dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Introduction: Mercury is divided into 15 quadrangles, and the one yet to be mapped using NASA's MESSENGER mission data is the Bach quadrangle (H-15) at Mercury's south pole. This region encompasses everything from 65 °poleward. Prior to this project, the only published map of this quadrangle is at 1:4. 3M scale, based on Mariner-10 imaging at 0. 5 km per pixel or worse resolution, and covers less than half of H15 (Fig  1 ). It includes patches of a 'very smooth plains' unit that was not mapped elsewhere on Mercury at the time. Our inspection of MESSENGER image data suggests that some of these patches are additional examples of topographically/tectonically confined latestage lavas recently tentatively identified further north, consistent with a drawn-out waning phase of effusive volcanism. We aim to produce a detailed 1:3M resolution geological map and interpret the geology of H-15, tying it in to the ongoing mapping of quadrangles H-11 and H-14 bordering it.
X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy can be used to determine M n+ /ΣM of a redox variable element (M) in glasses with an accuracy of 0. 02 or better (e. g. Berry et al. , 2018; Berry and O'Neill, 2004; Burnham et al. , 2015; Burnham and Berry, 2014). XANES has a number of advantages over redox titrations including shorter times for data acquisition, which facilitates the analysis of large numbers of samples, high spatial resolution (micron to sub-micron), and suitability for Febearing compositions. For Ti 4+ the energy and intensity of the 1s-3d preedge feature can be used to identify the coordination environment (e. g. Farges et al. , 1996; Berry et al. , 2007). For Ti 3+ the absorption edge occurs, as expected, at lower energies than for Ti 4+  (Waychunas, 1987)  and Ti Kedge XANES spectroscopy has been used to determine Ti 3+ /ΣTi in olivine, pyroxene and hibonite  (Simon et al.
Thus, the data for all compositions were minimised in a single model. The reduced χ 2 of the resulting fit was 1. 1 indicating that the data, within the estimated uncertainties, are very well described by the model. The calculated Ti 3+ / ΣTi and logfO 2 values of each sample are given in Table  2 , and the values of logK' for each composition are given in Table  1. The resulting relationships between Ti 3+ /ΣTi and ΔFMQ are shown in Fig. 6 , together with the sigmoidal curve defined by the corresponding logK'. A spreadsheet containing the model is provided as Supplementary Spreadsheet 1. It is now possible to calculate the Ti 3+ (and Ti 4+ ) end-member spectra that best fit the intermediate spectra in the proportions defined by the calculated Ti 3+ /ΣTi values. For each composition, a matrix with the recorded XANES spectra, y i,j , and a matrix with the fractions of Ti 3+ and Ti 4+ , C i,k , were defined.
Assuming a linear problem, C i,k S k,j = y i,j , where S k,j is a matrix with the Ti 3+ and Ti 4+ end-member spectra, S k,j was obtained by solving S k,j = (C i,k T C i,k ) -1 C i,k T y i,j , ( 4 ) where T is the transpose operator, using Python and the NumPy library  (Harris et al. , 2020). The calculated Ti 3+ end-member spectra are shown in Fig. 7a  for AD, AD + Wo and AD + Qz (the spectra of AD + En and AD + Fo are similar to that of AD and were omitted for clarity). The pre-edge region of the AD spectrum is shown in Supplementary Fig. 2. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the K-edge XANES spectrum of Ti 3+ in a silicate glass has been determined. The calculated spectra of Ti 4+ in the same compositions are shown in Fig. 7b  and are essentially indistinguishable from those recorded from the most oxidised samples.
Acknowledgements We thank  John Spratt  for assistance with the EPMA,  Daniel Sells  and the  EPSRC UK National Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Facility  at the  University of Manchester  for enabling us to acquire the EPR spectra,  Diamond Light Source  for the award of beamtime for proposal SP4516, and  Hugh O'Neill  for providing a template for the least squares minimisation model. A. J. B. thanks the  Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UK)  for the award of a CNA studentship, which was used to support P. M. D. We thank  Michael Ackerson  and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on the work.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to  V. Bansaye  for his advice and comments and to  B. Cloez  for fruitful discussions. This work was partially funded by the  Chair "Modélisation Mathématique et Biodiversité " of  VEOLIA-Ecole Polytechnique -MNHN-F. X. , by the  French national research agency (ANR)  via project  ANR NOLO  ( ANR-20-CE40-0015 ) and by  LabEx PERSYVAL-Lab  ( ANR-11-LABX-0025-01 ) funded by the  French program Investissement d'avenir.
Introduction Valles Marineris is the largest system of canyons on Mars that is more than 4,000 km long, 200 km wide, and up to 10 km deep. 3D mapping is essential to improving our understanding of the geological environment of Valles Marineris. Typically, deriving a co-aligned and mosaiced 3D base map covering the whole area is generally the starting point of such studies. This work focuses on a demonstration of multi-resolution 3D mapping and co-alignment of different data sources over the VM area using a co-registered and nested HRSC-CTX-CRISM-HiRISE dataset.
The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) collected hyperspectral images of the Martian surface and atmosphere from September 27, 2006, through May 7, 2022. Over that time, nearly twenty scientific investigations were completed, most of which arose as a result of the findings from previous investigations. Two review papers published in 2009 (Murchie et al. , 2009a,  b)  described the initial two-year investigation during MRO's Primary Science Phase, its key findings, and the CRISM data products that were developed and released to the community through that time. Here we describe the conduct and evolution of the CRISM investigation since then, which includes MRO's Extended Science Phase and first five Extended Missions. We document the physical changes in the instrument as it aged, including capabilities that were lost as well as new modes of operation not initially envisioned; the new science questions that were investigated and their key findings; anatomy of the extensive collection of data products that have been released to the Planetary Data System; the "final" radiometric calibration; high-order derived products produced.
2, τ ice = 0. 0. Rather than calculations being repeated for each pixel with minor inter-pixel differences, calculations were performed using DISORT for the range of expected variables and stored as look-up tables for discrete values. The corrections to be applied were interpolated to the specific conditions of each element in the I/F multiband image [x i ,y j ,λ k ]. Information on Ls was extracted from the PDS label of the TRDR containing the calibrated I/F data, and information on latitude, longitude, and altitude was extracted from the companion DDR. These data were then used to extrapolate to the best estimate of the atmospheric opacites from lookup tables. Then the photometric angles, altitude, Ls, and wavelength plus the dust and ice opacities extracted from the lookup table were used to interpolate wavelength-by-wavelength to a correction from I/F to Lambert albedo with τ dust = 0.
2, τ ice = 0. 0 with no absorptions due to atmospheric gases. The Lambert albedo also became the basis to which mapping strips acquired after May 2012 (when EPFs were no longer acquired) were corrected. For mapping data acquired after May 2012, beginning with version 4 of the MRDRs, a two-step correction was used that normalized out atmospheric gas absorptions and corrected for photometric effects, but did not explicitly correct for aerosol effects. This processing closely followed that applied to TERs and MTRDRs (Section 5). The first step was the volcano scan atmospheric correction that used an empirically derived Mars atmospheric transmission spectra to correct CRISM IR spectral reflectance data for atmospheric gas absorptions due to CO 2 , H 2 O, and CO. The second step for data corrected using the volcano scan was application of a Lambert photometric correction for each spatial pixel [x i ,y j ], applied uniformly to all spectral channels [λ].
Spectral summary products The CRISM spectral summary parameter library was revised between MRDR versions 3 and 4, and the formulae used in version 4 have been augmented to span the diverse mineralogy identified and/or reported in analyses of CRISM data  (Pelkey et al. , 2007 ; updated by  Viviano-Beck et al. , 2014). The library was used to generate a suite of parameterizations of the spectral structure in the MRDR Lambert albedo data products, which were recorded in a summary product multiband image, one per tile. Unlike summary products for TERs and MTRDRs, which were evaluated hyperspectrally at wavelengths specified in the summary product formulas, MRDR summary products were evaluated at the detector row closest to the specified wavelengths. Thus, the values resulting from the calculation are different for MRDRs.
Map-projection The transformed IR mapping strips and coregistered VNIR data were propagated into the map projected tile space using IR DDR per-pixel latitude and longitude information. The map projection was generated in accordance with MRO project standards described in Section 5. 13 for MTRDRs, using a pixel scale of 327 pixels per degree (ppd; 181 m/pixel), which is a close match to native resolution with 10× spatial pixel binning. This pixel scale avoided the aliasing of the data that occurred in v1 and v3 MRDRs that were projected at 256 ppd.
Viviano et al. (2023)    present. They found a high degree of correlation between inferred degree of regional alteration from targeted observations and more spatially continuous measurements from mapping data. In addition, analysis of the mapping data was able to correctly identify most minerals present, within limitations of reduced ability to discriminate spectrally similar phases: Fe vs. Mg hydroxysilicates and hydrated salts, some Fe/Mgphyllosilicates from hydrated Mg-carbonates, and silica with differing degrees of hydration. Many targeted observations were coordinated with contemporaneous HiRISE or CTX observations to provide a full complement of imaging and spectroscopic observations of key locations of Martian compositional heterogeneity. Completion of version 4 MRDR map tiles, which reveal mineralogically diverse outcrops that were not noticed in OMEGA data or targeted observations, came after >15 years of MRO orbital operations.
Products in development and data analysis tools At the time of this writing (early 2023) two product sets are under development from MRO project funding and one from a Planetary Data Archiving, Restoration, and Tools (PDART) grant. Four analysis tools funded by the MRO project have become available since  Murchie et al. (2007 Murchie et al. ( , 2009a) )  described CAT and the ground-based spectral library of Mars analog minerals measured under Mars-like desiccating conditions. The tools are available online from the PDS at https://pds-geosciences. wustl. edu/missions/mro/crism. htm. In addition, targeted observations that lack accompanying EPF observations have been corrected for atmospheric effects and delivered to the PDS, funded by PDART outside of CRISM project funding.
VNIR hyperspectral map The VNIR hyperspectral map is being delivered to the PDS as a series of VNIR Hyperspectral Data Records (VRDRs), whose processing and formatting parallels that of the MRDR VNIR+IR hyperspectral map tiles as described in Section 6, with a number of differences described below. The overall processing flow still remains the same: • Input data consisted of two types of mapping strip multiband images whose formats were comparable to MSW and HSP data respectively: VNIR hyperspectral data in 92-channel MSV strips where all 92 channels with useful signal were included, at 90 m/pixel; and VNIR 107-channel hyperspectral data in HSV strips at 180 m/pixel. • However an additional filtering step was required, the Frame Set Correction described by  Frizzell et al. , 2020; Fig. 27 ).
The aggregate profile was smoothed using a sliding boxcar median filter with a length scale of 50 frames (approximately the size of the largest residual structures). The boxcar result was subtracted from the aggregate profile to produce a correction profile for each spectral band [λ k ]. The along-track correction was then applied to all samples [y j ] in the input multiband image. • Anchor strips for the map were those acquired under conditions of lowest atmospheric opacity as recorded in the data set of  Montabone et al. (2015 Montabone et al. ( , 2020)). The strips included some that anchor the MRDRs, but also incorporated strips acquired after cessation of IR data collection. Inter-strip reconciliation proceeded as with MRDRs except only for VNIR wavelengths. • The only summary parameters and browse products generated were those that require only VNIR wavelengths.
• VRDRs were constructed at a pixel scale of 654 ppd. (twice the value as for v4 MRDRs, 90 m/pixel), a close match to the native resolution of MSV data. Thus resulting tiles have 2× the linear dimension of v4 MRDRs. • The maps were constructed in two steps, each with higher values of τ dust laid in first, and lower values of τ dust laid in on top. In the first step, 90 m/pixel MSV strips were laid in. Then, 180 m/pixel HSV strips are laid in the in same order, but placed "in back of" the MSV strips. This procedure resulted in lower spatial resolution data filling coverage gaps in higher spatial resolution data.
, 2022). Construction of rendered ATOs focused on regularization of the data to remediate non-uniform spatial sampling at the sub-pixel scale, retrieval of the best estimate of surface spectral reflectance over the full CRISM wavelength range (i. e. , both VNIR and IR data) free from atmospheric effects, and explicit consideration of both solar and thermal terms that contributed to spectral radiance on the sensor. To meet the objective of isolating the surface reflected component of radiance, DISORT was employed to model atmospheric gases and aerosols, with a surface boundary condition based on the Hapke (2012) photometric function. Output from the DISORT computations included surface single scattering albedo (SSA, the independent variable in the Hapke photometric function) estimates for each CRISM wavelength as a function of pixel-dependent atmospheric surface pressure, scene-dependent τ dust and τ ice , pixel-dependent incidence, emission, and phase angles, and pixel-dependent surface kinetic temperatures.
, 2017; He et al. , 2019). To remove the noise, an iterative log maximum likelihood approach was used to retrieve the best estimate of the surface SSA spectra in the presence of Poissondistributed noise for each pixel. The processing also generated mapprojected-SSA multiband images at 12 m/pixel, taking into account the overlap of the data associated with the along-track oversampling, that enables a form of "super resolution" processing. Regularization of the data from sensor to projected space included inversion of both the spatial and spectral transfer functions to sharpen the data, while removing Poisson-distributed noise using penalties for anomalous excursions. CRISM team members and collaborators from Washington University in Saint Louis processed and delivered to the PDS 303 VNIR ATO scenes as I/F values that have been processed through the log maximum likelihood procedures.
The scenes were selected based on scientific content and a high degree of spatial overlap that allows processing to 12 m/pixel map projected data sets with sharpened spatial features relative to other processing methods. In addition, ten ATO scenes were processed to single scattering albedo values for the full CRISM wavelength region. The S and L data were also co-registered to produce integrated S and L spectral cubes. The scenes were selected after careful scrutiny of the full S and L ATO scenes. The selected scenes are those in which spectral evidence is present in the data for minerals produced and/or altered in the presence of water.
JCAT The CAT tool requires an ENVI license to operate. To provide a free tool that shared CAT capability to access, display, process, and plot results from CRISM data products, CRISM SOC team members developed and released the Java-based tool JCAT. JCAT allows users to perform basic processing and analysis tasks including view and stretch multiband images, perform I/F comparisons, alter wavelength sets for RGB images, plot spectra, save data and images, and perform atmospheric and photometric corrections. It works either on TRDRs or advanced products described above. Along with the source code and required CDRs, a user tutorial is downloadable from the PDS and at http://crism. jhuapl. edu/JCAT/.
MICA files Minerals Identified through CRISM Analysis (MICA Files) is a spectral library of type examples of minerals identified in CRISM data, as measured at Mars, accompanied by terrestrial analog mineral spectra measured in laboratories  (Viviano-Beck et al. , 2014 ). An accompanying document with descriptions of the type locations and CRISM and HiRISE images of the locations remains available from the CRISM team web site at http://crism. jhuapl. edu/data/mica/ 7. 5. QuickMap web Interface to the CRISM data Mars QuickMap (http://mars. quickmap. io/; Fig. 28 ) provides an easy to use yet powerful web GIS interface to view CRISM map products. At the time of this writing, it is being upgraded to include CRISM End-of-Mission data products. Thematic RGB browse products for the global multispectral survey (MRDR) and over 9000 higher-resolution targeted products (MTRDRs) can be layered together with many other published Mars datasets such as HiRISE and CTX images.
Also, it can provide spectral plots and downloadable data values for user-entered points based on the MRDR multispectral global map. In addition to the published targeted MTRDR RGB browse product views, all targeted observations can be searched as color-coded footprint area layers with an observation ID overlay. This CRISM-focused Mars QuickMap site was developed by Applied Coherent Technology Corporation (ACT), which is a part of the CRISM Co-Investigator team.
TERs and MTRDRs for Post-2012 observations without EPFs The aforementioned work was completed under the auspices of funding by the MRO project. Extension of TER/MTRDR processing to post-2012, EPF-less targeted observations was sponsored by a NASA PDART grant. The EGN correction is a key component of the TER/MTRDR data processing pipeline which characterizes and corrects wavelengthdependent, along-track radiance gradients present in central scan multiband images due to gimbal motion and the resulting continuously variable observation geometry. The EGN correction applied to pre-2012 data was fitted to the accompanying EPF images. In mid-2012, acquisition of accompanying EPF images was suspended due to aging of the gimbal and the onset of angular range restrictions. To overcome this limitation, a modified "proxy" EGN correction was developed that does not rely on accompanying EPF images, and allows for the production of TER/MTRDR data product suites for the restricted gimbal range latermission targeted observations.
This was applied to the highest-value data containing both VNIR and IR wavelengths. The pre-2012 EGN procedure (Section 5. 6) approximated the gradient of atmospheric radiance with a polynomial function of two observation angles, the cosine of emission angle (proportional to atmospheric path length) and phase angle (dependent on aerosol scattering). Due to the lack of EPF images after mid-2012, it is difficult to directly estimate the underlying intensity gradient caused by the varying observation angles. Instead, a proxy EGN correction transferred gradient model obtained from early-mission observations to the gimbal-restricted later-mission observations was used. The successful transfer of the EGN gradient model required identification of an earlier observation whose gradient model approximated that of a given later-mission EPF-free observation.
Acknowledgements This work was funded by  Jet Propulsion Laboratory  subcontract  1277793  to the  Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory  for conduct of the CRISM Investigation, and  NASA Planetary Data Archiving, Restoration,  and Tools (PDART) grant  80NSSC19K0418. The  CRISM  team gratefully acknowledges support from the  MRO  Project and the  PDS Geosciences Node.
In our analysis, we assume that the ratio between solid particles and vapour remains constant for each transport mechanism. Due to limited and inconclusive measurements regarding the quantity of water vapour present in the plume  [26] , we do not use these as the primary input dataset for assessing the model parameters. Instead, we calibrate the parameterized model of solid grain flux using the extensive activity dataset. Subsequently, we infer the vapour flux based on this calibrated model, as explained below. The constructed plume activity model involves four free parameters: weight parameter c characterizing the relative contribution of the two mechanisms, permanent shear at the faults ∆u 0 h , the effective Young's modulus of the porous medium E eff , and a pre-factor A 0. An additional parameter is the effective friction coefficient µ f characterizing the friction at faults and influencing shear displacement and normal stress averages along faults used in our analysis.
The resonant state of the hydraulic system induces a notable contribution to the plume activity, namely a third peak at around MA=320 • (blue line in Fig. 4, panel     c ), which is hinted by a slight increase in activity for some observational datasets (Fig. 1 ). The amplitude of this maximum in the vicinity of the resonant state is highly sensitive to the maximal water table elevation. The primary maximum is unaffected. The secondary maximum is slightly delayed and shifted from MA=47 • to MA=55 •. We note that it has been speculated that the secondary activity peak actually corresponds to a double peak, with two local maxima around MA=36 • and MA=51 •  [22]. This double peak might be in line with the 8 • shift predicted by our model in the case where hydraulic resonance affects only a portion of the fissure system.
However, it is difficult to make a direct comparison between the two datasets due to differences in observing geometry and the long time span since the UVIS data. Future JWST observations performed with Enceladus at different mean anomalies on its orbit, but acquired during a relatively short period of time will be essential to test our activity model. Based on our prediction, observations should be done in priority for mean anomaly values around 200 • and around 310 • in order to maximize the variations in water vapour column densities. At the same time, the latter timing provides the biggest potential for witnessing possible near-subsurface emission of vapour related to the hydraulic resonance. The two proposed transport mechanisms are also anticipated to contribute differently to the emission of solid icy grains, depending both on their size and varying formation processes.