dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Introduction Virtual reality (VR) is considered as a modern approach that provides 3D visualization in geological sciences, geoinformation for data collection and dissemination  [1] [2] [3] , as well as an immersive user experience  [4, 5]. Nowadays, VR landscapes can also rely on open or ad hoc-created geospatial datasets (e. g. ,  [2] ), including digital terrain and photogrammetryderived 3D models  [6] , as well as bathymetric data  [4]. The latter are also provided in the form of virtual outcrops and virtual geosites, and are considered as a key strategy to overcome common difficulties among students, such as visualizing three-dimensional concepts on a two-dimensional medium (for instance, a book), or on an image-based virtual tour  [7] [8] [9]. A first attempt to apply VR techniques to studying geomorphological processes was made by Hilde et al.
Once their turn was announced, the participants were seated at the station equipped with a computer and the Oculus Rift (with headset and two controllers). In this phase, one of the staff members introduced the immersive virtual reality experience with a short tutorial to explain how to explore the VR environment, as well as providing some basic geological notions about the environment in which they would soon be immersed. During each event, after the experience, the participants were invited to fill in a Google Form questionnaire that was the same for each dissemination event. The latter was divided into three macro categories: (1) General information aimed at collecting anonymous data such as age and job title, and then general questions. Questions: (i) As a final point regarding the questionnaires, it was decided to propose a limited number of questions to the participants, focusing on acquiring a large number of replies, following a trade-off approach.
Feedback from the Users In this section we show the results acquired from 459 questionnaires from participants, aged 13-73. We focus both on the entire dataset of participants and on the following categories: (iii) middle and high school students (MHSS) (n = 104, age 13 ÷ 20); (iv) Lay public (LP) (not related to the previous categories, n = 176, age 19 ÷ 73) (Figure  6 ). It is worth noting that 10 out of 459 users are affected by a physical disability that would hinder the hiking or trekking needed to visit these geosites in real life. 6 ). It is worth noting that 10 out of 459 users are affected by a physical disability that would hinder the hiking or trekking needed to visit these geosites in real life.
Do You Usually Go Hiking/Trekking? Figure  8  shows the habits of the participants with respect to hiking/trekking: most users (72% of all participants) enjoyed the direct contact with nature and thus were used to going hiking or trekking. This percentage increased when considering both academics and MSc (84% in the first case and 83% in the latter). Finally, school students (59%) and lay public (68%) also reached quite high percentages. This was a fundamental question to compare replies from two different datasets of participants that were, or were not, addicted to field excursions, thus with different levels of expertise in landscape exploration.
Do You Usually Go Hiking/Trekking? Figure  8  shows the habits of the participants with respect to hiking/trekking: most users (72% of all participants) enjoyed the direct contact with nature and thus were used to going hiking or trekking. This percentage increased when considering both academics and MSc (84% in the first case and 83% in the latter). Finally, school students (59%) and lay public (68%) also reached quite high percentages. This was a fundamental question to compare replies from two different datasets of participants that were, or were not, addicted to field excursions, thus with different levels of expertise in landscape exploration. Figure  8  shows the habits of the participants with respect to hiking/trekking: most users (72% of all participants) enjoyed the direct contact with nature and thus were used to going hiking or trekking.
This percentage increased when considering both academics and MSc (84% in the first case and 83% in the latter). Finally, school students (59%) and lay public (68%) also reached quite high percentages. This was a fundamental question to compare replies from two different datasets of participants that were, or were not, addicted to field excursions, thus with different levels of expertise in landscape exploration. For most participants, as displayed in Figure  9 , the most popular navigation mode during immersive virtual reality exploration was the drone. This was clearly shown both by considering all participants (69%) and the single categories (for which the percentage ranged from 67% to 71%). Between the other two modes, the walk and flight ones, users mostly chose the walk mode (20-21%).
How Satisfied Are You with the Portrayal of the Virtual Landscape? The users' satisfaction on the portrayal of the immersive VR environments showed that most declared themselves to be moderately (49%) to very satisfied (38%) (Figure  10 ), with the academics as the most satisfied (47%), followed by the lay public and MSc. The data for school students showed the lowest satisfaction rate for rank 5, even though the majority responded 4 and 5.
Another key outcome of the survey is the respondents' major satisfaction with the portrayal of the environment, made possible by cutting-edge, unmanned aerial system (UAS)-based photogrammetry techniques. Importantly, 97% of the participants wished to repeat the experience. With regard to the geo-education potential of this technique, most participants ranked with high value (4-5) the experience (94%), reaching a percentage of 96% among academics in Earth Sciences. Therefore, this study confirms that both students and academics see VR as a useful tool for geo-education. Furthermore, our data shows the important role that immersive VR might have as a tool for: (i) popularizing Earth Sciences teaching and research by making geological key areas available to the public in terms of 3D models and scientific explanations of geological processes; (ii) including people affected by motor disabilities who would not have access to dangerous/remote areas (e.
Data Availability Statement: The dataset with the replies from the participants is available online at https://doi. org/10. 5281/zenodo. 5792209 (accessed on 26 November 2021). Acknowledgments: This research has been provided in the framework of the following projects: (i) the MIUR project ACPR15T4_00098-Argo3D (http://argo3d. unimib. it/ (accessed on 26 November 2021)); (ii) 3DTeLC Erasmus + Project 2017-1-UK01-KA203-036719 (http://www. 3dtelc. com (accessed on 26 November 2021)); (iii) EGU 2018 Public Engagement Grant (https://www. egu. eu/outreach/ peg/ (accessed on 26 November 2021)). Agisoft Metashape is acknowledged for photogrammetric data processing. This article is also an outcome of Project MIUR-Dipartimenti di Eccellenza 2018-2022. Finally, this paper is an outcome of the Virtual Reality lab for Earth Sciences-GeoVires lab (https://geovires.
The New Astrometric Reduction of Old Observations (NAROO) center can be found at the Paris Observatory in Meudon, and it is dedicated to the measurement of astrophotographic plates and the analysis of old observations. The NAROO digitizer consists of a granite-based Newport-Microcontrol open-frame air-bearing XY positioning table, a scientific sCMOS camera, and a telecentric optical system. The plate holder assembly is suited for mounting glass plates up to 350 mm squared. The machine positioning stability is better than 15 nm, and its repeatability is better than 40 nm. With real photographic plate data, we were able to produce measurements with an accuracy better than 65 nm. The renewed interest about photographic plates concerns the expansion of the database of transient objects evolving in time, since digitization now makes it possible to measure images with a high level of accuracy and to identify all the available objects.
It can digitize photographic plates up to 350 mm squared on glass plates, and is able to process all known transparent photographic plate material automatically. Almost all kinds of celestial bodies have been observed with photographic plates since 1890: natural satellites, planets, Solar System small bodies, stars, galaxies, and nebula. Renewed interest about such materials concerns the broadening of transient object databases, which evolve with time, since digitization now makes it possible to measure images with a high level of accuracy and to identify all the available objects. The information extracted from such materials can be of astrometric, photometric and spectroscopic nature, when not purely imaging, with consequences in planetology, near-Earth asteroids risk assessment, astrophysical phenomena, and general relativity, to mention but a few.
There are no offset constant terms since the zero point of the transformation is arbitrary. We developed a new program based on the MovingDot software  (Winter 2008)  for the alignment of the sCMOS camera with the axes of the XY-table, and for the calculation of a correct mapping model. After centering a star dot in the camera's field of view, we moved the XY-table by steps of 0. 65 mm (theoretically 100 pixels) on both X and Y axes, to compose a virtual dot calibration plate of the same object, resulting in the analysis of 525 images for the complete working area given by the sCMOS chip. We fitted the aimed star dot positions from each individual image and generated a table with the (x i , y i ) star positions as functions of the (X i , Y i ) table positions. We then determined the seven parameters of Eq.
Thanks to the NAROO facility, very old photographic plates of the planets of the Solar System, including their main and outer moons will be digitized and astrometrically reduced. With regard to planets, this is particularly relevant for Uranus and Neptune, which did not benefit much from spacecraft radioscience data. In the case of natural satellites, the much faster motions make the reprocessing of old photographic plates useful, despite the sometimes large amount of space data available. Moreover, the reprocessing of old photographic plates can sometimes even provide astrometric accuracy comparable to the one derived from space missions themselves  (Robert et al. 2015). Of as much importance will be the implication of NAROO machine to more theoretical studies. Thanks to its high accuracy and the availability of very old photographic plates, the NAROO project will tackle several important questions.
Asteroids As for planets and satellites, dynamics of small Solar System bodies (SSSBs) can benefit from long-term astrometry provided by the NAROO machine. Among the SSSBs, around 1 million asteroids and 4400 comets have been discovered so far. SSSBs can appear in many plates, even if they were not the purpose of the original observation. Knowing the metadata of the plates, that is, the exact time of the exposure, the coordinates of the center of the plate, and the size of the field of view, the objects that could "appear" on the plate can be identified with Sky-BoT  (Berthier et al. 2006). Although, SkyBoT is built to seek and identify of Solar System objects in astronomical images. It allows us to identify objects in a cone with a given radius pointing, in a given direction, and on a given date.
Some plates also refer to observations that are archived at the Minor Planet Center (MPC). Even if this astrometry is available to the community, a remeasurement of the original plate remains entirely interesting for two reasons. First, the archived data have no uncertainty on the positions (except for recent years, when submissions with a revised format was permitted). The uncertainty, putting a weight on each observation, is still a fundamental quantity to orbital fitting. Second, the astrometry calibrated in the past has considerable patterns of systematic errors due to the catalogs used. Today, a re-reduction using Gaia reference stars can completely eliminate this issue, which is usually one of the most severe limitations of the orbit improvement process. As an example, we analyzed the database of 3600 Schmidt plates made at the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur (OCA) between 1978 and 1996.
These are large plates enabling us to observe a large field of view of the sky, and they were realized with long exposure times. Hence, objects with a maximum magnitude up to 20-21 could be measured on these plates, and a large number of SSSBs may have been recorded on these plates. Because of the large number of objects up to an apparent magnitude of 20, we focused on potentially hazardous asteroids 2 (PHAs), and with SkyBoT 166 we identified PHAs with an apparent magnitude below 20 on 284 OCA plates among the 3600 of the database. Approximately 90% of identified PHAs have prediscovery observations among these old observations that have never been measured and used for orbit determination. To estimate the improvement in the precision of the ephemeris by reducing old photographic plates with the NAROO digitizer, we made simulations with the PHA 2015 OL35 identified in the OCA database.
It was discovered on 2015-07-23, and its observational period goes from 2015-07-23 to 2020-04-28, according to the MPC (as of 2021-01-28). In the OCA database, we identified three potential prediscoveries for 2015 OL35 in 1995, which is 20 years before the observational period. Simulations were made using the numerical integration of the motion of an asteroid (NIMA) method developed by  Desmars (2015) , and allowing orbit determination and estimation of the ephemeris precision. We have tested various cases representing various levels of precision we expected after a reduction by the NAROO machine and Gaia references. Figure  11  shows the estimated precision in equatorial coordinates of the 2015 OL35 orbit, using the current set of available astrometric positions on MPC and assuming that the three additional prediscovery observations are reduced with an astrometric precision of 200 mas and 50 mas, respectively.
The addition of the three observations shows, as expected, a significant improvement in the orbit precision, not only on the past but over all the considered period (1900-2100). Other simulations with other PHAs detected on the database show similar results. These simulations reveal that only few observations of old photographic plates that could be measured with the NAROO machine are enough to significantly improve the orbit precision. Moreover, having a better astrometric measurement over a long period of time will ensure better estimations of impact probabilities.
Solar physics The Paris Observatory owns about 100 000 photographic plates of the Sun, mostly observed in Hα, Ca II K center line wavelength, and continuum (near Ca II K line). These observations were made from 1870 to 1999 with photographic plates, while new observations are still being realized today using digital recording, with a recent update in 2018  (Malherbe & Dalmasse 2019). For most of the time, the plates were homemade, and we lack information on their coating. Making photometric estimation with such materials would be expensive and challenging. However, the French solar database BASS2000 3  contains a heliophysics feature catalog 4  , which is a database of solar and heliophysic features obtained from automatic detections with various kinds of observations realized in the frame of the HELIO European project  (Bentley et al.
Indeed, outbursts occur over a time frame of a few months to several decades. To this aim, the BeSS database 5  was set up  (Neiner et al. 2011). It includes a catalog of the brightest ∼2300 Be stars known, together with available spectra obtained by both professional and amateur astronomers  (Neiner 2018). At the time of writing, this includes ∼245 000 spectra, all of which were collected on charge coupled device cameras (CCDs) from the end of the 1980s onwards. To increase the time frame of the observations, it is necessary to include older spectra obtained on glass plates. The Paris Observatory hosts a collection of such observations of Be stars on plates, obtained at the Haute-Provence Observatory  (OHP 193, 152, and 120 cm) , the European Southern Observatory (ESO 152 cm), and San Pedro Mártir Observatory in Mexico, from the 1960s to the 1980s.
This collection is estimated to have ∼30 000 plates, including calibration plates. The NAROO machine will allow us to digitize the plates and retrieve the spectra. Calibration plates or calibration spectra recorded on the science plates will allow us to convert the density recorded on the science plate into the stellar spectral intensity. In addition, a part of the plates exposed with a calibration lamp will be used to perform the wavelength calibration. Metadata, such as the date and time of observations, are available on paper logs and have already been digitized. Final spectra will be saved in FITS format and added to the BeSS database to contribute to the study of long-term variations (in particular outbursts) of Be stars. Since the BeSS database is open to anyone, the spectra will be available to any researcher wishing to use them.
General relativity: Physics tests The Solar System is a laboratory for testing the laws of gravitation and many of the most important tests of general relativity have been made using Solar System bodies: advance of Mercury perihelion, deflection of light near the Sun, the motion of the Earth-Moon System, etc. Studying the dynamics of Solar System bodies requires astrometric observations of very good accuracy and over a long time span, in order to be able to quantify long period and secular terms, the latter being the signature of relativistic precessions. From this point of view, the contribution of Gaia data is fundamental to build orbits very precisely; however, these data are valid for a nominal period of five years, or even longer in the case of a mission extension. That said, building orbits over several decades is essential to perform quality relativity tests.
As demonstrated in  Hees et al. (2018) , this approach combined with Gaia and NAROO data will lead to a significant improvement in the determination of the β parameter. The fifth force formalism first emerged as a reinterpretation of Eotvos' experiment in late 1980s  (Fischbach et al. 1986 ) and since is considered as a potential candidate to explain dark energy as a quintessence field  (Cicoli et al. 2012). This formalism considers deviations from Newtonian gravity in which the gravitational potential is modified by a Yukawa term, characterized by two parameters: the length and the strength of the interaction. The use of NAROO data on asteroids can help to improve the current constraints above one astronomical unit. Standard model extension framework has been developed to systematically search for a breaking of Lorentz symmetry in all sectors of physics  (Colladay & Kostelecký 1998).
At lowest order, in its gravitational sector, SME parameterizes a breaking of Lorentz invariance by a symmetric traceless tensor  (Bailey & Kostelecký 2006). These coefficients have been constrained by various observations, including very long baseline interferometry  (Le Poncin-Lafitte et al. 2016) , lunar laser ranging  (Bourgoin et al. 2016 (Bourgoin et al. , 2017)) , and binary pulsars  (Shao 2014 ) (for a complete review, see  Hees et al. 2016 ). Nevertheless, it is still impossible to decorrelate all the SME coefficients satisfactorily. The big advantage of asteroid observations comes from the huge number of observed objects and from the variety of their orbital parameters, which allow us to decorrelate these coefficients by using NAROO data to enlarge the dynamical time span.
Plate collections of the Paris Observatory and other French and international institutions are being digitized to provide data spanning more than one century for our works. Corresponding results will be presented in upcoming papers. Digitized raw data will also be available for the community. Furthermore, the NAROO machine is available for researchers to digitize their own collections for scientific purposes, since digitization time is reserved for external users. A call for proposals will be issued every six months via our project 8 https://www. iau. org/static/resolutions/IAU2018_ ResolB3_English. pdf website 9. The projects received will be evaluated and ranked by a dedicated panel. The very first digitization call will be published in May 2021. From this date to the end of 2022, there will be no call for large programs since we intend to allow as many researchers as possible to estimate the value of their collection with "small" sets limited to 200 plates.
Acknowledgements. The NAROO program was supported by the  DIM-ACAV of Ile-de-France region, PSL Research University , the  Programme National GRAM  and the  Programme National de Planétologie (PNP)  of  CNRS/INSU  with  INP  and  IN2P3 , co-funded by  CNES. The authors are grateful to the  Archive and Heritage Commission of LESIA. The Pulkovo astronegatives program was funded by  RFBR  according to the research projects No  19-02-00843  A, and partially supported by the  Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russian Federation  under the contract  075-15-2020-780.
e present DILS, an online statistical analysis platform for conducting demographic inferences with linked selection from population genomic data using an Approximate Bayesian Computation framework. DILS takes as input single-population or two-population datasets and performs three types of analyses in a hierarchical manner, identifying: 1) the best demographic model to study the importance of gene flow and population size change on the genetic patterns of polymorphism and divergence, 2) the best genomic model to determine whether the effective size N e and migration rate N. m are heterogeneously distributed along the genome and 3) loci in genomic regions most associated with barriers to gene flow. Available via a web interface, an objective of DILS is to facilitate collaborative research in speciation genomics.
Comparisons of demographic and genomic models In this section, we present DILS performance to compare demo-genomic models involving one (section 2. 1. 1) or two (section 2. 1. 2) populations. These evaluations were performed by analyzing pseudo-observed datasets simulated under specified models, in order to assess the efficacy of our approach to correctly support the true model. In both analyses, a given demographic model corresponds to the set of all its genomic submodels. All model comparisons are performed using random forest algorithms  (Pudlo et al. , 2015; Fraimout et al. , 2017).
Single population models For studies where a single population is sampled, three demographic models are compared describing either i) a Constant population size N e current , ii) recent demographic Expansion or iii) Contraction. Demographic changes are assumed to be instantaneous, with a transition from N e past to N e current occurring T dem generations ago (figure  1-A ). For a given dataset, we first estimate the best-fitting demographic model among those depicted in figure  1  by carrying out 10, 000 simulations under each genomic alternative sub-model (homogeneous versus heterogeneous Ne). These simulations produce reference tables, i. e. , a set of simulated summary statistics used to train a random forest algorithm to predict which of the proposed models best explains observed data.