dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
QUALI-QUANTITATIVE CHALLENGES OF HYPERTEXT CORPORA Studying the web through hypertext remains necessary for many research questions. To allow this kind of research, we started designing in 2010 a research instrument allowing to study online phenomena through the prism of hyperlinks. The Hyphe  [25]  open source software was created to overcome the limitations of existing solutions: many tools existed to crawl the web, including some especially designed for social sciences (such as the IssueCrawler  [31] ), but none of them was suitable for qualitative corpus building and yet capable to scale up to large website networks. Our ambition was to help scholars crawl the web, finely delimit the web territory of each of the actors they were interested in, curate their web corpus according to their research questions, and analyse web materials through network or content analysis.
There where automatic data harvesting fails, manual corpus building can succeed. Hyphe proposes to this end a manual-yet-assisted data collection through a prospection process. The web crawl module only downloads and indexes the web pages belonging to a predefined web entity. External links are not followed automatically. Instead, the discovered web entities are proposed from most to least cited and the user is asked to manually prospect them and decide whether or not to include them in the corpus, turning them into web entities to be crawled. This method forms an iterative loop between web crawling and human curation, allowing to exclude top level magnets and progressively build the corpus by extending sources though hyperlink prospection, while taking care to avoid topic drifts  [18].
Which data structure to manage hypertext corpora? The World Wide Web is a vast documentary space. Building a web corpus iteratively requires a technical infrastructure able to efficiently store and retrieve data from a complex and large dataset in order to be reactive to both web crawls and human curation. Analysing the network of hyperlinks between the actors defined as web entities requires to compute how gathered web pages assemble in web entities and how their hyperlinks aggregate into web entity links, whereas researchers might constantly change the web entities boundaries. The typical approach of indexing each page's association to a web entity, and using it to aggregate page-to-page hyperlinks into entity-to-entity links is efficient but has a drawback: redefining the boundaries of a web entity requires to reindex all concerned pages and links, which can become prohibitively long as the number of pages grows.
Other crawlers are more suited than Hyphe for building and storing corpora of web contents to be quantitatively analysed. Archiving contents from a crawl raises legal and technical issues that we chose to avoid (temporal dimension and page reconstruction). We suggest to use Hyphe for sourcing a corpus and then passing it to institutions specialised in archival of the web. On the other hand, full-text search and text analysis features are within reach. First experiments with natural language processing on contents crawled with Hyphe are promising  [11]  and certainly relevant when it comes to quali-quantitative analysis. Even within the limits of the actual function of Hyphe, it is however possible to engage with substantial social phenomena and carry out in-depth research on them, as illustrated by the two following examples.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by the  DIME-SHS research equipment  financed by the  EQUIPEX program  ( ANR-10-EQPX-19-01 ) and the FORCCAST pedagogical equipment financed by the  IDEFI program  ( ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02 ). The  Digital Methods Initiative in Amsterdam ,  Dominique Cardon ,  Jonathan Gray  and  Tommaso Venturini  inspired part of this paper thanks to fruitful discussions regarding hyperlinks.
These objectives underline the strong integration of this bio-diversity teaching program within the pupils'community. This educational project adopts an intercultural approach, as defined by  Rengifo (2005, p. 3-46) , based on the transmission of knowledge by the elders, on the one hand, and upon the overcoming of the duality of local and scientific knowledge, on the other. For all this, it should not be considered that the problematics of local knowledge only concern the Southern countries. In the context of the management of bio-diversity, in particular, very similar aspects can be found in the Northern countries. Currently, within the framework of an ANR 41  project, research is being undertaken into the transfer in agricultural education of the modelling of multi-agent systems developed by the ComMod research network.
However, contrary to what these two authors argue, so is competition for resources (budget, students and staff). When they compete for the "best students" or the "most renowned researcher", research universities are not only competing for resources but also competing for the status attached to these resources and the status they will derive from the resources. In fact, not all resources are associated with the same reputation. It is more prestigious to receive an ERC grant (highly selective grants allocated by the European Research Council, ERC) than to obtain a grant from a national or regional agency, for example. It is more prestigious to recruit an assistant professor who received a "best paper award" for a publication in a major journal than to recruit someone with no award, etc. In recent years, as competitive pressures over status increased among research universities, the form of this competition evolved.
With the development of the Internet and growing access to many types of data, firms like Google also developed research search engines. They are freely accessible and not restricted to papers in academic journals (as in the case for Web of science and Scopus ); books, 14 conferences and all kinds of scientific literature are included. This huge amount of data 15 enabled the calculation and production of new indicators based on alternative algorithms, 15 See Dominique Cardon  (Cardon, 2013)  to understand how google develop PageRank and the moral machine involved in this algorithm aiming at ranking the appearance of data on web pages. among which the h-index is probably currently the best known and most publicized. Today, Web of science, Scopus and Google scholar are frequently used to compare individuals, journals and institutions.
Fourcade and Healy (2013)  powerfully showed that market instruments sort individuals and classify customers. By the same token, competitors for customers are also classified according to their success in attracting their sought clientele. Competition also classifies competitors. In higher education this occurs via various mechanisms. First, competition distinguishes between winners and losers when competitors are vying for a third party. This is the case, for example, when academics apply for grants and some get them while others do not. Academics compete for grants in a bid to secure funding for the development of their research. But competition for grants is also a competition for status. Having one's name associated with a high-status grant (like the European research council grants -ERC -in Europe, or the NSF in the US) increases one's status as well as the status of one's institution, since ERC grants now are an indicator of academic quality.
Background: There are numerous challenges in including patients in a core outcome set (COS) study, these can vary depending on the patient group. This study describes current efforts to include patients in the development of COS, with the aim of identifying areas for further improvement and study. Methods: Using the COMET database, corresponding authors of COS projects registered or published from 1 January 2013 to 2 February 2017 were invited via a personalised email to participate in a short online survey. The survey and emails were constructed to maximise the response rate by following the academic literature on enhancing survey responses. Personalised reminder emails were sent to non-responders. This survey explored the frequency of patient input in COS studies, who was involved, what methods were used and whether or not the COS development was international.
COMET aims to tackle the problem of heterogeneity in reported outcomes by promoting and facilitating the development and application of COSs. COMET also collates and stimulates the production of resources for COS development, and facilitates the exchange of ideas and methodological research to enhance the quality and uptake of COSs. COMET's key resource is a publicly accessible database (www. comet-initiative. org) of planned, ongoing and completed COS studies. The database of published COSs is updated annually via a systematic review. As indicated by the multiple individuals and organisations, including trialists, funders, registries, regulatory authorities, systematic review groups and journal editors now endorsing the uptake of COSs and use of the COMET database (a list of these organisations is available at: www.
Design The survey was conducted in English and included some brief demographic questions before enquiring about patient participation in COS development. Patient participation was defined as: 'where patients or the wider public (family members, carers, health and social care service users and people from organisations who represent these groups) or both, take part in the development of a core outcome set by giving data on their opinions regarding what outcomes are important. ' A full list of the questions can be found in Supplementary Information: Additional file 1. Survey Questions. The survey was constructed using the SurveyMonkey software  [17]. The benefits of using this software include the facility to incorporate filtre questions (whereby depending on the responses, questions are automatically skipped to the next appropriate question), it also allowed flexibility in the answer options which was of vital importance to obtaining the responses in the most appropriate manner.
Participant selection and recruitment The COS developers were identified via a search (2 February 2017) of all studies published from 2013 and ongoing COS projects in the COMET Initiative database. The survey was sent to COS developers as a link within a personalised email, inviting them to visit the Survey-Monkey website where the survey was hosted. Adopting a personalised approach and follow-up contact with those who do not respond to the initial email has been suggested to increase the odds of response by more than a quarter  [18] ; therefore, personalised emails were sent and three further emails were sent to non-responders.
Results The survey was sent to 192 COS developers. Some developers were involved in multiple COS projects and we asked them to complete the survey for each relevant COS. We contacted 59 developers for 59 published COS projects, 129 developers for 150 ongoing COS projects and 4 developers for 16 published and 19 ongoing COS projects. Responses were collected from February until May 2017. There were 146 respondents yielding a 76% response rate and providing data regarding 195 projects. The breakdown of respondents and their projects is as follows: 37 responders for 37 published COS projects, 29 responders for 29 completed COS projects, 49 responders for 52 ongoing COS projects, 25 responders for 27 planned COS projects, 6 responders for a mixture of 15 published, 12 completed, 17 ongoing and 6 planned COS projects.
This would be in line with previous research by  Ronneberger-Sibold [2006] , who reports in her study of the relative transparency of blend types in German that 66% of the 612 units in her dataset of literary and journalistic nonce formations, but only 16% of the 220 units in her dataset of brand names, are maximally transparent, i. e. coined through haplologic blending or the full (phonemic) overlap of source elements (as in Jewbilee, from Jew and jubilee). In order to assemble a large dataset of playful nonce blends in present-day English, we resorted to collecting items from a tailor-made corpus comprising 29 seasons of scripts from the US animated TV series The Simpsons, a long-running sitcom identified for its lexical creativity and expected to contain a sizable number of blends. As directly comparable data were available in Hexagonal French in the form of translated script, a lexical analysis of the translations of the English nonce blends into French was also subsequently carried out.
HTML coding was stripped to give raw text files for each season which were analyzed with the MonoConc Pro concordancer. These 29 files comprised some 1. 5 million words (approximately 2,300 words per episode on average). Given our focus on novel blends, we chose to proceed by the use of an exclusion corpus to remove already attested words. To create the exclusion corpus, we combined several existing stoplists of English words in order to limit the number of candidate forms. The first two stoplists were based on Webster's Second International Dictionary in the form of wordlists named web2 (235,887 items) and web2a (76,206 items) which are included in Unix/Linux-based operating systems. They encompass the large percentage of the English lexicon that has remained formally unchanged since the publication of this dictionary in 1934.
They were supplemented by three further stoplists that include lexical innovations up to the first decade of the twenty-first century: the list of the 20,000 most common words in the English GoogleBooks corpus (https://github. com/ first20hours/google-10000-english/blob/master/20k. txt), the list of the American English spelling variants of the 10,000 most common words in the corpus (https:// github. com/first20hours/google-10000-english/blob/master/google-10000-englishusa. txt) and a customized list combining the wordlists developed by the SCOWL (And Friends) project (http://wordlist. aspell. net/). These five stoplists were merged to form a final exclusion corpus containing 402,933 words. Using our concordancer, we generated a list of all items used in the 29 seasons of The Simpsons that were not present in the exclusion corpus.
French data 8 To examine the manner in which the English blends were rendered in French, we created a corpus based on the Hexagonal French version of The Simpsons along the same lines as for the English corpus. We gathered the existing transcripts from fansubmitted transcripts of the first 26 seasons (www. simpsonspark. com/scripts. php), as those episodes in Seasons 27-29 had not yet been broadcast in Hexagonal French, meaning we are only able to offer a translational perspective on 217 novel English blends amongst the 237 analyzed. From the French transcripts, we then extracted the utterances corresponding to the 217 English blends. In cases where it was uncertain based from the transcript alone that the utterance in question contained a blend, we viewed the relevant part of the episode in question to determine the accuracy of the transcription as compared to the audio and to gather any further non-verbal information present onscreen before, during and following the utterance in question.
A formal analysis of English nonce blends 9 The dataset of English nonce blends comprises 237 items, including 4 three-element items (e. g. Frightmarestein (< fright + nightmare + Frankenstein)) which are not analyzed further in this section because of their marginal status. All blends are given in their orthographic form for simplicity's sake, but they were retrieved from spoken data and the formal analysis below is thus solely based on the phonological form of each item.
Lexical shortening 10 The distribution of the various types of lexical shortening for the 233 two-element blends of the Simpsons dataset is presented in Table  1  and contrasted with that available for institutionalized blends  (Renner [2019: 33] ). The first striking difference between the two distributions is the absence of double right-shortened units like cyborg (< cybernetic + organism) or perfin (< perforated + initial) New lexical blends in The Simpsons: a formal analysis of English nonce format.
Segment overlap Segment overlap is not a defining, but a prototypical feature of lexical blending. It typically appears word-medially, around the point of splicing of the source elements or word fragments, as illustrated by the nonce blends in (  5 ): (5a) bland + tandoori > bl  [and + and] oori > blandoori (5b) Lamborghini + Bugatti > Lambor[g + g]atti > Lamborgatti Identical segments may also appear non-medially in the two source elements, as in the Simpsonian blends peachza (< peach + pizza) and forfty (< forty + fifty), but this is not considered a case of overlap sensu stricto (see  Renner [2019: 33]  for a discussion). Table  2  provides the breakdown of the different lengths of medial phonemic overlap in the Simpsons dataset. Overlap has been measured to be present in almost half of all blends (44%) in the case of institutionalized items  (Renner [2019: 34] ).
Phonological headedness In French, phonological headedness is determined by the relationship between the length of the blend and that of its source elements, length being defined here as the number of syllables. The distribution of the data presented in Table  9  shows that the non-copied nonce blends are fairly similar to the institutionalized blends examined by  Renner [2019: 43]. Given that non-headedness means that a blend has the length of neither of its source elements, the gap between institutionalized blends and nonce blends might indicate that the latter tend to increase in length in order to retain as many phonemes from their source elements as possible. To explore this hypothesis, we examined the length of the non-copied blends relative to their longer source element. Table  10 : Distribution of the length of French non-copied blends relative to the length of their longer source element.
The second group contains blends where the source elements are cohyponyms, like popsicle and esquimau in (16c), which are both frozen dessert foods. The final group contains the remaining items, where the corresponding source elements are not remarkably related semantically, such as nerd and beurk in (16b). A total of 73 non-analogous source elements for each language were examined. They comprised both source elements from the 14 French creative blends and their English equivalents (28 pairs), as well as the non-analogous source elements from the 45 French semi-creative blends and their English equivalents (45 pairs). Of the 73 pairs of source elements, 22 displayed a relation of synonymy and a further 22 pairs displayed a relation of cohyponymy, as shown in Table  11. 47 As a whole, the data in Table  11  underline the importance of overlapping syllables, which help with the identification of the source elements of nonce blends.
It would also allow identification of functionally equivalent components across species, namely different genes with similar neighbors in different species  [176]. While inferences on conserved sets of nodes and edges in ECNs are likely to be robust (since the patterns are observed in multiple species), missing data (missing nodes and edges) constitute a recognized challenge, especially for the interpretation of what will appear in ECN studies as the most versatile (least conserved) parts of the biological networks. The issue of missing data, however, is not specific to network-based evolutionary analyses, and should be tackled, as with other comparative approaches, by the development and testing of imputation methods  [195] [196] [197]. Moreover, issues of missing data can also be addressed by the production of high coverage -omics datasets in simple systems, allowing for (nearly) exhaustive representations of the entities and their interactions (i.
One can observe such gendering processes in the development of free/libre open source software (FLOSS). FLOSS such as the Mozilla Firefox browser, is the result of many incremental innovations contributed by people located in different places around the world. Contributors communicate mainly online via email, on the Internet forums, mailing lists, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) or on social media. Some of these channels are formal, used by organizations to communicate work-related information, and others informal; some private, others public. While the open characteristics of FLOSS, which include the freedoms to study, change, distribute and redistribute source code, are warmly embraced, it has been argued that there are numerous barriers stopping people from participating. Gender issues have been highlighted as one.
For example, the number of female contributors is extremely low, lower than the average in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector (see  Ghosh, Glott, Krieger, & Robles, 2002; Nafus, Leach, & Krieger, 2006a). Gendered or even sexist language has been observed on the communication channels mentioned above. While the 'open' nature of FLOSS has generated a highly valued online collaboration culture and network effect  (Benkler, 2006) , such male-dominated networks have produced a culture predicated on male sociability and stabilized as masculinist space  (Lin, 2005; Nafus et al. , 2006a; Nafus, Leach, & Krieger, 2006b; Reagle, 2013; Valentine et al. , 2014). Barriers for women to take part in FLOSS development have been discussed (see, e. g. ,  Lin, 2005). For example, in terms of work culture and work-life balance, it is difficult for many women to juggle different responsibilities in life while doing a job that requires long hours of commitment to coding.
Many women also do not have the skills and knowledge of some home-baked solutions circulated only in a closed male-centric geeky free/open source software community; most female developers seem to gain their knowledge from the formal school curriculum  (Lin, 2005). Additionally, many have reported experiences of discriminating, abusive, sexist language used online and/or offline (e. g. , the Read The Fxxx Manual (RTFM) culture), the lack of 'mentors' and role models, and the male-dominated competitive meritocratic culture. The term Following this line, this article will examine the gendered work cultures in FLOSS development through understanding how communications between FLOSS developers take place in an online space. Social meanings and societal values are embedded in languages. 'Language is the most intense and stubborn fortress of sexist assumptions'  (Sontag, 1973, p.
| BUG REPORTING, DEBUGGING AND BRICOLAGE The most effective way of understanding how a gendered online work environment is created is to look into everyday narratives and common work practices. Bug reporting and bug fixing are essential tasks in software development, but they are more than signalling software malfunctions and fixing them. Bug reporting and bug fixing involve a process of identifying, raising, discussing and resolving problems. It is a practice that requires both cognitive and communicative skills, and a process that is highly socio-technical, subjective as well as interpersonal  (den Besten & Dalle, 2014). In FLOSS development, identification and resolution of problems is commonly carried out with the help of so-called 'bug tracking systems'. As the name suggests, these systems allow for recording, reporting, tracking, triaging and resolving ('patching') of bugs.
| METHODOLOGY AND METHODS This article uses the development of the Mozilla Firefox web browser as a case study to demonstrate the gendered bricolage process. To study how bug reporting and bug fixing is performed and played out, and what (strategic) communications are involved to facilitate the work, we conducted a case study of the 'Heidi bug' drawing on the narratives in the bug tracking system Bugzilla. We collected all the narratives in relation to the Heidi bug and conducted an analysis on the narratives. We started by looking at how questions are raised and phrased on the bug tracking system, a common tool that has long been employed by developers to communicate with one another in an open and distributed environment to manage the process of bug reporting, triage and patching in the development and maintenance of software projects.