dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
ORCHIDEE Model The ORCHIDEE land surface model is a mechanistic dynamic global vegetation model  [Krinner et al. , 2005]  that is part of the ''Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL)'' Earth System Model (ESM)  [Dufresne et al. , 2013]. It is composed of three main modules: SECHIBA  [Ducoudr e et al. , 1993] , which calculates energy, momentum and hydrological exchanges between soil, vegetation and atmosphere as well as photosynthesis, at a half-hourly time step; STOMATE which simulates carbon processes such as litter decomposition, carbon allocation and phenology, at daily time step; and LPJ  [Sitch et al. , 2003]    Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 10. 1002/2016MS000860 which comprises 96 land types. The PFT map prescribes the fraction of each PFT at a spatial resolution of 5 km  [V erant et al.
Model Input Data and Experimental Setup The atmospheric input data required to run ORCHIDEE consist of continuous (6-hourly) time series of surface air temperature and humidity, pressure, wind speed, precipitation, and shortwave and longwave downward radiation. All these variables are recorded at the WMO-standard meteorological station of Salekhard (see section 2) except precipitation and radiation. For these missing data, ERA-INTERIM reanalysis data were downloaded and merged to complete the data set  [Guglielmo et al. , 2015]. Soil type and PFT fractions are also required for stand-alone simulations. These parameters were defined for the two studied sites according to in situ measurements  [Valdayskikh et al. , 2013] , the PFT fractions were derived following the combination rules proposed by Ottl e et al.
[2007] , the spin-up has to be extended in time and generally 100 years are required to reach equilibrium. In our case, since we were looking only at surface processes and because only 1 year of local meteorological data was available, we decided to use the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis (already used to gap-fill the local meteorological data set) to generate our initial conditions. For that purpose, the 10 last years  (2002) (2003) (2004) (2005) (2006) (2007) (2008) (2009) (2010) (2011)  were chosen, and the initial states were obtained after running the model iteratively ten times over this 10 year period. The surface temperature profile was initialized with a deep temperature (90 m), set to 272 K, according to the mean air temperature provided by the ERA data set over Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 10.
Model Calibration Model calibration was performed for both tundra and forest sites using the soil moisture, soil temperature and ALT observations acquired during the summer 2012 field experiment. The methodology was based on a simple OAT calibration procedure, by minimizing the model-data discrepancies. The calibration was first performed on the H s , H r , and K s parameters, which influence both soil temperature and soil moisture; the calibration was then extended to the other parameters (i. e. , k W , C w , and C kv ). In this calibration process, the same weight has been given to each observation. The range of variation of all the parameters subject to calibration and the calibrated values obtained are compared in Table  5  to the values prescribed in the standard ORCHIDEE version. The model simulations were performed with the meteorological forcing resulting from the merging of the in situ measurements with the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis data, as described in section 3.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the  WSIBISO  project funded by the  Russian Federation  under contract  11. G34. 31. 0064  and to the  French ANR   CLASSIQUE  project ( ANR  Grant No. ANR 2010-CEPL-012-02 ), for funding this study. They acknowledge also  J. Polcher  and  C. Grenier  for fruitful discussions as well as anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions that improved the quality of our manuscript. The source code for the model used in this study, the  IPSL-ORCHIDEE , is freely available at http://labex. ipsl. fr/orchidee/. Both the data and input files necessary to reproduce the experiments are available from the authors upon request (catherine. ottle@lsce. ipsl. fr). The data are archived at the  Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement (LSCE).
Our purpose in the work is to compute the interfacial charge derived from the experimental conductivity values and subsequently to compare it to experimental measurements of the space charge. The first step is therefore to compute the charge in polarization and depolarization in a transient regime. Equations (  5 ) and (  6 ) cannot be resolved analytically taking into account the field non-linearity: the time constant τ MW varies with the field redistribution in the insulation bulk. Therefore, we used a numerical resolution by FEM (finite elements method) using Comsol software. At the initial stage, one considers a purely capacitive field distribution hypothesizing a charge-free system. Therefore: E 1 (t = 0) = -V•ε 2 ε 1 •d 2 + ε 2 •d 1 and E 2 (t = 0) = -V•ε 1 ε 1 •d 2 + ε 2 •d 1 (7) The numerical resolution is achieved in 1D in time combining Equations (  2 )-(  4 ) with the initial condition as in  (7).
Acknowledgments: Thanks to  Silec-General Cable  for providing the samples and supporting part of this study. Author Contributions:  Gilbert Teyssedre  and  Thi Thu Nga Vu  conceived the project;  Thi Thu Nga Vu  realized the measurements and FEM modelling;  Séverine Le Roy  contributed to modelling;  Christian Laurent  and  Gilbert Teyssedre  wrote the paper.
Impedancemeters Impedance measurements in the laboratory as well as in the waste water treatment plant were carried out by using the model 4194A Impedance/gain-phase analyser connected to its measurement unit (resolution: 100 μohm/0. 1°) and the model 4193A Vector impedancemeter (resolution: 10 mohm/0. 1°). Both impedancemeters (from Hewlett Packard) were interfaced via their HPIB port and monitored by a home-made application created by means of the TestPoint™ software.
Acknowledgements We thank  Dr Christophe Poulard  for his help with the UV-Ozone treatment and  Prof. Petra Swiderek  for fruitful discussions. We acknowledge the financial support by  C'Nano ,  Ile-de-France ,  Programme Francilien de Recherche en Nanosciences , through the 2009  SAMTOX-NC  granted project. This work was conducted within the framework of the  COST action CM1301 (CELINA for 'Chemistry for ELectron-Induced NAnofabrication '). The HREELS electronics was funded by the  LabEx PALM Investissement d'Avenir  ( ANR-10-LABX-0039-PALM ,  ProDac  project).
Resolution of the inverse problem The optimization framework was implemented in Matlab using the fmincon routine to solve the function 8. The algorithm used is the active-set. In order to select the optimization solving method, we followed the MATLAB recommendation of use of fmincon function  [46]. Indeed, the size of the problem is not very large (we can store all data during optimization, and linear algebra can be easily computed on them), the problem does not seem to show local minimum issues, although several approximated solutions may be possible. So this solution would provide the fastest optimization of parameters. In test, we noticed that other existing algorithms would reach the same results.
An online screening stage will ask all participants to selfcertify that they are an 'expert' in at least one of the three tinnitus-intervention strategies. All enrolled Delphi panellists will be eligible to register their interest in attending a 1-day consensus meeting. However, allocation of places will be limited to those respondents who complete all three rounds of the online survey. None of the Research Steering Group members will be allowed to vote on domains in the consensus meetings because this risks inadvertently introducing a power differential across participants, but they can enrol in the online Delphi surveys (with the exception of KF and HS who will have access to the dataset for all analyses). Each expert panellist is permitted to enrol for more than one Delphi process if they meet the eligibility criteria, but would be invited to attend only one consensus meeting.
And finally, the lead study site has a participant database containing email contacts for approximately 1000 health care users who have self-declared tinnitus. To recruit health care professionals, a number of professional networks and organisations will also circulate invitations to their membership (British Society of Audiology, British Academy of Audiology, ENT and Audiology News, the TINNET network funded by an EU COST Action BM1306, the International Collegium of Rehabilitative Audiology, and the Pharmacological Interventions for Hearing Loss Working Group at the Hearing Centre of Excellence in the USA). Collectively, these networks reach out to tens of thousands of professionals across the globe, but the disadvantage is that the approach can be somewhat impersonal. Parallel routes for recruiting health care professionals will, therefore, involve personal invitation via email or face-to-face contact.
The Delphi survey Three (parallel, independent) international Delphi surveys will be managed online using DelphiManager software maintained by the Core Outcome Measures in Effectiveness Trials (COMET) initiative (University of Liverpool: http://www. comet-initiative. org/). Each panellist will receive a Unique Identification Code and an e-link to the webpage for whichever survey matches their self-nominated expertise. Confirmation of eligible expertise will be collected online. A video explanation will illustrate how to complete the online tool. A flowchart of the study is shown in Fig. 1. We will use a modified Delphi technique whereby we identify a 'long-list' of candidate outcomes prior to the first survey round, through systematic procedures that involve professional and public stakeholders and pool several independent sources of information  [13, 26, 27].
The pre-Delphi stage involving health care users as Public Research Partners We have completed the pre-Delphi stage and this created a finalised set of 66 outcome domains, each with a short plain-language description, grouped into 13 domain categories; the main content of the online Delphi surveys. Patient involvement has been an integral and transformative step of the study design process. To improve the appeal to health care users and to reduce attrition, two Public Research Partners on the Research Steering Group and one independent member of the public commented on the feasibility of the Delphi survey design, and reviewed study documentation (advertisements, Information Sheets, video instructions for the survey). In line with recommended considerations  [10; 13] , we also used qualitative research data gathered from health care users to make informed decisions about the main content of the online Delphi surveys and to ensure that outcome domain concepts are explained in ways that patient participants can understand and generate meanings which are consistent across all Delphi stakeholder groups.
This source identified 43 outcome domains that reflected outcomes which patients considered important to them. This scoping process identified a total of 124 distinct outcome domains, after duplicates had been consolidated (see Fig. 2 ). For each outcome domain, associated examples were taken from each data source to aid interpretation of meaning for each outcome domain. Our Research Steering Group, in particular our two Public Research Partners, informed our decision to reduce the long-list of outcome domains in order to improve the likelihood of completing all items in the Delphi survey. Discussion of each outcome domain and examples reduced the list of 124 by 57. Fifteen outcome domains were comorbidities that were associated with, but not specific to, tinnitus and so these can be considered out of the scope of this Core Outcome Domain Set and consequently were removed.
Rounds 2 and 3 Participants will be eligible to continue to rounds 2 and 3 if they have responded to at least 40% of the outcome domains in the previous round. Corresponding data from those participants who responded to less than 40% will be removed. In rounds 2 and 3, all participants will receive the same list of outcomes with feedback tailored according to their Delphi allocation. The purpose of round 2 will be to enable participants to reflect on their scores in light of the viewpoint of their stakeholder peers, and to score the outcomes again. The purpose of round 3 will be to enable participants to reflect on their scores in light of the viewpoint of their stakeholder peers and all other stakeholder groups, and to score the outcomes again. Results will be presented graphically as well as numerically to improve visual appeal (Fig.
Analyses The data from each Delphi round will be subjected to descriptive statistics, such as number completing each round, gender, country, region, native English language speaker (or not), and retention rate at rounds 2 and 3. We will plot the distribution of rating scores within each stakeholder group (including the 'unable to score' option and any missing data), and we will investigate attrition bias by comparing these plots across participants who complete successive rounds versus those who withdraw at rounds 2 or 3  [31]. We will also compare the distribution of rating scores for native and non-native English language speakers. Withdrawal and language are both factors that may affect how representative the final consensus might be of the target population. A separate analysis will assess the shifts in scores across rounds as a consequence of considering the anonymised feedback from other participants.
The distribution of the scores for each outcome domain will be calculated for each stakeholder group within each intervention-specific Delphi survey. The data from the feedback questionnaire will comprise open-text responses and these will be analysed using a thematic analysis approach to address one of the secondary objectives. Uptake of the recommendations will be analysed by calculating the number and proportion of authors who have implemented and referenced the COMIT'ID study recommendations in trials reported up to 7 years after their publication, comparing data between groups using non-parametric statistics (p < 0. 05).
Dissemination Any important changes to eligibility criteria that are approved as a protocol modification will be communicated to our list of potential participants and advertised via all general e-promotion routes. Data from the final analyses of the Delphi surveys, consensus meetings and feedback questionnaire will be presented at relevant national and international conferences, including the British Tinnitus Association, the British Society of Audiology, the Tinnitus Research Initiative and the International Tinnitus Seminar. Several peer-reviewed publications are also planned; one addressing all primary objectives and one addressing the secondary objective for recruiting and for reducing attrition of health care users. Our findings will be further disseminated to members of the public and clinicians through specialist magazine articles, and our patient organisation supporters.
The official trade data To get an overview of trade between Algeria and Mali, and identify the most traded goods, we analyzed official statistics in the COMTRADE database, based on customs declarations of both countries. Mirror statistics literature proposes using the difference between the measurements reported by the authorities of the importing and exporting countries for the same trade flow to obtain an initial assessment of the informal cross-border trade. In principle, there is a minimum difference between the reported values on both sides of a border because exports are valued f. o. b. (without freight and insurance), and imports are valued c. i. f. (shipping and insurance costs are included). The difference can then be amplified by classification errors, problems of time, exchange rates, etc.
Evidence from satellite images To examine the presence of informal cross-border trade routes across the border, we commissioned a set of satellite images. The images were taken in March 2014, with a resolution of 50 centimeters and are 100 percent cloud-free. Because trucks and cars leave marks in dry terrain, the images bear witness to the transport activity around the border. A sophisticated algorithm was used to identify informal roads on satellite images. 9 Automated data extraction of road traces was followed by a manual process (road digitization and importance qualification) to extract alternative roads from the large data set. This manual process helped to connect roads, close gaps generated by the automated process, and remove some false road segments that were identified along geological or topological edges.
Estimating the volume of the informal cross-border trade Methodology Unlike in similar studies in Africa, it was not possible, for security reasons, to visit physically the Algeria-Mali border and conduct interviews there. We therefore had to cross-check the information provided by the various stakeholders interviewed, which included, on both sides of the border, a dozen traders, as well as local authorities, representatives of customs, and journalists who were well aware of trading practices. Data and information were collected in several steps: 1. Customs and informants (on both sides of the border) were interviewed to identify the goods mainly traded between Algeria and Mali. In this way, we were able to identify some distribution networks and some traders. 2. The preliminary data and information were then cross-checked with the information gathered from the interviews conducted with those practicing formal and informal crossborder trade in Algeria and Mali in order to understand the networks, routes, and commodity prices.
Acknowledgments: I thank the editor and two anonymous referees for their feedback. I am indebted to  Ingela Alger ,  Braz Camargo ,  Jacques Cremer ,  Maximillian Conze ,  Mikhail Drugov ,  Fabian Franke ,  Marta Troya-Martinez ,  François Salanié  and  Jörgen Weibull  for invaluable discussions. I also thank seminar audiences at  Toulouse School of Economics and University of Mannheim , as well as conference participants at the 2016 International Meeting on Experimental and Behavioral Social Sciences, 10th  RGS Doctoral Conference  and 70th European Meeting of the Econometric Society.
What is the optimal form of firm organization during "bad times"? Using two large micro datasets on firm decentralization from US administrative data and 10 OECD countries, we find that firms that delegated more power from the Central Headquarters to local plant managers prior to the Great Recession out-performed their centralized counterparts in sectors that were hardest hit by the subsequent crisis. We present a model where higher turbulence benefits decentralized firms because the value of local information and urgent action increases. Since turbulence rises in severe downturns, decentralized firms do relatively better. We show that the data support our model over alternative explanations such as recession-induced reduction in agency costs (due to managerial fears of bankruptcy) and changing coordination costs.
An alternative, "Localist view" is that recessions are periods of rapid change, and being decentralized provides firms with the necessary flexibility to respond to turbulent business conditions. 2   To investigate these issues, we created two new panel datasets with explicit measures of decentralization measured prior to the Great Recession. One dataset, the World Management Survey (WMS) has firm level data across ten OECD countries (France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal Sweden, the UK and US). The other dataset, the Management and Organizational Practices Survey (MOPS), we constructed in partnership with the Census Bureau and covers US plants. We combine these datasets with firm and plant performance data before and after the 2009-08 crisis. We find compelling evidence that, in sectors that were exogenously hit harder by the crisis, decentralized firms outperformed their centralized rivals in terms of survival chances as well as in their growth of sales, productivity and profits.
Modern organizational economics builds upon these trade-o↵s within a firm rather than across the economy as a whole. On the theory side, our paper relates to the literature on decentralization within the firm (see  Gibbons, Matouschek and Roberts, 2013, or Garicano and Rayo, 2016  for recent surveys) and incomplete contracts (see  Gibbons and Roberts, 2013, and Aghion, Bloom and Van Reenen, 2014  for surveys). In particular,  Hart and Moore (2005)  analyze the optimal allocation of authority in multi-layer 3 Bloom (2014) shows a large variety of datasets that suggest that turbulence and uncertainty rise in downturns. One exception is  Broda and Weinstein (2010)  who report a pro-cyclical product churn. However, they have a a very di↵erent focus -looking at the net change in the product o↵ering in retail stores (the number of new products sold less current products no-longer sold) -and a di↵erent time period  (1994 and 1999-2003)  spanning one mild recession.
Data Description and Measurement We start by describing in some detail our decentralization data since this involved an extensive new survey process. We then describe the accounting and administrative data matched with the surveybased measures of decentralization, the proxies measuring the severity of the Great Recession and the novel industry level measures of product churn. More details on the data are in Appendix A. 4 In contrast to  Aghion and Tirole (1997) , there is no information acquisition e↵ort by the agent or the principal, therefore in Dessein's model the allocation of authority is not so much a tool to motivate the agent (as in  Aghion and Tirole)  or give a supplier incentives to make relationship specific investments (as in  Grossman and Hart, 1986). The main insight in  Dessein (2002)  is that in a world with asymmetric information and contractual incompleteness, the delegation of authority from a Principal to an Agent is often the best way to elicit the agent's private information.
Cross-country data -World Management Survey Our international decentralization data was collected in the context of the World Management Survey (WMS), a large scale project aimed at collecting high quality data on management and organizational design across firms around the world. The survey is conducted through an interview with a plant manager in medium sized manufacturing firms. We asked four questions on decentralization from the central headquarters to the local plant manager. First, we asked how much capital investment a plant manager could undertake without prior authorization from the corporate headquarters. This is a continuous variable enumerated in national currency that we convert into dollars using PPPs. 5  We also inquired on where decisions were e↵ectively made in three other dimensions: (a) the introduction of a new product, (b) sales and marketing decisions and (c) hiring a new full-time permanent shop floor employee.
U. S. Census data -MOPS The 2010 Management and Organizational Practices Survey (MOPS) was jointly funded by the Census Bureau and the National Science Foundation as a supplement to the Annual Survey of Manufactures (ASM). The design was based on the World Management Survey and was mailed to the establishment plant manager (see  Bloom et al. 2016 and Brynjolfsson and McElheran 2016). The survey contained six questions on decentralization with four of these covering the same domain as WMS -plant manager autonomy over (a) capital investments, (b) hiring of full time employees, (c) product introduction and (d) sales and marketing -with two additional question on e) pay increases of at least 10%, and (f) product pricing decisions. For each question, respondents were asked to choose among three options capturing where the specific decisions were made: "only at this establishment" (coded as 3), "only at headquarters" (coded as 1), or "both at this establishment and at headquarters" (coded as 2).