dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Phylogenies and gene classification For each species, we aligned protein sequences coded by putative OR genes with known OR genes  [21]  using MAFFT. A maximum likelihood tree was computed with IQ-TREE, and genes were classified according to their position in the tree. To assess the relative diversity of OR subfamilies, a phylogenetic tree with OR genes of 44 species, each species belonging to a different order based on fishtreeoflife (https:// fisht reeofl ife. org/), was computed. The root was placed between type I and type II genes (Additional file 4: Supplementary Data 3). Using MAFFT, putative TAAR genes were aligned with TAARs and non-TAAR GPCRs genes obtained from  [20]. A maximum likelihood tree was computed with IQ-TREE and genes were classified according to their position in the phylogenetic tree (Additional file 4: Supplementary Data 3).
Phylogenetic comparative analyses We estimated phylogenetic signal (Pagel's λ) of each trait with the function phylosig in the R package phytools with the option test = TRUE  [48]. The R package caper (v1. 0. 1)  [49]  was used to perform phylogenetic generalized least square analyses using the function "pgls" with lambda = "ML" (Additional file 2: Supplementary Data 1).
Gene tree-species tree reconciliation The number of gene gains and number of gene losses along each branch of the species phylogenetic tree were inferred using the gene tree-species tree reconciliation method. The OR family is large, as described previously  [10] , and thus OR genes belonging to different subfamilies were aligned separately. For the smaller TAAR, OlfC, and ORA gene families, one alignment was obtained for each gene family separately. All alignments were obtained using MAFFT. Maximum likelihood trees were computed with IQ-TREE. Nodes with low bootstrap values (< 90%) were collapsed into polytomies using the R package ape. We then used Treerecs  [22]  to root and reconcile genes trees with the species tree. For each olfactory receptor family, we computed birth and death rates using equations in  [50]  excluding branches with length < 2 Mya because differences in gene retrieval and genome qualities greatly impacted inferred birth and death rate  [10].
25 National cesarean rates,  4  understood as a proxy of the medicalization of birth. • The global gender gap index (GGGI) by the World Economic Forum 39 as a proxy for the manifestation of gender norms. This estimates gender-related disparities through economic, political, educational, and health variables. Scores range between 0 and 1 (1 = total equality). For sensitivity analyses, we used the OECD Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), which has a strong emphasis on social structures (e. g. measures of discriminatory family code, restricted physical integrity/resources and civil rights). 40 Scores range between 0 and 100 (100 = very high discrimination). SIGI data were missing for Luxembourg. • Economic indicators that may be relevant for the financing of health and the healthcare workforce: the national gross domestic product per capita (GDP) and health expenditure as a percentage of GDP for the year 2021.
AUTH O R CO NTR I B UTI O N S ML conceived the IMAgiNE EURO study, with major inputs from EPV, BC, and additional input from all other authors. All authors promoted the surveys and supported the process of data collection. CM, LW, and SBZ conceived the present article, with major inputs from ML. IM analyzed data, with major inputs from CM, LW, and ML. CM wrote the first draft, with major inputs from all authors. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.
, 2010). Similarly,  Heyns et al. (2021)  studied the geomagnetic pulsations at mid-latitudes and found that low-frequency pulsations can lead to significant GICs. Thus, the GIC activity measured through dB/dt is biased in the low ultra-frequency range. On the other hand,  Ngwira et al. (2013)  and  Thomson et al. (2011)  argued that 60 s resolution for dB/dt is sufficient when investigating extreme storms. Thus, the occurrence frequency and characteristics of rapid geomagnetic variations, as well as exactly which physical parameters and drivers that potentially produce GICs is still not fully understood. The dependency of interplanetary drivers and storm phases on magnetic variations has been studied by  Kataoka and Pulkkinen (2008). The authors used the IMAGE magnetometer network data during CMEs (coronal mass ejections) and CIRs (co-rotating interaction regions) storms and provided a polar map, using the hourly maximum value, of the time derivative magnetic field behavior.
Another study found two occurrence frequency maxima at pre-midnight and pre-noon sectors  (EPRI, 2020). This study was based on two local magnetometer networks, which is an improvement to the above studies but does not provide full and simultaneous global coverage. In this study, we focus on where and when large dB/dt disturbances, potentially leading to intense GICs, are more likely to happen. To some extent, we also address why these rapid variations happen. In contrast to all previous studies, we use global data from the SuperMAG database, which offers a good simultaneous coverage all over the world and we analyze geomagnetic data for all geomagnetic storms recorded with SYM-H < -100 nT since 1980. We then identify time and locations of any large (>|500| nT/min) temporal derivative of the north, B N , and the east, B E , components of the magnetic field and discuss our results in the Discussion (Section 4).
Method and Data Analysis We used geomagnetic data from SuperMAG, a global magnetometers network  (Gjerloev, 2012). The default SuperMAG coordinate system is NEZ, where N is positive in the direction of local magnetic north; E is positive in the local magnetic east direction; and Z is positive vertical down. For each storm, we used all the magnetometer stations available (all latitudes and longitudes combined) around Earth (data set  -Schillings et al. [2021] ). As we are interested in full global coverage since 1980, we downloaded data in 1-min resolution with all baselines subtracted (see SuperMAG website for further detail or  Gjerloev [2012] ). As complementary information for the storms, we also used the AE, Dst, and SYM-H indices and the Sudden Storm Commencement (SSC). When one or several SSCs were associated with a storm, we considered the first one as the onset of our studied storm.
Potentially deep, but slow excursions may not fall within our categorization, because they are not sharp enough in their dB/dt effect. A better time resolution (e. g. , 1 s or 10 s data) would clearly lead to the identification of many more events, but in the past and still today SuperMAG does not have many stations with that resolution available. After automatic identifications of the spikes (such as shown in Figure  1 ), all the selected spikes have been visually inspected to avoid junk data and to identify whether the spikes are located close to a data gap or not. When a data gap is present in the magnetometer data, the dB i /dt might be the result of magnetometer saturation in periods of high activity. In this case, the spike number and intensity might be underestimated. To better interpret the data, we classified them in three classes: (a) good data (see Figure  1a ), (b) doubtful data (see Figure  1b ), and (c) data just after a data gap.
We have shown that the statistical occurrence pattern of strong dB/dt spikes in the form of two hotspots is indeed a global and not a local phenomenon. Separating the disturbances in northern and eastern components, we suggest different physical mechanisms causing the hotspots, and we could also show that both hotspots activate at different times in the development of a storm. As the intensity of the storm measured by the AE and Dst indices shows not correlation with the probability of spike occurrences, the dB/dt spikes do follow a temporal evolution while the storm is developing. Every new sequence is associated to a burst in the AE index. We therefore need to understand more about the detailed driving mechanisms for such spikes in the different storms. In the future, we plan to analyze the solar wind data for storms with high dB/dt occurrences and "smoother storms" in order to identify possible external driver mechanisms.
In future studies, we plan to use magnetic data with a higher time resolution (10 s or even 1 s data), to detect any spike events, which in our case may have fallen into two adjacent 1 min bins. Such higher resolution could also address more spectral details in the dB/dt variability, which have a strong impact on GIC occurrences as already pointed out by several studies  (Grawe et al. , 2018; Heyns et al. , 2021; Marshall et al. , 2010; Pulkkinen & Kataoka, 2006; Pulkkinen et al. , 2008; Rogers et al. , 2021). Both in the US and in Europe (through the European Space Agency that funded the MAG-SWE-DAN magnetometer project) such improved observational networks are being developed and their data will soon become available within the SuperMAG services. Once the full entity of such short-lived spikes in storms can truly and uniquely be detected and understood, one will need to correlate their refined occurrence statistics with a variety of solar wind drivers and internal magnetic processes, considering local effects whenever possible.
Acknowledgments A. Schillings  and  H. J. Opgenoorth  acknowledge the  Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA)  for its financially support under the Grant  10077/15. Under the same SNSA Grant  10077/15 , LP started the work with the IRF Uppsala affiliation until 2017. In 2019,  A. Schillings  took over the work. M. Hamrin  was supported by the  SNSA  Grant  81/17  and the  Swedish Research Council  Grant  2018-03623.
Data Availability Statement The authors first would like to thank M. T. Walach for providing the storms list 1980-2020 using her algorithm discussed in  Walach and Grocott (2019). The authors thank the SuperMAG team for their services and time for discussing the data (http://SuperMAG. jhuapl. edu/mag/). The storm list and data set downloaded from Super-MAG can be accessed https://doi. org/10. 5281/zenodo. 4922994. The AE and SYM-H indices data were retrieved from the OMNIWeb page https://omniweb. gsfc. nasa. gov/form/omni_min. html, the Dst data from the Kyoto page http://wdc. kugi. kyoto-u. ac. jp/dstdir/index. html and the SSC data stem from the International Service of Geomagnetic Indices http://www. obsebre. es/en/rapid.
Aim: To investigate the impact of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors on the risk of incident heart failure and adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Methods: All patients with diabetes who were registered between January 2018 and December 2019 were identified from a federated electronic medical record database (TriNetX) and followed up for 2 years. A 1:1 propensity-score matching (PSM) analysis was performed to balance the SGLT2 inhibitor and non-SGLT2 inhibitor cohorts. The primary outcome was incident heart failure. Secondary outcomes included allcause mortality, cardiac arrest, ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation (VT/VF), incident atrial fibrillation (AF), ischaemic stroke/transient ischaemic attack (TIA), composite of arterial and venous thrombotic events, and composite of incident VT/VF and cardiac arrest.
Furthermore, in all the randomized controlled trials (RCTs) the beneficial effects were observed within a matter of weeks, regardless of glycaemic control, suggesting that SGLT2 inhibitors exert their effects through glucose-independent mechanisms. Although the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on heart failure outcomes have been demonstrated consistently, their impact on some of the other cardiovascular outcomes are less apparent, owing to mixed evidence from RCTs and limited observational studies. Thus, this study aimed to: (a) evaluate the association between SGLT2 inhibitors and incident heart failure, as well as other non-heart-failure-related adverse cardiovascular events such as mortality, arrhythmias and vascular thrombosis, using a large global federated database and (b) determine whether these results from a real-world population were consistent with those of RCTs such as EMPA-REG OUTCOME and DECLARE-TIMI 58, which were conducted in selective study populations under stringent conditions.
As TriNetX only provides access to de-identified data, research studies conducted using TriNetX do not require ethical approval. Nonetheless, extensive data quality assessments are performed to ensure adherence of the platform to the institutional review board requirements and conformance, completeness and plausibility of the available data. 8, 9 Study proceedings were carried out according to the Declaration of Helsinki. [subsequent ST elevation and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction]).
4] [5]  In a subgroup analysis of the DECLARE-TIMI 58 trial, the risk of the composite outcome of cardiovascular death and/or hospitalization for heart failure was significantly lower in the dapagliflozin group compared to placebo in the subgroups with and without prevalent heart failure. 3 Nonetheless, none of the RCTs thus far have examined incident heart failure as a specific endpoint. Observational studies have, however, explored the potential preventative effects of SGLT2 inhibitors. In the CVD-REAL study, which was a multi-national study based on electronic records and claims databases, SGLT2 inhibitor use was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of mortality and heart failure, regardless of pre-existing cardiovascular disease. 15 Similarly, in the study by Zhou et al in a Chinese population, those treated with SGLT2 inhibitors had a 27% lower risk of developing new-onset heart failure, as well as reductions in the risk of allcause mortality and myocardial infarction.
18, 33 Further RCTs focused on other subpopulations, such as those with myocardial infarction, AF and amyloidosis, are currently underway and will likely provide further insights  [34] [35] [36]  but overall, our findings demonstrate the numerous cardiovascular benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with diabetes, both with and without established cardiovascular disease. Evaluation of these outcomes in non-diabetic patients will be possible in the coming years as more patients initiate SGLT2 inhibitors for non-diabetic indications. In addition to the limitations associated with the retrospective nature of this study, there are other noteworthy points. First, as the TriNetX database comprises information from EMR, data quality is dependent on this and how well these records are updated.
| Limitations Certain conditions may have been underreported, which may have influenced results. Second, data captured within healthcare organizations that are not registered with the TriNetX network will not have been included which may underestimate certain outcomes. Arrhythmias that may have gone unnoticed or cardiac arrests occurring in the community would also contribute to this. Third, as most of the data are based on the United States population, the results may not be directly applicable to the wider population. Lastly, our study does not provide long-term follow-up data or a breakdown according to SGLT2 inhibitor drug subtypes. In conclusion, our findings suggest that SGLT2 inhibitor use was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of incident heart failure and adverse cardiovascular outcomes such as incident AF, cardiac arrest, ischaemic stroke/TIA and arterial and venous thrombosis, although no differences were observed for ventricular arrhythmias.
Study design and populationThis retrospective, observational cohort study was conducted using the TriNetX research network, a global federated administrative database with real-time updates of electronic medical records (EMRs). It holds data on approximately 85 million patients from >60 healthcare organizations across seven countries, with the majority of centres based in the United States. Other participating countries are Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Singapore and Israel. A detailed description of the database is provided in the paper by Topaloglu et al 8 and can be found at the website: https://trinetx. com/companyoverview/. Briefly, the TriNetX research network database encompasses anonymized EMRs of patients registered with the network and has information on patient demographics, clinical details including diagnoses, medications and investigations as well as any procedures, from settings such as general practice surgeries, and community and secondary hospitals, providing detailed real-world data.
All registered adult patients with type 2 diabetes between January 1, 2018 and December 31, 2019 were identified from the TriNetX database using the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) code, E11. Patients were categorized into two groups depending on treatment with or without SGLT2 inhibitors (Figure 1). Patients not receiving SGLT2 inhibitors (either empagliflozin, dapagliflozin or canagliflozin) at inclusion who were subsequently prescribed it were censored when the drug was initiated. The searches were run on December 27, 2021. At the time of the search, there were 57 participating healthcare organizations within the TriNetX research network.
2 | METHODS 2. 1 | 221 Study design and populationThis retrospective, observational cohort study was conducted using the TriNetX research network, a global federated administrative database with real-time updates of electronic medical records (EMRs). It holds data on approximately 85 million patients from >60 healthcare organizations across seven countries, with the majority of centres based in the United States. Other participating countries are Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Singapore and Israel. A detailed description of the database is provided in the paper by Topaloglu et al 8 and can be found at the website: https://trinetx. com/companyoverview/. Briefly, the TriNetX research network database encompasses anonymized EMRs of patients registered with the network and has information on patient demographics, clinical details including diagnoses, medications and investigations as well as any procedures, from settings such as general practice surgeries, and community and secondary hospitals, providing detailed real-world data.
Quantum cascade laser-pumped terahertz (THz) gas lasers are at the edge of revolutionizing THz science where powerful yet tunable sources have long been lacking. Maybe one of the last remaining drawbacks to a wider use of these instruments lies in the lack of available databases of potentially lasing transitions for users. A new figure of merit, the molecular gain factor is proposed, that allows to discriminate transitions by their lasing potential. Using this factor, catalogs of THz laser lines of ammonia, both 14 NH 3 and 15 NH 3 , up to 10 THz are reported. Demonstration of the use of these two catalogs, and of the pertinence of the molecular gain factor, is made by experimentally observing 32 laser lines of 14 NH 3 and 5 lines of 15 NH 3 up to 5. 5 THz. Prospects to generalize the use of this molecular gain factor to a wide range of molecules are discussed.
[28] Available catalogs of pump and laser pairs of frequencies have traditionally been built empirically using time-consuming procedures  [29]  and the number of lines remains far from exhaustive. Nowadays, molecular databases, developed for atmospheric and astrophysical applications, are complete enough to enable a systematic prediction of accurate pump and laser frequencies. Among the possible gain media, ammonia (NH 3 ), as a high gain molecule with many possible emission frequencies, has focused particular interest. [23, 24, 27] Only a handful of laser transitions have been generated in NH 3 , mainly in the 1970s and 1980s (see Tables  S1  and S2 , Supporting Information),  [27, [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]  due to a limited number of coincidences between the pump frequencies emitted by the CO 2 and N 2 O lasers and the MIR absorption spectrum of NH 3.
5 THz. In the following, after defining the molecular gain factor, we report two laser catalogs, for 14 NH 3 and 15 NH 3 , that have been built using available spectroscopic information on the HITRAN database. [37] In the catalogs, each entry contains the MIR pump and THz laser frequencies-and associated quantum numbers (QN) involved in the transitions-and the associated molecular gain factor. Using these catalogs, we were able to measure 32 laser lines of 14 NH 3 and 5 of 15 NH 3 , up to 5. 5 THz, using a new prototype of NH 3 laser (described in Section 4. 4). This represents a significant extension of the observed laser lines of both molecules in CW regime, previously limited to 5 and 12 lines for 14 NH 3 and 15 NH 3 , respectively (see Tables  S1  and S2 , Supporting Information). In the Results section, we provide an extract of the catalogs (the full catalogs from 100 GHz to 10 THz are given in the Supporting Information) together with our measurements.
It is important to note that the accuracy of the frequencies in the proposed lists and of the molecular gain factor values is intrinsically linked to that of the spectroscopic databases used to build the catalog (here HITRAN). Additional information on this particular point can be found in Section 4. 3. In the tables reported in this article, frequencies are those from the HITRAN database;  [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]  experimental values can differ and for some transitions, frequencies found in the JPL database  [42]  can be more accurate. In Tables  S3  and S4 , Supporting Information, each THz laser line is reported together with the possible MIR pump frequencies, the corresponding QN, the molecular gain factors, and the polarization of the THz radiation with respect to the pump polarization.
This can be due to the restrictions applied to the building parameters of our database (G m cut-off, MIR or THz frequency ranges) or to spectroscopic selection rules. As an example, for J ¼ K energy levels in v 2 ¼ 1, pumping from the R branch is not allowed because of the J ⩾ K requirement, and only a pure inversion laser transition is allowed (Figure  1 ). Another example is that of the K ¼ 0 levels which can not be reached using Q-branch transitions and for which no laser pure inversion transition is allowed because of the a ↔ s symmetry selection rule (Figure  1 ). A graphical representation of the two catalogs is proposed in Figure  2. Individual plots for 14 NH 3 and 15 NH 3 are displayed in Figure  S1 , Supporting Information. On these figures, the possible pairs of IR pump frequencies and THz laser frequencies are plotted with their corresponding molecular gain factors.
A zoom displayed on the right panels of Figure  2  and S1, Supporting Information, shows the J and K distribution in this region. NH 3 15 NH 3 THz laser [GHz] THz QN MIR pump [cm À1 ] G m [uG m ] THz laser [GHz] THz QN MIR pump [cm À1 ] G m [uG m ] 1073. 0499 sQ(3, A second graphical representation, where the G m of both 14 NH 3 and 15 NH 3 is plotted as a function of the THz laser frequency, is presented in Figure  3  (corresponding individual plots are reported in Figure  S2 , Supporting Information). The change between  14  NH 3 and 15 NH 3 isotopologue results in THz frequency shifts of a few tens of GHz (typically 30-40 GHz) with similar G m values. One can notice the absence of some THz lines of  15  NH 3 , particularly in the 1-2 THz range, as a result of missing transitions from the HITRAN database.