dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Une première base, Database and Encyclopedia, fournit des renseignements sur l'histoire des Académies, sur leurs étudiants et sur leurs enseignants, sur le mode de financement et sur les matières enseignées, avec références aux sources primaires correspondantes. Pour l'instant  8  , elle recense environ 215 Académies, 1 347 enseignants, 9 026 étudiants (on peut raisonnablement s'attendre à en trouver environ 10 000 lorsque le projet sera terminé) et 4 380 documents d'archives. Il convient de garder à l'esprit que les données chiffrées citées ici reflètent l'état d'une base encore incomplète, mais l'on peut espérer qu'elles indiquent utilement un ordre de grandeur des phénomènes étudiés  9.
Une « galaxie » d'établissements vulnérables Ce que souligne entre autres cette base de données, c'est la fragilité d'institutions dont la durée de vie était souvent limitée et, par voie de conséquence, l'extrême complexité de leur histoire, qui rend très délicate toute généralisation au sujet de ce qu'un historien de la question appelle une « galaxie » 10 d'établissements. Souvent, en effet, surtout au début de la période étudiée et, en particulier, avant la loi de 1689 sur la tolérance, l'organisation de l'Académie reposait sur les épaules d'un seul homme, qui en était tout à la fois l'unique enseignant, l'intendant et le directeur. S'il venait à partir ou à mourir, il n'était pas rare que sa succession entraînât une délocalisation de l'établissement. Au reste, le harcèlement dû à l'application des lois pénales contraignit certaines institutions à de nombreux déplacements.
Conformistes10 Toutes ces précautions n'empêchèrent pas certains de quitter le giron de l'orthodoxie dissidente. La base de données D&E recense 178 anciens étudiants ainsi que 16 enseignants qui choisirent de se conformer à l'Église établie 31 , soit un peu moins que 2 % de l'effectif total. Cela ne représente sans doute qu'une partie de cette population. Pour ne prendre qu'un exemple, la liste d'anciens étudiants devenus conformistes ne comporte pas le nomdeWilliam Bilby (1664-1738), dont le cas ne manque pourtant pas d'intérêt. Après avoir quitté l'Académie de John Billingsley à Mansfield, dans le Northamptonshire, Bilby utilisa l'argent dont il avait hérité à la mort de sa mère pour aller poursuivre ses études à Queen's College, Cambridge. Même s'il n'était pas interdit stricto sensu aux non-conformistes d'y suivre des cours, le jeune homme redouta tout d'abord de trouver à l'université une atmosphère délétère : 'I had some fears of going to such a dangr s place : but my thirst of learning was insatiable' 32.
La soif de connaissances l'avait ainsi entraîné dans une démarche qui resta extrêmement minoritaire tout au long de la période étudiée. La base de données permet en effet d'identifier le très petit nombre d'anciens étudiants des Académies qui décidèrent de parfaire leur éducation dans l'une des deux anciennes universités anglaises entre 1662 et 1826 : moins d'une vingtaine à Oxford 33 , et une quarantaine à Cambridge 34. Bilby se trouva vite en butte aux sarcasmes de condisciples « athées » 35 qui ne partageaient pas son goût pour la théologie. Son professeur s'efforça de lui démontrer le bien-fondé des positions anglicanes : 'He seeing me puritanically inclined lent me sev ll Cases to ground me in Conformity & would sometimes cast out bitt r reflections ag t ye N. C. wch I heard to my sorr w ' 36.
' 40 Après avoir un instant espéré retrouver un emploi où, malgré son calvinisme modéré (comparable à celui de Richard Baxter), il pourrait se sentir à l'aise dans l'Église établie 41 , Bilby rejoignit bientôt les rangs des non-conformistes dont, malgré les apparences, il ne s'était jamais complètement éloigné. Il en parle comme d'une libération : 'I cast off ye fett rs of Conformity' 42. De 1694 à 1722, il exerça un ministère pastoral auprès de diverses communautés dissidentes du Lincolnshire et du Leicestershire 43. 11 Dans la mesure où le conformisme ne représenta qu'un bref interlude dans la carrière de Bilby, il est assez logique de ne pas le ranger parmi les anciens étudiants d'Académies dissidentes ayant choisi de se conformer définitivement à l'anglicanisme. La base de données D&E se contente donc de le classer parmi la petite minorité qui entra dans les ordres anglicans 44.
Sans nul doute le plus célèbre d'entre eux est Joseph Butler (1692-1752), qui termina sa carrière comme évêque de Durham 45. Son oeuvre majeure, The Analogy of Religion, publiée en 1736 46 , figurait encore au dix-neuvième siècle sur les étagères d'Académies dissidentes de diverses obédiences, comme en atteste le Virtual Library System ( VLS) 47 , deuxième base de données de l'ensemble Dissenting Academies Online. L'ouvrage se trouvait au collège baptiste de Bristol, où il fut emprunté une fois en 1859 48. Dans le bastion de l'orthodoxie calviniste que représentait l'Académie de Homerton 49 , le registre d'emprunts fait état d'au moins 38 lectures du volume entre 1815 et 1838 50. Chez les « libéraux » de Manchester, on note non seulement 14 emprunts individuels, mais surtout 8 usages collectifs du livre pour le cours d'apologétique 51.
Il s'agit essentiellement de trois grandes familles religieuses anglaises : les presbytériens, les indépendants -que l'on peut également dire congrégationalistes -et les baptistes. 2. Dans le contexte spécifique de l'Écosse après 1688-1689, dont il sera peu question ici, rien n'empêchait les dissidents anglais d'aller faire leurs études en Écosse. 3. N'ayant pas de ministère pastoral, les quakers furent évidemment peu concernés par cette question. On ne trouve que huit étudiants quakers dans la base de données mentionnée cidessous.
Il s'agit essentiellement de trois grandes familles religieuses anglaises : les presbytériens, les indépendants -que l'on peut également dire congrégationalistes -et les baptistes. 2. Dans le contexte spécifique de l'Écosse après 1688-1689, dont il sera peu question ici, rien n'empêchait les dissidents anglais d'aller faire leurs études en Écosse. 3. N'ayant pas de ministère pastoral, les quakers furent évidemment peu concernés par cette question. On ne trouve que huit étudiants quakers dans la base de données mentionnée cidessous. NOTES1.
5 are generally visible in DSS (e. g. ,  Fassbender et al. 2011). We thus also used DSS images to select high-z clusters. Half the targets, labelled PHZ (potentially at high z) in Table  1 , have no visible counterpart in DSS red plates. These are obviously riskier candidates, particularly those with low N det or Q SZ. As previous validation observations have shown, the association of a SZ candidate with a RASS FSC or BSC source is not in itself sufficient to confirm the candidate, as chance association with a point source is always a possibility. Conversely, a candidate with no counterpart in the RASS catalogue may well be a bona fide cluster. With this campaign, in combination with the previous observations, we also aim to address the use of RASS data as an indicator of candidate reliability.
XMM-Newton observations and data analysis Candidates were observed between 31 July 2011 and 13 October 2011. The observation identification number and observation setup are given in Table  1. Due to a slew failure in the satellite revolution 2132, the PLCK G208. 6-74. 4 observation was incomplete, with an EPN exposure time of 3. 4 ks. The target was observed initially at the end of its summer visibility window, and could only be reobserved five months later. It was replaced with an additional visible candidate, PLCK G329. 5-22. 7. Calibrated event lists were produced with v11. 0 of XMM-SAS. Data that were affected by periods of high background due to soft proton flares were omitted from the analysis  (Pratt et al. 2007) ; clean observing time after flare removal is given in Table  1. The status of each SZ candidate is also given in Table  1 : 12 of the 15 candidates are confirmed to be real clusters, among which two are double systems.
XMM-Newton images of unconfirmed candidates are shown in Fig. 1 ; confirmed candidates are shown in Fig. 2. We derived redshifts and physical parameters of the confirmed candidates as described in Planck Collaboration VIII (2011); Planck Collaboration I (2012). Cleaned XMM-Newton data were pattern-selected. Each photon was then assigned a weight equivalent to the ratio of the effective area at the photon energy and position to the central effective area, computed with SAS task evigweight. Images and spectra were extracted using this weight, assuring full vignetting correction (see  Arnaud et al. 2001). Bright point sources were excised from the data and the background was handled as described in  Pratt et al. (2010). The particle-induced background (PB) was estimated using a stacked event list built from observations obtained with the filter wheel in closed position.
4-68. 3 revealed two extended sources at 9. ′ 9 and 11. ′ 8 from the SZ position. The former corresponds to a RASS-FSC source. Both sources are too far away to be the X-ray counterpart of the Planck candidate. A RASS-FSC source is located at 5. ′ 2 from the SZ position and likely contributes to the S/N = 1. 7 signal derived from RASS data at the Planck source location. However, the comparison of its surface brightness profile with the XMM-Newton PSF shows that it is consistent with a point source. We thus conclude that PLCK G196. 4-68. 3 is a false detection. Name RAX DecX zFe Qz R θdet R500 TX Mgas,500 YX Y500 M500 L500,[0. 1-2. 4] [h:m:s] [d:m:s] [cts s -1 ] [ ′ ] [kpc] [keV] [ PLCK G310. 5+27. 1 was also classified as PHZ. Two extended X-ray sources were detected at 10. ′ 5 and 2. ′ 5 from the SZ position, respectively.
5 ). The XMM-Newton observation revealed that PLCK G193. 3-46. 1 is a double peaked cluster, i. e. , a dynamically perturbed cluster with an ICM distribution consistent with the galaxy morphology. In view of the XMM-Newton image, the galaxy concentration at the location of PLCK G210. 6+20. 4 is likely a filamentary structure where only the part around the BCG is virialised and contains gas that is hot enough to emit in X-rays. This would also explain the large offset between the BCG position and the galaxy concentration barycentre, which is much larger than in the case of PLCK G193. 3-46. 1. These two cases illustrate the difficulty of distinguishing between massive clusters and pre-virialised structures with rather shallow SDSS data at high z. Beyond luminosity and mass estimates, important diagnostics include the offset between the SZ, BCG, and barycentre, as well as the galaxy distribution morphology, if available, and other ancillary data, such as significant RASS emission.
ments and contributions directly funded by  ESA Member States  and the  USA (NASA). This research has made use of the following databases: SIMBAD, operated at the  CDS, Strasbourg, France ; the NED database, which is operated by the  Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology , under contract with the  National Aeronautics and Space Administration ; BAX, which is operated by IRAP, under contract with the  Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) ; and the SZ repository operated by  IAS Data and Operation centre (IDOC)  under contract with CNES. Based on photographic data obtained using The  UK Schmidt Telescope. We further used observations made with the  Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG)  operated on the island of  La Palma  by the  Fundación Galileo Galilei of the INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica ) at the  Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias (Science Program   ID AOT24/11-A24DDT3 ), on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated on the island of  La Palma jointly by Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway , and Sweden, in the  Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias (Science Program ID  , observations obtained at the  Gemini Observatory , which is operated by the  Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc.
We then used genetic markers and ecological data to estimate patterns of gene flow and behaviour. We were able to demonstrate that populations were structured with limited gene flow despite observing migration. We found that Ae. albopictus preferred urban areas for mating and to lay their eggs because of the availability of hosts and permanent containers that favoured higher mosquito densities. We also show, however, that natural environments are reservoirs for recolonisation of urban areas. AealbB51, AealbA9, AealbB6, AealbD2, AealbF3, alb212, 34-72, AEDC, alb222 (Table  2 ). These markers were selected for polymorphism, size, and low numbers of null alleles. Two were from the newly developed set, eight were from Ae. albopictus (6) and Ae. aegypti (2) literature (Table  2 ). A total of 342 adults were genotyped with these markers (Table  3 ).
Microsatellite sequences, accession numbers, repeat motives, size ranges and references. amongst populations, the Dirichlet parameter for degree of admixture (a) was separately determined for each population  [31]. The number of population clusters was determined according to Evanno et al. [33]. The ad hoc DK statistic was calculated for K ranging from 1 to 10. Structure was run for 10 million generations (burn-in = 100,000 generations) with 10 iterations for each value of K. To use structure, HWE and linkage equilibrium are assumed for each group. Both hypotheses were tested a posteriori on each cluster.
Statistical Analysis A mixed-data factor analysis was carried out on our datasets containing a combination of continuous and ordinal variables. The resulting components were used in regression models and tested with an ANOVA. A step-by-step analysis was done with all the different factors, removing the less significant factor at each step. At each step, we compared the tested model and the previous model until a significant difference appears between the two models. The final retained model was the model before this significant difference appears. We used a model with multivariate normal random effects, using Penalized Quasi-Likelihood. This general linear model is used to fit generalized linear models, specified by giving a symbolic description of the linear predictor and a description of the error distribution.
Specifically, the GLMM is assumed to be of the form g(m) = Xb+Ze where g is the link function, m is the vector of means and X, Z are design matrices for the fixed effects b and random effects e respectively. Furthermore the random effects are assumed to be i. i. d. N(0, s2). The 14 studied factors are the width, depth, volume, class and type of the breeding site, type of habitat, the location, organic matter, effect of the sun, the season, the year and the presence of Anopheles and Culex and the type of water quality. The year was considered as a randomised factor. The models and the ANOVA were carried out on a dataset from 728 immature production sites. All statistical analyses of this part were performed with R software. Parity analysis. Differences in the proportion of parous females among different habitats (urban/gully), seasons (winter/ summer), and location (east/west) was tested by Chi-square.
The influence of the location, the habitat and the seasonal factors on the number of filled spermathecae was tested with an ANOVA. For location on the number differences in the number of filled spermathecae (0, 1, 2 or 3 filled spermatheacae) was tested by Chisquare. The effect of habitat on the distribution of Ae. albopictus in the different population clusters was tested using a Chi-square test. The differences between the habitats related to each cluster determined with the microsatellites analyses were tested with Tukey tests. All statistical analyses of this part were carried out using JMP 8. 0 software. Daily survival rate. The daily survival rate (p) was calculated using the parity rate (M) and the time of the first gonotrophic cycle (i0) using the formula p = M ' (1/i0)  [34, 35]. The length of the gonotrophic cycle has been estimated with the results obtained with the same Aedes albopictus population in a study carried out by Delatte et al.
Ecological Structuring of Aedes albopictus Populations The two clusters (plus a hybrid population) were assigned using Structure software, following the microsatellite analysis (see above). The 331 individuals analysed and assigned to one of the populations were studied in relation to their location (east/west),  The daily survival rate (p) was calculated using the parous rate (M) and the time of the first gonotrophic cycle (i0) with the formula p = M ' (1/i0). doi:10. 1371/journal. pntd. 0002111. t005 the season when they were sampled (summer/winter), their habitat (gully/urban) and the nature of the immature production sites (natural/artificial) (Table  5 , 7, Figure  S2 ). When the dataset was partitioned into the two locations sampled (east/west), we observed significant differences in the genetic distribution of these clusters according to their habitat (Figure  3 ).
Acknowledgments We would like to express great thanks to the team from  Reunion Island ARS , especially  Jean-Sebastien Dehecq ,  Abdulh Rute  ´e and  Samuel Huet  for their invaluable help with field surveys. A great thanks to the biostatistician, Aurelie Thebault, who helped us to validate and/or correct the statistical analyses. We would also like to thank the anonymous referees and give a special thanks to the associate editor  Amy C Morrison  who gave many valuable suggestions which greatly helped improving this present manuscript.
This work was partly funded by  IRD ,  CIRAD  and  ANR SEST's Entomochik project. The  IRD Sterile Insect Technique Project  was financially supported by the  French Ministry of Health  and the  FEDER  Convergence Reunion 2007-2013 programme. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
The fermentation kinetics of parental strains and of several segregants are shown in Figure  1. Population size and metabolite quantities were determined at the end of the fermentation. We first checked that phenotypes affected by ABZ1 allele, such as Rmax, were corrected by the addition of PABA and independent of the allelic form (data not shown). Most of the phenotypes had a high heritability (80% to 97%), indicating that genetic variations had a major impact on overall variations. The dry weight was the only phenotype displaying a low heritability (>50%) and was disregarded. R70 values followed a bimodal distribution, suggesting that the phenotype is mainly controlled by one locus. The other phenotypes, such as Rmax and the amounts of metabolites followed continuous distributions, indicating a probable polygenic control (Additional file 1).
Clustering analysis revealed a partial disomy of chromosome 16 affecting genes expression A clustering analysis of the whole gene expression dataset revealed significant associations (Pearson correlation coefficient ≥ 0,84) for 887 genes (Additional file 2). Most of the gene clusters obtained were enriched in functional classes, such as mating, mitochondrial translation, ribosomal proteins, ergosterol synthesis and sulfur assimilation consistent with the known coordination of expression of these genes. Some clusters also corresponded to genes correlated with phenotypes (R70, Rmax). Other clusters included physically associated genes (ASP cluster, regions A B and C  [13] , telomeric genes). We identified a cluster of 37 genes displaying a higher expression in 13 segregants. These genes were physically linked and all were located in the first 373 kbp at the start of chromosome 16 (Additional file 2, cluster "chr16 left-arm genes").
Phenotypic and expression QTL linkages We generated a new high-density genetic map (1. 81 markers/10 kbp Additional file 3) from the Affymetrix S98 microarrays genotyping data for the 44 segregants. Linkage analysis was performed by the interval mapping method, for QTLs and eQTLs. Three phenotypic QTLs were identified with a false discovery rate (FDR) threshold of 0. 05: one QTL explaining flocculation on chromosome 1 encompassing FLO1, another explaining clumpiness and encompassing AMN1 and a third, explaining fermentation rate (R70), on the left arm of the chromosome 16 (140 kbp), overlapping with the duplicated region and clearly triggered by the partial disomy. Limiting the population to the 31 segregants with no partial duplication of chromosome 16 eliminated the detection of the R70 QTL on chromosome 16.
Several eQTLs associated variations in the expression of these transporters with variations of zinc-finger transcription factor genes: HAP1, PDR8, YRR1 and WAR1. The TPO1 gene, which displays a cis-eQTL, has three SNPs in its promoter area and three non synonymous SNPs in its coding sequence. The S288c allele of TPO1 is more strongly expressed than the wine yeast allele. As TPO1 is involved in octanoic acid resistance  [3] , we investigated the effect of variations of TPO1 expression on octanoic acid resistance. We measured population growth in the synthetic must medium (pH3. 3) supplemented with octanoic acid (0. 2 mM). Octanoic acid resistance dependent principally on the TPO1 allele (t-test Pv<0. 005, Figure  7 ) but was also weakly correlated with TPO1 expression level (data not shown).
cerevisiae strains including 69 wine strains. We used their data to search for a partial trisomy (for diploid strains) of the left arm of chromosome 16. We detected such partial trisomy in the wine yeast strain NT45. Moreover, in their characterization of the S. cerevisiae/S. kudriavzevii triploid hybrid EG8, Erny et al. [49]  detected a major amplification (four copies) of the left arm of the S. cerevisiae chromosome 16. The diploid S. cerevisiae strain EG25, which is genetically related to the S. cerevisiae moiety of the EG8 genome (with no S. kudriavzevii DNA), also displays trisomy of this region (Legras JL, personal communication). We determined the form of the chromosomes 16 and 8 (normal or translocated) present, by PCR for these  three strains (Figure  10 ). The NT45 and EG25 strains carry three chromosomes 16 left arms, originating from two normal chromosomes 16 and one copy of chromosome 8 carrying the translocation from chromosome 16.
The hybrid aneuploid strain EG8 carries four left arms of chromosome 16: one from a normal chromosome 16 and three from the three chromosomes 8, all carrying the translocation. This findings confirm that amplification of the left arm of chromosome 16 occurs in wild/industrial strains. The situation described here suggests a spectacular evolutionary event occurring in two independent steps: a translocation selected due to its effect on sulfite resistance followed by amplification of the chromosomal region concerned, improving fermentation properties. We evaluated the contribution of the disomy effect to eQTL linkage, by modifying the input dataset. We found that a large set of new eQTLs had been masked by the effect of this disomic. Most of these eQTLs (113) formed 2 hotspots on chromosome 2.
Regulatory network variations involved in wine fermentation In this study, we investigated, for the first time, the expression profiles of the genes present in the three regions introgressed into EC1118 by horizontal transfer  [13]. As we worked with a second parental strain devoid of these three regions, we could not identify real eQTLs for these genes. We searched for links, using the populations of segregant possessing each region (half of segregants). On chromosome 6, at 145kpb, an eQTL was identified that trigger the expression of the two genes encoding polypeptide transporters (FOT) describes by Damon et al. [41]. The new fructose transporter gene, FSY1,  [58]  also had an eQTL on chromosome 13, at 446 kbp (data not shown). No clear candidate gene was identified in these loci, but our findings could lead to revealing the role of these new genes in fermentation.