dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Correlations, in particular the correlation between treatment dose and accuracy, were computed using Spearman's test. The significance level was set at 5%. To assess evidence in favour of the null hypothesis (i. e. , no difference in accuracy in the complete and partial feedback conditions), we performed a Bayesian equivalent of a t-test using Monte Carlo Markov chain analysis to compute the posterior probability of the difference in accuracy between the two feedback information conditions for each group. This analysis was conducted using the Bayesian Estimation Supersedes the t-Test (BEST) package version 0. 4. 0 in R statistical software with the BESTmcmc and plot. BEST functions. The region of practical equivalence (ROPE) was set at 3%, meaning that we considered a difference included in the [-1.
Acknowledgements A. S. was supported by a  Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale  grant (grant number  FDM20120624489 ). S. P. is supported by an  ATIP-Avenir starting grant  ( R16069JS ) and a  Collaborative Research in Computational Neuroscience ANR-NSF  grant ( ANR-16-NEUC-0004 ). The study was supported by a grant from the  Association Française du Syndrome de Gilles de la Tourette  to Y. W. The funding agencies did not influence the content of the manuscript. The  Institut d'Etude de la Cognition  is supported financially by the  LabEx IEC  ( ANR-10-LABX-0087 IEC ) and the  IDEX PSL*  ( ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL* ).
MeTHODS The review focuses mainly on the data from five papers, all reporting affinity kinetics of ghrelin-and desacyl-ghrelin-reactive IgG. They include a study of patients with hyperphagic obesity and anorexia nervosa (AN) and of ob/ob mice by   (17). In all mentioned studies, the same protocols of IgG plasma extraction and affinity kinetic assay by the surface plasmon resonance were used as was previously described in details  (18). All measurements of ghrelin and desacyl-ghrelin peptides in above mentioned studies were performed using corresponding kits from Mitsubishi Chemical Med Corp. (Tokyo, Japan), selectively detecting acyl-and desacyl-ghrelin with resulting plasma ratios of 1:3 to 1:6 in humans. In the text, we use the terms of ghrelin and acyl-ghrelin as synonyms. For the statistical analysis of ghrelin and ghrelin-reactive IgG properties between different animal models and patients, they are shown as means of folds of changes vs.
The parsing of the eye data into saccades and fixations was performed in accord with previously reported methods  70. Parameters were adjusted for saccade detection. The fixations within each trial were then classified according to their locations (on left or right face, or elsewhere on the screen). For each participant, we calculated the total looking time, the number of fixations, and the average individual fixation duration on each face. Because stimulus pairs were randomly selected from the set of faces, the difference in distance from the prototype between the two faces varied from trial to trial. Within each pair however, one face was relatively closer to the prototype than the other. We therefore categorized, for each trial, faces as "closer" to or "farther" from the prototype, and then averaged all "close" trials together and all "far" trials together, separately for each infant.
Infant eye movements were recorded via corneal reflection using a Tobii TX300 eye tracker, a remote 58. 4 cm monitor with integrated eye tracking technology, and a sampling rate of 60 Hz. We used Tobii Studio software (Tobii Technology, Sweden) to collect the data. Distance measure. We computed distance measures for each of the 16 individual faces from the prototype. The prototype was the average of the 16 infant rhesus monkey faces used in Experiment 2 (see Fig. 2 ), constructed as in Experiment 1. The measure of the distance between the individual faces and the prototype was computed based on the facial measurements used in previous studies in rhesus macaques  75. Results and Discussion. Data analysis was similar to that in Experiment 1. Only trials where participants gazed at both faces were included in the dataset.
001), all data were log-transformed prior to analysis. Macaque infants showed significantly longer total looking time for faces closer to the prototype compared to faces farther from the prototype, t(  22  In humans, the prototypicality bias is dependent on the observer's experience with the categories of faces presented  35  , although the precise amount of experience necessary to induce the bias is unclear. If this same effect of experience applies to the averageness preference of monkeys, then it should only be observed for familiar categories of faces. In contrast with human infants, exposure to faces in monkey infants can be experimentally controlled (e. g. , ref. 28). In Experiment 2, the rhesus sample was exposed to macaque infant faces, but not macaque adult faces. In Experiment 3, we tested the same macaque infants with macaque adult face stimuli.
Results and Discussion. Only trials where participants gazed at both faces were included in the dataset (average per infants: 5. 81 trials (SD = 1. 74). An area of interest surrounded the contour of each of the faces, i. e. , 500 (width) x 525 (height) pixels. Only fixations measured in this area were included in the analysis. Because the 8 pairs of faces presented were fixed and did not vary between participants, measures of looking-total looking duration, fixation duration, and fixation frequencies-for faces closer to the prototype were computed from the eight faces closer to the prototype, and likewise, measures of looking for faces farther from the prototype were computed from the eight faces farther from the prototype. Due to a non-normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, p = 0. 01), all data were log-transformed prior to analysis.
Acknowledgements We thank the infants and parents who participated in the study. Some adult macaque faces used in this study were provided by PrimFace database: https://visiome. neuroinf. jp/primface,funded by  Grant-in-Aid for Scientific research on Innovative Areas , " Face Perception and Recognition " from  Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT), Japan. The research was supported by a grant from the  National Institutes of Health  ( R01 HD-46526 ), the  Division of Intramural Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH  grant ( P01HD064653 ), the  James W. McLamore Provost Research Award in Social Sciences  from the  University of Miami  and  National Science Foundation Career Award # 1653737  to EAS, and a Ph.
International recommendations for mental health care have advocated for a reduction in the length of stay (LOS) in full-time hospitalization and the development of alternatives to full-time hospitalizations (AFTH) could facilitate alignment with those recommendations. Our objective was therefore to assess whether the development of AFTH in French psychiatric sectors was associated with a reduction in the LOS in full-time hospitalization. Using data from the French national discharge database of psychiatric care, we computed the LOS of patients admitted for full-time hospitalization. The level of development of AFTH was estimated by the share of human resources allocated to those alternatives in the hospital enrolling the staff of each sector. Multi-level modelling was carried out to adjust the analysis on other factors potentially associated with the LOS (patients', psychiatric sectors' and environmental characteristics).
Materials and Methods A retrospective study was carried out using the French national discharge database (Recueil d'informations médicalisé en psychiatrie, RIM-P)  [45] , which records all hospital stays and outpatient care contacts in psychiatric hospitals, the annual national survey on health care providers (Statistique annuelle des établissements, SAE) where hospitals report their activity in a declarative manner for the past year  [46] , and other databases non-specific to psychiatry.
Study Population We included patients in full-time hospitalization whose care was reported in the RIM-P for the year 2012 (most recent year available at the start of the study) and who were diagnosed with a mental disorder from Chapter V of the International Classification of Diseases, tenth revision (ICD-10)  [47] , excluding organic mental disorders (F00-F09), mental retardation (F70-F79) and psychological development disorders (apart from pervasive developmental disorders) (F80, F81-F83, F88-F89). This diagnosis scope corresponds to the scope of psychiatrists' expertise in France and has been used in previous studies on mental health  [48, 49]. Patients with at least one diagnosis of mental disorder outside of this scope were excluded from the analysis. As the databases used for the study were not totally exhaustive for the year 2012 and in order to ensure data quality, we further excluded patients seen in sectors belonging to a hospital which: (i) did not report consistently its annual full-time inpatient activity and/or its number of psychiatric sectors in the RIM-P and the SAE databases; (ii) did not report its outpatient activity; or (iii) did not report data requested to assess the development of its AFTH as described below.
All kind of AFTH provided by psychiatric sectors (ambulatory care, part-time hospitalizations and full-time care outside of inpatient settings) and all kind of staff (psychiatrists and other medical doctors, nurses, nursing auxiliaries, psychologists, physiotherapists, social, educational and administrative staff) were considered. The total number of FTEs and the total number of FTEs allocated to full-time hospitalization were extracted from the SAE database. On a given territory, where both inpatient and outpatient mental health care is coordinated by a single hospital, the FTEs employed in psychiatry and reported in the database are either allocated to full-time hospitalization or to AFTH. FTEs which are not employed in mental health services providing full-time hospitalization are de facto employed in services providing AFTH and even FTEs of administrative staff are reported based on the type of care provided by the service they belong to.
Factors Potentially Associated with the LOS in Full-Time Hospitalization In addition to the development of AFTH, three types of factors, potentially associated with LOS, were considered as adjustment factors: patients' characteristics, health care providers' characteristics and environmental factors. The patients' demographic (age and sex) and clinical characteristics (diagnosis) were extracted from the RIM-P database. In accordance with previous research  [55] , ICD-10 codes were grouped together into broader diagnostic groups (see Table  1 ). As it is difficult to establish a diagnosis during a single care contact in psychiatry and as comorbidities are frequent  [56, 57] , we considered all diagnoses present in the database for a given patient over the course of the year. To overcome the lack of data on the patients' socio-economic characteristics in the RIM-P, we created a proxy deprivation index based on the patients' residential zip codes.
We used a validated composite index specifically developed for the French context, called the FDep. This index takes into account the median household income, the percentage of high school graduates in the population aged 15 years and older, the percentage of blue-collar workers in the active population and the unemployment rate, and does not include any health indicator that could lead to circularity  [58, 59]. Characteristics of sectors and their related hospital were extracted from the SAE database and included legal status (public vs. private non-profit), specialization and participation in teaching activities, as well as organizational factors, such as number of full-time inpatient beds as an indicator of the size of the hospital  [44, 55, 60]. Moreover, the mean value by sector of the patients' characteristics described above (case-mix) can also have an influence on practice.
For example, if a sector treats on average older patients than another sector, this might cause variations in practice. We therefore also considered sectors' case-mix characteristics. Finally, environmental factors were extracted from administrative databases and census data [61-65] and calculated for the catchment area of each sector. Those catchment areas, defined as the geographic zone where the sector's patients originate, were built for each sector after excluding zip codes corresponding to fewer than five patients to avoid bias resulting from a few isolated patients coming from long distances on an occasional basis. The catchment areas were constructed using a geographic information system (Geoconcept ® software, Bagneux, France) to convert patients' text-based zip codes found in the RIM-P into spatial data.
Setting Of the 248 public and private non-profit hospitals participating in public services in mainland France, discharge data from 122 hospitals (49. 2%) were included in the analysis based on data quality. These hospitals consisted of 413 sectors of adult psychiatry (see Figure  1 ) representing 51. 4% of all sectors of adult psychiatry in mainland France. Included hospitals did not present any statistically significant differences with excluded ones in terms of main organizational and institutional characteristics or case-mix. environment) (model 3). For each model, we calculated the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), which is the proportion of variance that is accounted for by the centre level (i. e. , psychiatric sectors), and the proportional change in variance (PCV) to determine the proportion of variance explained by each type of explanatory variable  [76].
Finally, we interpreted the value of the estimated regression coefficient associated to the level of development of AFTH (β1) after retransforming the coefficient based on the logarithmic transformation of the dependent variable: %∆ LOS = 100*(e^β1 -1)  [77]. We used a statistical significance level of 0. 05 and the analyses were performed using SAS software version 9. 3 (SAS Institute Inc. , Cary, NC, USA).
Setting Of the 248 public and private non-profit hospitals participating in public services in mainland France, discharge data from 122 hospitals (49. 2%) were included in the analysis based on data quality. These hospitals consisted of 413 sectors of adult psychiatry (see Figure  1 ) representing 51. 4% of all sectors of adult psychiatry in mainland France. Included hospitals did not present any statistically significant differences with excluded ones in terms of main organizational and institutional characteristics or case-mix.
Additional studies using multiple consensual indicators of quality of care and/or a longitudinal design can now be carried out. Those first findings would in particular be usefully complemented by research aimed at disentangling the mechanisms underlying the impact of AFTH on LOS in the French context. In addition, further work focusing on other variables such as readmission and involuntary admission rates whose reductions are also supported by international recommendations for mental health care  [13]  will be developed. The results of our study should however be interpreted in consideration of several limitations linked to the retrospective use of administrative databases, which are considered less accurate than prospective studies, but are the most cost-effective way to gather data on a national scale and allow non-invasive data collection for patients  [81].
The RIM-P database was first implemented in 2006 and its limitations have been mentioned previously  [21] , but it is estimated that since 2010, data quality is sufficient for research purposes  [82]. Moreover, whenever possible, we compared data from the RIM-P with data from other databases, such as the SAE to ensure data quality. However, there are limitations linked to data comprehensiveness as some psychiatric sectors belonging to hospitals where FTEs data were not available could not be included in the analysis, which might limit the external validity of our results. Furthermore, there are some limitations linked to data precision: the share of FTEs allocated to AFTH was calculated on all types of staff while they might not be completely equivalent. In addition, no information was available in the SAE database regarding the distribution of FTEs between the different types of alternatives to full-time hospitalization, while some studies have shown that the impact on the use of inpatient services could vary with the type of AFTH considered  [32].
Similarly, there was no information available on the distribution of FTEs between the different forms of care at the psychiatric sector level, while there could be differences between the sectors belonging to the same hospital even if they follow the same general policy. We were also limited by data availability for the inclusion of adjustment factors potentially associated with the LOS, which could account for some of the unexplained variations in LOS remaining in our multivariate analysis. First, regarding patients' characteristics, there was no information in the RIM-P database on either symptom or illness severity nor on the socio-economic situation of individual patients. To address this latest limit, we used a deprivation index at the level of patient zip code of residence, following approaches adopted by previous research  [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89].
Such proxies present the advantage of being mobilizable and operational quickly at a large scale (the national scale in our case) and their use was recently recommended by the French High Council for Public Health whenever individual data are lacking in available information systems  [90]. Those limitations result from the use of administrative databases, which however allow the conduction of analyses on a large number of patients (more than 100,000 in our study). Second, regarding organizational sectors' characteristics, data was not available on implementation of discharge planning in psychiatric sectors. Finally, regarding environmental factors related to the availability of medical and social care on the catchment areas of psychiatric sectors, we used data directly available in administrative databases which only provide information relating to a limited number of structures.
Acknowledgments: We are grateful for the strong support of  Morgane Michel  and for her proof-reading of the manuscript. We would also like to acknowledge two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments. Finally, we would like to thank the policy makers, health professionals, database managers and other researchers working in mental health services research who participated in the monitoring committee of the call for proposals, which funded this research, and who provided on-going advice on the project. This study was indeed funded by the  French Ministry of Health  in the framework of the 2013 Mental health and psychiatry call for proposals of the direction of research, study, evaluation and statistics (DREES). The funding source had no role in the conception and design of the study, in the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data or in the writing of the manuscript.
Participants Thirty-one full-term, healthy French-exposed neonates were tested at the maternity ward of the Robert Debré Hospital in Paris. Of these, 11 were not included in the final analysis, because their data files got lost (2), they did not finish the experiment due to fussiness and crying (6) or because they didn't provide enough analyzable data due to movement artifacts and/or dense hair (3). Infants were not retained for analysis if more than 66% of their data was rejected. The remaining 20 babies (8 girls, age range 1-3 days, mean age: 2. 0 days, mean weight 3498 g, weight range: 2850-4390 g, Apgar at 10 min after birth: 10, normal otoacoustic emissions test) were included in the final analysis. All parents gave informed consent prior to participation. The study was approved by the CERES ethics committee of the Université Paris Descartes.
Material Our stimuli consisted of 4-word-long sequences. The words were selected from the French subcorpora of the CHILDES database  (MacWhinney, 2000)  and were reproduced by a female native speaker of French with child-directed intonation. We used 50 actual French words. Half of them were function words (e. g. que 'what', ta 'your', un 'a/an', dans 'in'), the other half content words (e. g. biberon 'baby bottle', maison 'house', papa 'dad', regarde 'look'). The words were combined into 4-word sequences following one of the four possible orders of two function (F) and two content (C) words, i. e. F-F-C-C, C-C-F-F, F-C-F-C or C-F-C-F. While the words were actual French words, the sequences (and their subparts) did not constitute grammatical French sentences or phrases. This was done in order to create sequences that mimic the distribution of words found in natural languages, but that contain word combinations that are unfamiliar to the infants so as to avoid that some sequences be better learned during the experiment because they have occurred in the prenatal or short postnatal experience of the participants.
Procedure Infants were tested in a dimly lit, quiet room of the maternity ward of the Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France, while lying in their cribs in a state of quiet rest or sleep. At least one parent was present throughout the testing session. We used a NIRx NIRScout 8-16 system with a source-detector separation of 3 cm, using pulsated LED lights at 760 nm and 850 nm. The optical probes were inserted into an elastic cap (EasyCap, Brain-Products GmbH, Germany), which was placed on the newborns' head following surface landmarks (vertex, tragus, ears) as shown in Fig. 2. No localization analysis could be performed for the current dataset, as photographs and distance measures of the probe placement were not available for all infants. However, in a previous study from our lab  (Abboub et al.
Data analysis Changes in the concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin (oxyHb) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (deoxyHb) were calculated from the absorption of near-infrared light as metabolic indicators of neural activity. OxyHb and deoxyHb were entered into the data analysis. To eliminate high-frequency noises (heartbeat, etc. ) and overall trends, the data were band-pass filtered between 0. 01 and 1 Hz. Movement artifacts, defined as concentration changes larger than 0. 1 mmol × mm over 0. 2 msec, were removed by rejecting block-channel pairs where artifacts occurred. For the nonrejected blocks, a baseline was linearly fitted between the means of the 5 s preceding the onset of the block and the 5 s starting 24 s after the onset of the block. For each block, data were averaged over a 15-s time window starting from the onset of stimulation.
The general idea behind permutation-based statistical testing is that if an effect observed in the data is real and not spurious, then it should disappear once the data is shuffled, i. e. permuted, randomly a large number of times. If among the datasets generated by random permutations, we only obtain the empirically observed pattern of results a small number of times (e. g. in fewer than 5% of the permuted datasets, corresponding to the conventional significance level of alpha = 0. 05), then we can be confident that we did not observe it spuriously. If, by contrast, it appears in more than 5% of the permuted datasets, then it is most probably a spurious pattern, and not a significant effect. We used cluster-based permutation tests, which take into account spatial and/or temporal adjacency, clustering together samples that show a significant effect, if they are adjacent in space or time.