dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
39   In order to collect standardised information from contributing nodes, GBIF offers its community several tools, the most prominent one being the Integrated Publishing Toolkit (IPT): The IPT's two primary functions are to 1) encode existing species occurrence datasets and checklists, such as records from natural history collections or observations, in the Darwin Core standard to enhance interoperability of data, and 2) publish and archive data and metadata for broad use in a Darwin Core Archive, a set of files following a standard format  (Robertson et al. , 2014). A further functionality is the possibility to convert metadata into 'data papers' that may be published as peer-reviewed scholarly articles in a journal. This is a direct incentive for publishing, as data can then be cited, raising the profile of the researcher or institution 40.
The Provision of OpenStreetMap (OSM) as Linked Data An interesting case builds on one of the most prominent VGI initiatives so far: OpenStreetMap (OSM). In the provision of OSM as Linked Data  (Stadler et al. , 2012) , the traditional OSM dataset gets translated into a model that implements the Linked Data paradigm using RDF. Technically, the OSM data are periodically extracted from the official web page (openstreetmap. org), transformed into an RDF representation and loaded into a publicly available triple store that is essentially an RDF database. This processing is enabled by the open licensing model of OSM. Apart from changing the data model (i. e. data formats and structures that are used to encode the points, lines, polygons, etc. that are used within OSM), the transition to a Linked Data approach also provides a step change in respect to (semantic) interoperability.
While OSM defined its own structures and map elements (features) that are at most known to its own community, RDF is a recognised standard of the W3C and thereby well known to web developers around the globe, i. e. far beyond the original OSM contributors and the geospatial community. As such, datasets that are translated to so-called RDF triples (subject-predicate-object) can be easily connected to other triples by adding standard or self-defined relationships. In this way, datasets from multiple providers become interconnected and can be cross-navigated within the Linked Data Cloud 42. In addition to introducing a standard way of modelling and related encodings, RDF also provides the possibility to reuse existing vocabularies so that the expressions used to represent subjects, predicates and objects are understood by many different communities (and not only by those that are familiar with a particular VGI dataset, such as, in this case, OSM).
The mechanisms of vocabulary reuse and matching avoid the need for additional architectural approaches to join information from separately operating communities, such as wrappers, brokers or proxies. While the above holds for all data models, it particularly also holds for models of data quality. Returning to the concrete example of OSM, the overall quality assurance and data management mechanisms remain core business within the traditional platform that underlies OSM (available from openstreetmap. org). The architecturally loosely coupled Linked Data representation adds, for example, the possibility to apply W3C vocabularies related to data quality -most notably the W3C Data on the Web Best Practices: Dataset Quality Vocabulary (W3C, 2016a) and Data Usage Vocabulary (W3C, 2016b). Whereas DQV provides the means to describe 'the quality of a dataset …, whether by the dataset publisher or by a broader community of users' (W3C, 2016a), DUV specifies 'a number of foundational concepts used to collect dataset consumer feedback, experiences, and cite references associated with a dataset' (W3C, 2016b).
'Traditional' standards aimed at complete documentation of a one-off production workflow, such as  ISO 19115/19157 , are rich in descriptive elements that, if used properly, can enable the provenance and quality of geospatial data to be documented in very useful and machine-readable ways that support uncertainty propagation and fitness-for-use assessment. However, an investigation of open geospatial catalogues quickly shows that these standards are not being exploited to their full potential, even by large institutional data producers -partly because of the resource-intensive nature of metadata generation, and partly because of an ongoing shortage of tools and examples to simplify the process. For VGI, where even a single 'dataset' can contain observations produced by a wide variety of observers, instruments and methods, such monolithic standards may only be of use for periodic review and documentation of aggregated and quality-controlled data.
We have not looked into software solutions of how to access, store and back up data, for example which database management solution to use, such as PostgreSQL (with its language extension PostGIS), MySQL or the lightweight SpatiaLite, to name a few. We have also only touched the surface of the topic of software suites like GeoServer, deegree or GeoNetwork, all of which offer substantial building blocks for Spatial Data Infrastructures. We encourage the use of Open Source software like these, as well as open and freely accessible standards. In this text we have not addressed Environmental Sensor Networks (ESNs) that may comprise a backbone in data assessment from distributed heterogeneous sensors. We expect that the Sensor Web Enablement, as an OGC reference framework, will play an important role in citizen sensing.
Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDIs) Data hubs are defined as community-run catalogues of useful, online datasets, which store a copy of the data or host them in a database and provide some basic visualisation tools (Open Knowledge Foundation, 2013). A typical data hub consists of four basic elements, as shown in Figure  1 : Data, a Facilitator, a Custodian and End Users, which together form a dynamic communication cycle  (Delaney and Pettit, 2014). In particular, the Facilitator should provide a connection between the Custodian, i. e. the data hub's administrator, and the End Users; negotiate with the Custodian in terms of the needs or problems; and provide feedback to end users. The role of the Custodian is to provide and distribute data, which will be used by the End Users. It is to be noted that the terms 'end users' and 'users' , as used in this chapter, have a slightly different meaning: namely, while 'end users' utilise the data provided by the hub, they do not necessarily contribute to the development of the hub voluntarily, i.
The main elements of this framework are: spatial datasets and their metadata; networks services and technologies; standards that define the quality of the data; policies for distributing and managing the data; human resources; and a mechanism for coordinating and monitoring the whole infrastructure  (European Commission, 2007; Iliffe, 2012). An SDI may be developed by national public bodies to support all of the spatially relevant activities in a country. Each national, regional or local SDI, as a node of INSPIRE, recognises the significance of metadata by ensuring all contributed data align to a minimum standard and aims to deliver up-to-date data and information to other government agencies and the general public  (Steven, 2005)  to support effective decision-making. Several SDIs have been developed  (Craglia, 2007) , e.
The INSPIRE implementation represents a significant investment from all Member States, and has resulted in close to 300,000 spatial datasets being made available to the community through a standardised data-discovery site. The main INSPIRE portal allows users to search for datasets from across the EU from a single interface, and allows advanced search filters to be used to narrow down searches by geography, format or spatial theme. The INSPIRE portal only displays metadata for each dataset; it does not allow users to directly access any of the datasets, either manually or programmatically. However, each metadata resource contains a link to the data source, which may be a file, service or web application. It should be noted that INSPIRE involves some general rules: it is based on existing SDI of Member States, and hence does not require the collection of new data, but demands the transformation of existing data to comply with its specification structure; and it does not affect intellectual property rights.
Critical Issues for Integration Following the INSPIRE Directive, Member States should provide metadata for spatial datasets/data series and/or for spatial data services. The metadata consist of 27 elements of information regarding the data resources, elements of information which are grouped into 10 categories: identification; classification; keywords; geographic location; temporal reference; quality and validity; conformity with the interoperability implementing rules; constraints related to access and use; organisation responsible for the resource; and metadata for metadata  (European Commission, 2007). Clearly, populating all of these elements of metadata for VGI data will have a consequential time and cost. Furthermore, these elements cannot be gathered comprehensively by volunteers given current VGI practices.
Data published through INSPIRE download services may also have associated fees, but these charges should not exceed the cost of collection, production, reproduction and dissemination, together with a reasonable return on investment  (European Commission, 2007). Once the aforementioned technical issues are resolved, an integrated data and service sharing policy should be defined. Currently, INSPIRE requires Member States to provide the institutions and bodies of the community with access to spatial datasets and data services in accordance with harmonised conditions based on a minimum set of conditions to be respected. Member States are permitted exceptions to data sharing, and can even completely restrict access to certain data or can set security measures for obtaining access to these datasets and data services; for example, public-data access that may threaten individual privacy or national security can be restricted.
Integration for Supporting Conventional Spatial Tasks The combination of INSPIRE and VGI provides great potential for creating a comprehensive information platform by linking the advantages of authoritative information, i. e. quality assurance and normative status, with VGI advantages, i. e. rapid, up-to-date and dynamic information  (Wiemann and Bernard, 2014). As a result, this integration can benefit NMAs, administrators of VGI projects and end users, with consequent socio-economic impacts  (Campagna and Craglia, 2012). In particular, NMAs may have a real opportunity to use crowdsourced data to update some of their databases when the update is not done by them regularly due to the high costs involved or to add new data that are not available to them  (Coleman et al. , 2009). They can also use crowdsourced data to detect changes or vernacular place names  (Olteanu-Raimond et al.
Linked Data connects related data through Web technologies. The Linked Map project has converted government datasets provided by the Spanish National Geographic Institute to Linked Data into Resource Description Framework (RDF) data, so that these datasets can be linked to VGI sources (OSM, DBpedia, etc. ) and can be integrated using RDF links. RDF is a standard model for data interchange on the Web; RDF links enable Linked Data browsers and crawlers to navigate between data sources and to discover additional data. Another successful example is the case of the Ordnance Survey, which has linked an administrative geography dataset to other datasets on the Web, demonstrating the advantages of explicitly encoding topological relations between geographic entities over traditional spatial queries  (Goodwin et al.
An additional application of the Spatext (STTx) suite is that made in a case study for the cyclone Cleopatra in Sardinia (Italy) to extract all relevant data and information (e. g. perceptions, opinions and needs from the local communities) from social media, i. e. Twitter, YouTube, Wikimapia and Instagram. These data were then integrated with the latest official datasets for further analysis and relevant action by decision-makers. Another related web application called 'Place, I care' was employed to support urban and regional planning processes. In particular, the aim was to collect information from concerned citizens about the physical, environmental and socio-cultural space to support collaborative and participatory planning. Although they have not been verified yet through a systematic analysis, there have been several case studies on the application of STTx in the same areas with different SMGI sources, where different types of users returned similar results, suggesting further research should be devoted to better understanding the issue of representativeness.
At the time of creation, there was only a database of old ecological burdens, which covered the illegal dumps only marginally. In order to cover the largest possible area and utilise the potential of crowdsourced data, a platform was founded for information-gathering from citizens. The modern, efficient and widely-accepted platform was chosen for mapping while the mobile application and interactive web form were used for reporting. More than 2 500 illegal dumps were reported, and more than 40 municipalities and towns took part during the lifetime of the first version. In March 2014, the second version of ZmapujTo. cz was launched. This version introduced several new features. The most important change was the ability to report not only illegal dumping, but also a variety of other problems that one can encounter both in town and in the countryside.
Introduction Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) initiatives have seen considerable growth in citizen sensing  (Goodchild, 2007). Different terms are used in the literature to describe this volunteered activity, such as crowdsourcing and neogeography  (Turner, 2006)  or user generated spatial content  (Antoniou et al. , 2009). See et al. (2016)  give a complete review on the current terminologies used and the distinctions between them. In this chapter, the focus is on VGI in the context of European National Mapping Agencies (NMAs). With the adoption of the Open Data Policy 1 which encourages to freely release data that can be used and republished by any user, many government datasets are now freely available to the public, including spatial data from some European NMAs  (Brovelli et al.
, 2016). Some NMAs, such as those of Finland and the Netherlands, have released their datasets under open access licences; these authoritative data have been integrated into OpenStreetMap (OSM), which has improved the OSM database. More studies are necessary to determine if this integration may also have benefits for NMAs. The Open Data Policy can be an opportunity for both NMAs and geographic data end users. Indeed, releasing data under open access licences through a platform can increase the usability of authoritative data, because end users such as citizens can freely download and use data for different purposes. In addition, the motivation for citizens and partners to contribute by adding new information, giving feedback and providing alerts on errors and updates can also increase. Although local governments had already started during the last ten years to use VGI as a participation platform to engage in a dialogue with citizens rather than as a way to simply gain or share information  (Johnson and Sieber, 2013) , there has been a noticeable change.
Change Detection and Error Alerts Change detection and error alerts are among the most well developed VGI activities proposed by NMAs. Generally, alerts (e. g. to a new building or a new road name) are used as triggers to improve the quality of authoritative databases. The following outlines the experience of a series of NMAs in using VGI for change detection and error alerting. At IGN France, change detection is generally undertaken by land surveyors who analyse a range of alert types and then contact local governments. Since 2008, IGN France has developed various applications that aim to report alerts concerning errors, change detection or vernacular toponyms  (Viglino, 2009). These applications, deployed on different platforms and via different technologies (e. g. the Web, Android mobile phones and GIS) are mostly communitysourcing systems where professional partners, such as fire services and post offices, make reports on IGN data.
A web application, accessible through the French Geoportal, was also developed for citizens, allowing them to make reports. These pioneering applications and their encouraging results have led the IGN to propose a unique community and citizen sourcing portal 2 , on which citizens can complete a form and provide location information, using GPS tracks, photographs or drawings, on an IGN basemap. A new version of the application is being tested that allows partners to access, add and modify features in an up-to-date copy of the topographic database. Contributions are first checked and validated by the surveyors with respect to data specifications, and quality expectations are checked by using quality indicators, visual checking and comparison with different data sources (e. g. construction permits issued by municipalities).
Depending on the types of contributions, the VGI can be directly integrated into authoritative databases or used as a trigger for field work to improve the geometric precision of features. With regard to future engagement with VGI, some research projects are currently under consideration. For example,  Ivanovic et al. (2016)  are studying the possibility of automatically inferring changes from additional sources found on the Web, including GPS tracks from hiking websites. The EU-funded Horizon 2020 LandSense project (2016-2020) will study the feasibility of updating Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) maps using Sentinel and in-situ citizen-derived data. Methods to aid quality assessment and conflict management in order to validate and integrate citizen-derived data into the authoritative database will also be explored  (Leibovici et al.
As a result, the Kadaster was able to make a decision as to whether it had to maintain a particular marker or not. The border markers application has recently completed its pilot phase, and a continuation of the project is being developed. Finally, the forest paths project was a recent pilot based on VGI activities. In the Netherlands, the National Dutch Forest Organization (Staatsbosbeheer) is responsible for data on forests. The aim of the forest paths project was to use VGI to update the organisation's datasets. Kadaster provided raw material to forest rangers and asked them to verify and complete the map based on their field work. Kadaster has successfully completed pilot projects in Horsterwold and Flevopolder. The local forest rangers have updated their digital files on forest paths in their region.
This project can also be used for data collection for other organisations or public services. The curriculum for this project is in a pilot phase and the first results have highlighted that VGI activities are not only for adults. Linked to the large-scale renewal of Finland's National Topographic Database, a research project was launched by National Land Survey of Finland (NLS) at the beginning of 2016 to investigate the possibilities that VGI can offer in authoritative data collection. The project will build a concept to define the so-called 'Citizen's layer' to the authoritative topographic data, that is, a platform for data collection where they will be able to import or draw points, lines and polygons representing topographic objects in the real world. The concept will cover principles and tools for VGI data collection, e.
g. for building up the service and the user interface as well as developing protocols and methods for engaging with citizens  (Mooney et al. , 2016). The quality and the best practices for using VGI will be identified in a pilot phase. The project seeks to validate data quality and usability and to investigate the possibilities of integrating VGI collected in the pilot to the authoritative database. As part of another research project, a hyper-local geosocial networking application (hylo. mygeotrust. org) was introduced for school children aged 14-to 15-years-old. With the mobile application, pupils were asked to map different kinds of objects in their neighbourhood to share their knowledge and observations. The initial results are encouraging. Children are interested in their local environments and have volunteered to map and share their knowledge on a map service.
Based on these experiences, it seems beneficial to introduce the concept of a 'Citizen's layer' in schools as well. Greek mapping authorities have been using VGI as a starting point to update or create new mapping outputs. The crowdsourced data are treated as an initial input layer that is compared against imagery backdrops (satellite or aerial). The VGI datasets are corrected, completed and re-assigned to the local nomenclature and then follow the normal processes for internally collected data. Direção Geral do Território (DGT) is the NMA in Portugal; it coordinates Portugal's National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI), SNIG, and develops research on geographic information. Presently, research on VGI at the DGT is focused on investigating how to use VGI in the production of official topographic data 3.
The general idea is to use case studies to demonstrate the potential benefits of including VGI as part of the authoritative database implementation strategy, benefits which include filling gaps in official data, enlarging the spatio-temporal coverage or addressing the aims of specific communities of interest. These benefits are in line with the more collaborative and participative approach presently adopted for SNIG development. To identify and analyse the integration of VGI to NSDI, the environment and planning domain will be used as a target. Case studies will be designed to identify required modifications to the NSDI, such as changes to the metadata catalogue to accommodate VGI types or the interoperability and validation requirements for incorporating VGI within the NSDI. Moreover, a prototype based on a web service may become available through the NSDI geoportal, allowing any registered citizen to edit LULC polygons through the identification of geometry and/or classification changes.
Data Model and Objects Generally, NMAs are in charge of producing topographic databases by mapping the topography of the real world by focusing on specific types of objects described by few thematic features (e. g. number of lanes of a road, building type;  Olteanu-Raimond et al. , 2017). This implies that the existing features can be enriched by adding thematic information (e. g. number of floors in a building), but also that some new objects can be added. These new objects may be feature classes that are currently lacking in quality in official databases due to frequent real-world change (e. g. POIs, shops etc. ), or data that can be most efficiently collected by contributors because collection is not feasible with remote mapping (e. g. hiking trails obscured by trees). Data that are of special interest to citizens or public services such as emergency services and municipalities, e.