dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
We also report the best fitted column density of the source; if the spectrum is well fitted both by powerlaw and apecs, we report both the values, respectively. The X-ray flux is unabsorbed and in the 0. 3-10 keV energy range. The optical flux is unabsorbed and in the V band, from the NOMAD catalog. The errors on column densities are at a 90% confidence. for the absorbed model: any X-ray-band absorbed power-law model that is drawn on the plot which is not fully contained in the envelope is excluded by the data at the 1σ confidence level. Similarly, the blue region is the γ-ray 1σ butterfly, using a power-law with exponential cutoff. We note that these regions are verified only in the X-ray (0. 3-10 keV) and γ-ray (0. 1-100 GeV) band and then estrapolated to the full plot.
Acknowledgments We warmly thank  Paizis Adamantia ,  Andrea Giuliani ,  Fabio Gastaldelli  and  Andrea Belfiore  for all the discussions and helps. We also thank  Massimiliano Razzano  and  Lemoine-Goumard  for their good work as Galactic Coordinators. The F ermi LAT Collaboration acknowledges support from a number of agencies and institutes for both development and the operation of the LAT as well as scientific data analysis. These include  NASA  and  DOE  in the United States,  CEA/Irfu  and  IN2P3/CNRS in France ,  ASI  and  INFN in Italy, MEXT ,  KEK , and JAXA in Japan, and the  K. A. Wallenberg Foundation , the  Swedish Research Council  and the  National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support from  INAF in Italy and CNES in France  for science analysis during the operations phase is also gratefully acknowledged.
XPS analysis XPS measurements were carried out in a VG 220i XL system, with a base pressure of 5 × 10 -10 Torr and using the AlKα (1486. 5 eV) X-ray monochromatized radiation with a pass energy of 20 or 8 eV (resolution 0. 2 eV). Energy levels of XPS were calibrated with Au single crystal. The spectra were processed using the VG Eclipse Data System.
Processing RCF data Radiochromic film (RCF) is a blue tinted plastic film (or yellow for EBT film), with a self-developing active layer which colourises upon exposure to ionising radiation. The active layer of RCF is made of an organic monomer which undergoes polymerisation upon irradiation. The polymer product exhibits significant optical absorption (darkens) and the colour is determined by the absorption spectrum of the polymer molecules. The degree of colouring is measured in terms of the film's optical density (OD): the reduction in the intensity of light that can be transmitted through the film. A crucial requirement of any film used for dosimetry is a known relation between the OD and the dose absorbed by the film. We define OD in terms of the fraction of light transmitted as follows: OD ¼ log 10 ðI 0 =IÞ (2.
The ability to closely monitor the beam pointing, flux and emittance for each proton (ion) bunch is essential if laser-driven ion sources are to be used for applications where shot-to-shot reproducibility is of critical importance. A conventional RCF stack (see Section 2) offers higher spatial and spectral resolution, but re-useable plastic scintillators significantly increase the data acquisition rate while offering near-instantaneous single bunch feedback. However in order to become viable as an imaging medium, the scintillator light emission needs to be characterised over a range of proton energies and fluxes. Results discussed here are based on tests with four scintillator types: BC-408 and BC-422Q from Saint-Gobain crystals and EJ-260 and EJ-264 from Eljen Technologies. The emission spectra of each scintillator were measured by illuminating a sample with a monoenergetic proton source where the light was recorded with an Ocean Optics spectrometer.
Comparison with radiochromic film (RCF) detection Spectral measurements performed with RCF stacks and the magnetic spectrometer (MS) can be complementary. With a known calibration, radiochromic film data from a stacked configuration can be deconvolved to determine the deposited proton energy for each film. With a fitting procedure, the incident proton spectrum can be deduced. This has been discussed in more detail in Section 2. 1. 1. However, unlike the MS, the RCF technique measures the whole beam angular distribution with a coarse energy resolution. Therefore only the RCF inferred spectrum is used to extract the total energy in the proton beam and the energy conversion efficiency for proton acceleration (laser pulse energy to full spectrum proton energy). Radiochromic film reveals that proton beam divergence follows a universal curve  [58, 59]  when scaled to the beam maximum energy (see Fig.
In this paper we present a new way to estimate the atmospheric transparency by using only observables and calibration parameters from the Cherenkov data taken with the H. E. S. S. telescope array. In the first part of this paper we will discuss the most important atmospheric conditions that affect spectral shower reconstruction. A second part will present the new monitoring quantity that estimates the "atmosphere transparency", followed by a short systematic study on the effect of atmospheric transparency, traced by this quantity, on reconstructed spectral parameters. Finally, the last part will contain a detailed comparison of this new monitoring quantity with satellite data that measures the total atmospheric optical depth at different wavelengths and with local radiometer measurements of sky clarity.
Systematic effects on reconstructed spectra The correlation between the transparency coefficient and spectral distortions was studied on the example of the Crab Nebula, a standard candle at TeV energies without any detectable variability over timescales of years. The data were taken over 8 consecutive years from 2004 to 2011. The standard quality criteria, with the exception of those for good atmospheric conditions, were applied to remove runs with technical problems or runs affected by small clouds in the field of view. The full data set was subdivided into subsets of data corresponding to different ranges of the atmospheric transparency parameter. The standard cut-based analysis using simple air shower image parameters, the so called Hillas analysis  (Hillas, 1985) , was then employed to obtain spectral information for each subset.
Quantitatively, assuming the reconstructed gamma ray energy E reco and the true energy E true to be related via (3) yields a good description of the data (solid line in Fig. 4 , left panel) with Γ f it = 2. 69 ± 0. 13, in perfect agreement with the spectral index obtained from the power law fit to the Crab Nebula spectrum (Γ Crab ). Fig. 4  (right panel) displays the reconstructed spectral index Γ as function of T. An indication for some hardening of the spectrum with increasing T in the range 0. 7 ≤ T ≤ 1 might be observed, but it is not significant. This may be at least partially attributed to deviations of the spectrum of the Crab Nebula from a power law which leads to an increase of the spectral index for increasing energy threshold (connected to decreasing transparency). Also variations of the shower shapes with energy may contribute to this behaviour but, since the T-dependence is found to be weak, we conclude that the simple attenuation model (  3 ) is at least a good approximation.
E. S. S. site (with a grid spacial resolution of 0. 5 • x0. 5 • ) at three different wavelengths (443 nm, 555 nm and 670 nm), from UV to red wavelengths were used. Note that the satellite only measures the AOD during daytime. On the other hand, the values of the Cherenkov transparency coefficient are calculated in intervals of 28 minutes during the dark time period at the H. E. S. S. site. The Cherenkov transparency coefficient data set has been filtered by data quality cuts that remove data taken during cloudy nights, as already described in Section 2. 1, and hardware problems. Depending on latitude, the satellite samples a fixed location every 2 to 9 days. The overlap of satellite measurements and H. E. S. S. data taking is therefore sparse, reducing the available data set for the correlation study (in this study, only MISR data that has been taken within 24 hours of H.
We present here the results of a further study of the sensitivity of radiometers to aerosols. Radiometer data taken during the biomass burning period in Namibia between July 2011 and March 2012 were examined for runs which showed, from the most nearly-contemporaneous LIDAR profiles, evidence for the presence of an aerosol layer and the absence of cloud. Some data quality cuts were also applied based on trigger rate, number of telescopes operating, and the quality of LIDAR and radiometer data. This resulted in 28 4-telescope runs for analysis. Since radiometer temperature is correlated with zenith angle and with air temperature, it is usual in studies of radiometer data to correct for both effects. A plot of the peak range-corrected LIDAR backscatter signal, which represents the peak aerosol density, versus the difference between the zenith-corrected sky temperature measured by the radiometer and that which would have been expected for a clear sky, is shown in Figure  7.
It was found that the shift in reconstructed energies leads to flux normalizations that may be biased on the order of tens of percent if the data was taken in the presence of thin clouds and/or aerosols. Applying the presented quality cuts to Crab Nebula data largely removes bad-weather data and limits biases in the flux normalization caused by these atmospheric light absorbers to less than 20%. A correlation study between the Cherenkov transparency coefficient and AOD measurements performed by the MISR satellite results in a correlation factor of about 0. 85 at blue wavelengths (λ=443 nm). A large correlation factor proved the relation (with gradient = 0. 75 at 443 nm) between AOD values and the new transparency coefficient, a quantity which is extracted directly from the Cherenkov technique.
Acknowledgments We are grateful to  D. S. Ageev ,  A. Füzfa ,  M. I. Kalinin ,  K. S. Stelle  and  S. Yu. Vernov  for enlightening discussions, as well as  S. V. Bolokhov  and  V. D. Ivashchuk  at the early stage of this work. AG was supported by the  French Government Scholarship for the joint PhD program.
The cross-section is presented differentially for the ψ(2S) for the first time. Although the total uncertainty for the J/ψ differential distribution is 7% per rapidity bin, most of this is correlated bin-to-bin; the uncorrelated uncertainty is typically 1. 5%. Thus the overall shape of the differential distribution is rather well determined and this improves the ability of the data to distinguish between different theoretical models. The integrated cross-sections are in good agreement with several theoretical estimates. The differential J/ψ and ψ(2S) cross-section both agree better with the NLO rather than LO predictions of  [5]. The result has also been compared to two models that include saturation effects  [2, 3] ; in both cases, good agreement is observed. It is also worth noting that the t-dependence for LHCb and HERA results are in agreement with Regge theory.
Acknowledgements We thank  Lucian Harland-Lang  and  Stephen Jones  for many helpful discussions and clarifications. We express our gratitude to our colleagues in the CERN accelerator departments for the excellent performance of the LHC. We thank the technical and administrative staff at the LHCb institutes. We acknowledge support from  CERN  and from the national agencies:  CAPES ,  CNPq ,  FAPERJ  and  FINEP (Brazil) ;  NSFC (China) ;  CNRS/IN2P3  and  Region Auvergne (France) ;  BMBF ,  DFG ,  HGF  and  MPG (Germany) ;  SFI (Ireland) ;  INFN (Italy) ;  FOM  and  NWO  (The Netherlands); SCSR (Poland);  MEN/IFA (Romania) ;  MinES, Rosatom ,  RFBR  and  NRC "Kurchatov Institute" (Russia) ;  MinECo, XuntaGal and GENCAT (Spain) ;  SNSF  and  SER (Switzerland) ;  NAS Ukraine (Ukraine) ;  STFC  ( United Kingdom );  NSF (USA).
However, on increasing L, P (D) broadens, becomes almost flat at a certain critical L (whose value depends on H), and then changes its shape so that D = 1/2 minimizes the distribution. This implies that for sufficiently large L, two values of the diffusion coefficients obtained for two different realizations of V (x) are most likely very different, and the event D L = D ′ L is the least probable. Note that a similar dependence in the distribution of the prefactor in the Sinai law on the strength of disorder was recently observed in  [52]. GS is supported by the ANR grant 2011-BS04-013-01 WALKMAT. This project is partially supported by the Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research under Project 4604-3. SG, AR and GS thank the Galileo Galilei Institute for Theoretical Physics, Florence, Italy for the hospitality and the INFN for partial support during the completion of this work.
We are confident that the heavy-quark calculations will soon reach the state that pertains in light-quark physics. Several general issues concerning the present review are thoroughly discussed in Sect. 1. 1 of our initial paper  [1]  and we encourage the reader to consult the relevant pages. In the remainder of the present section, we focus on a few important points. Each discretisation has its merits but also its shortcomings. For the topics covered already in the first edition of the FLAG review, we have by now a remarkably broad data base, and for most quantities lattice calculations based on totally different discretisations are now available. This is illustrated by the dense population of the tables and figures shown in the first part of this review. Those calculations which do satisfy our quality criteria indeed lead to consistent results, confirming universality within the accuracy reached.
9661(32), (direct, N f = 2 + 1), f + (0) = 0. 9560(57)(62), (direct, N f = 2). ( 38 ) The brackets in the second line indicate the statistical and systematic errors, respectively. The dominant source of systematic uncertainty in these simulations of f + (0), the chiral extrapolation, will soon be removed by simulations with physical light quark masses (see FNAL/MILC 13C  [138]  and RBC/UKQCD  [182] ) In the case of the ratio of decay constants the data sets that meet the criteria formulated in the introduction are MILC 13A  [157]  and HPQCD 13A  [156]  with N f = 2+1+1,  MILC 10 [159] ,  BMW 10 [161] , HPQCD/UKQCD 07  [165]  and RBC/UKQCD 12  [25]  (which is an update of RBC/UKQCD 10A  [78] ) with N f = 2 + 1 and ETM 09  [169]  with N f = 2 dynamical flavours. MILC 13A have determined the ratio of decay constants from a comprehensive set of ensembles of Highly Improved Staggered Quarks (HISQ) which have been taylored to reduce staggered taste-breaking effects.
HPQCD employed a global fit based on continuum NLO SU(3) chiral perturbation theory for the decay constants supplemented by a model for higher-order terms including discretisation and finite-volume effects (61 parameters for 39 data points supplemented by Bayesian priors). Their final result is f K ± / f π ± = 1. 1916  (15)   (12) (1)  (10) , where the errors are statistical, due to the continuum extrapolation, due to finite-volume effects and the last error contains the combined uncertainties from the chiral extrapolation, the scale-setting uncertainty, the experimental input in terms of f π + and from the uncertainty in m u /m d. Despite the large overlap in primary lattice data both collaborations arrive at surprisingly different error budgets. In the preparation of this report we interacted with both collaborations trying to understand the origin of the differences.
8. HPQCD explains 12 that in their setup, despite lacking the information from the fine ensemble (a = 0. 06 fm), the approach 12 Email exchange between HPQCD and FLAG. to the continuum limit is reliably described by the chosen fit formula leaving no room for the shift in the result on the finest lattice observed by MILC. They further explain that their different way of setting the relative lattice scale leads to reduced cutoff effects compared to MILC's study. We now turn to finite-volume effects which in the MILC result is the second-largest source of systematic uncertainty. NLO staggered chiral perturbation theory (MILC) or continuum chiral perturbation theory (HPQCD) was used for correcting the lattice data towards the infinite-volume limit. MILC then compared the finite-volume correction to the one obtained by the NNLO expression and took the difference as their estimate for the residual finite-volume error.
In addition they checked the compatibility of the effective theory predictions (NLO continuum, staggered and NNLO continuum chiral perturbation theory) against lattice data of different spatial extent. The final verdict on the related residual systematic uncertainty on f K ± / f π ± made by MILC is larger by an order of magnitude than the one made by HPQCD. We note that only HPQCD allows for taste-breaking terms in their fit model while MILC postpones such studies to future work. The above comparison shows that MILC and HPQCD have studied similar sources of systematic uncertainties, e. g. by varying parts of the analysis procedure or by changing the functional form of a given fit ansatz. One observation worth mentioning in this context is the way in which the resulting variations in the fit result are treated.
This allows them for a more reliable estimation of systematic effects. In this situation we consider only their statistical but not their systematic uncertainties to be correlated. For N f = 2 the FLAG average is just the result by ETM 09 and this is illustrated in terms of the vertical grey band in the r. h. s. panel of Fig. 4. For the purpose of this plot only, the isospin correction has been removed along the lines laid out earlier. For the average indicated in the case of N f = 2 + 1 we take the original data of BMW 10, HPQCD/UKQCD 07 and RBC/UKQCD 12 and use the MILC 10 result as computed above. The resulting fit is of good quality, with f K / f π = 1. 194(4) and χ 2 /dof = 0. 4. The systematic errors of the individual data sets are larger for MILC 10, BMW 10, HPQCD/UKQCD 07 and RBC/UKQCD 12, respectively, and following again the prescription of Sect.
Values of |V us |, |V ud | in the region enclosed by this contour are consistent with the lattice data for N f = 2 + 1, within one standard deviation. In particular, the plot shows that the nuclear β decay result for |V ud | is in good agreement with these data. We note that with respect to the previous edition of the FLAG review the reanalysis including new results has moved the ellipse representing QCD with N f = 2+1 slightly down and to the left. Repeating the exercise for N f = 2 leads to the larger blue ellipse. The figure indicates a slight tension between the N f = 2 and N f = 2 + 1 results, which, at the current level of precision is not visible if considering the N f = 2 and N f = 2 + 1 results for f + (0) and f K ± / f π ± in Fig. 4  on their own. It remains to be seen if this is a first indication of the effect of quenching the strange quark.
The quark condensate in the chiral limit is given by = F 2 B. With precise enough data at several small enough pion masses, one could in principle also determine M , F and k M , k F. To date this is not yet possible. The results for the LO and NLO constants will be presented in Sect. 5. 1. 6. Alternatively, one can invert Eq. (  48 ) and express M 2 and F as an expansion in ξ ≡ M 2 π 16π 2 F 2 π , ( 52 ) and the corresponding expressions then take the form M 2 = M 2 π × ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ 1+ 1 2 ξ ln 2 3 M 2 π - 5 8 ξ 2 ln 2 M M 2 π 2 +ξ 2 c M + O(ξ 3 ) ⎫ ⎬ ⎭ , F = F π × ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ 1 -ξ ln 2 4 M 2 π - 1 4 ξ 2 ln 2 F M 2 π 2 + ξ 2 c F + O(ξ 3 ) ⎫ ⎬ ⎭. ( 53 ) The scales of the quadratic logarithms are determined by ln 2 M M 2 π = 1 15 × 28 ln 2 1 M 2 π +32 ln 2 2 M 2 π -33 ln 2 3 M 2 π -12 ln 2 4 M 2 π + 52 , ln 2 F M 2 π = 1 3 -7 ln 2 1 M 2 π -8 ln 2 2 M 2 π +18 ln 2 4 M 2 π - 29 2.
Acknowledgments We are particularly indebted to  J. Shigemitsu , who has actively participated in the production of the first version of the current review: her invaluable contributions are gratefully acknowledged. We wish to thank  Damir Bečirević ,  Nuria Carrasco ,  Christine Davies ,  Rachel Dowdall ,  Petros Dimopoulos ,  Jochen Dingfelder ,  Elvira Gamiz ,  Andreas Kronfeld ,  Peter Lepage ,  Matthew Moulson ,  Heechang Na ,  Jim Simone ,  Doug Toussaint  for correspondence and useful com-.
ments. C. P. acknowledges the support of the  Spanish MICINN  under grant  FPA2009-08785 , the  Spanish MINECO  under grant  FPA2012-31686  and the " Centro de excelencia Severo Ochoa Program "  SEV-2012-0249 , the  Community of Madrid  under grant  HEPHACOS S2009/ESP-1473 , and the  European Union  under the  Marie Curie-ITN Program STRONGnet , grant  PITN-GA-2009-238353. A. X. K. thanks the  Fermilab theory group  for hospitality while this review was finalised. The  Albert Einstein Center for Fundamental Physics at the University of Bern  is supported by the " Innovations-und Kooperationsprojekt C-13" of the "Schweizerische Universitätskonferenz SUK/CRUS ". Fermilab  is operated by  Fermi Research Alliance, LLC , under Contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11359  with the  U. S. Department of Energy.
This work was partially supported by  Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research  ( 25287046 ) and  SPIRE (Strategic Program for Innovative Research)  of  MEXT, Japan , by the  JSPS Kakenhi Grant , No. 22224003 , by  MIUR (Italy)  under the contract  PRIN 2010-2011 , by the  US Department of Energy  under grant numbers  DE-FG02-91ER40628 ,  DE-FG02-92ER40716 ,  DOE DE-FG02-13ER42001 ,  DE-FG02-96ER40956 , by the  OCEVU Labex  ( ANR-11-LABX-0060 ) and the A* MIDEX  project ( ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02 ) funded by the " Investissements d'Avenir" French government program  managed by the  ANR , by  UK STFC  grant  ST/G000557/1 , by the  Helmholtz Association  through the virtual institute " Spin and strong QCD " ( VH-VI-231 ), by the  Swiss National Sci-.
[2] , if these scalar states are tetraquarks, the ratio of decay widths is predicted to be 1/2. If instead these are qq states, they can be mixtures of two base states; in this scenario the width ratio can be any value and is determined principally by the mixing angle between the base states. The B 0 → J/ψπ + π -decay was first observed by the BaBar collaboration  [?]. It has been previously studied by LHCb using data from 1 fb -1 of integrated luminosity  [3]. The branching fraction was measured to be (3. 97 ± 0. 22) × 10 -5. The mass and angular distributions were used to measure the resonant substructure. That analysis, however, did not use the angle between the J/ψ and π + π -decay planes, due to limited statistics. A new theoretical approach  [4]  now allows us to include all the angular information and measure the fraction of CP -even and CP -odd states.
Data sample and detector In this paper, we measure the resonant substructure and CP content of the B 0 → J/ψπ + π -decay from data corresponding to 3 fb -1 of integrated luminosity collected with the LHCb detector  [5]  using pp collisions. One-third of the data was acquired at a center-of-mass energy of 7 TeV, and the remainder at 8 TeV. The detector is a singlearm forward spectrometer covering the pseudorapidity range 2 < η < 5, designed for the study of particles containing b or c quarks. The detector includes a high-precision tracking system consisting of a silicon-strip vertex detector surrounding the pp interaction region, a large-area silicon-strip detector located upstream of a dipole magnet with a bending power of about 4 Tm, and three stations of silicon-strip detectors and straw drift tubes  [6]  placed downstream.