dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Study area This study was conducted over the French Alps region (Fig. 1 ), which covers 26,000 km 2 and presents a wide range of environmental conditions due to mixed continental, oceanic and Mediterranean climate influences and steep altitudinal gradients. We used a vegetation database from the National Alpine Botanical Conservatory (CBNA, Fig. 1 , dark grey shading in the National map), including more than 164,500 sampling plots recorded between 1980 and the present at a resolution greater than or equal to 250m. Two sampling methods were used: 31,569 of these plots corresponded to comprehensive phytosociological relevés (i. e. phytosociological method hereafter) and thus provided both presence and absence data, whereas the rest of the plots consist of presence-only data (i. e. single occurrence method hereafter).
We started with the 3,250 plant species present in the CBNA database, based on a standardized species taxonomic nomenclature  (Kergélen 1993 ). To complement these data, we also gathered additional 4,000 occurrence data points from the National Mediterranean Botanical Conservatory (CBMED) for 1,000 species from the previous list that also occur in the extreme south of French Alps (Fig. 1 , light grey shading in the National map). This additional information from the Mediterranean area allowed us to be confident that the warm portion of species niches was adequately captured (Fig. 1 ). All presence and absence information were overlaid to the 250m analysis grid. When at least one presence was recorded for a given species over a 250m pixel, it was noted as presence. This procedure has the advantage of smoothing the sampling bias in highly sampled subregions.
These traits were extracted from the trait database ANDROSACE  (Thuiller et al. unpublished data). The database includes trait information for Alpine plants from individual projects and freely available databases such as LEDA  (Knevel et al. 2003) , BioFlor  (Kühn et al. 2004 ), Ecoflora  (Fitter and Peat 1994)  and CATMINAT  (Julve 1998). We excluded 102 species for which we had less than two traits for the LHS syndrome, which left us with 2755 species for analyses.
Phylogenetic information We reconstructed a genus-level phylogeny based on DNA sequences available in GenBank, using the procedure proposed in  Roquet et al. (2013). We used the following DNA regions: three conserved chloroplastic regions (rbcL, matK and ndhf) and 8 regions for certain families or orders (atpB, ITS, psbA-trnH, rpl16, rps4, rps4-trnS, rps16, trnL-F). Global or taxonomically local alignments were performed with several algorithms (implemented in MAFFT,  (Katoh et al. 2002) ; MUSCLE,  (Edgar and Robert 2004) ; and Kalign,  (Lassmann and Sonnhammer 2005)  and then compared with the program MUMSA to select the best alignment  (Lassmann and Sonnhammer 2005). Alignments were then cleaned with TrimAl  (Capella-Gutierrez et al. 2009 ) to remove ambiguously aligned regions before performing a phylogenetic inference analysis with RAxML  (Stamatakis 2006 ).
Environmental data We used a set of environmental variables that are known to be strong drivers of plant species distribution over the French Alps. Variables included a soil map representing the percentage of carbon in the bedrock, derived from the harmonized geological map of the Alps (Bd-Charm 50 -BRGM; http:// www. geocatalogue. fr/Detail. do?id=4156#). Current climate was mapped as a 250 m raster, downscaled from 1 km Worldclim climate grids  (Hijmans et al. 2005). We first downscaled the monthly climate normals  to a spatial resolution of 250 m, to better represent the topographic variation of climate in our study area using a mowing window regression approach. In a second step we used these downscaled temperature and precipitation grids to derive maps of five bioclimatic variables, which (1) have an obvious impact on plant life in mountain environments; and (2) showed some independent variation across the study area (r < 0.
This scenario is considered equivalent to A2. We further used maps representing the current protected area network, which we extracted from the World Database on Protected areas  (IUCN and UNEP 2009). It distinguishes seven categories ranging from "strict natural reserve" (Ia) to "protected area with sustainable use of natural resources" (VI) (Fig. 1 ). The category of Natura 2000 (N2000), which is not available within the IUCN framework, was additionally downloaded from the European environment agency (http://www. eea. europa. eu/data-and-maps/data/natura-2000-eunisdatabase). We then calculated zonal statistics using these two datasets to estimate the percentage of each 250m cell of the study area covered by the N2000 and the seven IUCN categories.
Acknowledgments The research leading to this paper had received funding from the  European Research Council  under the European Community's  Seven Framework Programme FP7 /2007-2013 Grant Agreement no. 281422  (TEEMBIO). We also acknowledge support from the  ANR   SCION  ( ANR-08-PEXT-03 ). We thank  S. Normand ,  C. Randin  and two anonymous referees for helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. This study arose from two workshops entitled 'Advancing concepts and models of species range dynamics: understanding and disentangling processes across scales', for which funding was provided by the  Danish Council for Independent Research -Natural Sciences  (grant no. 10-085056 ). Most of the computations presented in this paper were performed using the CIMENT infrastructure (https://ciment.
Remerciements Nous tenons à remercier particulièrement le  Fofifa-Drzv  et son directeur le  Dr Rakotondravao ,  Madagascar National Parks  et en particulier la Direction du Parc national de l'Ankarafantsika pour avoir permis cette étude, les habitants d'Ankazomborona pour leur aide, et V. Andrianjakarivelo (Wcs) pour les précieuses informations qu'il nous a fournies.
Thus, a proper analysis of the data for cylindrical supports is still missing to be able to rightfully support or reject its use to characterize this type of pellets. The objective of this study is to improve the analysis of the side crushing strength test for cylindrical extrudates in order to provide a better interpretation of the data, and to compare the results with those obtained with Three-Point Bending test (3PB). An analysis of the defects present within the supports, using X-Ray tomography and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), is also carried out to help interpreting the measured strength.
Numerical Modeling To calculate the effective volume involved in crushing and bending tests, a numerical analysis of these tests is carried out using the finite element package ABAQUS Ò. Because the stress state is poorly affected by the length of the support, the analysis is performed with a 2D plane strains model. Owing to two plane symmetries, only one quarter of the disc is analysed. The contact between the rigid platen and the deformable sample is defined frictionless. Symmetry conditions are set along the horizontal and vertical axis as presented in Figure  3a. A vertical displacement ramp is applied to the platen via a reference node. The bending test analysis is carried out with a 3D model. As for the crushing test, symmetry of the system allows analysing only one quarter of the rod.
A first-order Taylor approximation applied to F then yields W n+1 -W n ∆t ≈ -F(W n ) - ∂F ∂W W n+1 -W n where ∂F ∂W is the Jacobian matrix. We then have J W n+1 -W n ≈ -F(W n ) ( 7 ) where J is defined as J = I ∆t + ∂F ∂W with I the identity operator. Note that J is not symmetric, but block symmetry is achieved. At each time step, J needs to be evaluated and the Jacobian linear system  (7)  needs to be solved. To evaluate ∂F ∂W , we utilize the automatic differentiation engine TAPENADE developed at Inria  [5, 6] : given a Fortran or C code that computes a function, TAPENADE creates a new code that computes its derivatives. As for solving the Jacobian linear systems, the PETSc library  [1] [2] [3]  is used, this tool being particularly well adapted to handle such large sparse systems in parallel.
These results underline the possibility to reach a set of Pareto optimal solutions from the topology optimization approach. Studying separately flow configuration and conductive heat transfer problems naturally leads to the next optimization challenge: bringing together both problems to optimize at the same time heat and mass transfer objectives. Dede studied the optimization of a bi-dimensional geometry involving both Navier-Stokes and transport equations, solved with COMSOL commercial software  [19]. This first results have been followed by Kontoleontos and Papoutsis-Kiachagias' works (et al. ), who extended the numerical model to turbulent flows thanks to the Spalart-Allmaras assumption  [20, 21]. However, they do not consider in their works the temperature field within the solid domain, which is numerically set to a constant value.
Je souhaitais alors préciser les choses, poursuivre des axes proposés, compléter cette base, notamment à l'aide d'une étude technique plus poussée et de données quantitatives. Cette exigence me conduisit à la réalisation d'une base de données. Le travail était à peine initié que je découvrais celle de Markus Popplow et Georges Lefebvre. Elle présentait l'avantage d'être disponible et d'offrir des outils efficaces pour analyser le graphisme et les légendes du corpus dans une perspective comparative. Par contre, si elle listait les dispositifs mécaniques présents dans les machines, elle présentait l'inconvénient de ne pas autoriser la prise en compte des relations cinématiques dans les machines. C'est pourquoi il me fallait opérer dans ce sens. Une exigence qui demandait un haut degré de technicité dans la conception de la base de données, et nécessita des compétences supérieures à celles dispensées aux historiens, et que je trouvai chez mon frère informaticien.
Mais plus que sur le défi technique, j'aimerais insister sur le défi intellectuel que représentait cette base, qui fut au moins aussi grand. En effet : quand on voit des résultats statistiques, on les qualifie toujours de « quantitatifs », oubliant que c'est aussi un processus « qualitatif ». La construction de la base de données est au moins aussi importante que les résultats qu'elle donne. J'insiste beaucoup sur ce point. Pour réaliser une structure cohérente, il faut faire des choix, définir un angle d'analyse et le développer, avec rigueur, jusque dans ses détails, même si ceux-ci sont à première vue insignifiants. Le choix des catégories doit être clair et ne supporte pas le flou. Le choix de rejeter certaines précisions doit être clairement énoncé. Ainsi, même si cela peut paraître inattendu, construire ma base de données fut la meilleure occasion de poser toutes mes hypothèses, de débusquer tous mes préjugés, de clarifier tous mes choix.
Remerciements Remerciements merci à Laure Dupeyrat pour sa présence, ses conseils et ses encouragements lors de ma thèse. Nos discussions m'ont aussi vraiment permis de décompresser. Je pense que sans elle l'ambiance dans notre bâtiment aurait été tout autre. Je veux aussi remercier mes camarades thésards Jennifer, François et aussi Gwénaël pour leur soutient, leur présence. Je veux aussi remercier la secrétaire de l'école doctorale Kim qui s'est occupée de toutes les démarches administratives pour ma soutenance.
At 30% of diameter reduction, axial stresses up to 2000 MPa (typical value for cleavage normal to ND)  [13]  were expected to be found over a region containing both equiaxed and bainitic ferrite. More temperature levels were considered for tests along ND because of the lower amount of literature data along ND (Table  1 ). Table  1 : Summary of tensile tests, indexed using corresponding specimen geometries -196°C -100°C -90°C -80°C -70°C -60°C -55°C -50°C -40°C 20°C RD NT3 NT1 NT1, UT1 TD NT3 NT1, UT1 NT1, UT1 ND NT2, UT2 NT2 NT2 NT2 NT2 NT2 NT2 NT2 NT2, UT2 Elongation of smooth specimens was measured using an extensometer (UT1 geometry) or by applying a stiffness correction on the load vs. load line displacement curve (UT2 geometry). For notched specimens, a radial extensometer was used to measure the reduction of diameter along ND (resp.
Observations Fracture surfaces were observed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in secondary electron imaging. This allowed first identification of fracture modes and estimate of the shear percentage, i. e. the ratio of ductile fracture area to the total area of the fracture surface (projected along the tensile axis). Then, cleavage fracture was more quantitatively studied. The propagation path of the first cleavage crack was studied using stereological pairs, 3D reconstruction of the fracture surface (MeX software) together with in-house software to calculate tilt and twist components of misorientation between neighboring facets  [15]. Microtexture was analyzed using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) on polished sections (190×190 µm²) with a step size of 1 µm. The mean free path of cleavage microcracks was determined by considering crystals with a nearly common orientation of {001} planes normal to the investigated loading axis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank  Ron Benefield  and his colleagues from  Spectra Energy Transmission , and the  Solution Mining Research Institute (SMRI) , which granted permission that some results of the Moss Bluff Cavern#1 analysis performed for the SMRI (Research Report  2013-01 ) be published in this paper. They also are indebted to  Leo van Sambeek , who provided them with additional comments on his remarkable analysis of the Kanopolis accident. Special thanks to  Kathy Sikora. This study was funded partially by the  French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR)  in the framework of the  SACRE Project devoted to adiabatic CAES design. This project includes researchers from EDF,  GEO-STOCK, PROMES (Perpignan), HEI (Lille)  and  E ´cole Polytechnique ParisTech (Palaiseau).
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives a brief review of signal processing on graphs in which some basic notions of graph and the SGWT approach are going to be presented. Then, the main proposed methodology is described. In Section 4, a short introduction of VHR panchromatic Pléiades image datasets is given before experimental results are performed for a validation of the proposed algorithm. We finally draw a conclusion from this work as well as consider some perspectives for future work in Section 5.
Also, the small lake which was well classified in Figure  7  (red) could not be distinguished in Figure  8  (a mix of yellow, green and red). Moreover, it should be also noted that the result of GLCM approach significantly depends on the choice of its parameters. Here, we tried to perform one of its good results among several of experimental tests. In terms of time consumption, a comparison can be found regarding to two Tables  1  and 2. All the tests were performed by a desktop computer Xeon 3. 6GHz using Matlab. Before comparing the two tables, we would like to emphasize that the GLCM method is usually performed for a dense approach in the literature. That means, Haralick feature vector will be calculated for each pixel. We had also tested this dense GLCM approach and since our image consists of 3 million pixels, it took approximately 2 hours for the implementation.
Méthodologie Dans cette étude, trois méthodes de détection des parcelles viticoles sont comparées. Les GLCMs et les modèles multivariés sur ondelettes sont utilisés dans un contexte de classification supervisée s'appuyant sur une étape d'apprentissage par extraction de paramètres à partir d'une base de données d'imagettes. La troisième approche est une méthode de segmentation basée sur l'utilisation de filtres de Gabor appliqués dans le spectre de Fourier  [Rabatel et al. , 2008]. Ces trois méthodes sont décrites ci-dessous.
Base de données d'apprentissage Cette première étape de la classification supervisée consiste à créer une base de données d'imagettes représentatives des différentes classes d'occupation de sol rencontrées le plus couramment dans le voisinage des parcelles viticoles. Les vignobles bordelais sont le plus souvent localisés dans des zones périurbaines dans lesquelles les vignobles dominent généralement le paysage. Quatre classes principales sont dès lors considérées : la vigne, la forêt, la végétation rase (prairies, parcelles viticoles en phase de régénération, sol nu, etc. ) et les zones bâties (Figure  1 ).
Matrices de co-occurrence L'utilisation des matrices de co-occurrence nécessite le réglage de trois paramètres, à savoir la distance et la direction entre les paires de sites ainsi que le nombre de niveaux de gris pour quantifier les images. Une analyse d'indexation réalisée sur les bases de données d'imagettes a permis de déterminer le paramétrage optimal à une distance de 1 pixel (soit 0,5 m dans l'image panchromatique) dans les quatre directions (0°, 45°, 90° et 135°) avec 256 niveaux de gris pour le cas des images sur Saint-Emilion et sur Sauternes, et à une distance de 9 pixels (soit 4,5 m) sur les quatre directions avec 32 niveaux de gris dans le cas de l'image sur Pessac-Léognan. Ces différences de paramétrage entre les images illustrent les problèmes d'atténuation de texture évoqués dans la section 2.
Remerciement Les auteurs souhaitent remercier l'équipe de la recette thématique utilisateurs du programme ORFEO d'accompagnement Pléiades et en particulier Claire Tinel pour les images Pléiades  (© CNES (2012 (© CNES ( ,2013)) , distribution Airbus DS / Spot Image) utilisées dans le cadre de cette étude. Cette étude a été financée par le CNES (TOSCA STELLA THR) et le Conseil Régional d'Aquitaine.
The paper presents the last few years of research at ICUBE, Team MECAFLU in the "Instabilité, Turbulence, Diphasique" group on the simulations of fluid-structure interactions applied to falling bodies using the NSMB solver. The first part of the study was devoted to the numerical study of a sphere falling in a vertical tube filled with a Poiseuille flow. Then the NSMB software has been extended to be able to take into account multiple moving bodies and the cases of two 2D cylinders falling in free air have been investigated. To prevent the collision of the two cylinders which is not consistent with the chimera method, an elastic shock has been implemented. Résumé. Ce papier présente les résultats de ces dernières années de recherche à ICUBE, dans l'équipe MECAFLU au sein du groupe "Instabilité, Turbulence, diphasique" sur les simulations des interactions fluide-structure appliquées à la chute des corps en utilisant le solveur NSMB.
Mathematical formulation We solve the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations in a cylindrical domain filled with a fluid of uniform density ρ and kinematic viscosity ν containing a homogeneous moving sphere of diameter d and density ρ s within the NSMB solver  [30]. The NSMB solver is a compressible code used, for the present purpose, in the incompressible limit obtained by artificial preconditioning. In agreement with Jenny  [12]  we non-dimensionalise the velocity by the velocity scale defined by the effective acceleration and the sphere diameter v unit = (1 -ρ s /ρ)gd and we express the velocity field with respect to a fixed reference frame. The length scale of non-dimensionalisation is defined by the sphere diameter. Dimensionless quantities based on these velocity and length scales are used throughout the paper.
Remerciements Arnaud Desqueyroux  (IGN, DIR SO, 33166,  Saint-Médard -en-Jalles) a assuré la stéréo-restitution des placettes en forêt. Le Cnes a fourni gracieusement le couple d'images stéréoscopiques Pléiades sur le secteur de St- Symphorien (département de la Gironde)   dans le cadre de son programme Recette Thématique Utilisateurs des images Pléiades  (© CNES 2012, distribution  Airbus DS / Spot Image ). L'étude Pinastéréo a été réalisée avec le  soutien financier du Conseil Régional d'Aquitaine et du programme SUDOE financé par le Fonds Européen de Développement Régional dans le cadre du projet APSAT du pôle de compétitivité Aerospace Valley.
Reactor Model A 2D stationary model was developed using COMSOL software to predict the absorption flux of CO 2 into aqueous solutions of PZ within a wetted wall column. This model couples hydrodynamics, mass transfer, chemical reactions and gas-liquid equilibrium. One of the model originalities is the description of the CO 2 partial pressure variation within the gas phase, instead of considering a constant CO 2 partial pressure given by the logarithmic average between the reactor inlet and outlet. Liquid outlet r (m) z (m) z = h z = 0 r = 0 r = Liquid inlet.
As CO 2 is absorbed, P CO 2 presents a decreasing profile within the reactor. Consequently, the model takes into account the evolution of the CO 2 partial pressure in the gas phase through a one-dimensional plug-flow model (Eq. 42). The flow can be considered countercurrent since the ratio h/D h > > 1 and the gas velocity is substantially higher than the liquid velocity. Moreover, the gas distribution has been improved by multiple injection points and the addition of a gas distributor (Fig. 8 ). Besides, simulations performed with FLUENT software have shown that the flow is essentially countercurrent: 0 ¼ o v G C G CO 2 oz þ k G a P CO 2 À Hu 1 r ¼ d; z ð Þ ð Þ ð 42Þ The average CO 2 flux across the gas-liquid interface was determined using the following expression: N CO 2 ¼ R z¼0 z¼h D u 1 @u 1 r¼d;z ð Þ @r dz h ð43Þ.
In Figure  6  is represented the increase of the gas volume fraction i. e. the quality of the foam for gas pressure and water pressure varying on the range 0-500 mbar, as in the phase diagram. To measure the foam quality we calculated the ratio between the area occupied by the gas and the area occupied by the liquid. These areas are measured thanks to an image analysis Figure 5 Coefficient of variation of the bubbles observed in the chamber. (Matlab software). To differentiate the gas from the liquid we took advantage of the contrast difference between the two phases. The quality is shown to follow a master curve when drawn as a function of the gas to water pressure ratio.
For the outlets we simply use holes in PDMS of 4 mm in diameter allowing flows to end at atmospheric pressure, with negligible hydraulic resistance. The matrices are separated by observation chamber in order to evaluate the influence of the total porous media length crossed called L p. In Figure  8 , we represent the ratio between the mean equivalent radius of the fragmented bubbles R m and the radius of the plot R plot as a function of L p for P gas /P water = 0. 8. R m is obtained by measuring the areas of the bubbles from which we deduce the bubbles size distribution. We calculate an average radius of the fragmented bubbles, taking into account 200 large initial bubbles. Normalized radius of the bubbles as a function of L p for P gas /P water = 0. 8. Circles correspond to the observed radius of bubbles and squares correspond to data with the correction taking into account pressure losses.
First the exploitation area must be defined : by taking into consideration only the area of arable lands ; or the area of arable lands, plus orchards and vineyards, thus the agricultural area used (SAU) ; or the useful agricultural area (SAU, plus heaths and wild lands). The data collected at the level of each agricultural exploitation is weighted by the reverse of the exploitation area. Selections with unequal probabilities require that there is a good correlation between the studied variables and the selection variable. Here, the selection variable is the exploitation area. Production is related to the area and not to the crop distribution.