dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
To ensure the comparability of the data between the two cells, two of the glass weights analysed in the standard S155 cell were analysed also in the large cell alongside the reference material (Corning A, NIST SRM612). Comparison of the results (Fig 2 ) shows very good agreement for oxides with concentrations above the ppm level (0. 9 > [Large cell]/[Cell S155] > 1. 1). However, the results for some elements clearly diverge (mainly Li, B, P, Cl, Cr and to a lesser extent Sn), possibly as a result of a loss in sensitivity for light elements and a considerable increase in the background level for some masses (Cr). These two factors drastically increase the detection limits for chromium and phosphorus. Ten diagnostic base glass element oxides (Na, Mg, K, Ca, Al, Fe, Ti, Zr, Sr, B) of the main group of Byzantine glass weights (n = 255, excluding all heavy weights and outliers) were subjected to multidimensional principal component analysis (PCA), using Matlab version 2015b.
Batches Glass samples can be considered to belong to the same batch or melting event if the concentrations of all elements measured are within the experimental error  [69, 70]. Groups of glass weights with iconographic similarities were thus compared and a number of batches identified where the compositional data of the different samples were within two standard deviations of the repeated measurements of Corning A and NIST 612. Additionally, hierarchical clustering was performed that confirmed the batches and revealed several more highly correlated clusters. Altogether, at least eleven very tight compositional batches were thus identified, each containing two to three individual weights that are highly correlated across 58 elements analysed (  Fig 10). Minor variations shown in cobalt and associated elements within the same batch provide evidence for the addition of the colorant at the secondary working stage (Fig  11).
Participants We recruited 292 American participants on MTurk. In total, 25 participants were excluded from the sample (although it should be noted that the main findings remain the same when including these participants in the analyses). Of these, 18 were excluded because they made two or more errors on three attention check items explained below (a criterion fixed before the study), two because their answers were considered as being not serious (their answers were the same for every single question), one because they participated twice, two because they were not Americans, one because their data were not correctly recorded, and one because they expressed suspicion about the authenticity of the newsletter. In total, our final sample was composed of 267 participants (161 women, M age = 34. 69, SD age = 12.
Of course one could test whether the presence or the absence (or a shorter version) of the instructions produces any meaningful difference in the answers, but the challenge would be to ensure that the instructions are still easily understood. Importantly, we would also argue that reading instructions cannot be directly compared with thinking about and answering each item. To test this reasoning, we conducted an additional short study. In this study, we asked 37 American MTurkers to complete the single-item conspiracy belief scale and the 5-item Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ;  Bruder et al. , 2013)  in a counterbalanced order. Importantly, we recorded the time it took to complete each scale. These data show that participants were significantly faster in answering the single-item conspiracy belief scale (M = 23.
Sound analyses We isolated two sequences of crying from each recording session, resulting in a total of six crying sequences for each baby (mean sequence duration = 7. 8 ± 1. 1 s), and extracted a set of 15 temporal and spectral variables from each sequence. To describe the acoustic structure of cries, we used a dedicated batch-processing script in PRAAT  [6] , which contained four distinct procedures. These procedures have been applied successfully to the characterisation of acoustic variation in previous studies of babies' cries  [20]. The first procedure of the script characterized the fundamental frequency (F0 or pitch) and the intonation (F0 contour variation) of the cries. The F0 contour was extracted using the To Pitch (cc), command. The experimenter systematically inspected the extracted Pitch contour and verified it using a narrow band spectrogram displaying the first 2000 Hz of the signal.
Groups of participants were tested simultaneously during several practical sessions. The minimum sample of 30 participants for each experiment was reached for all experiments. All tested participants who terminated the experiment and provided an output data file were included in the analysis. To test the hypothesis that cry pitch affects perceived gender attributes (masculinity in male babies and femininity in female babies, study 4), we used our set of natural cries and associated re-synthesised pitch variants in listening experiments where adult participants were asked to rate gender attributes of babies from listening to their cries. Thirty listeners (25 women and 5 men) were told that the cries were from 4 month-old baby boys and asked to rate their masculinity (on a Likert scale of 1 to 7: 1 = extremely low, 4 = average, 7 = extremely high).
Statistical analysis of the results of playback experiments The effect of natural and artificial variation in acoustic parameters on listener's ratings were tested using Linear Mixed Models (for continuous outcome variables: femininity, masculinity and discomfort) and Generalized Linear Mixed Models (with logistic regression link for the binary variable sex) in SPSS 21 for MAC. Reported statistics correspond to fully factorial models. Model structures are detailed in the footnotes of the Supplementary Tables. The sizes of main effects (fixed mean F0) or correlations (naturally varying meanF0) were estimated using R coefficients derived from simple linear regressions between the main meanF0 and the ratings averaged by exemplar and/or listener (sex, femininity, masculinity and discomfort).
Acknowledgements The author wishes to express her gratitude to  Suzanne De  ´barbat for her careful reading of the manuscript, to  E ´milie Kaftan  for her research on the figures, and to  Monique Wonner  and  David Reney  for their precious help in the translation of the French manuscript into English. Simone Dumont , winner of the 2015 Doisteau-Blutet prize of the Academy of Sciences, was invited to contribute this paper by  CRG 's chief editor  Vincent Courtillot. The paper has been reviewed by  Jean-Paul Poirier  and  Vincent Courtillot. Funding: FACAD.
Material and methods A set of 13 kidney stones first examined under a stereomicroscope for recording their main morphological characteristics and second analysed by FTIR spectroscopy  [30, 31]  have been selected for the study (Table  1 ). Infrared data were collected between 4000 and 400 cm À1 with a resolution of 4 cm À1. The FTIR spectra show characteristic absorption bands of the whewellite phase. Observations through a last generation Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) for characterization of the samples at the mesoscopic scale have been performed  [32]. Such apparatus offers the opportunity to investigate nonconductive materials without any conductive coating and permits thus a direct observation causing no damage for the sample. A set of observations have been performed with a gaseous secondary electron detector at a low accelerating voltage (under 2 kV).
Neutron diffraction patterns were collected on the G4. 1 diffractometer [43] at Laboratoire L eon Brillouin [44] at room temperature. This powder diffractometer is equipped with a vertical focussing pyrolytic graphite monochromator and an 800-cell multidetector covering an 80 2q range (step 0. 1 between two cells). Neutron diffraction diagrams were collected using a wavelength of 2. 4226 Å, with an acquisition time of a few hours on samples. Data analysis Morphology and chemical composition as given by FTIR spectroscopy of the set of samples selected for this investigation.
Sample Morphology FTIR analysis was done using the FullProf program  [45]. Details regarding the data analysis procedure can be obtained elsewhere  [18,33e35]. For non-destructive three-dimensional (3D) scanning, a set of kidney stones were selected and analysed with a Quantum FX (Micro-CT Caliper PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA [46]) tomography system, equipped with a 90 kV/20 W maximum power unipolar microfocus (5 mm focal spot) X-ray tube and a high-contrast digital array detector DXR250 with a 10 mm 3 voxel, 5000 Â 5000 mm pixel size used. The mCT scan was performed for 3 min at 90 kV and 180 mA acceleration voltage and X-ray tube current, respectively. The DICOM III data frames were subsequently analysed using OsiriX imaging software (64 bits, 3. 7. 1 version). The scans resulted in reconstructed 3D data sets with a voxel-size of 9.
We have already used this technique in the case of calcium oxalate, cystine, struvite and uric acid kidney stones  [18,33e35]. In Fig. 10 , a set of Neutron Powder Diffraction (NPD) diagrams have been plotted. For some kidney stones, the signal to noise ratio was enough to analyse the data through the FullProf program. Such an approach leads to the knowledge of the apparent mean size of the coherently diffracting crystals from the observed broadened Bragg peaks of the NPD stone diagrams taking into account the instrumental resolution function of the neutron diffractometer. The Full-Prof program thus provided a value of this mean size (80 nm) with its standard deviation. Fig. 11  is an example of the diffraction pattern at room temperature of the Please cite this article in press as: D. Bazin, et al.
Conclusion In this investigation, a set of kidney stones containing whewellite and associated to a particular FTIR spectrum have been considered. The complete set of data including FE-SEM observations at the mesoscopic scale, NPD experiments to assess their crystallographic structure at the nanometre scale and 3D and 2D cross-section visualisations evaluated from the mCT measurements indicate the presence of amorphous whewellite. This structural possibility is quite similar to what is observed for calcium phosphate apatite. Moreover, stable amorphous whewellite has recently been synthetized  [69]. Such improvement in the structural description of calcium oxalate compounds is of major importance for clinicians. According to the results presented in the paper, NPD and mCT measurements do not show the presence of amorphous whewellite contrary to FTIR and FE-SEM observations.
In particular the large amounts of metal leaves described were not visible on the paintings. This intriguing mismatch between the archival data and the material evidence as well as the question of authenticity, were the main reasons for  setting up the Germolles case study. Non-invasive imaging techniques and point analyses, followed by more traditional analytical techniques, were used to record and study further the wall paintings decoration. The project benefited both from the technical, scientific and financial support of the EU COST Action TD1201: Colour and Space in Cultural Heritage (COSCH) (www. cosch. info) and from funding from the Regional Direction of Cultural Affairs in Burgundy (DRAC-Burgundy). Although all wall paintings decorations were examined, the article focusses on the large number of comparative observations and analyses conducted in Countess of Nevers' dressing room.
The missing decoration was recreated over these fills by repainting with material transparent to IR (Fig. 4 ). On the contrary, the original green used to paint the background is opaque to IR and appears dark grey. Due to this optical behaviour difference, IR pictures clearly showed areas original and not original. Hyperspectral imaging was used to investigate further the embellishments at the extremities of the "P" letters. The CCD camera (HS-XX-V10E), developed by SPECIM provides a 1600 x 840 pixel resolution, a spectral resolution of 2. 8 nm and a wavelength range between 400 to 1000 nm. The wall paintings were illuminated by two halogen lamps oriented to 45°. The data processed with ENVI 5. 2 + IDL software allowed to obtain an RGB image (R=650 nm; G=540 nm; B=450 nm) and greyscale images at wavelengths ranging from 500 to 1000 nm.
Traces of titanium (Ti) and zinc (Zn) were detected. Micro-destructive examination by Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) using 3 Ocean Optics range between 200 and 950 nm (from 200 to 340 nm and from 335 to 445 nm, 1800 mm -1 grating, resolution 0. 1 nm; from 510 to 940 nm, 600 mm -1 grating, resolution 0. 31 nm) spectrometers and data processing with CALIBSO software confirmed the elements and the stratigraphy of the different layers. The presence of Zn and Ti was validated on the white paint layer where barium (Ba) was also identified, suggesting that possibly lithopone (barium sulphate combined with zinc sulphite) and titanium oxide were used during the recent conservation work.
9 )  (Mounier, 2010). Raking light is certainly one of the best way to observe the stratigraphy of layers on the thistles. However, shadows are problematic and difficult to avoid. Therefore Highlight-Reflectance Transformation Imaging (H-RTI) using a Nikon D 7100 digital camera equipped with a variable focal (DX-VR, AF-S 18-140) used with maximum magnification (140 mm), at a working distance of approximatively 25 cm, was tested as an alternative to raking light to better visualise details and stratigraphies of these paintings illuminated with a torch equipped with a LED of a power of white light (XM L2)  (Duffy, 2013). H-RTI data processing can be done with open source softwares available to end-users (RTIBuilder® and RTIViewer®), making this imaging technique a low-cost accessible one. Fig.
Alignment of data The amount of data collected so far as part of the Germolles case study is enormous. Therefore it was important for the owners of Château de Germolles not only to plan their archiving and storage but also to deal with their integration, interpretation and management. Challenges included managing very large files which are processed and can be visualized only with specific softwares. In particular, the alignment of data is a field of research that requires specific expertise in data management  (Manuel, Gattet, De Luca, & Veron, 2013). Some preliminary tests were carried out using the large volume of data collected at Germolles. Another promising application (SIVT -Spatial Image analysis and Viewing Tool -Wefers, Reich, Tietz, & Boochs, 2016) was tested to contribute to a combined visualization and analysis of images displaying details of Germolles wall paintings.
The orthophotograph of room dn south wall (Fig. 3 ) and other 3D datasets (a 2. 5D image, a normal image and a difference image) were generated from the five high dynamic range photographs of the wall. They were all registered and integrated into SIVT as basemaps. Applying the shading functionality onto these datasets, the irregularities of the wall surface were better visualized to aid conservation analysis. Additionally, images displaying details of the wall painting (such as an IR image of the same "P" as on Fig. 14 ) were semi-automatically registered allowing a combined visualization of the orthophotograph and detailed images (Fig. 15 ). For this task corresponding information between the orthophotograph and the detailed images need to be taken at hand. As this can be problematic for displaying the spectral images IR, reflected IRr, UV-induced visible fluorescence (UVf), and IR false colour (IRfc) information, matching points of all spectral images taken from the same position with the same device were compiled.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank  Nicholas Vella  from the  Department of Archaeology at the University of Malta  for the kind use of the  Zeiss Light Microscope ,  Edwin Lanfranco  for sharing his extensive knowledge on local vegetation,  Dr Saviour Formosa  for the DTM layer of NW Malta, and  Dr Lyudmila Shumilovskikh  ( IMBE ) for her expertise in NPP identification. This research was partially funded by the  ANR   Paleomed  project ( 09-BLAN-0323-204 01 ). Edited by:  N. Combourieu Nebout.
2009 ). Non-invasive methods were employed in order to determine the raw material: microbeam Proton Induced X-ray Emission analysis (micro-PIXE) as well as synchrotron and laboratory X-ray microtomography (micro-CT). The chemical approach was based on chemical markers for ivory identification, defined thanks to a micro-PIXE database comprising about 150 objects (modern and archaeological ivory, bone and antler)  (Müller and Reiche 2011). However, these chemical markers can be used for the determination of wellpreserved objects but cannot be applied for clear identification of diagenetic altered archaeological objects. For this reason, the chemical distinction markers did not enable us to identify the raw material used for the manufacture of the Palaeolithic beads. Assuming that micro-morphology is less sensitive to diagenetic changes, morphological characteristics for distinction purposes have been studied by means of micro-CT  (Reiche et al.
For instance, vowel duration was taken as a predictor of syllable structure in the case of consonant sequences whose syllabification is unknown (/s/ + obstruent clusters, e. g. Marotta 1995; Turchi & Bertinetto 2000). 7  In the following sections, we present the results of an acoustic study of voice onset intervals in two different corpora of spoken Italian, the first being a small, targeted, well-balanced, carefully and manually labelled corpus, the other focusing on quantity (being a large, generic and semi-automatically labelled corpus). In particular, the study is a first attempt at quantifying the overall weight of phonetically-based compensatory effects in a speech dataset, by analyzing to what extent the duration of stressed Vs can be predicted by the duration of the subsequent C intervals.
In Corpus A, we measured the duration of each experimental sentence as well. In Corpus B, we measured the duration of the preceding vowel even when it was unstressed. For Corpus A, we also performed a normalization of the data by dividing the duration of each sentence by the number of the syllables composing it (thus obtaining the average __________ duration of the syllables in each sentence), and then dividing (i) and (ii) by the obtained average syllable duration. This normalization was made in order to account for the fact that speech rate could vary across the experimental list, some sentences being read more slowly than others. However, we are conscious of the fact that such normalization does not take into account the fact that speech rate could (and in fact did) also vary within each sentence, with different words being read at different rates.
Clusters Singletons and geminates Pearson's ρ -0. 46** -0. 42** N 197 451 Table  4. Correlation coefficients (Pearson's ρ) between stressed V duration and the duration of the following consonantal interval according to the type of the consonantal interval (Corpus A). Furthermore, we wanted to verify whether, within the class of singletons and geminates, the phonetic properties of the C influenced the strength of the correlation effect. We therefore split the dataset into 4 subgroups, according to the 4 consonant class: fricatives, liquids, nasals and stops. As Table  5  shows, there were visible differences in the correlation coefficient according to the type of the post-vocalic C, with the liquids showing the highest value and the fricatives the lowest one; however, in all cases the correlation was of a moderate entity.
Analysis by number of consonants As previously said, Corpus B included consonantal clusters composed of an unrestricted number of C, ranging from 0 (e. g. in the case of a hiatus) to 4. We restricted the by-speaker analysis to those intervals composed of 1 to 2 consonants. This sub-selection of data was therefore structurally very similar to Corpus A. The results are shown in Table  10. Although the values of the Pearson's correlation coefficient did not change very much overall, what emerged straightforwardly in this sub-selection of data was the difference between stressed and unstressed Vs. Only the duration of the former decreased (though very moderately) when the duration or the number of segments composing the C interval increased. This result was more consistent with the general view according to which only stressed nuclei are influenced by the composition of V-to-V intervals; however, the timing effects acting at the level of un-stressed vowels (consider in particular the difference between Table  10  and Table 9.
A first source of independent variation appeared to be the individual. Although all the subjects of Corpus A were asked to produce a relatively limited amount of highly controlled read speech, and those of Corpus B were professional speakers, there were substantial differences in the individual outputs as far as the relation between V and C duration in the target stimuli were concerned. Moreover, the two subjects of Corpus A who did not conform to the majority pattern were speakers of a southern variety of Italian, namely a southern Lazio and a Campanian variety  (Sobrero 1988: 732). Their production showed a complete absence of correlation between stressed Vs and subsequent C intervals. This result therefore suggested the possibility that the first source of variation in our data was not (only) the speaker but (also) the linguistic variety.
Differently from previous studies on V shortening in Italian, in which the experimental vowel was generally kept constant, 10  we tried to incorporate as much structural variation as possible concerning the quality of the stressed V. This however produced some variability in the durational patterns of the segments that we could not control for, due to the limited number of repetitions at our disposal. Future analyses of vowel onset intervals should therefore incorporate vowel quality variations in a more systematic way; this would permit to evaluate if different vowels are differently affected by timing phenomena and, in the positive case, to uncover the (phonetic) motivations for it. Finally, although the data of Corpus A were normalized according to the average syllable duration in each sentence (and thus accounted for speech rate variations across speakers and sentences, at least to some extent), much residual variability proved impossible to be accounted for.
This had to do with within-sentence speech rate variations (i. e. , even within a short sentence there may be words uttered more slowly / emphatically than others), the distribution of accents (lexical stress does not automatically predict prosodic prominence, particularly in large data sample of «real» speech), lexicosyntactic idiosyncrasies (each word and word juncture being characterized by its own frequency of occurrence / plausibility) 11  and also segment-specific characteristics. Concerning the latter point, consider for example that intervocalic /r/ in Corpus A had an average duration of around 14 ms, while the /ps/ cluster was well above 250 ms. Since (stressed) vowels have, all things being equal, their own intrinsic durations as well as their own intrinsic limits of stretching and compressibility, such large variations in the consonantal intervals will obviously not affect vocalic variations proportionally.