dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The X-ray gas The setup for A1835 presented by two of us  (Morandi et al. 2012b ) is followed. The data reduction is carried out using the CIAO 4. 8. 1 and Heasoft 6. 19 software suites, in conjunction with the Chandra calibration database (CALDB) version 4. 7. 2. We measure the emission measure profile EM ∝ n 2 e dl from the X-ray images. The radial EM profile is derived with the vignetting correction and direct subtraction of the Cosmic X-ray Background (CXB)+particle+readout artifact background. For the particle background modeling, we use the scaled stowed background. In order to measure the CXB, we used the regions free of the source emission. We then deprojected the measured temperature and EM profiles in order to infer the gas density profiles. A set of 40 data points (ri, ne,i, δne,i) for the electron density has been produced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful for the careful remarks and useful hints by the unknown referee. A. M. acknowledges support from  Chandra  grant  GO415115X  and  NASA  grants  NNX14AI29G  and  NNX15AJ30G. M. L. acknowledges  CNRS ,  CNES  and  PNCG  for support, the staff of the  "Cluster de calcul intensif HPC" Platform of the OSU Institut Pythéas (Aix-Marseille Université, INSU-CNRS)  for providing computing facilities, and  M. Libes  and  C. Yohia  from the  Service Informatique de Pythéas (SIP)  for technical assistance.
From October 2016 we started the first campaign of data taking with the complete detector system. An in-situ energy calibration for the SDDs was realized, by placing near the detectors a weak Iron-55 source covered by a 25 um thick titanium foil. The manganese K-series x-rays from the source partly go through the foil and partly irradiate the foil generating titanium K-series x-rays. These fluorescence x-rays are detected by the SDDs at an overall rate of about 2 Hz, and provide reference energy peaks to calibrate the digitized SDD signals to energy scale.
First result of the VIP-2 experiment In the data taking camaign from October to December 2016, we took data both with 100 A DC current to search for PEP violating events, and with similar amount of time without current to determine the background. The energy calibrations for the SDDs were performed for each data subset which corresponds to a period of about one week. Then the energy spectra were summed over the whole data taking period, separately for the 100 A current-on data and current-off data sets. The spectra that correspond to 34 days of effective data acquisition with 100 A current on and 28 days with current off are shown in Figure  1   [7] , in which the fluorescence lines of titanium and manganese are labeled. The K-series x-rays from the de-excitation of the copper, when the copper conductor or the strip inside the setup is irradiated by the environmental radiations and high energy particles from cosmic rays, contribute to the main background near the energy region of interest (ROI in Figure  1 ) from 7629 eV to 7829 eV.
The detection efficiency factor was determined to be about 1%, evaluated with a Monte Carlo simulation based on Geant4. 10 with realistic detector configuration. The following factors are taken into account in the simulation : the transmission rate of a copper K α x-ray that origins at a random position inside the copper strip and reaches the surface; the geometrical acceptance of the photons coming from the surface of the copper stipe arriving at the six SDD detectors; the detection efficiency of a copper K α x-ray by the 450 um thick SDD unit. With D = 10 cm, µ = 3. 9 × 10 -6 cm, e = 1. 602 × 10 -19 C, I = 100 A, and normalizing the measurement time with current to 34 days, using the three sigma upper bound of ∆N X = 41 ± 66 to give a 99. 7% C. L. , we get an upper limit for the β 2 /2 parameter : This is the best result up to date, and will be further improved by the end of the three years data taking of the VIP-2 experiment.
Future Perspectives From the successful first physics run with two months of data taking, the VIP-2 experiment has already given a better limit than the VIP result obtained from three years of running, as shown in Figure 2  [7]  which includes all the past experimental results of the PEP violation tests for electrons using the method first developed by Ramberg and Snow. After the install of the full passive shielding to further remove the environmental background and the geometrical modification for larger detection efficiency, in the planned data taking time of 3 years, the VIP-2 experiment can either set a new upper limit for the probability that the PEP is violated at the level of 10 -31 , further improving the current result by two orders of magnitude, or find the PEP violation, which would have profound impact in research fields beyond physics.
Acknowledgements We thank  H. Schneider ,  L. Stohwasser , and  D. Pristauz-Telsnigg  from  Stefan-Meyer-Institut  for their fundamental contribution in designing and building the VIP2 setup. We acknowledge the very important assistance of the  INFN-LNGS laboratory  staff during all phases of preparation, installation and data taking. We thank the  Austrian Science Foundation (FWF)  which supports the  VIP2  project with the grant  P25529-N20. We acknowledge the support from the  EU COST Action   CA15220 , and from  Centro Fermi  (" Problemi aperti nella meccania quantistica "project). Furthermore, this paper was made possible through the support of a grant from the  John Templeton Foundation  ( ID 58158 ). The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the  John Templeton Foundation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank  David Dudal  and  Cédric Lorcé  for useful discussions. D. K. acknowledges support from the  "Physique des 2 Infinis et des Origines" Labex  ( P2IO ). We check that the derivative with respect to M 4 gives - ∆ Ĵκ  (m 4 , m 2 vac ), as it should.
Acknowledgments We thank  S. Belliard  for discussions. We thank the anonymous referee for comments. The research of Z. T. was supported by  CNRS  at  Université de Tours  and is supported by the  European Research Council  ( Programme "Ideas" ERC-2012-AdG 320769 AdS-CFTsolvable ) at LPTENS. P. B. is supported by C. N. R. S.
Acknowledgements We thank  W. Adam ,  C. Heidegger ,  B. Schneider  and  L. Shchutska  for useful discussions. This work has been supported by the  ANR  under contracts  ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02  and  ANR-10-LABX-63 , the  BMBF  under contract  05H15PMCCA , the  CNRS  under contract  PICS 150423 , and the  DFG  through the  Research Training Network 2149 "Strong  and weak interactions -from hadrons to dark matter".
This correction has been determined with a 3 MBq 22 Na source. Fig. 5  shows the evolution of the relative pulse height of the 511 keV peak as a function of the detection time following the gating operation. As seen from this figure, the maximal correction amounts to about 12% of the nominal gain of the PMT just after the gate function and it takes about 10 μs for the PMT to recover its nominal gain after the gating operation. With the final objective of studying the decay of isomeric states with lifetimes of the order of few μs this correction is not negligible. Fig. 6  presents an example of reconstructed energy spectrum for 22 Na (3 MBq) and 137 Cs (33 MBq) sources data acquired using the gating function. The energy resolution at 662 keV amounts to 5. 1% Fig. 6. Reconstructed and corrected energy spectra of 22 Na and 137 Cs sources.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thanks  CEA LIST (Saclay, France ) members for giving us the opportunity to realize experiments in their facility and  M. Tarisien  ( CENBG, Bordeaux, France ) for fruitful discussions on PMT working. This project has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under grant agreement No  653323. This text reflects only the author's views and the Commission is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.
Acknowledgments This work has benefited from collaborations and discussions with  A. Amo ,  M. Bellec ,  C. Bena ,  J. Bloch ,  P. Delplace ,  R. de Gail ,  P. Dietl ,  J. -N. Fuchs ,  M. -O. Goergig ,  U. Kuhl ,  L. -K. Lim ,  M. Milićević ,  F. Mortessagne ,  T. Ozawa ,  F. Piéchon ,  D. Ullmo. Special thanks to  J. -N. Fuchs  and  M. -O. Goergig  for a careful rereading of the manuscript.
Spectroscopy Optical spectroscopy was obtained at the LT with the low-resolution (R ∼ 350) SPRAT spectrograph starting 2. 6 days after discovery (Fig. 3 ). The spectra were reduced using the standard LT pipeline  (Barnsley et al. 2012 ) and a custom python script. Subsequent spectra (R = 1000 in the blue) were obtained at the University of Hawaii 2. 2-m telescope with SNIFS  (Aldering et al. 2002)  and at the 4. 2-m William Herschel Telescope (WHT) with ACAM  (Benn et al. 2008 ) using a 0. 5 slit to obtain R ∼ 700. The spectra were flux calibrated to coeval photometry. The SNIFS spectrum shows narrow absorption features from the MW and the host galaxy, CGCG 127-68. We measured two redshifted components of the Ca II H&K lines to give a consistent redshift of z = 0. 0139. Analysis of the 2D spectral frames revealed that the narrow emission feature consistent with the rest wave-length of Hα is extended leading us to conclude the emission feature in these early spectra results from the host galaxy and not AT2018cow.
g. , Rivera Sandoval et al. 2018) and radio/sub-millimeter (e. g. , de Ugarte Postigo et al. 2018) detections have been made of AT2018cow. Further modelling and observations across the full electromagnetic spectrum will hopefully allow the origin of this unusual transient to be determined. (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1). CSK and KZS are supported by NSF grants AST-1515876 and AST-1515927. ATLAS acknowledges NASA grant NN12AR55G. The Liverpool Telescope is operated by Liverpool John Moores University with financial support from the UK STFC. The WHT is operated on La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes. We thank the WHT staff for their prompt scheduling and execution of this target. We thank the Las Cumbres Observatory and its staff for its continuing support of the ASAS-SN project. ASAS-SN is supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (GBMF5490) and NSF grant AST-1515927.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SP, KM and MM are funded by the  EU H2020 ERC  grant no. 758638 ; SJS, KS by  STFC  Grants  ST/P000312/1  and  ST/N002520/1 ; MDS by the  Villum FONDEN  (grant no. 13261 ); TWC by  Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Funding for GROND was generously granted from  the Leibniz-Prize  to  Prof. Hasinger 2018cow.
Powder diffraction. The identification of the crystalline phases was performed by powder XRD using a Panalytical X'Pert diffractometer equipped with Cu Kα radiation source. VT-XRD data were collected over the 10-80°2θ range at every 50 °C from room temperature up to 800 °C during both heating and cooling steps, allowing 3 min for temperature equilibration before collecting the data sets for 8 min. Laboratory XRD data were analyzed using the Topas-Academic software  48. High-intensity and high-resolution SPD data were recorded on the 11BM diffractometer at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. SPD data were collected over the 0. 5-40°2θ range with a 0. 001°step size at room temperature using λ = 0. 4593 Å. In order to avoid important absorption effects from the sample, which could hinder fine structural analysis, Si-glass capillaries were coated with a layer of sample powder mixed with silicone grease.
The Si-glass capillaries were then introduced in Kapton capillaries which were sealed by clay. On the other hand, constant-wavelength (λ = 1. 225 Å) NPD data were collected at ambient temperature over the 10-120°2θ range at 2θ intervals of 0. 05°on the 3T2 diffractometer at Laboratoire Leon Brillouin (France). The large volume of Bi 0. 9 Sr 0. 1 VO 3. 95 powdered sample for neutron diffraction was obtained by the combination of multiple beads from ADL route that were grounded and prepared in a vanadium can. Rietveld analysis of SPD and NPD data was performed using the Jana2006 package  49. Solid-state NMR. 51 V solid-state NMR experiments were performed on Bruker Avance III spectrometers operating at magnetic fields of 20. 0 and 9. 4 T (corresponding  51  V Larmor frequencies of 223. 6 and 105.
16 M NaVO 3 aqueous solution as secondary standard (-574. 4 ppm)  52. 51 V chemical shifts and quadrupolar coupling parameters of each resonance were determined from fits of the whole spinning sideband manifold observed for all seven  51  V transitions in MAS spectra  53, 54  using the DMfit program  55. Ionic conductivity measurement. Alternating-current (AC) impedance spectroscopy measurements were performed with a Solartron 1260 frequency response analyzer over a frequency range of 10 -1 -10 7 Hz within the 100-700 °C temperature range. Gold paste was coated on the opposite faces of the pellets and heat treated at 550 °C for 40 min to burn out the organic components in the paste to form gold electrodes. The impedance data analysis was carried out using the ZView software  56. The oxygen transport number was determined by EMF measurements on oxygen concentration cells  57  of O 2 ||air and N 2 ||air at 500-700 °C.
Use of lower-pO 2 gas resulted in decomposition of Bi 1 -x Sr x VO 4 -0. 5x. DFT calculation. DFT calculations of the  51  V chemical magnetic shielding and EFG tensors with periodic boundary conditions were performed with the CASTEP (8. 0) code  58. The PAW  33  and GIPAW 32 methods were employed for computing the EFG and NMR chemical shielding tensors, respectively. Electron correlation effects were described using the Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof generalized gradient approximation  59  and the core-valence interactions were described by ultrasoft pseudopotentials (USPPs)  60  generated using the on-the-fly generator included in the CASTEP. Further descriptions of the pseudopotentials employed are given in Supplementary Table  7. For all computations, an energy cut-off of 600 eV was used for the plane wave basis set expansion and the Brillouin zone was sampled using a Monkhorst-Pack grid spacing of 0.
Acknowledgements National Natural Science Foundation of China  (Nos. 21622101 ,  21511130134 ,  21101174 ),  NSFC-CNRS  bilateral  TransElectro  project (No. PICS07091 ),  Guangxi Nat-ural Science Foundation  (No. 2014GXNSFGA118004 ), the  Research Project  (No. 213030A ) of  Chinese Ministry of Education, Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University  (No. NCET-13-0752 ), and  TGIR-RMN-THC FR3050  CNRS are acknowledged for the financial support. DFT computations have been performed at the  "Centre de Calcul Scientifique en Région Centre" facility (CCRS-Orléans, France)  under the  CASCIMODOT program. We are grateful to  Dr. Maria Diaz-Lopez  from the  ISIS Facility ,  STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory  for the constructive comments and English language improvement to this manuscript and to  Prof.
Acknowledgement The research and development reported here was performed and/or planned with the SHE research group at SHIP and TASCA of  GSI , and the  French scientific community  interested in SHN/SHE research. The author would like to express his gratitude to all participants in these activities, in particular to the SHIP and TASCA groups with F. P. Heßberger ,  A. Mistry ,  S. Heinz ,  S. Hofmann ,  J. Khuyagbaatar ,  M. Block ,  M. Laatiaoui  and  A. Yakushev ; the S 3 team at GANIL with  D. Boilley ,  L. Caceres ,  F. Déchery ,  P. Delahaye ,  N. Lecesne ,  J. Piot ,  H. Savajols ,  Ch. Stodel , and the colleagues from the  French SHN/SHE  community  O. Dorvaux ,  A. Drouart ,  B. Gall ,  K. Hauschild ,  A. Korichi ,  W. Korten ,  A. Lopez-Martens ,  B. Sulignano ,  Ch. Theisen ,  M.
Introduction and overview The HGPS source catalog construction procedure intends to improve upon previous H. E. S. S. survey publications both in sensitivity and homogeneity of the analysis performed. The previous iteration, the second H. E. S. S. survey paper of 2006  (Aharonian et al. 2006a) , used a 230 h data set with inhomogeneous exposure that was limited to the innermost region of the Galaxy. This survey detected a total of 14 sources by locating peaks in significance maps on three different spatial scales: 0. 1 • , 0. 22 • , and 0. 4 •. It then modeled the sources by fitting two-dimensional symmetric Gaussian morphological models to determine the position, size and flux of each source, using a Poissonian maximum-likelihood method. Since 2006, H. E. S. S. has increased its exposure tenfold and enlarged the survey region more than twofold, while also improving the homogeneity of the exposure.
As illustrated in the upper panel of Fig. 5 , the data now show many regions of complex emission, for example, overlapping emission of varying sizes and multiple sources with clearly non-Gaussian morphologies. Apart from discrete emission, the Galactic plane also exhibits significant emission on large spatial scales  (Abramowski et al. 2014a). For these reasons, we needed to develop a more complex analysis procedure to construct a more realistic model of the γ-ray emission in the entire survey region. Based on this model, we compiled the HGPS source catalog. We first introduce the maximum-likelihood method used for fitting the emission properties (Sect. 4. 2). Next, we describe the H. E. S. S. point spread function (PSF; Sect. 4. 3) and the TS maps (Sect. 4. 4), which are two important elements in the analysis and catalog construction.
Acknowledgements. This work made extensive use of gamma-cat 14 , SNRcat  15  ( Ferrand & Safi-Harb 2012 ),  ATNF 16  (Manchester et al. 2005), SIM-BAD 17 (Wenger et al. 2000) and  NASA's Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. For data analysis, we made extensive use of the Python packages Gammapy 18 (Donath et al. 2015;Deil et al. 2017), Astropy 19 (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013) and  Sherpa 20  (Freeman et al. 2001), as well as Numpy (Dubois et al. 1996), Scipy (Jones et al. 2001) and Matplotlib (Hunter 2007). The support of the Namibian authorities and the  University of Namibia  in facilitating the construction and operation of H. E. S. S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the  German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) , the  Max Planck Society , the  German Research Foundation (DFG) , the  French Ministry for Research , the  CNRS-IN2P3  and the  Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS , the  U.
project has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme  under Grant Agreement no. 654168. This work is part of AIDA-2020 Work Package 4: Micro-electronics and interconnections. The electronic version of this AIDA-<http://aida2020. web. cern. ch>or on the CERN Document Server at the following URL: <http://cds. cern. ch/search?p=AIDA-2020-CONF-2018-005>.
The abundances of major elements and some trace elements in ChemCam data are being quantified by univariate and multivariate modeling of database reference samples and calibration targets on board the rover  (Maurice et al. , 2016, and references therein). The detection of hydrogen by the 656. 5 nm (wavelengths in vacuum will be used throughout this paper) LIBS emission line (H-alpha) is straightforward. Hydrogen has been detected in most of the targets observed by ChemCam  (Schröder et al. , 2015). Lab work has shown quantifying hydrogen content from this single line is a challenge  (Sobron et al. , 2012). A second H emission line at 486. 13 nm is located at the edge of the ChemCam visible and near-infrared (VNIR) detector where sensitivity is too low for quantitative analysis  (Schröder et al.
LIBS Measurements LIBS spectra were collected using the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) ChemCam-analog instrument described in detail by  Clegg et al. (2017). The engineering model (EM) mast unit contains the laser, telescope, and remote micro imager (RMI). It is in an enclosure cooled to 4 °C and is connected by a fiber to the optical demultiplexer, spectrometers, and data processing unit in the body unit outside of the enclosure. The samples are placed into a vacuum chamber, which in less than 1 hr is evacuated and then filled with 7 ± 0. 2-mbar CO 2 to simulate Mars-like conditions at room temperature. Samples collected in 2013, 2015, and 2017 were measured at a laser-to-sample distance of 1. 6 m while samples measured in 2014 were measured at 3. 0 m. The distance difference was a result of the setup of the measurement system at the time and was not an intended experimental variable.
Distance corrections were applied during data processing to account for the change in viewing geometry  (Clegg et al. , 2017; Wiens et al. , 2013). The laser operates at 3 Hz with an energy of 14 mJ per pulse. The samples were measured with 50 consecutive laser pulses at each of five different locations across the surface to collect a total of 250 spectra per sample. Emission collected by the instrument's telescope was measured using three detectors across the following wavelength ranges: ultraviolet (UV; 240-340 nm), visible (VIS; 380-470 nm), and VNIR (490-850 nm). We applied standard ChemCam ground data-processing techniques  (Clegg et al. , 2017; Wiens et al. , 2013)  to all LIBS spectra collected at LANL. This processing produces so-called clean, calibrated spectra files and includes the following correction steps: (1) subtraction of the background (measured spectrum with no laser pulse), (2) denoising, (3) continuum removal, (4) wavelength calibration, and (5) application of the instrument response function.
Another method tested is that previously used by  Schröder et al. (2015) , normalization to the continuum emission in the spectral region near the H peak, which results from Bremsstrahlung radiation and the broad tails of strong emission lines from other elements. This technique requires independent data processing, following all the processing steps normally required to generate the clean, calibrated spectra processed files except for continuum removal. Then, the continuum emission is estimated using the value of a nearby peak-free spectral region, here taken to be 660. 0 nm. We also tested two standard ChemCam normalization methods called Norm 1 and Norm 3. Norm 1 normalizes the spectrum by the total spectral intensity across all detectors, and Norm 3 normalizes the spectrum by the spectral intensity of the VNIR detector only, which is the detector for the H-alpha line, both after continuum subtraction.
ChemCam Data ChemCam spectra are collected by Curiosity using a very similar LIBS instrument to the LANL analog instrument used for our study. Typical ChemCam observations on a given point collect 30 shots at 3 Hz. When we average laser pulse spectra obtained at a single observation point, the first five shots are ignored due to potential contributions from surface materials like dust or thin coatings. We fit the ChemCam spectra using the same procedures as the laboratory data with an additional constraint on the FWHM of 0. 9 nm, a physically reasonable upper limit determined based on the largest H FWHM observed in the laboratory data. We also apply the Earth-to-Mars correction as described by  Clegg et al. (2017)  to account for differences in sensitivity between the LANL laboratory and ChemCam instruments.
Use of Calibrations to Determine H in ChemCam Spectra From Mars We examine the sensitivity of interpretations of ChemCam LIBS spectra to the different calibration approaches. One example important to interpreting Mars data is measurement of the hydration state of various salts, which have been reported based on orbital data and found in situ by rover missions. We use the Figure  5  calibration lines (Table  A1 ) for each of the normalizations from our work to predict the H peak values for bassanite (CaSO 4 • 0. 5 H 2 O) and gypsum (CaSO 4 • 2 H 2 O) on Mars and then compare these to the H signal observed for veins up to sol 1248 (same sample set examined by  Rapin et al. , 2016). Under all normalizations, the distribution of the ChemCam LIBS data normalized is closer to bassanite and would more likely be predicted to be this mineral using all of the normalizations.