onchocerciasis as a public health problem, ivermectin treatment should be provided to all high risk communities where the prevalence of onchocercal nodules in adults was greater than 20%  [68].
Geographic information system (GIS) All relevant geographic information was processed in a geographic information system. Initially Atlas GIS was used but since 2010 all geographic information was processed and analysed using ArcGIS 10 (ESRI Inc. , Redlands, USA) including the analysis reported in his article. The geographic information used for the analysis included: -National and administrative boundaries, rivers and lakes, national parks, main roads, villages and urban settlements (source WHO HealthMapper http:// health-mapper-release-5. software. informer. com). -Topography and relief (source ESRI http://services. arcgisonline. com/ArcGIS/rest/services/ World_Shaded_Relief/MapServer) -Population density at 30 arc seconds resolution (source LandScan http://www. ornl. gov/sci/landscan/ index.
Most of Kenya was classified as unsuitable on the basis of extensive previous entomological work that had shown that the only vector in the country was S. naevi and that its distribution was restricted to Nyanza province in the West of the country  [25, 39]. The dry central plateau of Tanzania was classified as being too dry to be suitable for Simulium breeding. National parks were also excluded from further analysis. Population density was not used as an exclusion criterion. However, for areas where, according to the LandScan database, the population density is extremely low (<1 person per km 2 ) this information is displayed on the maps.
REMO surveys The database used for the analysis consisted of REMO data for 14,341 villages where pre-control surveys were undertaken between 1995 and 2012. In addition, pre-control data were made available to APOC for 132 villages from Nigeria (101 villages), Cameroon (18 villages) and Tanzania (13 villages) where skin snip surveys had been done. For the purpose of analysis, the prevalence of microfilaria for these 132 villages was converted into the prevalence of nodules using the relationship between these two indicators described in a recent publication  [79]. The final database consisted of survey data for 14,473 villages in which more than half a million people were examined for onchocercal nodules (Table  1 ). Figure  3  shows the locations of the surveyed villages and of the classified area, i.
Hence, the expert analysis had a tendency to overestimate high risk areas. The reliability of the estimates of the population at high risk depends on the population density estimates used. We estimated this population density by the average population density in the CDTi projects in each country. This provides, in our opinion, the most reliable estimate of the density of the population at risk in onchocerciasis endemic areas as it excludes urban populations that are not considered to be at risk. However, these estimates are based on reported population data for CDTi projects. These reported data may not always be reliable, especially during the first years of a CDTi project when it is not yet covering all villages in the project area or during later years when community directed distributors (CDD) sometimes only report the population eligible for treatment rather than the total population in the village.
Acknowledgements The work presented in this paper is the result of an effective collaboration between many people and organizations at national and international levels. The Ministries of  Health of the 20 APOC countries (Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda ) were responsible for organizing and implementing most of the REMO surveys. We would like to acknowledge the key role played by the former and current national onchocerciasis coordinators, in particular:  Dr Pedro Jose Antonio ,  Dr Libère Ndayisenga ,  Dr Marcelline Ntep ,  Dr Justin Ndoyo , the late  Dr Namangué Kimingar ,  Dr Kupa Mukengeshayi ,  Dr Jonathan Y.
Jiya ,  Dr Yisa Saka ,  Dr Samson P. Baba. We would also like to acknowledge the significant contributions of the NGDO partners and their assistance in providing logistic support to the survey teams. The WHO country offices facilitated the missions of APOC technical advisors and provided logistic and administrative support to the survey teams. Most of the surveys were funded through the  APOC Trust Fund  and we would like to express our appreciation to the donor community for their sustained financial support to APOC which has made this region wide survey possible. Some surveys were funded by partners working at country level, including  University of Barcelona ,  Sight Savers  and the  Carter Center. We are grateful to the  WHO  country staff and temporary advisors who provided organizational and technical support: the late  Dr Pierre Ngoumou ,  Dr.
Sources of Data Infectious disease data were obtained from GIDEON (Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Network, www. gideononline. com), which contains information on the presence of human infectious diseases and occurrence of epidemics in each country. This source has regularly been used in comparative studies of pathogen diversity  [17, 20]  or infectious disease outbreaks  [10]. We collected data on socioeconomic, demographic and environmental variables to use as explanatory factors for the disease data. Variables obtained from the World Bank (http:// worldbank. org/ddp/home. do) included country area and population, per capita gross domestic product (GDP), per capita health expenditure, forested surface area and forest as a proportion of each country's total area. Data on bird and mammal species richness are from Bird Life International (http://birdlife.
org/ datazone/home) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (www. iucnredlist. org/initiatives/mammals). Per capita healthcare expenditure and the number of diseases for which a survey has been conducted in a country (GIDEON) were used as measures of investigation effort. The increase in health expenditure through time is likely associated with an increase in surveillance detection (potentially also seen in increased surveys) and outbreak reporting. This information was obtained from the Total Economy Database (www. conference-board. org/data/ economydatabase/). We restricted our analyses to 28 countries for which sufficient data were available (see Tables S1. 1 and S1. 2 in File S1 for list of countries and country-level data). The total number of outbreaks was computed from 1950 to 2008 (see also  [10] ).
Statistical Analyses Distributions of variables were normalized using log-transformation or asin-square root transformation. We performed a principal component analysis (PCA) using the package ade4 (version 1. 5-2) implemented in the R freeware programming environment (R Development Core Team, 2012). Correlation analyses and PCA allowed the identification of highly correlated variables such as latitude and temperature, or evapo-transpiration and mean annual precipitation (Fig. 1A  & B ). This first result permitted to test select the independent variables by removing colinear variables. We used general linear models (GLMs) using package lme4 implemented R 2. 10 to explain disease richness and number of outbreaks as a function of our explanatory variables. In order to explain to explain the richness in infectious diseases, an initial model included the following explanatory variables (i.
ID Outbreaks and Biodiversity Using the GIDEON data base, and over the period from 1950 to 2008, 124 different diseases with epidemics were identified in Asia-Pacific countries. An increase in both the number of  Figure  2. Partial relationships (partial correlation using residuals of the best models selected in Table  1 ) between the richness of infectious diseases and (A) the richness of bird and mammal species and (B) population size (partial correlation of the best GLM selected in Table  1 ). doi:10. 1371/journal. pone. 0090032. g002 outbreaks and the number of different diseases causing outbreaks through time was observed (Fig. 3 ). Three models were created to explain the number of total infectious diseases, the total number of zoonotic infectious diseases and the total number of vector-borne diseases with outbreaks (for complete model selection process see File S2, Tables  S2.
The Drivers of Disease Outbreaks: Biodiversity Matters Our dataset showed a dramatic increase in the number of outbreaks, both total number and number of diseases presenting outbreaks, reported in Asia-Pacific over the last sixty years. This is in accordance with observations made in Europe  [10, 23]  as well as with the global trend for EID  [7]. It is important to note, however, that the number of outbreaks is correlated with increased healthcare expenditures, which may reflect improvements in disease detection (and better recording of diseases). Indeed, the number of surveys, another measure of sampling effort, was also found positively correlated with the number of diseases with outbreaks. Our statistical models have identified several potential explanatory factors for the increase in outbreaks.
The LUMINEU program aims at performing a pilot experiment on neutrinoless double beta decay of 100 Mo using radiopure ZnMoO 4 crystals operated as scintillating bolometers. Growth of high quality radiopure crystals is a complex task, since there are no commercially available molybdenum compounds with the required levels of purity and radioactive contamination. This paper discusses approaches to purify molybdenum and synthesize compound for high quality radiopure ZnMoO 4 crystal growth. A combination of a double sublimation (with addition of zinc molybdate) with subsequent recrystallization in aqueous solutions (using zinc molybdate as a collector) was used. Zinc molybdate crystals up to 1. 5 kg were grown by the lowthermal-gradient Czochralski technique, their optical, luminescent, diamagnetic, thermal and bolometric properties were tested.
Optical absorption Visible and near infrared absorption spectra of ZnMoO 4 crystal were recorded with a Varian Cary 5000 spectrophotometer. The transmission coefficient, T, was measured on a 2. 0 mm-thick single crystal and found to be higher than 0. 5 from 327 nm to 4. 96 m. The absorption coefficient was calculated as  = logTln10/t, with t the thickness of the crystal. The data are presented in Fig. 1. The cut-off wavelengths are 313 nm ( 3. 96 eV) and 5. 13 m. The absorption coefficient decreases from 1. 47 to 0. 89 cm -1 in the wavelength region from 400 nm to 2 m, but there does not seem to have a broad absorption band around 440 nm that could be ascribed to Fe 2+ /Fe 3+ impurities as described in  [21]  and  [22]. This is due to the low Fe concentration in the crystal ( 1. 7110 16 cm -3 ) and in fact, it can be stated that a safe detection limit around 440 nm by such transmission experiments is ~ 10 18 atoms of Fe per cm 3.
Conclusions The LUMINEU program aims at performing a pilot experiment on neutrinoless double beta decay of 100 Mo using radiopure ZnMoO 4 crystals operated as scintillating bolometers. This problem requires development of methods of molybdenum purification to obtain crystals with desired characteristics. Different approaches of molybdenum purification for ZnMoO 4 crystals growth were elaborated. A purification using two stages sublimation (with addition of zinc molybdate) and recrystallization from aqueous solutions of ammonium para-molybdate (using zinc molybdate as a collector) is a promising approach to purify molybdenum for high quality radiopure ZnMoO 4 crystals growth. A first batch of LUMINEU crystals with mass up to 1. 5 kg have been successfully grown by by the lowthermal-gradient Czochralski technique, and their optical, luminescent, diamagnetic, thermal and bolometric properties were tested.
Acknowledgments The development of ZnMoO 4 scintillating bolometers is part of the  LUMINEU program  ( Luminescent Underground Molybdenum Investigation for NEUtrino mass and nature ), a project receiving funds from the  L'Agence nationale de la recherche (France). The work was supported in part by the project " Cryogenic detector to search for neutrinoless double beta decay of molybdenum" in the framework of the Programme "Dnipro" based on Ukraine-France Agreement on Cultural, Scientific and Technological Cooperation.
The obtained coatings thickness is about 300 nm. The nanoindentation tests were performed using a Hysitron triboscope apparatus connected to a digital instrument D3100 atomic force microscopy running in STM mode. Before indentation measurements, the system was calibrated by conducting several indents on a fused silica sample under normal loads. Machine compliance, thermal drift, and area function were corrected as described in (Ref  18 ). The load and depth resolution of the nanoindenter were 1 nN and 0. 04 nm, respectively. The hardness H and the reduced YoungÕs modulus E r were measured using a Berkovich tip with a total included angle of 142. 3° and a radius of curvature of approximately 100 nm. Each test was repeated at least five times in order to evaluate the reproducibility of the data and determine the associated error values.
Finite Element Modeling The experimental nanoindentation tests of monolayers CrN, TiN, and Ti/TiN multilayer nanocoatings were modeled by the finite element method (FEM) using commercial finite element code ABAQUS 6. 10-1. Due to the axial symmetry of the problem, both the specimen and the indenter were modeled in two-dimensional axisymmetric in order to reduce computa-The contact between the rigid indenter and the specimen is assumed as frictionless. The finite element model for the specimen, illustrated in Fig. 9 , was 10 lm in length and 8 lm in width. The thickness for the monolithic and multilayer is 300 nm. The interfaces between different layers were assumed to be perfectly bonded. The simulations are carried out under displacement-controlled conditions. The two models of monolithic and multilayer coatings and the boundary conditions used for the simulation are schematically reported in Fig.
6] [27] [28]  Hence, benzodiazepines might not cause the disease but rather be prescribed to treat its prodromes. Adjustment for such a reverse causality bias is not easy in observational studies as prodromes are often not recorded as such. It might consist in the demonstration of a delayed risk  9  or in the censoring of information on exposures started during the suspected prodromal phase. Moreover, few studies published on the topic have had sufficient power to investigate a cumulative dose relation, which is a compelling argument in the assessment of a potentially drug induced outcome. We evaluated the association between past benzodiazepine use and the risk of Alzheimer's disease using an administrative claims database with a long follow-up period and investigated the potential dose-effect relation.
Study design and setting We carried out a case-control study among older people (age >66) living in the community in the province of Quebec (Canada) and who were members of the public drug plan from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2009. In Quebec, nearly all older people (about 98%) are covered by the drug plan. Data sources for the study consisted of the prescription and medical services recorded in an administrative claims database (RAMQ). The source population included random samples of 38 741 people with a diagnosis or treatment (such as cholinesterase inhibitors or memantine) related to dementia for cases and 86 259 people without these conditions for controls.
Exposure assessment Benzodiazepine use was assessed with dispensation claims recorded in the RAMQ database. We considered all benzodiazepines included in the RAMQ list of reimbursed drugs during the study period (table  1⇓ ). Treatments initiated less than five years before the index date were not considered as this could convey a reverse causality bias. Therefore, exposure was ascertained in a time window ranging from five to 10 years (maximum duration of follow-up) before the index date. Exposure was described according to three criteria: • Ever use: at least one claim for a benzodiazepine during the above defined time window • Cumulative dose: in the absence of an indisputable hypothesis about the pathophysiological mechanism possibly involved, we used the cumulative dose as it combined both the duration of treatment and the somewhat variable daily dose.
0, 300. 2, 300. 3), depression (ICD-9 codes 296. 2, 296. 3, 300. 4, 311), and insomnia (ICD-9 codes 307. 4, 327. 3, 327. 4, 780. 5). Other diagnoses included those of the Charlson comorbidity index  34  validated for administrative claim databases  35  : chronic pulmonary disease, rheumatic disease, peptic ulcer, hemiplegia or paraplegia, renal disease, malignancy or metastatic solid tumour, liver disease, and AIDS/HIV. We created a broad category of "comorbidity" that included patients with at least one diagnostic claim for the above diagnoses.
47 The risk associated with the lowest cumulative levels of exposure (<90 prescribed daily doses (PDDs)) did not differ from that seen in controls, while the risk was increased by 32% and 84% for 91-180 PDDs and >180 PDDs, respectively. The higher odds ratio associated with long acting benzodiazepines (half life ≥20 hours) also argues in favour of a dose-response effect. Indeed, unlike products with short half lives, these molecules used daily result in more or less constant blood and brain active concentrations. Finally, our study population was representative of older people of Quebec, which makes the findings generalisable. The limitations of the study are shared with other studies that use claims databases without direct access to patients. As case ascertainment was based on diagnoses recorded in claims data, misclassification was possible, even if diagnoses were always made by a physician (general practitioner, neurologist, internist, or geriatrician).
No commercial reuse: See rights and reprints http://www. bmj. com/permissions Subscribe: http://www. bmj. com/subscribe In regard to a possible delay in recording a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease, one should note that pushing back the index date by one year in the sensitivity analysis did not alter the results. It could also be argued that benzodiazepine use might confound the clinical diagnosis of dementia by impairing cognitive functions. This seems unlikely as odds ratios in those who used benzodiazepines for more than six months were 1. 72 (95% confidence interval 1. 51 to 1. 97) and 2. 51 (1. 97 to 3. 20) for treatments still underway at the date of diagnosis or discontinued for at least one year before, respectively. We compared exposure on the basis of information recorded in the database without the possibility of ascertaining whether the dates of benzodiazepine claims corresponded to their actual consumption.
Nevertheless, the excess risk found in our study concerned only long term treatments that required multiple refilled prescriptions, which does not support non-compliance. Therefore, observed long lasting uses were likely to correspond to actual exposures. Neuropsychiatric symptoms used for adjustment-such as anxiety, depression, and sleep disorders-could have been under-reported if they were not considered by the physician as a main diagnosis. This limitation, which is common to other databases widely used in pharmacoepidemiology, could be deleterious only if it is notable and not balanced across the groups. Moreover, in our study sample, anxiety was recorded in 21. 4% of cases and 15. 1% of controls; for depression, percentages were 2. 9% and 2. 4%, respectively. These figures do not seem to depart markedly from prevalences found in the literature for people aged >65.
49 50 e RAMQ database does not contain information on socioeconomic status, education level, smoking habits, or alcohol consumption. Smoking and alcohol consumption are known to be associated with benzodiazepine use but not a priori with Alzheimer type dementia, even if chronic wine consumption has been claimed to be a protective factor. 51 The effect of not adjusting for these factors was likely to be conservative as benzodiazepine use is thought to be higher in regular wine and alcohol consumers. 52 Socioeconomic and educational levels have been shown to be inversely correlated with the risk of presenting with dementia,  31 53 54  and thus lack of adjustment for these factors could results in bias. Their association with benzodiazepine use, however, remains unclear as it has been reported as absent,  44  positive,  55  or negative.
Study design Eligible students were invited to participate in the study during the first 2 days of their ICU/ED training. Students were informed that the primary objective of the study was to test the impact of VBF on the level of anxiety induced by oral presentation. After being given a brief description of the study and after signing the informed consent form, medical students were asked to fill in an online questionnaire on sociodemographic data and anxiety assessment (see below). The students were then randomized on the same day using the Excel® (Excel 2007, Microsoft) randomnumber generation function. The medical students were assigned to either the "video-based feedback" (VBF) group or the control group (i. e. with no video feedback). In both arms, students had to perform a formal oral presentation of a patient on a regular basis during morning ward rounds or during handovers.
Questionnaire content Sociodemographic data were collected from all students at the beginning of their internship. Anxiety levels were assessed using the validated French version of the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S)  [20]. This score measures the transitional emotional status evoked by a stressful situation, such as an oral presentation, using 20 items each rated by a 4-point Likert scale (possible score range: 20-80). Higher scores are positively correlated with higher levels of anxiety. A score >37 for men and >42 for women reflects high anxiety, and a score >48 for men and >55 for women corresponds to anxiety liable to interfere with performance  [21]. The level of anxiety was evaluated in all students at the beginning and at the end of the 3-month emergency room or ICU internship.