dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The hardware architecture consists of three different hardware installations, each controlled by a dedicated Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Siemens s317, remote input/output modules (I/O), and control cabinets. Each hardware installation corresponds to one of the three main cryogenics subsystems, namely, the external infrastructure for the storage and the proximity system for the two ProtoDUNE cryostats. Each control cabinet is dedicated to a specific function, e. g. , LAr/nitrogen management, purification, phase separation, condensing, argon circulation. Each cabinet includes industrial cryogenics instrumentation: actuators (valves, pumps) and sensors. The infrastructure for the ProtoDUNE-SP hardware installation includes a total of 10 control cabinets and 630 signals. The control system software was developed using the UNIfied Industrial COntrol System (UNICOS)  [14].
Detector components 4. 1 Inner detector: high voltage A liquid argon time projection chamber (LArTPC) requires an equipotential cathode plane at high voltage (HV) and a precisely regulated interior electric field (E field) to drift electrons from particle interactions to sensor planes. The ProtoDUNE-SP LArTPC consists of a vertical cathode plane assembly (CPA), vertical anode plane assemblies (APAs), and sets of conductors surrounding the drift volume that are collectively called the field cage (FC). The FC provides a graded voltage profile between the CPA and APA in order to produce a uniform E field in the drift volume. Figure  14  shows the TPC configuration. Six top and six bottom FC modules connect the horizontal edges of the CPA and APA arrays, and four endwalls connect the vertical edges (two per drift volume).
Cathode Plane Assembly (CPA) The CPA is located in the middle of the TPC, dividing the detector into two equal-distance drift volumes. The CPA's 7 m × 6 m area is made up of six panels, each of which is constructed of three vertically stacked modules. The same modular structure and materials will be used in the far detector design. The scope of the ProtoDUNE-SP CPA includes: • 18 CPA modules, each with a frame and resistive sheet, • HV bus connecting the resistive sheets and modules, and • HV cup for receiving input from the power supply. Several requirements are placed on the HV system. Electrically, the CPA must provide an equipotential surface at -180 kV nominal bias voltage that remains stable for data taking. The resistive sheet must provide slow discharge of accumulated charge in the event of an unexpected HV breakdown, to prevent damage to the readout electronics.
Each endwall FC module is constructed of two FRP box beams each 3. 5 m long as shown in figure  19  (dark grey) and figure 20. The endwalls are not equipped with GPs as there is enough side clearance between the cryostat wall and FC, thus avoiding high E-fields. In ProtoDUNE-SP the endwall at the beam entry point is customized to hold the beam plug, described in section 4. 1. 3.
APA layer Bias voltage Grid (G) -665 V Induction (U) -370 V Induction (V) 0 V Collection (X) 820 V Mesh (M) 0 V minimizing the amount of dead space between the APAs that would otherwise be occupied by electronics and associated cabling. The current design of the DUNE-SP far detector module implements three APA arrays that run the 60 m length of the TPC. One runs down the centre of the detector, the other two are installed along the outer walls, and two CPA arrays are interleaved between them, creating a set of four drift fields. The central APA array, flanked by drift fields, requires sensitivity on both sides, which the wrapped induction-plane wire design enables. Whereas this double-sided feature is not strictly necessary for the ProtoDUNE-SP arrangement, in which only the inner side of each APA faces a drift field, it is compatible with this setup, as the grid layer on the wall side effectively blocks any ionization generated outside the TPC from drifting in to the sense wires.
At the nominal 500 V/cm field strength in ProtoDUNE-SP, the photon yield is about 24,000 photons per MeV. Roughly a quarter of the photons produced are promptly emitted through singlet configuration decay of excited argon dimers; the remaining light is emitted with a lifetime of approximately 1. 3 μs from the triplet configuration  [22]. The measurement of prompt photons produced in LAr scintillation serves to temporally and spatially localise relevant events, by setting a " 0 " for each event. The PDS is made up of modules, each combining a photon collector and a photon sensor. ProtoDUNE-SP implemented 60 modules using three different module designs, "double-shift light guides"  (29) , "dip-coated light guides" (29), and "ARAPUCA" light traps  (2). The designs share a common low-profile elongated rectangular shape for insertion into slots in the APA frames, to sit between the APA's two sets of wire planes.
Photosensors The ProtoDUNE-SP PDS uses three different silicon photon sensor (SiPM) models commercially manufactured by two different companies, SensL Technologies, Ltd. (now, ON Technologies) and -53 -Hamamatsu Photonics. All sensors have the same active area, 6 × 6 mm 2. Samples of the different sensors types were tested and characterised at LN 2 temperature before use. SensL Technologies, Ltd provided (MicroFC-60035-SMT) sensors with pixel size 35 μm. Two types of series models were used, A-Series and C-Series, with the switch due to a change in availabilty from the manufacturer. SensL devices equip most of the WLS bar-type modules, i. e. , 21 dip-coated modules and 22 double-shift modules. Each module array contains 12 SiPMs passively ganged in groups of three and read out as four independent channels.
Photon detector readout electronics For each photon detector, signals from one of the three different ganging schemes are summed together and connected, in the cold volume, to a 20 m long multi-conductor Cat6 cable that feeds through the detector flange. No front-end electronics are necessary in the cold volume for the operation of the ProtoDUNE-SP PDS. The readout system transmits unamplified signals from the photosensors in the LAr volume to the outside of the cryostat and performs processing and digitisation using a SiPM Signal Processor (SSP), a readout developed and manufactured by Argonne National Laboratory. Signal cables from each of the six detector flanges connect directly to four of 24 SSP modules. An SSP module consists of 12 individual readout channels packaged in a self-contained 1U module.
PDS Quality Control and Installation at CERN All PD modules for ProtoDUNE-SP arrived at CERN ready for APA installation. PD modules were shipped from Colorado State University (CSU), via a special PD-Crate, which contained 12 PD modules, individually packaged in an anti-static bag and placed between anti-static foam. The final quality control steps before installation were a visual inspection of each PD module and an assessment of each module using a PD darkbox scanner, shown in figure  44.
JINST 17 P01005 In the standard procedure for the darkbox scanning measurements, both the module photosensors (SiPMs/MPPCs) and the darkbox-LED were allowed to warm up for 30 minutes, using nominal voltage. This assured stability within each scan and reliability for module-to-module comparisons. The PDS group used LBNEWare, custom made software which interfaces with the SSPs directly, as the DAQ for these tests. For each module scan, the LED was set to pulse and read out 5000 times at multiple locations along each side of the PD module. This allowed for sufficient signal observation and determination of the mean response of the module along each position. The mean response was determined by fitting a Gaussian to the 5000 integrated waveforms. Prior to arrival at CERN an attenuation length had been calculated for each PD module using the relative brightness (mean signal) along each position.
At CERN, a cross-check in pseudo-attenuation length was made and the module with the longest pseudo-attenuation length was selected for installation into the APA. Modules were placed facing the TPC for the best photon yield response. Spare modules were also sent to CERN and were sorted for use in the detector through the same module-to-module comparisons using the same pseudo-attenuation measurement. Figure  44  shows the result of a sample scan  [26]. Each APA frame held ten PDS modules, inserted on rails, equally spaced along the full length of the APA frame. The spacing between modules along the  direction was approximately 60 cm. PDS modules were inserted into the frames of completed APAs, between the sets of wire layers. Two ARAPUCA devices were mounted in ProtoDUNE-SP, one in APA 3 directly in front of the beam plug for the observation of photons from beam interactions, and the other in the middle of APA 6 to observe photons from cosmic particles.
Cosmic Ray Tagger (CRT) As ProtoDUNE-SP sits on the surface, it experiences 20 kHz of cosmic-ray muons entering the detector. To provide external reconstruction to a sample of these cosmic-ray muons and beam halo-muons, a system of scintillation counters external to the cryostat, called the CRT, covers almost the entire upstream and downstream faces of the TPC. The fact that the CRT only covers the front and back faces of the TPC means that many cosmic-ray muons do not cross any part of the CRT. Both tagged and untagged muons provide important calibration data and performance indicators. The scintillation counters used in the CRT were originally built and deployed for the outer veto of the Double Chooz experiment  [29]. The CRT is composed of 32 modules, each of active area 1. 6 m × 3. 2 m, arranged into mechanically independent super-modules of four modules each.
This composes one super-module of dimensions 3. 65 m by 3. 65 m, as illustrated in figure 50. The coordinate system is shown in figure  51. For the ProtoDUNE-SP downstream face, four super-modules are arranged edge-to-edge in a square roughly the size of a ProtoDUNE-SP face, also shown in figure  50. This assembly of CRT modules is centred with respect to the centre of the TPC in  and placed 10. 5 m from the upstream -60 - face of the TPC in the cryostat. The positioning of the upstream super-modules of the CRT system is complicated by the presence of the beampipe requiring that this portion of the CRT system be split, with the right and left halves offset from each other in. One set of the two vertically stacked super-modules is placed 2. 5 m from the front face of TPC (left of beam) and the other (right of beam) is placed 9.
Purity monitor Achieving an electron lifetime that is long enough so that electrons can drift sufficient distances is a challenging aspect of LArTPCs. The electron (e-) lifetime in a LArTPC is inversely proportional to, and determined by, the electronegative impurity concentration in the LAr, making the LAr purity an essential concern for successful operation and physics reach of the detector. Electron loss due to electronegative impurities in a LArTPC can be parameterised as  () =  (0) -/ , where  (0) is the number of electrons generated by ionization and not recombined with argon ions,  () is the number of electrons after drift time , and  is the electron lifetime. ProtoDUNE-SP was designed to have the same 3. 6 m drift distance and 500 V/cm electric field as planned for the DUNE-SP far detector modules.
The run-by-run purity monitor electron lifetime has been included in the ProtoDUNE-SP calibration database for TPC charge and energy calibration. The performance of the purity monitor based electron lifetime calibration tested with ProtoDUNE-SP cosmic rays is shown in figure 58  [32]. After the purity-monitor-based lifetime calibration, the charge loss on the TPC signal due to LAr impurity is mostly corrected.
Detector installation The detector installation steps as performed for ProtoDUNE-SP are outlined below. • Each of the six instrumented and tested APAs was moved into the cryostat through the TCO and transferred onto the appropriate rail in the DSS. They were then assembled into the two anode planes (Salève (south) side and Jura (north) side), of three APAs each. • Signal cables from the TPC read-out electronics boards and from the PD modules were routed up to the cryostat roof and connected to the CE and PD flanges on the cryostat. Figure  75  shows three Salève-side APAs hung next to the TCO opening, connected and ready to be pushed into their final installation position. • After the first row of APAs was in place on the Salève side, the bridge beam holding the APAs was bolted into place.
Dedicated software applications take care of acquiring the data from the readout electronics and packaging it appropriately into files that are kept in a local temporary storage (in the DAQ cluster) awaiting their transfer to permanent storage, which is at both CERN and at Fermilab. The DAQ software is also responsible for other functions, including the delivery of configuration parameters to the front-end electronics, the overall Run Control and the real-time monitoring of the data quality and performance of the DAQ system. Figure  80  illustrates the DAQ system and its interconnections. Due to the extremely tight construction and commissioning schedule of ProtoDUNE-SP, the DAQ has been designed to use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and readily available electronics boards: the notable exceptions are the CTB and the timing system, which were custom developed for ProtoDUNE-SP.
Most of the implemented solutions for the firmware and software are based on existing frameworks and generic technologies. The DAQ system design is driven by the need to support both the TPC and PDS front-end electronics, which have very different behaviors. TPC data are streamed out at 2 MHz without zero suppression. This allows for the acquisition of an unbiased dataset to be used offline to study data reduction methods for DUNE-SP. The photon detector electronics, on the other hand, applies a local threshold to the signals and sends to the DAQ only waveform data that are either above this threshold or that match an external trigger timestamp. The DAQ design is also constrained by the amount of data that can be transferred to the offline computing system for permanent storage. To down-scale the acquired data volume, the trigger system supports selection of data using inputs from the beam instrumentation detectors and the CRT.
The CTB is designed around the MicroZed System-on-Chip (SoC) board, equipped with a Xilinx Zynq7020. The motherboard implements the hardware interface to the various systems, the FPGA implements trigger logic and interfaces with the timing, and the CPU and software elements manage the FPGA configuration and the communication with DAQ software. This solution supports up to 100 separate inputs that can be combined into a global trigger based on a configurable input mask (or more sophisticated algorithm, if desired). The firmware is designed to be suitably flexible such that the exact trigger selection can be decided at configuration time. Regardless of the trigger configuration, the decision is made in under 1 μs. Readout systems. ProtoDUNE-SP is equipped with three readout systems, two for the TPC and one for the PDS.
The two TPC solutions, ATCA-based RCE and PCIe-based FELIX, are implemented for testing purposes. The Reconfigurable Cluster Elements (RCE)  [40]  based readout, developed by the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, is a full meshed distributed architecture, based on networked SoC elements on the ATCA platform. The RCE was chosen as the baseline readout solution for ProtoDUNE-SP since it had already been successfully used in the 35 ton prototype  [41] , and during ProtoDUNE-SP's beam run it read out five of the six APAs (12,800 channels). RCE-based readout focuses on early data processing, with tightly coupled custom firmware and software implementations. The ProtoDUNE-SP version of the RCE accepts digitized raw data from the WIBs over optical -87 -fibre. The primary processing functions of the RCEs are compression and buffering of the raw data.
Another important function of the Routing Master is the handling of back-pressure from the downstream parts of the DAQ. If no event-builder application is ready to accept new events to build, the Routing Master informs the timing system, which starts vetoing triggers. The DAQ software. The DAQ software depends in large part on existing solutions and frameworks. Its role is to manage and monitor the data-flow, and provide a run control service and online monitoring  [45]  processes. The primary responsibility of the DAQ data-flow software is to pack and transport the data from the detector electronics acquisition (WIB and SSPs) to the temporary storage on the DAQ transient store. This software is based on artdaq  [46] , a data acquisition toolkit developed at Fermilab. Use of artdaq also gives the software functionality to deliver configuration parameters to the front-end electronics and to perform a real-time monitoring of the data quality (O(10) seconds) and of the DAQ system.
Detector control system The ProtoDUNE-SP Detector Control System (DCS) (known historically as slow control) encompasses the hardware and software elements that ensure the safe and coherent operation of the detector. The DCS monitors all the incoming signals from the detector and provides a uniform interface for access and information exchange to all the detector subsystems. An alarm system is configured to report any abnormal conditions to the operators. Depending on the severity of the alarm, the DCS can alert designated experts via email or SMS and take assisted or automatic corrective actions, e. g. , if it detects a dangerous situation it can fire hardwired interlocks to protect the detector and its subsystems. Since ProtoDUNE-SP must thoroughly validate the detector design and performance, the DCS monitors and archives data for online and offline analysis at a much higher granularity and rate than would a conventional DCS system.
It then restores the HV setpoint to its nominal value. An example of an automatic streamer recovery is given in figure  26. The current signals from the 12 ground planes and the beam plug are connected to the same HV control system. In the case of a 'stream' or discharge event, the DCS records the main HV parameters at 20 kHz for 5 seconds with a pre-trigger of one second into a fast-acquisition file that it sends to the DAQ system for off-line analysis. • Purity monitors: the purity monitor system is controlled locally by a PCIe Alazartech ATS310 digitiser installed in a computer dedicated to this task. The local user interface was developed in LabVIEW software, which includes an OPC UA server, communicating with the main DCS as a client. The DCS provides a dedicated user panel for monitoring its status and setting the configuration for operation.
The DCS can select different internal digitiser working modes and choose the appropriate HV configuration. Once configured, the DCS supports automatically running the purity monitor DAQ with one click, after which it displays all the relevant information. As previously mentioned, to protect the PDS, the DCS implements an interlock system to prevent the purity monitors from operating during data-taking runs. • Gradient Temperature sensors: temperature sensors (PT100) are installed in the ProtoDUNE-SP cryostat to monitor the temperature gradient of the liquid with high precision (± 2mK) (see section 4. 5. 2). A customised electronic interface developed by the collaboration is connected to a National Instruments cRIO FPGA that publishes all temperature values to the main DCS database through an OPC UA server.
The same interface controls the position of the dynamic gradient sensor. The data stored in the database is used for off-line calculations and simulations. The DCS also publishes the maximum and minimum temperatures of the static gradient via DIP; these are used by the cryogenics system for alarm reporting. Figure  87  shows an example of a liquid argon temperature measurement taken during standard operations. A comparison with the predicted values from the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation is also shown. • Ground Impedance Monitor: As described in section 5. 4 the detector ground is isolated from the building ground, and the DCS monitors the ground decoupling through a Ground Impedance Monitor (Zmon). This device is connected to the main DCS by means of a DIM protocol. If a grounding problem is detected, the ground impedance monitor sounds an alarm.
The DUNE collaboration gained immeasurable experience with each of the detector components during the period of ProtoDUNE-SP operations. The same is true for the CERN and LBNF team that provided the cryogenics infrastructure. Beyond its role in validating designs, procedures, and strategies planned for DUNE-SP, ProtoDUNE-SP provided an excellent test stand for additional large-scale detector R&D, e. g. , doping the LAr with xenon, which will allow for further improvements in LArTPC technology. In summary, ProtoDUNE-SP has successfully implemented this mature LArTPC technology in a scalable design, demonstrating its suitability for an APA-based single-phase DUNE far detector module. Its completion in the extremely tight schedule attests to the efficiency and reliability of the design and construction techniques.
Acknowledgments The ProtoDUNE-SP detector was constructed and operated on the  CERN Neutrino Platform. We gratefully acknowledge the support of the CERN management, and the  CERN EP, BE , TE, EN and IT Departments for NP04/ProtoDUNE-SP. This document was prepared by the DUNE collaboration using the resources of the  Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) , a  U. S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, HEP User Facility. Fermilab  is managed by  Fermi   -96 -2022 JINST 17 P01005  Fluminense Federal University, 9 Icaraí Niterói -RJ,  24220-900 ,  Brazil Università degli Studi di Genova, Genova, Italy Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia Gran Sasso Science Institute, L'Aquila, Italy Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, L'Aquila AQ, Italy University of Granada & CAFPE, 18002 Granada, Spain University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LPSC-IN2P3, 38000 Grenoble, France Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, C.
Research Alliance, LLC (FRA), acting under Contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11359. This work was supported by  CNPq ,  FAPERJ ,  FAPEG  and  FAPESP, Brazil ;  CFI ,  IPP  and  NSERC ,  Canada ; CERN; MŠMT, Czech Republic; ERDF,  H2020-EU  and  MSCA ,  European Union ;  CNRS/IN2P3  and  CEA, France ;  INFN, Italy ; FCT, Portugal; NRF, South Korea;  CAM, Fundación "La Caixa ",  Junta de Andalucía-FEDER , and  MICINN, Spain ;  SERI  and  SNSF, Switzerland ;  TÜBİTAK, Turkey ;  The Royal Society  and  UKRI/STFC ,  United Kingdom ;  DOE  and  NSF ,  United States of America. This research used resources of the  National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC) , a  U. S. Department of Energy Office of Science User Facility  operated under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231.
Automated cryo-EM data collection with cryoChips The checkerboard pattern from the silicon oxide layers on the observation membrane structures the nanochannel array into a regular grid of 30 observation squares, each comprising a segment of an individual nanochannel and flanking areas of the SiN x membrane (Figure  3a  and b ). Due to the different layout of the cryoChip, standardised data acquisition protocols established for holey support film substrates cannot be applied without modification. To develop an automated data acquisition strategy for cryoChips, we first acquired a grid map of the entire observation membrane using Seri-alEM  (Mastronarde, 2005). For each observation square we then selected six equally spaced acquisition points positioned linearly along the midline of the nanochannel (Figure  3c ).