dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Acknowledgements This project has been funded by the  European Union 's  Seventh Framework Program  for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement no. 607150  ( FP7-PEOPLE-2013-ITN -INTERFACES -Ecohydrological  interfaces as critical hotspots for transformations of ecosystem exchange fluxes and biogeochemical cycling). B. Abbott and G. Pinay were also supported by the  French EC2CO  grant " Caractérisation hydrologique et biogéochimique de la dénitrification dans les paysages. " C. Mendoza-Lera  and T. Datry were supported by the  French National Agency for Water and Aquatic Environments (ONEMA ,  Action 13 ,  "Colmatage , échanges nappe-rivière et processus biogéochimiques"). We would like to thank  S. Abbott  and two anonymous reviewers whose criticisms improved the paper.
The response of the Martian ionosphere to solar activity is analyzed by taking into account variations in a range of parameters during four phases of the solar cycle throughout 2005-2012. Multiple Mars Express data sets have been used (such as Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding (MARSIS) in Active Ionospheric Sounding, MARSIS subsurface, and MaRS Radio Science), which currently cover more than 10 years of solar activity. The topside of the main ionospheric layer behavior is empirically modeled through the neutral scale height parameter, which describes the density distribution in altitude, and can be used as a dynamic monitor of the solar wind-Martian plasma interaction, as well as of the medium's temperature. The main peak, the total electron content, and the relationship between the solar wind dynamic pressure and the maximum thermal pressure of the ionosphere with the solar cycle are assessed.
The objective of this paper is to extend that work to broader solar zenith angle and altitude ranges by taking into account the different phases of the solar cycle and multiple Mars Express data sets. In this context, the general response of the Martian ionosphere to the solar activity is empirically modeled. This study includes assessment of the following. (1) The behavior of the topside main layer is analyzed through the neutral scale height parameter. (2) Variations in the peak characteristics of the main layer are assessed. (3) A possible anomalous behavior of the secondary layer for the extreme solar minimum phase between end-2007 to end-2009 is examined. (4) The daily TEC variation during the solar cycle is evaluated, as well as compared with the empirical modeling. (5) As a by-product, the daily neutral and plasma temperatures at the main peak altitude are obtained.
, 2004]  has been probing the ionosphere of Mars since mid-June 2005  [Orosei et al. , 2014]. This instrument has two different operational modes, from which different ionospheric parameters can be obtained. In the Active Ionospheric Sounding (AIS) mode  [Gurnett et al. , 2005] , MARSIS works as a topside ionospheric sounder, providing the vertical electron density profile of the topside ionosphere as a data product [  Sánchez-Cano et al. , 2012; Morgan et al. , 2013]. In the subsurface mode  [Gurnett et al. , 2005] , MARSIS works as a geophysical radar to analyze the subsurface of the planet, and from this, the TEC of the entire atmosphere can be retrieved as a by-product  [Safaeinili et al. , 2007; Mouginot et al. , 2008; Cartacci et al. , 2013]. To investigate the solar zenith angle-dependent ionospheric response to solar cycle variations, this study has analyzed a total of 2814 AIS topside vertical electron density profiles.
The basic selection criteria of these profiles are exactly the same that are explained in  Sánchez-Cano et al. [2015a , 2015b]. Specifically for this study, these profiles come from areas without large crustal magnetic anomalies  [Acuña et al. , 1999]  because the objective is to understand the general behavior of the "normal condition" ionosphere across a long time period, and the presence of crustal magnetic fields can locally alter any ionospheric interaction with the solar wind. For similar reasons, data from orbits affected by strong and fast solar inputs, such as interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs) or co-rotating interaction regions (CIRs), were not considered because they need to be independently modeled. These data were identified primarily by using Earth as a monitor of the solar wind when Mars and Earth were in conjunction.
Each AIS topside profile suitable for this study was numerically fitted by a Chapman layer (equation (  1 )) with a linearly variable neutral scale height (equation (  3 )). The procedure is exactly the same as that followed by  Sánchez-Cano et al. [2013]. At the end of the process, values for H 0 and a were acquired for each AIS profile. Then, linear regressions for the derived H 0 and a values as a function of the solar zenith angle were conducted for each solar cycle period. In principle, a is expected to have a linear variation with SZA and H 0 an exponential one  [Sánchez-Cano et al. , 2013]. However in this work, we consider that a linear behavior for H 0 with respect to SZA better represents the data for the four solar cycle periods, as the linear fit and the exponential one described by  Sánchez-Cano et al.
Behavior of the Peak of the Main Layer The evolution of the peak electron density behavior over a full solar cycle was recently analyzed by  Withers et al. [2014]. They comprehensively sampled the peak electron density of the ionosphere of Mars over 15 years by combining radio occultation data from Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and MARSIS AIS from Mars Express. The study focussed on the analysis of the peak electron density dependence on the solar activity, using the F 10. 7 index, Lyman alpha emission and the Mg II core-to-wing index. They found that the peak density increases smoothly with these parameters, and even when the selection of observations was restricted to a narrow range of SZA and latitude, a time series of electron density residuals displayed notable trends, which may indicate a dependence of peak density on season, but not caused by changes in the Mars-Sun distance  [Withers et al.
The empirical model of the ionosphere of Mars, called NeMars  [Sánchez-Cano et al. , 2013] , has been selected as a reference of the average ionospheric behavior. The model follows the Chapman formulation and calculates the electron density profile of the two main layers (photochemical region) of the ionosphere of Mars for nonmagnetized conditions (without data over regions with crustal magnetic anomalies and without data affected by solar wind induced magnetic field). The inputs of the model are the solar zenith angle, the solar activity (via the F 10. 7 index), and the heliocentric distance. The main layer is based on the same data set as this study, AIS data, and the secondary layer is based on radio science data from MGS mission. In short, the modeled peak electron density of both layers depends on the SZA, F 10.
The probability of existence of any of these two ionospheric states during the last solar cycle is here analyzed by comparing the solar wind dynamic pressure and the maximum thermal pressure over the time, since, as theoretically described above, the topside ionosphere shape depends on the balance between them. Therefore, if the relationship between these two parameters is smaller, the ionosphere will be more compressed and the topside scale height will be reduced. Figure  9a  shows the solar wind pressure at Mars's location during the last solar cycle. This parameter was calculated for different SZAs by using equation (  6 ). Data come from the ACE satellite (up to 23 August 2011 because a radiation and age-induced hardware anomaly altered the instrument's operational state of the ACE satellite) and from OMNI (Operating Missions as a Node on the Internet) (from 23 August 2011 to the end), both at 1 AU.
Discussion Since the Sun is the main source of ionization in the Martian upper atmosphere, a different response in the ionization distribution with altitude is expected for the different phases of the solar cycle. Until now, our information has been limited by the amount of data and by the strong planetary coverage restrictions of the radio occultation data sets. Therefore, only now, after over 10 years of Mars Express data, it is possible to analyze the ionospheric response to changes in the solar activity during a solar cycle with the same data set and with an almost complete planetary coverage. This ionospheric reaction can be analyzed from many different points of view. Here we have focused on the neutral scale height since it can be retrieved easily from the Chapman formulation and gives important information of the neutral distribution at ionospheric altitudes.
Therefore, it is possible to state that during the low solar cycle phase, the ionosphere of Mars had the highest probability to be in a magnetized state and is reflected in the scale height reductions observed in several data sets from Mars Express, such as MARSIS AIS, MARSIS subsurface, or radio occultation. As can be extrapolated from Figure  10 , the full ionosphere TEC measured by MARSIS in the subsurface mode closely follows the shape of the daily pressures relationship. The neutral scale height is an important parameter to describe the behavior of the density distribution in the ionosphere, which, in turn, can be a dynamic indicator of the solar wind-Martian plasma interaction, as well as of the temperature of the medium. The period of low solar activity deserves a significant mention.
Conclusions We here list the main conclusions derived from this study. 1. Multiple data sets have been utilized in this study, such as the Mars Express MARSIS radar in its Active Ionospheric Sounding (AIS) mode, the Mars Express MARSIS radar total electron content (TEC) derived from the subsurface operational mode, the Mars Express MaRS instrument, and the solar wind moments derived from Earth-based satellites: TIME-SEE, ACE, and OMNI data set. 2. The neutral scale height behavior of the main layer of the ionosphere of Mars in the photochemical region has different characteristics in each phase of the solar cycle 23/24. 3. During the low solar activity period, a major density reduction was found in the ionospheric topside mostly due to the reduction in the EUV flux. The largest topside densities, however, are found in the period of high solar activity, in accordance with the EUV intensification.
Acknowledgments B. S. -C. , M. L. , and S. E. M. acknowledge support through  STFC  grant  ST/K001000/1  and B. E. S. H. from the  STFC  Ph. D. studentship  ST/K502121/1. B. S. -C. acknowledges a scientific stay at  ESA-ESTEC  by  ESTEC Faculty support funding. The Mars Express MARSIS AIS data were downloaded from the  European Space Agency Planetary Science Archive  (http://www. rssd. esa. int/psa), the solar flux data from the NOAA service (ftp://ftp. swpc. noaa. gov/pub/warehouse/), the TIMED-SEE data from the  University of Colorado 's website (http://lasp. colorado. edu/lisird/index. html), the  ACE  solar data from the  ACE Science Center  (http://www. srl. caltech. edu/ACE/ASC/index. html),and the OMNI data from the  NASA space physics data facility  (ftp://spdf. gsfc. nasa. gov/pub/data/omni/low_res_omni/).
Data from MARSIS subsurface are from Cartacci et al. [2013] algorithm. Mars Express MaRS instrument data are from the  Rheinisches Institut für Umweltforschung an der Universität zu Köln (Germany)  and can be requested from martin. paetzold@uni-koeln. de. The German part of the  Mars Express Radio Science experiment (MaRS)  is funded by the  Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft BMWi, Berlin , via the  German Space Agency DLR, Bonn , under grants  50QM1004 ,  50QM1401  (both  RIU-PF ), and  50QM1002  (UniBw). All data used in this study will be available on request to the author [bscmdr1@leicester. ac. uk].
Application to XEX-like Constructions In this construction, the output of the block cipher is masked with a secret value ∆ k , which prevents a straightforward application of the basic attack. However, depending on how ∆ k is computed, the Statistical Fault Attack may nevertheless be applicable. In the simplest case, ∆ k is not nonce-dependent. This allows to repeatedly observe ciphertexts masked with a secret, but constant value ∆ k. We demonstrate how to exploit this in an attack on the CAESAR candidate AES-COPA  [4]. Statistical Fault Attack on AES-COPA. AES-COPA uses an XEX-like construction for encrypting the plaintext, which is shown in Fig. 4. The input V of the plaintext processing is the result of a PMAC-like processing of the associated data A and the nonce N. Thus, V will change for different nonce values.
In all settings, the fault injections aim to induce a bias on at least one byte of the AES state before the last MixColumns transformation, and allow to reveal 32 bits of the last AES round key. For full key recovery, the attack has to be repeated three more times. The following list provides an overview of the faultinjection methods and the attack results for the three settings: 1. Clock tampering has been used to disturb the execution of the AES software implementation running on an ATxmega 256A3 general-purpose microcontroller. This setting allowed to reveal 4 bytes of the last round key with less than 30 faulted ciphertexts. 2. Laser fault injections on an AES co-processor on a smartcard microcontroller. Our experiments show that less than 16 faulty ciphertexts are sufficient to reveal 4 bytes of the last round key.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the organizers and participants of ASK 2015 that initiated this work and the anonymous reviewers for useful comments. The research leading to these results has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement No  644052  (HECTOR). Furthermore, this work has been supported in part by the  Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG)  under grant number  845589 , by the  Austrian Science Fund  (project  P26494-N15 ) and by the  French   ANR-14-CE28-0015  project.
Multi-machine scaling of the main SOL parallel heat flux width in tokamak limiter plasmas Original content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. 0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. initial choice of λ q omp , which is critical in ensuring that current ramp-up or down will be possible as planned in the ITER scenario design, was made on the basis of an extremely restricted L-mode divertor dataset, using infra-red thermography measurements on the outer divertor target to extrapolate to a heat flux width at the main plasma midplane. This unsatisfactory situation has now been significantly improved by a dedicated multi-machine ohmic and L-mode limiter plasma study, conducted under the auspices of the International Tokamak Physics Activity, involving  11   Measurements of λ q omp in the database are made exclusively on all devices using a variety of fast reciprocating Langmuir probes entering the plasma at a variety of poloidal locations, but with the majority being on the low field side.
Statistical analysis of the database reveals nine reasonable engineering and dimensionless scalings. All yield, however, similar predicted values of λ q omp mapped to the outside midplane. The engineering scaling with the highest statistical significance, ( / ( )) ( / / ) λ κ = -- P V a R 10 W m q omp tot 3 0. 38 1. 3 , dependent on input power density, aspect ratio and elongation, yields λ q omp = [7, 4, 5] cm for I p = [2. 5, 5. 0, 7. 5] MA, the three reference limiter plasma currents specified in the ITER heat and nuclear load specifications. Mapped to the inboard midplane, the worst case (7. 5 MA) corresponds to λ ± ~57 14.
It must, moreover, be a fixed value with sufficient margin to encompass the range of plasma currents and magnetic configurations envisaged for limiter plasmas on ITER (see below). In fact, two separate values of the heat flux width are required, one each for the narrow and broad SOL features. The choice of the narrow feature is discussed in  [1]  and references therein, and the present paper concentrates on the main SOL, broader portion of the profile. We will henceforth refer to the characteristic width associated with this part of the profile as λ q omp to emphasize its specification at the omp. Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 58 (2016) 074005 In the absence of a database for limiter plasmas, the original choice of λ q omp for the ITER FW panel shaping was based on scaling from a set of infra-red measurements on the divertor targets of L-mode discharges in the JT-60U, JET and ASDEX-Upgrade tokamaks  [5, 6].
Unfortunately, this scaling was later shown to be inconsistent with an extensive set of SOL heat flux measurements in circular limiter plasmas on the Tore Supra tokamak  [7]. As divertor discharges can, in principle, have different decay lengths (thus not useful for design of ITER limiter), these observations stimulated an extensive, multi-machine study of the main SOL heat flux width in inner wall limiter discharges requested by the ITER Organization (IO) and conducted under the auspices of the International Tokamak Physics Activity (ITPA) Topical Group on Divertor and SOL physics. This paper presents the results of this database activity, develops a variety of possible scalings from the data and provides recommendations for the values of λ q omp to be used in the ITER FW shaping design. It concludes that the values originally adopted by the IO for the high and low field side start-up/ramp-down panels are appropriate.
Based on simple power balance, assuming the sheathlimited parallel heat flux physics, λ q omp should be approximated by the power entering the SOL as λ q ~ P SOL B 0 / (B pol 2πR 0 n e T e 3/2 ). The emphasis here is, however, on the use of engineering parameter based scalings which are most appropriate for extrapolation to ITER, where the midplane plasma parameters in limiter discharges are not known. This does not preclude a more physics based approach and a companion paper in this special issue  [8]  describes a theoretical framework based on quasi-linear transport theory which agrees very favourably with a subset of the ITPA database presented in this paper.
Participating tokamaks A total of eleven devices have contributed measurements to the new ITPA limiter heat flux width database. In the majority of cases (exceptions are data from the CASTOR and Tore-Supra tokamaks), specific new experiments have been performed at the request of ITPA and, with the exception of the CASTOR tokamak, all have concentrated on inner wall limiter discharges, reflecting the emphasis on this configuration for the important ramp-up phase of ITER plasmas. Moreover, in most cases, the location of diagnostics on the outboard side of the machine, together with the often limited experimental time resource, means that focus on a single type of equilibrium (which can be adequately probed) provides the best chance for a well populated database. Figure  3  compiles the poloidal cross-sections of the participating tokamak devices, including the typical magnetic equilibria employed in the studies.
Of the 11 machines, TEXTOR, Tore-Supra, CASTOR and FTU are pure limiter devices. All others are divertor tokamaks, typically using a brief limiter phase, usually on inner wall plasma-facing components (PFC), before transition to a diverted configuration. In these cases, dedicated limited only discharges have been performed so that the majority of measurements are taken in stationary limiter plasmas. A key feature of these divertor tokamak limiter plasma studies is that they are generally conducted in noncircular equilibria, since such shapes are typically easier to achieve over a reasonable range of plasma parameters. A wide range of machine parameters is encompassed by the database (table  1 ), with plasma current, I p = 9 kA → 2. 5 MA, toroidal magnetic field, B 0 = 1. 15-7. 5 T, line average plasma density n e = 0.
5 → 25 × 10 19 m -3 and safety factor (q omp or q 95 for non-circular plasmas) = 2. 2 → 13. The database also spans a large range of physical dimension (major radius R 0 = 0. 4 → 2. 8 m) from the smallest machine, CASTOR with plasma volume V = 0. 06 m 3 to the largest, JET, with V = 70 m 3. The majority of measurements are made in ohmic plasmas, but some data points have been obtained with additional heating. On ITER, some low levels of electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) are envisaged during plasma ramp-up, but densities will generally be below the limits required for neutral beam injection (NBI) shinethrough.
g. in  [13, 15] ) were used at the low-field side (LFS) location and no systematic difference in the derived λ q omp was found. With the above points in mind, and given that each device provides processed measurements resulting from the analysis methods in use by any particular group providing data, results from both fitting approaches have been used to constitute the database. The three representative CASTOR datapoints were extracted from publications  [16] [17] [18] [19]. Where possible (in our case only for COMPASS, TEXTOR and JET data, for which errors from the fit to λ q omp are available), to capture the relative quality of any given fit assuming an exponential profile, we assign a statistical relative weight for each λ q omp data-point according to λ σ = - λ R weight 1 1 , q omp 2 (2) where σ λ is error of λ q omp from the exponential fitting and the index of determination R 2 corresponds to the overall fit quality.
In the example in figure  4  left, R 2 = 86%, meaning that 86% of the data variation is explained by this fit (assuming the remaining 14% is due to random scatter). The same approach is used for the individual probe IV-characteristic fitting (again, only in the case of COMPASS, TEXTOR and JET), where each T j , e sat extracted Table  1. Overview of principal parameters of the tokamak limiter plasmas used to constitute the multi-machine database. The projected ITER values, where known, are shown for comparison. Figure  5  provides further information on the parameter variation in the database. The poloidal angle corresponds to the poloidal location at which the Langmuir probes used to make the measurements, with 0 corresponding to the outboard midplane. BPP = ball pen probe; RFA = retarding field analyser.
NBI = neutral beam injection heating; ECH = electron cyclotron heating. from the fit is associated with an independent error estimate σ σ , j T calculated according to formula derived in  [21]. R 0 (m) a (m) I p ( We find a posteriori that less credible (i. e. lower weight) λ q omp data points usually lie further from derived scalings. The quality of less exponential, noisy or scattered for ITER. Note that these plasma physics parameters could not be computed for TEXTOR and FTU owing to lack of the required data. 20 20 The full database is available on demand (horacek@ipp. cas. cz). IV-characteristics (due, for example to the presence of plasma turbulence) is also usually well quantified by the weight T = T e /σ T (1 -R 2 ) -1/2 of temperature estimation. For the majority of device data, for which the required input is missing (which prevented the application of equation (  2 )), equal statistical weighting was assumed for all datapoints, ensuring of course that the total weight of any given device accounts for the number of datapoints contributed.