dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
These platforms are often overlooked by operational forecast centers, owing to their small spatial footprint. But the local impact of those observations could be critical, particularly if the applications for which the operational forecasts are being used are focused on those regions. Consider, for example, the case of someone who is lost at sea with only a life jacket. Their fate could be influenced by the quality of ocean forecasts at their precise location. So delivering the most accurate forecasts possible, for as many regions as possible is imperative. This consideration puts some of the observation impact studies into perspective. Perhaps a global metric, like global RMS of OmB, reduces only by a small fraction of a degree when a localised dataset is assimilated. One might naively dismiss this dataset as unimportant.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the constructive comments of three anonymous reviewers that led to significant improvements in this paper. P. Oke acknowledges the contributions of the Bluelink science team. V. Kourafalou acknowledges support from  NOAA  ( NA13OAR4830224 ). C. A. S. Tanajura acknowledges support of the  CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil (Proc. BEX 3957/13 6 ). A. M. Moore acknowledges the support of the  ONR  ( N00014 10 1 0476 ,  N00014 10 1 0322 ) and  NSF  ( OCE 1061434 ). Satellite altimetry is provided by  NASA ,  NOAA  and  CNES. Drifter data are provided by  NOAA AOML  and SST observations are provided by  NOAA  and  Remote Sensing Systems. Argo data were collected and made freely available by the  International Argo Program  and the national programs that contribute to it [www.
First, in Sect. 2, the models used to compute the SSPs of Koch fractals, Gaussian spheres and spheres are introduced along with the database of  Yang et al. (2013)  used for several other shapes. In Sect. 3, the reference phase function for snow is constructed. In Sect. 4, several shape models are compared in terms of their ability to reproduce the reference phase function, and the OHC is selected. In Sect. 5, the SSPs for the OHC are computed as a function of wavelength and snow grain size, and in Sect. 6 parameterization equations are developed. In Sect. 7, the snow SSP parameterization is applied to radiative transfer computations, and comparisons are made to spheres and Koch fractals. Finally, a summary is given in Sect. 8.
Shape models and single-scattering data Here, several shape models are considered as candidates for representing the SSPs of snow. These include (1) secondgeneration Koch fractals, (2) Gaussian random spheres, (3) nine different crystal habits in the  Yang et al. (2013)  single-scattering database and, for comparison, (4) spheres. The snow grains are assumed to consist of pure ice (i. e. no impurities such as black carbon are included). The ice refractive index of  Warren and Brandt (2008)  is employed. The SSPs (extinction cross section, single-scattering albedo, phase function and asymmetry parameter) of Koch fractals are simulated using the geometric optics code of  Macke (1993)  (see also  Macke et al. , 1996). Both regular and distorted Koch fractals are considered. A regular secondgeneration Koch fractal has 144 equilateral triangular surface elements.
, 2009)  for large particles. Here, single-scattering properties for nine ice particle habits in the  Yang et al. (2013)  database are used: droxtals, solid and hollow hexagonal columns, aggregates of 8 columns, plates, aggregates of 5 and 10 plates, and solid and hollow bullet rosettes. For each habit, the SSPs are provided for three degrees of particle surface roughness: completely smooth (CS), moderately rough (MR) and severely rough. The effect of roughness is simulated in a way that closely resembles the treatment of distortion for Koch fractals: the surface slope is distorted randomly for each incident ray, assuming a normal distribution of local slope variations with a SD of 0, 0. 03 and 0. 50 for the CS, MR and SR particles respectively in Eq. (1) of  Yang et al. (2013). In fact, this approach does not represent any specific roughness characteristics but attempts instead to mimic the effects on SSPs due to non-pristine crystal characteristics in general (both roughness effects and irregularities).
The main reason why we have not attempted this approach in the current work is that a very large fraction of the particles in blowing snow (and snow on ground) are irregular, more than 80 % according to manual classification of CPI images  (Guyot et al. , 2015)  (see also Fig. 2a ), and cannot be unambiguously associated with habits considered e. g. in the database of  Yang et al. (2013). To provide a quantitative measure for the agreement between the modelled and reference phase functions (P model (4) To start with, the phase function for single crystal shapes is compared with P ref 11 in Fig. 3. To be consistent with the CLIMSLIP observations, the phase function is computed at λ = 0. 80 µm, and it is integrated over the size distribution defined by Eq. (  3 ). Several points can be noted.
2013 ) database. For each habit, the phase function was averaged over the size distribution defined by Eq. (  3 ). In the figure legends, the two numbers in parentheses give the asymmetry parameter and the cost function defined by Eq. (  4 ) respectively. For the Gaussian spheres in (c), the notation indicates the shape parameters (e. g. for 0. 15_3. 0, σ = 0. 15 and ν = 3. 0; n max was fixed at 15). For the  Yang et al. (2013)  habits in (d-l), CS, MR and SR refer to particles with completely smooth surface, moderate surface roughness and severe surface roughness respectively. Also, the gradient of P 11 in the backscattering hemisphere is consistently negative, while P ref 11 rather increases slightly between 127 and 162 •. Overestimated sideward scattering by Koch fractals has been previously noted in the context of cirrus clouds  (Francis et al.
30, ν = 0. 15, which features both pronounced large-scale non-sphericity and small-scale structure in the particle shape. The sideward scattering is overestimated (mainly between 70 and 100 • ), but the cost function (0. 163) is clearly smaller than that for distorted Koch fractals (0. 284) and is, in fact, the smallest among all single-habit shape models considered. Fourth, regarding the habits in the Yang et al. (  2013 ) database (Fig. 3d-l ), both visual inspection and the cost function values indicate that the agreement with P ref 11 improves with increasing particle surface roughness. While completely smooth and, in many cases, moderately rough particles exhibit halo peaks, for severely rough particles the phase function is quite smooth and featureless, as is P ref 11. It is further seen that, in general, increasing the roughness increases sideward scattering and reduces the asymmetry parameter.
Since pristine particles and even moderately rough particles feature halo peaks (or an icebow peak in the case of spheres), which are absent in P ref 11 , the following groups of habits are considered: distorted Koch fractals, Gaussian spheres and severely rough particles in the  Yang et al. (2013)  database. Figure  4  illustrates a comparison with P ref 11 for three singlehabit cases (Fig. 4a  and d ) (the best Koch fractal case, the best Gaussian sphere case and the best case with Yang et al. Table  1. List of best three-habit combinations. w 1 , w 2 and w 3 are the weights (i. e. fractional contributions to projected area) of each habit, "cost" is the cost function, g the asymmetry parameter and ξ a non-dimensional absorption parameter defined by Eq. (  8 ). SR refers to severely rough particles, and t is the distortion parameter for second-generation Koch fractals.
For these habits (unlike aggregates of plates), the particle geometry assumed in the  Yang et al. (2013)  database depends on particle size, with the aspect ratio of the crystals increasing with their length. However, due to snow metamorphosis on ground, size-shape relationships based on crystal growth in ice clouds are most likely not valid for snow. Therefore, we considered it better to use a crystal geometry that is independent of size. This also helps to keep the SSP parameterization simpler.
Snow single-scattering properties as a function of size and wavelength The SSPs, including the extinction efficiency Q ext , singlescattering co-albedo β, asymmetry parameter g and scattering phase function P 11 (θ s ) were determined for the OHC for 140 wavelengths between 0. 199 and 3 µm and for 48 particle sizes between 10 and 2000 µm. Here, the size is defined as the volume-to-projected area equivalent radius r vp = 0. 75 V /P. As stated above, the OHC consists of SR droxtals, aggregates of 10 SR plates and strongly distorted Koch fractals. The SSPs for droxtals and aggregates of plates were taken from the  Yang et al. (2013)  database (interpolated to fixed values of r vp ) while those of Koch fractals were computed using the geometric optics code of  Macke (1993) , as explained in Sect.
2. Four caveats should be noted: 1. Due to problems associated with the truncation of numerical results to a finite number of digits (P. Yang, personal communication, 2013) , the values of β in the  Yang et al. (2013)  database are unreliable in cases of very weak absorption. To circumvent this issue, it was assumed that in cases of weak absorption (β < 0. 001 for Koch fractals), the values for droxtals and aggregates of plates may be approximated as β droxtal λ, r vp = 0. 943β fractal λ, r vp , (6) β aggregate λ, r vp = 0. 932β fractal λ, r vp. Here the scaling factors were determined as β droxtal /β fractal and β aggregate /β fractal , where the overbar refers to averages over the cases in which 0. 001 < β fractal < 0. 01 and the size parameter x = 2π r vp /λ > 100. 2. While the largest maximum dimension for particles in the  Yang et al.
(2013)  database is 10 000 µm for all habits, the corresponding maximum values of r vp are smaller and depend on the habit. For droxtals, r vp,max = 4218 µm, while for the aggregates of 10 plates, it is only r vp,max = 653 µm. Thus, to extend the SSPs for the OHC to sizes up to r vp = 2000 µm, we extrapolated the SSPs for the aggregates of plates based on how the SSPs depend on size for Koch fractals. See Appendix A for details. 3. The SSPs for Koch fractals were computed using a geometric optics code, which means that the accuracy deteriorates somewhat in cases with smaller size parameters (typically for x < 100). This issue pertains mainly to small snow grains at near-IR wavelengths (e. g. for λ = 2. 5 µm, x = 100 corresponds to r vp ≈ 40 µm). 4. Lastly but importantly, since the OHC was selected based on measurements at a single wavelength λ = 0.
(2013)  database. The general aim of the fitting was to minimize the rms errors in ln P 11. For diffraction, the HG phase function  (Henyey and Greenstein, 1941 ) is used: P diff (θ s ) = P HG (g diff , θ s ). ( 17 ) The HG phase function is given by P HG (g, θ s ) = 1 -g 2 1 + g 2 -2g cos θ s 3/2 , ( 18 ) and the asymmetry parameter g diff is approximated as g diff = 1 -0. 60/x vp = 1 -0. 921/x p , (19) where we have utilized the relation x p ≈ 1. 535 x vp specific to the OHC. Compared to the parameterization derived by van Diedenhoven et al. (  2014 ), Eq. (  19 ) yields somewhat lower values of g diff , which to some extent compensates for the fact that the actual shape of the diffraction peak deviates from the HG phase function. Overall, this treatment of diffraction is a rough approximation and clearly not ideal for studies of very near-forward scattering, but it serves well the current purpose.
Moreover, the parameterization equations provided in this paper are analytic and simple to use. A Fortran implementation of the snow SSP parameterizations is available at https://github. com/praisanen/snow_ssp. To conclude, this paper describes a first-of-its-kind parameterization for representing the SSPs of snow in the solar spectral region. The parameterization is provided in hope that it will be useful, especially to those researchers that still use spherical particles for computing the radiative effects of snow. Nevertheless, it should definitely not be viewed as the "final solution" to the treatment of SSPs of snow. We hope that the present work will inspire the future development of snow SSP parameterizations based on more comprehensive data sets. Furthermore, at least in principle, it would be desirable to replace the current approach (where the shape distribution of snow grains is selected based on scattering measurements only) with an approach that more directly links the snow grain shapes to those actually observed.
P. Räisänen  et al. : Parameterization of single-scattering properties of snow Acknowledgements. P. Räisänen was supported by the  Nordic Centre of Excellence  for  Cryosphere-Atmosphere Interactions in a changing Arctic climate (CRAICC ) and the  Academy of Finland  (grants nos. 140915  and  254195 ) and  T. Nousiainen  by the  Academy of Finland  (grant no. 255718 ) and the  Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (Tekes ; grant no. 3155/31/2009 ). A. Kokhanovsky acknowledges the support of  University of Bremen  and project  CLIMSLIP  funded by  BMBF. The CLIMSLIP field campaign was funded by the  French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR)  and the  Institut Polaire Français Paul Emile Victor (IPEV). We gratefully acknowledge the  NILU  and the  Norsk Polarinstitutt  for their technical assistance during the field campaign at  Mount Zeppelin Station.
Andreas Macke  ( Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research, Germany ) is thanked for making available his ray tracing code. Ping Yang  and  Bingqi Yi  ( Texas AM University ) are thanked for providing the Yang et al. (2013) database. Last but not least,  Bastiaan van Diedenhoven  and an anonymous referee are thanked for their helpful comments on the original manuscript. Edited by:  P. Marsh.
P. Figure 3. 3 Figure 3. Comparison of phase function for various shape models with the reference phase function derived from CLIMSLIP data (P ref 11 shown with grey dots in each panel). (a) Spheres, (b) regular and distorted second-generation Koch fractals (with distortion parameters t = 0. 18 and t = 0. 50), (c) four realizations of Gaussian spheres and (d-l) nine habits in the Yang et al. (2013) database. For each habit, the phase function was averaged over the size distribution defined by Eq. (3). In the figure legends, the two numbers in parentheses give the asymmetry parameter and the cost function defined by Eq. (4) respectively. For the Gaussian spheres in (c), the notation indicates the shape parameters (e. g. for 0. 15_3. 0, σ = 0. 15 and ν = 3. 0; n max was fixed at 15). For the Yang et al.
0 PBS two times, and stained with SA-βgal for 3 h at 37°C in the dark. Slides were mounted with Vectashield mounting medium (Vector Laboratories), and images were taken with a 1 × 71 microscope (Olympus) using a 20 × 0. 40 NA objective camera (DS-Fi1; Nikon) and acquisition software NIS-Elements BR 4. 00. 03 (Nikon). The experiments were performed at an RT of 25°C. All images were prepared with Photoshop CS2 (Adobe).
Immunofluorescence staining of LC3 LC3 staining was performed as described previously  (Xie et al. , 2013a (Xie et al. , , 2014)). In brief, cells were fixed with 3. 5% formaldehyde for 10 min, permeabilized with 0. 1% Triton X-100 for 10 min, and blocked with 0. 5% BSA for 15 min. Cells were incubated with rabbit anti-LC3 antibody (1:200) for 2 h followed by incubation with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated donkey anti-rabbit antibody (1:200; Life Technologies) for 1 h. Slides were mounted with Vectashield mounting medium, and images were taken with 1 × 71 microscope using a 20 × 0. 40 NA objective camera (DS-Fi1) and acquisition software NIS-Elements BR 4. 00. 03. The experiments were performed at a temperature of 25°C. All images were prepared with Photoshop CS2.
ROS analysis Cells were stained with 20 µM DCFHDA for 30 min in the dark. For morphological studies, the cells were imaged under a fluorescence microscope (Nikon). For quantifying the ROS levels, the cells were analyzed using a flow cytometer (BD) in FL1 channel  (Xie et al. , 2011). The mean fluorescence intensity of 10,000 cells was analyzed by Win-MDI 2. 9 software. The mean fluorescence intensity data were normalized to control levels and expressed as relative fluorescence intensity (2',7'-dichlorofluorescein;  Xie et al. , 2011).
Online supplemental material Fig. S1  shows that Sag deletion promoted Kras G12D -induced skin tumor formation. Fig. S2  shows that Sag deletion inhibited autophagy in both keratinocytes and skin tumors. Fig. S3  shows that Sag deletion inhibited senescence in both keratinocytes and skin tumor cells. Fig. S4  shows that Mek inhibitor blocks, whereas H 2 O 2 promotes, autophagy and senescence in keratinocytes. Fig. S5  provides further evidence to show that Erbin is a novel substrate of SAG-βTrCP E3 ubiquitin ligase. Online supplemental material is available at http://www. jcb. org/cgi/ content/full/jcb. 201411104/DC1. Additional data are available in the JCB DataViewer at http://dx. doi. org/10. 1083/jcb. 201411104. dv.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank  Drs. M. Tan  and  J. Xu  in the  Sun Laboratory  for their help in immunochemical and histological staining. This work was supported by  National Cancer Institute  grants ( CA118762 ,  CA156744 , and  CA171277 ) to  Y. Sun  and by  La Ligue Contre le Cancer  ( Label Ligue ) and  Institut Paoli-Calmettes  grants to  J. -P. Borg. J. -P. Borg  is a member of  Institut Universitaire de France. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Submitted: 24 November 2014 Accepted: 22 April 2015.
News production requires investment, and competitors' ability to appropriate a story may reduce a media's incentives to provide original content. Yet, there is little legal protection of intellectual property rights in online news production, which raises the issue of the extent of copying online and the incentives to provide original content. In this article, we build a unique dataset combining all the online content produced by French news media during the year 2013 with new micro audience data. We develop a topic detection algorithm that identifies each news event, trace the timeline of each story, and study news propagation. We provide new evidence on online news production. First, we document high reactivity of online media: one quarter of the news stories are reproduced online in under 4 min.
Related literature Using micro data, Gentzkow (2007) estimates the relationship between the print and online newspapers in demand. 9 Our article is complementary to his. We investigate the production of original content and document the benefits of original information production. Franceschelli  (2011) was the first to assess empirically the impact of the Internet on news coverage. 10 Using a dataset that includes every article published by the two main Argentinean newspapers, he reconstructs the typical timeline of a news story in the online world. Compared to this previous work, our contribution is threefold. First, we construct the set of news stories and study their timeline using the entire universe of French news media online, rather than two newspapers. To the extent of our knowledge, we are the first to study simultaneously the content produced by all the news media, whatever their offline format.
Media universe Our dataset covers 86 general information media outlets in France: 1 news agency; 59 newspapers (35 local daily, 7 national daily, 12 national weekly, 2 national monthly, and 3 free newspapers); 10 pure online media (i. e. online-only media outlets); 9 television channels; and 7 radio stations. The news agency is the Agence France Presse (AFP), the third largest news agency in the world. Moreover, our dataset also includes all the dispatches published in French by Reuters. For each of these media outlets, we gather all the content they published online in 2013. 14 he complete list of the media outlets included in our dataset is provided in the Supplementary Appendix, where we also indicate the name of the companies that own each of these outlets. The 86 media outlets included in our sample are by far the main French news media both during our period of interest (2013) and still today.
15 The choice of 2013 France is data driven: the content data were collected as part of the OTMedia research project conducted by the Institut National de l'Audiovisuel (National Audiovisual Institute, a repository of all French radio and television audiovisual archives). To the best of our knowledge, there is no equivalent dataset for other countries and time periods. This allows us to provide unique evidence on the propagation and verbatim copying of news stories online. 16 e choose a "transmedia" approach because, on the Internet, there is a tendency for different media to converge (see e. g. Peitz and Reisinger, 2016). On the web, media all offer texts, videos and photos. We include the AFP and Reuters even though they do not deliver news straight to 12. Sen and Yildirim (2015) investigate how popularity of online news stories affect editors' decisions.
CAGÉ ET AL. THE PRODUCTION OF INFORMATION IN AN ONLINE WORLD 7 individual consumers 17 because they are key providers of original information in the online world. We think it is essential to consider news agencies when investigating newsgathering and copying online. To the extent of our knowledge, we are the very first to perform such an inclusive empirical analysis of original news production. Using their RSS feeds, we track every piece of content news media produced online in 2013. For the media outlets whose RSS feeds were not tracked by the INA, we complete the OTMedia data by scraping the Sitemaps of their website. We acquire all the AFP and Reuters dispatches directly from the agencies. Merging these datasets, we obtain the universe of all the articles published online by French news media in 2013.
The articles we use in our database contain text and often photos, as well as videos. Our focus here is on text. 18 ur dataset contains 2,552,442 documents for the year 2013; around 7,000 documents on average per day. 70. 9% of the documents are from the websites of the print media; 4. 5% from radio; 6. 4% from television; 15. 1% from the AFP and Reuters and the remaining documents from the pure online media. On average, these documents are 2,058 characters long. 19 Interestingly, while media outlets do not face the same space constraint online that they face offline (see e. g. Eisensee and Strömberg, 2007), the total amount of content produced on a daily basis is relatively stable through time. While space online is technically infinite, media outlets indeed still face an implicit space constraint which is the limited attention span of the readers.
This may be due to the fact that these pure online media "seek to offer distinctive voices" (Nicholls et al. , 2016). Note however that pure online media only account for 3% of the documents in our dataset  31  , and that we should not overstate these differences in editorial priorities. French pure online media indeed "closely approximate an online newspaper" (Nicholls et al. , 2016). Besides, we have compared the media outlets depending on their "reputation" as defined by using their reliance on copy and the use of their content by others. Interestingly, the media outlets with the strongest reputation (Le Monde, Les Echos, France Television, Ouest France, etc. ) are also those with the largest audience (average numbers of unique visitors per day) and the highest numbers of shares on social media.