dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Note that the high values reported by the airborne measurements on 22 June above upper western part of Colorado are also measured by IASI. To compare satellite observations with the CalNex data set, the IASI total columns are first converted to concentrations at the altitude of interest for each airborne measurement located inside the satellite footprint. The concentrations (airborne or satellite based) covering the footprint of IASI are  then averaged in a second step. This results in 222 corresponding pairs of observations to which we can apply thresholds on the mistime (being the time difference between the IASI overpass and the airborne measurement), the retrieval error or the number of airborne observations by IASI footprint. As an illustration, Fig. 7  shows observations in the SCAB (satellite footprint centered at 34.
A third possible contributing reason for the large intercept and low slope is a bias in the IASI values derived from weighted averaging, where more weight is given to data with the least uncertainty. Under clean conditions, when there is a weak signal, this tends to give more weight to high values, which partly explain the high intercept values. In addition to the comparison with ground-based measurements, this paper has also provided a comparison of the IASI-derived VMR to vertically resolved CIMS measurements from the NOAA WP-3D airplane during the CalNex campaign in 2010. The main advantage of such a comparison lies in the fact that numerous airborne measurements are available within the satellite footprint, strongly reducing spatial representativity issues. Moreover, airborne measurements are performed at altitudes that are more in line with the sensitivity of infrared nadir sounders.
Acknowledgements. IASI has been developed and built under the responsibility of the " Centre national d'études spatiales " (CNES, France). It is flown on-board the Metop satellites as part of the EUMETSAT Polar System. The IASI L1 data are received through the EUMETCast near real-time data distribution service. The research in Belgium was funded by the  F. R. S. -FNRS , the  Belgian State Federal Office for Scientific, Technical and Cultural Affairs  (Prodex arrangement 4000111403 IASI. FLOW). M. Van Damme  is grateful to the " Fonds pour la formation à la recherche dans l'industrie et dans l'agriculture" of Belgium  for a PhD grant (Boursier FRIA). L. Clarisse and P. -F. Coheur are, respectively, research associate (chercheur qualifié) and senior research associate (maître de recherches) with  F.
R. S. -FNRS. C. Clerbaux  is grateful to  CNES for scientific collaboration  and financial support. We gratefully acknowledge support from the project " Effects of Climate Change on Air Pollution Impacts  and  Response Strategies for European Ecosystems" (ÉCLAIRE) , funded under the  EC 7th Framework Programme  (grant agreement no. 282910 ). Part of this research was supported by the  EC  under the 7th  Framework Programme , for the project "Partnership with China on Space Data (PANDA)". We also would like to thanks  S. Bauduin ,  J. Hadji-Lazaro  and  J. -L. Lacour  as well as R. van Oss,  H. Volten  and  D. Swart  for their helpful advice. Edited by:  M. Van Roozendael.
Tree species description The studied species are: Entandrophragma cylindricum Sprague (commonly known as Sapele), Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum. (Ayous) and Erythrophloeum ivorense A. Chev. (Tali). The Sapele (Family Meliaceae) is a widespread species, ranging longitudinally from Sierra Leone to Uganda, and latitudinally from DR Congo to Cabinda (Angola). It is a non-pioneer light-demanding species, with low growth rates under natural conditions, although it was indicated as exceptionally shade-tolerant after studies in DR Congo (PROTA Database, http://database. prota. org/). It is a deciduous tree up to 55-65 m tall, bole up to 200-280 cm in diameter, with low, blunt buttresses up to 2 m high, rarely up to 4 m. Natural regeneration is often scarce in natural forest, but logging operations creating gaps may promote its regeneration.
Entandrophragma cylindricum (E. cylindricum, hereafter) provides one of the commercially most important timbers of Africa in terms of quantities produced as well as wood quality. The Ayous (Family Sterculiaceae) is widely distributed in the West and Central African forests from Guinea east to the Central African Republic, and south to Gabon and DR Congo. It is a light-demanding pioneer species with high growth rates. It is a large deciduous tree up to 50 m tall, reaching 150-210 cm in diameter, with low to very high (up to 8 m) buttresses. Seedlings may be very abundant in large forest gaps, and this species is characteristic of secondary forests. Triplochiton scleroxylon (T. scleroxylon, hereafter) is the major timber tree of West and Central Africa; it is economically the most important timber species of Ghana and Cameroon, making up to 70% of the volume of timber products exported from Ghana and 35% from Cameroon (PROTA Database, http://database.
prota. org/). The Tali (Family Caesalpiniaceae) occurs from Gambia to the Central African Republic and Gabon. It is a non-pioneer light-demander tree up to 40 m tall. Seedlings are often found in smaller forest gaps. Erythrophleum ivorense (E. ivorense, hereafter) has recently gained importance as a timber tree, especially in Cameroon (PROTA Database, http://database. prota. org/).
Two radii per cross section were measured to the nearest 0. 01 mm using LINTAB measurement equipment (Frank Rinn, Heidelberg, Germany), coupled to a stereomicroscope and analyzed with TSAP software (Frank Rinn, Heidelberg, Germany). TSAP software first allowed the series to be visually cross-dated so as to identify missing rings, common marker years and ring width patterns  [47] ; and then raw ring width chronologies of each dated tree were statistically correlated, according to the Gleichläufigkeit (GLK-a measure of the year-to-year agreement between the interval trend of two chronologies based upon the sign of agreement) and the Crossdate Index (CDI) values. The program COFECHA  [48]  was run to validate the cross-dating and measurements, and to find potential errors. Once all measurement series had been validated, tree-ring chronologies were developed.
ARSTAN software  [49]  was used to standardize individual chronologies for each species. Sapele and Ayous ring-width series were detrended with a 50-year cubic smoothing spline function, the shorter Tali series with 20-years function. Each choice was made in order to limit the most of the autocorrelation and to emphasize higher inter-annual frequency variations. Cubic smoothing spline curves are efficient to remove non-climatic noise, such as long-term trends and effects of localized disturbance events that characterize natural forest dynamics; at the same time they can cause the removal of possible low-frequency climatic information  [50]. For each species, b-weight robust mean was used to develop a mean standardized chronology (STD). Several descriptive statistics commonly used in dendrochronology were used to compare species chronologies.
CO 2 and climate data The CO 2 records used for this study were derived from the ice cores obtained at Law Dome, East Antarctica, one of the sites with the highest rate of carbon accumulation (http://cdiac. ornl. gov/trends/co2/lawdome. html). Since Law Dome dataset does not allow us to detect the annual concentration, spline fitting  [53]  and interpolation for dataset extension to annual resolution of temperature anomalies and mean precipitation for the period 1800-2000 were derived from the Berkeley Tavg and the CRU TS 3. 10. 01 gridded datasets, respectively, with 1. 0°spatial resolution (reference grid 16-16. 1E, 2-2. 1N). Indeed, local weather stations can provide fragmented and non-homogenized data, which barely cover the twentieth century. The only dataset that extends the African climate record back to the nineteenth century is a semiquantitative rainfall pattern reconstruction, which combines recent data from more than 300 weather stations, with historical information such as lake level chronologies, landscape descriptions, archives and diaries with references to famine, drought and agriculture  [54, 55, 56, 57].
Data analyses The BAI of each species and CO 2 concentration data were summed and grouped into 50-year (for E. cylindricum and T. scleroxylon) or 20-year intervals (for E. ivorense) to allow a better comparison of trends on the long-term scale. Cumulative average basal area over 50-year intervals for E. cylindricum and T. scleroxylon and 20 for E. ivorense were used to assess the statistical significance of the measured growth rates. In details, i) individual radius measurements for each species were first averaged and their dispersion estimated using the error of the mean; ii) average basal area was estimated by average radii and their uncertainties; iii) cumulative average basal area was determined by summing the average basal area and propagating uncertainties; iv) the datasets produced were plotted against the average year in order to proceed to a linear weighted fitting statistical procedure; v) significance of the observed slope (i.
e. growth rate) was assessed by a t test. Fitting procedure was performed by the χ 2 method. Linear fitting parameters (i. e. slope and intercept) uncertainties were estimated by the applied procedure when observed χ 2 was in agreement with the number of degrees of freedom (DGF) of the analyzed system, while fitting procedure was handled to account for deviations of the data points from the linear model when observed χ 2 was statistically different from system DGF. Measured slopes were t-tested versus zero (i. e. no slope) by means of their uncertainties to assess their consistency. Multiple regression models and analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to identify significant correlations between BAI (dependent variable) and CO 2 , temperature, precipitation and their interaction (independent variables) from 1900 onward, when climate data started to be available and the CO 2 level increase rapidly.
Potential influence of sampling biases on growth trends The possible occurrence of sampling biases in the reconstruction of historical growth rate has been recently described  [42, 64, 65]  and the potential role of such biases needs to be considered in order to minimize the risk of erroneous conclusions  [42]. The big-tree selection bias is caused by sampling only the biggest trees in a population. As a result, slow-growing small trees are underrepresented in recent times as they did not reach the minimum sample diameter  [64]. The slow-grower survivorship bias is caused by differences in tree longevity of fast-and slowgrowing trees within a population. If fast-growing trees live shorter, they are underrepresented in the ancient portion of the tree ring data set. Both sample biases lead to spurious increases in historical growth rates.
Experimental Setup The experimental setup is composed of a 5-slot PXI chassis NI PXI-1033 with an integrated MXI-Express controller, involving an arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) NI PXI-5412 (14-bit resolution), a data acquisition system (DAQ) NI PXI-5105 (digital scope, 8 channels; 12-bit resolution), two DC generators NI PXI-4110, the LDV and the focused transducer to test. The LDV is the Polytec Scanning System PSV 300, and the output signal is acquired by the DAQ connected to the PSV 300 decoder (displacement output). The focused transducer is a Panametrics V303 with a center frequency of 1 MHz and a diameter of 13 mm. The DC generators were connected to the laser head mirrors, in order to allow the movement of the laser beam. Notice that the AWG and the DAQ used the same sampling clock (the controller clock, sampling frequency 20 MHz) with the aim of reducing the leakage errors.
To counter the first problem, at every point, we acquired simultaneously the signal sent to the transducer and the one measured by the LDV. This not only gave us the possibility to filter the data via the impulse response function (see Section 2. 2), but also to avoid any kind of triggering between the generator (NI-5412) and the acquisition device (NI-5105). Hence, the system became faster (approximately by a factor of two), without losing the phase information of the acquired waves. The second problem was solved adding a close-up unit to the laser scanning head in order to obtain a very focused beam. Another time-consuming operation is the averaging part, which is generally required if one wants to increase the SNR of the acquired signals. This time loss is mainly due to the communication between the instrumentation and the PC.
As a consequence, considering only this region could allow one the use of a plane wave model to describe the wave propagation. From Figures  4  and 5 , it is possible to obtain the main parameters describing the sound beam, already mentioned in the Introduction. The focal length F L , the focal zone F Z and the beam diameter at the focus point B D were calculated taking into account different zones of the wavefronts (the central points, points at the borders). The mean value of these distances appears in the third column of Table  1  followed by standard deviations given in parentheses. These results can be compared with the data sheet specification of the transducer and the theoretical values obtained with Equations (A1)-(A3) using D = 13 mm, f = 1 MHz and v M = 1500 m/s. As shown in Table  1 , the estimated sound beam parameters are almost the same as the reference values given by the probe data sheet and the analytical values obtained through Equations (A1)-(A3).
C 5 H 8 measurements Isoprene was measured using an on-board proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer containing a quadrupole detector (PTR-MS, Ionicon Analytik GmbH, Innsbruck, Aus- bons and oxygenated hydrocarbons with a typical cycle time of 3-5 s. Isoprene mixing ratios were determined using a dynamically-diluted calibrated gas standard (∼ 500 ppb in nitrogen, uncertainty ±5 %, Apel-Reimer, Boulder CO). For the purposes of this comparison we have applied a 15-point smoothing function to the high frequency data to give an approximately 1 min moving averaged mixing ratio. The mean limit of detection for isoprene under these conditions was 110 ppt. The overall measurement uncertainty is estimated to be ±15 %. Full instrumental, operational and calibration details are described in  Murphy et al.
(2013) 's flight track code. Note that we also output the concentrations of all chemical species simulated at the times and locations of the air parcel trajectories 7 days previously, based on the back-trajectory calculations mentioned in Sect. 2. 1. 1. These data are used to initialise the integrations with CiTTyCAT. Likewise, when modelling the composition of air downwind of Manaus, we provide UM-UKCA with an artificial "flight track" to output the concentrations of chemical species simulated at 6 hourly intervals (throughout September 2012) at a boundary layer site (61. 0 • W,.
3) from the Climatic Research Unit of the US National Centre for Atmospheric Research. These daily (24 h average) emissions are used at full spatial resolution (0. 5 • × 0. 5 • ) in the "High res" integrations with CiTTyCAT but, just as for the anthropogenic emissions, degraded to 3. 75 • × 2. 5 • for use in UM-UKCA and the CiTTyCAT integrations employing "UKCA res" emissions. We apply a diurnal cycle -the same in both models, based on the division of each 24 h period into 20 min intervals -to the emissions of C 5 H 8 but not HCHO, CH 3 C(O)CH 3 or CH 3 CHO. The NO 2 emissions from soils are taken from GEIA dataset, soilNOXmn1. 1a (Yienger and Levy, 1995). In view of the uncertainty in these, they are used in both models, in all integrations, at a resolution of 3. 75 • × 2. 5 •. Figure  2  illustrates the total "UKCA res" emissions of each species (anthropogenic + biogenic) on the 1 January and 1 July 2012.
Acknowledgements. This is paper number 9 from the Birmingham Institute of Forest Research, University of Birmingham. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Natural Environment Research Council via Grants NE/I012567/1 (CLAIRE-UK) and NE/J010073/1 (SAMBBA). We also thank: Ben Johnson (UK Met Office) for coordinating our access to the SAMBBA measurements; John Methven and Jeff Cole (University of Reading) for the use of ROTRAJ and considerable help in generating the necessary GRIBEX library; Tom Pugh (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) for his support in running CiTTyCAT and helpful discussions prior to this work; James Keeble, Maria Russo, Ines Heimann and Antara Banerjee (University of Cambridge) for their help with initial use of UM-UKCA and setting up the integrations therewith; Oliver Wild and Catherine Hardacre (Lancaster University) for informative discussions regarding the dry deposition of ozone to tropical forests; and the CLAIRE-UK team for their insights and constructive conversations throughout this work.
It is in this context that we take the opportunity, in the Lagrangian model, to explore the impact of emission resolution on our simulation of atmospheric chemistry and composition at low altitudes downwind of Manaus: we carry out otherwise identi- cal integrations employing anthropogenic emissions from Version 4. 2 of the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR; European Commission, 2009) at their full 0. 1 • × 0. 1 • resolution and degraded to the 3. 75 • × 2. 5 • grid used in UM-UKCA (in "climate mode").
Application to PcP-P traveltime differences Fig. 1 (a) shows raw velocity time-series for a deep earthquake in northern Chile observed in North America at stations with good quality signal selected from the IRIS database (Fig. 1b ). We can clearly distinguish the P wave and, about 30 and 40 s later, pP and sP. Much weaker, PcP is hard to observe owing to its low SNR and to interference with much stronger pP, sP and later arriving phases. We extract P (Fig. 1c ) and PcP (Fig. 1d ) from the raw data (Fig. 1a ) using the slant-stacklet transform with the configuration used in the examples shown in Paper I section 3 to filter raw data in slowness. In particular, in the analysis operation, a(x) is a uniform weighting function, ψ(t) is the complex Morlet wavelet and the aperture of the subarrays is 0.
Western Pacific In this example, we focus on the western border of the Pacific LLSVP, around 10 • N-160 • W, and also include available data west of this area. Fig. 7  shows the coverage of this region from 50 earth-quakes with depth larger than 100 km located along the north Indian plate border (Table  2 ). We obtained a total of 31 370 high-quality PcP observations recorded on short-period stations from Hi-net in Japan. We also excluded seven earthquakes with clear P signals but very subtle or undetectable PcP signals. To improve the illumination around the border of the LLSVP, we added seven shallower earthquakes. Figs 8(a) and (b) present local averages of vertical PcP-P traveltime differences and their standard deviation with respect to AK135 1-D model. Lateral variations of vertical traveltimes occur at the border of the LLSVP where the sampling is good and the standard deviation is relatively small, but more rapid and stronger variations are present in the western region (about 130 • E and 145 • E).
Acknowledgements. Funding by the  VOR research network (Tomo_FL project ) is acknowledged. We thank  T. Mede  for his preliminary work on the model and the scientists of  3SR Laboratory  and  ESRF ID19  beamline, where the 3-D images were obtained. We also thank the CEN staff, especially  F. Flin  and  B. Lesaffre , for the data acquisition. Irstea and CNRM-GAME/CEN are part of  Labex   OSUG@2020 (Investissements d'Avenir , grant agreement  ANR-10-LABX-0056 ). Irstea is member of  Labex   TEC21  ( Investissements d'Avenir , grant agreement  ANR-11-LABX-0030 ). We thank  M. Hopkins  and two anonymous reviewers for their The Cryosphere, 9, 1969-1982, 2015 www. the-cryosphere. net/9/1969/2015/.
1 ). This site, now isolated from the sea, is presently dominated by halophytic vegetation, including Sarcocornia pillansii (Chenopodiaceae), Frankenia pulverulenta (Frankeniaceae) and Cynodon dactylon (Poaceae) in subordinate amounts. Eight bulk sediment samples from KFN2010 were used to construct a radiocarbon chronology. AMS analyses were carried out at the University of Waikato radiocarbon dating laboratory and the 14 CHRONO Centre at Queen's University, Belfast (ESM Table  1 ). Measurements were carried out on the insoluble residue remaining after hot HCl treatment and hot NaOH washes. The final ages are based on percent modern carbon, the Libby half-life (5,568 yr) and isotopic fractionation correction. There is potential for marine contributions to the organic matter at this site  (Baxter and Meadows, 1999) , but given the dominantly terrestrial character of extracted biomarkers and an absence of concrete evidence for the proportion of marine organic matter contribution, radiocarbon age calibrations for KFN2010 used only the atmospheric curve data  (Hogg et al.
Acknowledgements This research was funded by the  Leverhulme Trust  (Grant  F/00 212/AF ). B. M. C. received additional support from the  European Research Council (ERC) , under the European Union's  Seventh Framework rogramme  ( F 7/ 007e 0  )/ ERC Starting Grant "HYRAX" (Grant  agreement no. 58657 ). We thank  Professor Judith Sealy  for helpful discussion and for providing some literature. Two anonymous reviewers are also thanked for very useful comments.
Overall, there is a clear distinction in the KFN2010 record between the early-middle Holocene and the late Holocene. During the late Holocene (4,000 cal yr BP to present), when the marine influence on Verlorenvlei was much reduced, the geochemical and chronological data support previous interpretations from palynological data in suggesting a period of increased water availability ca. 4,000-2,500 cal yr BP, though some drying of the site is inferred from the py-GC/MS data. This was followed by increasingly arid conditions 2,500-900 cal yr BP. More regular freshwater inundation is apparent within the last 700 years. Supporting evidence for these late Holocene trends is seen in the wider palaeoenvironmental record and these new data contribute to an increasingly coherent view of the Holocene environmental history of the Verlorenvlei system.
It was also chosen because only orographic rain was forecasted to occur on the southern slopes of the Massif Central, i. e. , precipitation forced by orography and not embedded in large-scale clusters such as those initiated along a cold front. Finally, the wealth of data on the vertical distribution of dust (from ground-based and airborne aerosol lidars and airborne microphysics probes) offers the great advantage of fully validating the Meso-NH simulations, in order to obtain a simulated dust radiative impact as realistic as possible. The outline of the paper is the following. Section 2 presents the SOP 1 data sets as well as the space-borne products available during IOP 14 that are used in this study. Section 3 describes the Meso-NH model as well as the twin simulations performed (one with prognostic dust and one without dust radiative effect).
Regional networks The 24 h of accumulated precipitation derived from rain gauge networks from France and Spain, processed homogeneously for the entire SOP 1 period, is utilized to pinpoint the location and assess the rainfall efficiency of orographic rain occurring during the IOP 14 in the CV area. Aerosol optical measurements derived from several photometers of the AERONET network (available from http: //aeronet. gsfc. nasa. gov/) have also been used for model validation purposes. In particular, we have used the data from the station in La Ciutadella in Menorca (see location in Fig. 1 ).