dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
For each text, a draft and a final version were asked from the participants in compliance with teachers' usual requirements. Only the draft versions have been used for the current study. A rapid exploration of the final versions reveals that they bear very peculiar patterns of pause distribution, probably corresponding to the copying of information from the draft. The corpus for this study is composed of 278 drafts (90 texts from 10-to 11-year-olds; 94 texts from 12-to 13-year-olds and 94 texts from 14-to 15-year-olds). A minimal threshold of 15 ms has been used for the extraction of pauses in Eye and Pen. This very low threshold is the minimum possible in the software and guarantees that relevant pauses are not eliminated a priori. Our corpus of draft texts comprises 107 319 pauses (15 ms threshold).
GAUSSIAN MIXTURE MODEL The hypothesis under which pause duration reveals their nature leads to considering that the pause distribution in our corpus includes different components (corresponding to different types of pauses). To identify these components, after a log-transformation of the duration for normalization, we used a Gaussian mixture model (GMM), estimated by the Expectation-Maximization algorithm (on Matlab by Igor Cadez 01/23/99) on the set of pauses in each text. The main assumption is that, for a given type of pause, durations are normally distributed (Gaussian), and the goal is thus to identify the statistical parameters (mean and standard deviation) corresponding to each component in the mixture. GMM provides both a statistical description of each component and a classification rule for each pause sample, based on a maximum likelihood decision that can also be seen as a set of duration thresholds based on the statistical distribution.
The same is true between words: you need to lift the pen to make a space between words and this takes some time. Hence these events might appear as pauses in the data whereas they are not pauses reflecting cognitive activity. The method involves several steps. We first calculate the writing speed of each event for each text. This calculation is undertaken using the temporal and spatial information obtained with the Eye and Pen extraction of all events. Events here should be understood as defined by the software, i. e. , an event is a sample non-redundant with the preceding (e. g. , Eye and Pen considers that the data arriving from the digital tablet is of the same event if it has the same pen pressure but if pen pressure changes data is considered as a new event. Each event is identified by a number, a beginning time and location and an ending time and location, a pressure, the distance between beginning and ending locations, and the duration of the event).
The second step consists in identifying writing passages (series of events where the pen is down and moving: DOWN) as opposed to pauses (events where the pen is up or not moving: UP). A writing passage (DOWN) is hence a collection of successive events where the pen is touching the tablet. A pause (UP) is constituted of only one event, in which the pen is not touching the tablet. The third step involves using the Matlab linear prediction tool to calculate, at each pause event (UP), the expected spatiotemporal position (and a confidence interval 2  ) for the beginning of the next writing passage, given the rhythm of the preceding writing passage, under the hypothesis that only GMA is involved. If the event beginning the next writing passage is located outside the confidence interval, the pause is considered not to be caused only by GMA.
Un encadrement normatif est donc nécessaire afin de canaliser l'accès et le traitement des informations à caractère juridique. Tout un chacun peut par exemple, par l'intermédiaire d'internet, accéder en libre accès à l'essentiel de la législation et de la réglementation officielle, et de la jurisprudence, dans de nombreux États. Les bases de données publiques ne cessent de progresser en quantité et en qualité. Reste maintenant à offrir au grand public comme aux spécialistes, une information « utile », c'est à dire à plusieurs niveaux de complexité, et adaptée à chacun: élaborée (ou brute: le non-traitement de l'information constituant un barrage à la compréhension des données) à destination des spécialistes; et au contraire simplifiée à l'attention du plus grand nombre suivant une échelle décroissante de complexité (l'information à destination du grand public nécessitant une vulgarisation, exigeante en termes de moyens matériels et humains).
Les bases de données juridiques constituent un moyen nouveau de détection d'interactions jusque-là insoupçonnées, grâce au traitement automatisé de certaines tâches (détection d'occurrences de vocabulaire juridique; numération de cas d'espèce…). La mise en relation de notions auparavant isolées est donc envisageable par le biais de ces technologies. L'Histoire s'avère aussi une branche indissociable de l'étude des mécanismes complexes, afin de fournir les éléments initiateurs des interactions à étudier. L'état d'un système à un moment donné n'est en effet que le résultat de ses états antérieurs (quelles que soient ses étapes de développement: mode linéaire, évolutions brutales, révolutions, cycles répétitifs…). La connaissance des états d'équilibre et/ou de déséquilibre sociaux antérieurs peut se révéler un élément de prévision utile pour les modifications juridiques et éviter les changements trop brutaux.
Data Collection and Analyses Statistics. The models' influence on learning Ds was assessed using the SYSTAT statistical software (Version 13 for Microsoft Windows). One-sample t-tests were performed to determine whether learning Ds significantly differed from zero, i. e. whether the model's demonstration significantly altered subsequent learn-ing. Parametric ANOVAs with the Huynh-Feldt adjustment ( Huynh-Feldt p) for repeated measures followed by pairwise comparisons were used to compare the three models and paired t-tests to compare only the two human models. ANOVAs included one-way ANOVAs with the learning condition (social/individual) as the sole factor, and two-way ANOVAs with the learning condition and the first exposure's outcome (error/success) as factors. Note that carrying a non-parametric analysis, as often recommended for small samples (see e.
Acknowledgments We thank  Sourour Chetioui ,  Justine Epinat  and  Clement Hynaux  for help in collecting data;  Ivan Balansard ,  Sebastien Barniaud ,  Anne Duhoux ,  Gislene Gardechaux  and  Ahmed Zellat  for animal care;  Romeo Salemme  and Frederic Volland for technical assistance.
Elisabetta Monfardini  is supported by the  Institut de Medecine Environnementale  and the  NEURODIS Foundation ;  Fadila Hadj-Bouziane  by the  NEURODIS Foundation ;  Martine Meunier  by  CNRS ,  INSERM , the  ANR  (grants no. RPV08085CSA  and  ANR-O8-BLAN-0068-1 ), the  AVENIR  (grant no. R05265CS ), and a scholar award from the  James S. McDonnell Foundation. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Describing MEMORAe-core 2 Model MEMORAe-core 2 semantic model (Fig. 1 ) contains the concepts that describe "how we collaborate". MEMORAe-core 2 is built using owl (Web Ontology Language). The model focuses on information resources shared between individuals and groups of individuals within an organization. There are two main aspects in MEMORAe-core 2 : • Modeling the individuals and groups of individuals: The organization in MEMORAe-core 2 model is a set of members. These members are potential users of the MEMORAe web platform.
Method Data Set and Sample The data came from the European Social Survey (ESS), Round 5, which was conducted in 2010. The ESS is a repeat cross-sectional survey of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors in Europe, similar to the American General Social Survey in its content and style. Twenty-four countries were included in the analyses (Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine and United Kingdom). These countries ranged in total sample size from 905 (Cyprus) to 2,537 (Germany). However, it should be noted that the goal of the analyses in this paper was not to make cross-national comparisons, but rather to examine the role of values in the media-civic life relationship.
The original coding for the variable is as follows: 0 = no access at home or work, 1 = never use, 2 = less than once a month, 3 = once a month, 4 = several times a month, 5 = once a week, 6 = several times a week, and 7 = every day. This variable was coded to combine "no access" and "never use" categories. All media usage variables were recoded to range from 0 to 1. Note. For information on response categories please see the text. Data were weighted with a combined weight that adjusts for both unequal probability of selection (design weight) and the differences in population size (population size weight). Age and education were recoded to range from 0 to 1 like all other variables before the analyses to keep the metrics directly comparable.
This cohort replacement has been shifting modes of political mobilization from traditional forms like unions, political party organizations or elite directed, top-down movements to newer bottom-up forms of civic engagement  (Inglehart, 1977 (Inglehart, , 1990;; Inglehart & Baker, 2000). While the uniform, positive direct, and indirect effects of the Internet on both civic life and openness and transcendence values were in contrast to the predictions as well as some earlier research, these results are still aligned with some scholarship in the communications literature. Internet networks might lead to new and increased forms of sociability and create a network society that "is a hypersocial society, not a society of isolation"  (Castells, 2005, p. 11 ). However, an important limitation of the current study is that it was unable to distinguish between the different uses of the Internet due to the limitations of the dataset.
Additionally, the ESS is a cross-sectional data set and thus cannot shed light on strong claims of causality. The model in this paper examines the causal effects of media on values and civic life. However, value change could also be affecting media usage patterns of individuals or social trust and political participation of an individual might be affecting value orientations or media usage over time. All of these considerations suggest that future research should analyze longitudinal datasets to grasp changes over time, tease out period, cohort, and aging effects, and understand reciprocal relationships between variables at different time points. Moreover, the cultural boundaries of the arguments proposed in this paper as well as the majority of previous research are confined to the Western world.
, 2011)  and dates  (Terral et al. , 2012). Nonetheless, these methods have seldom been applied to cereal remains  (Apuan et al. , 2011)  and to our knowledge never to archaeological cereal remains. We chose to apply GMM to archaeological caryopses, as compared to other archaeological cereal remains, grains have the greatest rate of survival  (Boardman and Jones, 1990)  and are the most common remains in European post-Neolithic archaeological sites  (Jacomet and Kreuz, 1999; Colledge and Conolly, 2007b). We used ten modern cultivated varieties belonging unambiguously to the two subspecies in order to determine if modern caryopses of two-rowed and six-rowed barley can be identified using GMM. This modern reference data was then used to identify archaeological caryopses. Since carbonization can have a strong effect on grain shape  (Boardman and Jones, 1990) , the fresh referential was analysed before and after experimental carbonization of the dehulled grains (without the lemma and palea).
Identification of the archaeological grains The quality of preservation of the archaeological caryopses was quite heterogeneous, due to different degrees of carbonization. Thus, archaeological specimens which were the most affected by carbonization more closely resemble the experimentally carbonized caryopses, while better preserved archaeological caryopses were more similar to fresh modern caryopses. For this reason, and to the fact that we could not quantify the degree of carbonization of the caryopses, archaeological specimens were assigned to one of the two subspecies using a predictive discriminant analysis based on combined datasets including the modern caryopses before and after carbonization. The level of confidence in a predictive discriminant analysis is estimated by a posteriori probabilities of classification (50%e100% in the case of two groups).
Acknowledgements We would like to thank  Michel Lemoine  ( CNRS, Muséum ), for his invaluable help during the carbonization of the fresh caryopses. We are also most grateful to the society Secobra for providing the fresh caryopses used in this study, to  Raphaël Cornette  ( UMR7205 ) for welcoming us into the morphometric platform of the  National Museum of Paris , to prof. Jean-Frédéric Terral  ( University Montpellier 2 ) for his advice and to  Elizabeth Kerr  ( UMR7209 ) and  Nelly Gidaszewski  ( UMR7205 ) for language editing. A. Evin  acknowledges financial support from the  Natural Environment Research Council, UK  (grant number  NE/F003382/1 ). Finally, we would like to thank the  UMR7209  ( CNRS-MNHN) , for financial support.
Adaptation: evolution of population-wide fitness To determine fitness changes during experimental evolution, we contemporaneously measured the competitive performance of the six replicate populations against a tester (non-evolved) population at generation 0 (G0), G30, G60, G100 (see Methods). The ratio of experimental to tester individuals after one full generation of competition provided the data for the estimation of a fitness coefficient, which we term population-wide fitness; see data in  [30]. Results from these competition assays were analysed with linear mixed effect models (LMM), with replicate populations taken as a random independent variable and generation as a fixed and continuous independent variable (see Methods). Analysis shows that population-wide fitness increased during the 100 generations of experimental evolution (Figure  1 , panel A; generation effects different from zero: |z|-value = 3, p-value = 0.
Evolution of hermaphrodite mating success and fitness when outcrossing and when selfing To determine fitness changes in hermaphrodites, we contemporaneously measured the competitive performance of hermaphrodites when selfing or when outcrossing with tester (non-evolved) males at generation 0 (G0), G30, G60, G100 (see Methods). The proportion of outcrossed hermaphrodites within each assay plate was defined as hermaphrodite mating success, while the fertility (number of viable offspring until adulthood) was defined as hermaphrodite fitness under outcrossing or under selfing, depending on the individual breeding status (see data in  [30]  and Methods). As for population-wide fitness, hermaphrodite mating success was analysed with LMM. For hermaphrodite outcross-fitness and self-fitness data did not follow LMM assumptions and consequently we modelled the effects of generation and replicate population with generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) incorporating Gamma error distributions (see Methods).
Outcrossing rates and male fitness Assays measuring outcrossing rates and male fitness were reported in  [41] ; the data is here re-analysed and presented in Additional file 1: Figure  S1. We show the male frequencies observed when G0, G30, G60 and G100 samples were measured under the standard experimental evolution environment. Outcrossing rates are be calculated as twice male frequencies (r = 2 m,  [33] ). Male fitness assays involved placing an equal proportion of late L4 staged wild type experimental and GFP tester males in competition for mating and fertilization of fog-2(q71/q71) females (strain JK574;  [62] ), during the 24 h preceding the usual passage of experimental evolution. This assay was thus also a head-to-head competition assay, as the assay of population-wide fitness and hermaphrodite fitness.
F1 adults were scored for GFP expression (n = 84). Male fitness (w m ) is here defined in a similar manner as population fitness (see above), with p F0 = 0. 5 and p F1 = p since all F1 progeny was outcrossed. Untransformed data was termed male competitive performance in ref. [29]. w m measures male mating success and male offspring viability, irrespective of hermaphrodites.
There was no nesting of competition assay plate within replicate population or replicate population within generation, and we thus assume that the variance among competition plates is the same for all populations and is maintained constant during experimental evolution. For all models we tested the residuals for normality with Shapiro-Wilk tests and for homocedasticity between the four generations with Bartlett's tests. w o and w s data violated LMM assumptions and because of this we resorted to generalized linear mixed effects models (GLMM) with Gamma error distributions. Only in this case we were able to have normally distributed residuals with equal replicate variance between generations. For LMM and GLMM, REML methods were used within the lme4 package of R version 3. 0. 2 [65, 66]. To obtain fitted values in the original scale, particularly for w o and w s , we used the function predict within the stats package in R.
Acknowledgements We thank  C. Braendle ,  P. Jarne  and  P. C. Phillips  for discussion, and the Editor and anonymous referees for suggestions on the manuscript. S. C. was supported by a PhD fellowship from  Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia  ( SFRH/BD/ 36726/2007 ). The research leading to these results has received funding from the  European Research Council  under the European Community's  Seventh Framework Programme  ( FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement no. 243285 ").
Acknowledgements The study was supported by international bilateral cooperation project between the  Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey  and the  French Scientific Research National Center (CNRS)  with research grant number of  TUBITAK-CNRS 110Y335 , and grant of  RFBI 12-05-91372-ST_a. We are grateful to the  Pernod-Ricard company  which supports also this research program. M. C. A. thanks the grant of  Outstanding Young Scientist Award  from the  Turkish Academy of Sciences  ( TUBA-GEBIP ). We particularly thank  Koray Ates  and the logistic support of  Faber Marble Group. S. M. thanks the  Ege University  projects  TTM/001/2010 ,  TTM/002/2011. We are deeply grateful to  T. Tanju Kaya  ( Ege Univ. Natural Hist. Museum ), for providing us all the comparative material from the  Museum catalogue.
Acknowledgments This paper is based on a presentation given at the " Old World Camelids" session held at the eleventh international conference of the International Council of Archaeozoology in Paris in 2010. Support for this paper presentation came from the  EU training network LecHe (Lactase Persistence  and the  Early Cultural History of Europe). We would like to thank the organizers of the session,  Marjan Mashkour  and  Mark Beech  for their work, the session chair,  Hans-Peter Uerpmann  for his insightful views on Old World camelids, and  Evrim Ölçer  for delightful conversations on Anatolian ethnology, and above all to the relatives of  C. Üzüm  from the Özbaş village.
These affiliations may rely not only on mobile phones per se but also on other physical and virtual service access methods such as credit cards, keys, dedicated applications, and credentials of various kinds. Each of these possibilities is a common feature in mobile phones, but none of these has yet fully merged with the others in the device. This global environment of digital identities constitutes the habitele. Coining a new concept was required in order to avoid being trapped either in the innovation frenzy or in the repetition of postmodernist and individualist tropes. The concept of habitele is strongly connected to urban issues because it extends the human capacity of inhabiting to this web of digital affiliations, transforming, for instance, an individual into a "Vélib user", easily traced through the provider's service database.
The importance of this maintenance work is well understood by urban managers because it is critical to users' (who are also voters) satisfaction. And every missed link reduces trust in the service, which leads users to exit the system without expressing their "voice"  (HIRSCHMANN, 1970)  to the help desk. The distribution of bikes must be rearranged frequently to fit with future users' behavior so that the feeling of continuity of the service is maintained. This level of quality is obtained through sophisticated databases. The efficiency of mathematical models is undermined by the instability of individual behavior, which is very sensitive to weather, events, and so on (TIRONI, 2013). While modeling was supposed to fully describe patterns of bikers' behaviors, it appears that the most important improvements depend on the local expertise of the staff that reallocates the bikes in the stations with their trucks.
Another link seems rather underestimated: the expertise of users and their connection to the information systems. By not accounting for this link, the system appears not to have any relationship with the personal data ecosystem, which is at the core of our habitele model. However, companies process a huge amount of personal data, i. e. all the traces we create by our digital activity. The database and the models are ineffective unless they are fueled by the extensive traces of every bit of users' mobility. Biking is no longer simply using a bike, it means being tracked down for each segment of trip (the basic fee limits the use to 30 minutes) and accepting it. We shall come back to the issues of privacy that arise immediately, but at this point, the technical part of the process of coordination is our main focus.
At the beginning of the service with JC Decaux Company in 2007, the City of Paris was required to comply with the legal agency in charge of controlling information systems and database since 1978 (CNIL: "commission nationale informatique et libertés"). The CNIL required many changes in order to improve the privacy rules while using personal data: -Location data connected to a personal account are saved only for long-term subscribers and not for short-term tickets users. -Data required for the management of the subscription are saved and stored for 24 months except for validation data. -For long-term subscriptions, data related to the routes used by the bikers are anonymized once the duration of the trip has been calculated. Longer trips (over 30 minutes, therefore charged) are saved during 5 days in order to give the user the opportunity to contest the bills.
The trend towards open data systems is supposed to be inevitable but it remains a controversial issue for many cities and service providers. First this information must be processed as anonymous data. However, no one can really guarantee this request for privacy, since interconnection of behavioral traces may produce new opportunities for identifying people. And second, the ownership of this data is strongly disputed, some providers considering that this is a gold mine produced by their own service and not supposed to be shared by any other potential competitor. This is why only very general datasets are made available offering very few opportunities to invent really new and useful services for any other company. The habitele of the user produces various layers that are still related to his personal engagement in the world but offering different facets of his status.