dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
In addition, the diameter of the loop increases with time, which means that the corrosion resistance increases over time  [11, 27, 29]. Here, the EEC used to fit the data is the Randles circuit with a W d bounded diffusion element also for 10 and 20 d of exposure (Fig. 6 (b) ). It is first observed that the charge transfer resistance (R 1 ) values increase from 2. 7 kΩ cm 2 to 8. 6 kΩ cm 2 in this case. The phase maximum on the Bode plot decreases from 64 • at 10 d to 58 • at 20 d. This is more likely due to the formation of a corrosion product layer on the active areas of the coating, as a result of the reaction with artificial seawater  [11, 27]. This layer hinders O 2 diffusion. In addition, the exposure time needed to observe the shoulder on the phase plot as a result of the diffusion process is reduced from 30 d for the TSA sample to 20 d for the TSA5B_TSA one.
Comparing EIS data of TSA and TSA5B_TSA, different trends are observed on the initial days of exposure. As R 1 decreases over time for the former one, it increases for the latter. On the Bode plots, phase angle after 20 d of exposure is around 70 • for TSA, however for TSA5B_TSA it is 58 • after the same exposure time. This reflects once again how when there is bare steel exposed to the solution, the formation of the corrosion product layer on the TSA is accelerated. Consequently, its beneficial effects appear sooner. Looking at the steel part of the bi-electrode (TSA5B_Steel), the Nyquist diagrams show one semicircle. Actually, there are two loops on the Nyquist plots but the loop at high frequency is very small and incomplete and cannot be fitted reliably. Therefore, it was removed for the fitting and it is not shown on the graph.
This correlates to the behaviour observed for the TSA part of the TSA5B bi-electrode. Over time, due to the coupling with the exposed steel, the corrosion products form quicker. Polarizing demand from steel accelerates Al dissolution and therefore promotes the formation of these products that occurs in this case within the 10 first days. Once calcareous deposits are stable on top of the steel substrate, cathodic reaction slows down and therefore polarizing demand decreases. From 20 d after immersion, there are no significant changes observed in the corrosion resistance of the coating. As a result of formation of deposits on both the coating and the steel substrate surface, impedance modulus changes only slightly. From 10-30 d of exposure, the Randles circuit (Fig. 6 (b) ) was used to fit the data and the charge transfer resistance (R 1 ) values increase from 4.
1 kΩ cm 2 to 11 kΩ cm 2 , with R d also increasing from 370 to 1900 Ω cm 2. Once again, the EIS results are consistent with the VAOCP analysis: j corr was observed to decrease from 2. 9 μA/cm 2 to 0. 5 μA/cm 2 (Table  3 ). This confirms that the corrosion rate of TSA5 samples decreases with time (while that of TSA sample increases with time). Comparing these values to the TSA part of the bi-electrode, they present similar values and tendencies. On the Bode plots, phase maximum decreases from 80 • after 1 day of immersion to 60 • after 10 days of immersion. Furthermore, the diffusion shoulder on the phase angle data appears after 10 days of exposure. The presence of diffusion corroborates the influence of a barrier for O 2 ; calcareous deposits on the steel, and corrosion product layer on the TSA coating.
OCP measurements The OCP measurements can now be presented and discussed in light of VAOCP and EIS results. Fig. 7  shows the curves obtained over a 30 day immersion in artificial seawater for a TSA sample without defect (TSA) and with a 5 % of surface area defect (TSA5) exposing the steel substrate. For both samples, two regions can be observed in the OCP graphs: -Region I + I*: an initial drop in potential is observed for both samples, followed by an increase towards less negative values until stabilization is reached around -1. 0 V for the TSA5 sample and around -1. 1 V for the TSA sample. Looking at the data collected over the initial 12 day period, the transition can be observed from region I to region II at two different points in time for each sample. Region I extends from 0 to 5 days of exposure and it corresponds to the region where sample TSA5 presents the initial drop in OCP.
Characterization of corrosion products After 30 days of exposure to artificial seawater, characterization of the corrosion products formed on top of all the samples previously described (TSA, TSA5 and TSA5B) was performed by SEM-EDX (Fig. 8 ), μ-Raman and XRD (Fig. 9 ). In addition, cross-sectional analysis of the samples was carried out in order to look at the structure of the coating after exposure and the deposits formed on top of the steel. Due to the similar nature of the samples in terms of materials (TSA coating on a steel substrate), same corrosion products were identified on all samples. Therefore, the data presented in this section corresponds to the analysis of the TSA coated steel substrate with a 5 % of surface area defect (TSA5). Fig. 8  shows top view (a, b) and cross section (c) SEM images of the TSA coating from a TSA sample with a 5 % of surface area defect exposed to artificial seawater for 30 days.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the  Centre for Doctoral Training in Innovative Metal Processing (IMPaCT ) funded by the  UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) , grant reference  EP/L016206/1. This publication was made possible by the sponsorship and support of  Lloyd's Register Foundation , a charitable foundation helping to protect life and property by supporting engineering-related education, public engagement and the application of research. The work was enabled through, and undertaken at, the  National Structural Integrity Research Centre (NSIRC) , a postgraduate engineering facility for industry-led research into structural integrity established and managed by  TWI through a network of both national and international Universities.
Correlation study To validate the robustness of the behaviour model the tensile tests used for the identification of the parameters of the model are numerically simulated and compared to experiments. Ls Dyna explicit finite element code is used together with a user-defined subroutine made of viscoelastic-viscoplastic constitutive laws coupled with TTS principle, as described in section 5. 1. For this study, full integration 2D shell elements with 5 integration  points in the thickness are selected. The size of the mesh is 0. 5 mm. The thickness is adjusted for each specimen according to the actual thickness variability measured on injected plates. The average value is around 2. 5 mm. Experiments and numerical simulations are compared for tensile tests at various strain rate and temperature (Fig.
Acknowledgement Authors would like to thank Géodénergies and the French Association Nationale de Recherche (ANR) for their financial support via the three projects: ROSTOCK-H, STOPIL-H, and HyTrend. We are, as well, expressing a deep feeling of gratitude to Prof. Christophe Coquelet and Dr. Faouzi Hadj-Hassen (MINES ParisTech) for their efforts in bringing out this work. • Hydrogen storage in underground salt caverns is presented; • Transport mechanisms between the cavern phases are discussed; • A detailed review about hydrogen migration in rock salt is provided; • The review is used to define a comprehensive mathematical model; • A patent laboratory setup is furnished to calibrate any required parameters;.
The stability of the measurements was checked during 24 hours once the samples were fixed in the hydraulic jaws and left at room temperature without any loading being applied. With this system, the electrical resistance was measured with an accuracy of 5 10 -3 mΩ. It is finally worth mentioning that electric resistance variations are always reported in a relative manner all along the text (i. e. ∆ ⁄ as a function of strain), which allows to get rid of possible problems when comparing values obtained from samples of different shapes and sizes. Acoustic emission signals were additionally recorded, using a MISTRAS Group SA system, equipped with a PICO sensors pasted on the specimens. Data were recorded at a rate of 2 MHz, and the detection threshold was fixed to 45 dB.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the  Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)  and the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternative (CEA) through a grant given to one of the authors (J. -P. G. ). The authors are grateful to  Safran Ceramics (SAFRAN GROUP)  for supplying the samples and also thank  Alexandre Allemand ,  Patrick David  and  Christophe Tallaron  ( CEA ) for valuable insights and  Bruno Humez  ( LCTS ) for his technical support.
The AE signal is detected by the piezoelectric sensor (physical acoustics company, wd-fs62), which is fixed on the outer wall of the reactor. To improve the transmission efficiency of AE signal, coupling grease is used between the glass wall and the sensor. Then, the data acquisition system (DAS of European physical acoustics company) is used to adjust, amplify, filter, and process the signals collected by the detection equipment. To avoid the interference of the background signal, the detection threshold is set higher than 40 dB. Please refer to the author's previous articles  [24]  for the parameter setting of our experimental AE equipment. The whole experimental process is continuously monitored by AE equipment, which starts to work before sulfuric acid is introduced. At the end of the intermittent process, SA suspension samples are extracted from two sampling points of the crystallizer for offline size measurement.
Experimental results and discussion The AE signal emitted by developing slurries consists of a mixture of many waves, spread over several orders of magnitude. This is why the recorded AEs frequency spectra are generally complex. The time-domain analysis is used to grasp the macro distribution of the data, but the small changes in the data are not easy to observe. To evaluate these parameters as a function of the basic mechanism of crystallization, the time-frequency analysis method is used. This technique studies a twodimensional signal in both the time and the frequency domains simultaneously. The results of the previous experiment are reviewed to reveal the relationship between the AE signal and the corresponding crystallization phenomenon. For example, as shown in Figure  3 , the first time period, from 0 to 200 s, the sulfuric acid solution (H 2 SO 4 ) is added into the reactor.
To improve the transmission efficiency of AE signal, coupling grease is used between the glass wall and the sensor. Then, the data acquisition system (DAS of European physical acoustics company) is used to adjust, amplify, filter, and process the signals collected by the detection equipment. To avoid the interference of the background signal, the detection threshold is set higher than 40 dB. Please refer to the author's previous articles [24]  for the parameter setting of our experimental AE equipment. The whole experimental process is continuously monitored by AE equipment, which starts to work before sulfuric acid is introduced. At the end of the intermittent process, SA suspension samples are extracted from two sampling points of the crystallizer for offline size measurement. During the whole experiment, the temperature.
Laser micromachining An amplified Ti-Sapphire laser system (Coherent Libra) was used for micromachining the polymer samples. The laser provides a horizontally polarised Gaussian beam of 800 nm wavelength, in pulses of 100 fs duration with a repetition rate of 1 kHz. The power of the laser beam is adjusted by a computer controlled variable attenuator which consists of a half-wave plate and a polarizing beam splitter. The beam was focused on the samples using a 50 mm plano-convex lens, to a theoretical spot size of 20 μm. To develop the various micro-and nanostructures tested in this report, a custom laser trajectory was developed for each surface. Custom Python codes were written to synchronize translation stages in 3 axes (Newport Corporation) and a mechanical shutter (VS25, Vincent Associates) so that the sample was translated under the beam to inscribe the desired geometry.
The dimensionless recovery quotient based on microstructure feature height was further calculated for geometry comparison. The nanostructure's recovery quotient was calculated using the root mean square roughness determined from the confocal analysis. Confocal analysis was complemented with images of the detailed surface topography from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (FEI Inspect F50). As the samples are polymer, a 5 nm thick gold coating was added via low-vacuum sputtering in order to avoid charge accumulation on the surface. Dynamic contact angle measurements were performed using a goniometer (Data Physics OCA 15E). First, a 2 μL droplet of deionized water was placed on the surface. Then the drop's volume was increased to 7 μL at a rate of 0. 1 μL/s. Finally, the entire 7 μL volume was removed from the droplet at 0.
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis of calcite magnesium content A 1-2 ml aliquot of mid-exponential growth phase cultures for each coccolithophore species were syringe filtered onto a 13 mm 0. 4 µm Isopore filter (Merck Millipore Ltd), followed by 2-4 ml of buffered Nanopure water (1 mM Hepes, pH 8. 0) to remove contaminating salts. Air-dried filters were mounted on aluminium stubs with adhesive C tabs and sputter coated with 10 nm platinum-palladium (Pt-Pd). EDS analysis was performed using a Zeiss Auriga for scanning electron microscope equipped with a Bruker xFlash 5030 detector and QUANTAX analysis software (Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany). For all specimens, the primary beam acceleration was 15 kV with a working distance of 8-8. 5 mm. Spectra comprising 5 9 10 5 counts were acquired at (3-5) 9 10 3 cps with a dead time of 1-3%.
Acknowledgements The work was supported by an  NERC  award to GLW ( NE/ N011708/1 ), an  NSF-GEO  award to ART ( 1638838 ), and an  ERC   Advanced Grant  to CB ( ERC-ADG-670390 ). Analytical electron microscopy was performed in part at  UNCW Richard M. Dillaman Biological Imaging Facility  and at the  Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, Greensboro, NC , member of the  Southeastern Nanotechnology Infrastructure Corridor (SENIC)  and  National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure (NNCI) , which is supported by the  National Science Foundation  (grant  ECCS-1542174 ). Further electron microscopy analyses were performed at the  PEMC (Plymouth University, UK ). The authors declare no competing interests.
According to the data, the G' and G" curves for samples with SA were lower than those for systems without SA. At this point the test temperature was reduced from 245 °C to 190 °C, and the viscoelastic response of two materials was measured over time (Fig. 7(c) ). Both moduli increased during the cooling, which lasted less than 250 s, and then remained time-independent for the duration of the test. At 30 vol. % filler content, samples without SA outperformed samples containing the fatty species in both moduli. In the final step (see Fig. 7(d )), frequency tests were performed on the same systems at 190 °C. By comparing data collected at the beginning and end of the developed cycle, in the high frequency region, a correspondence of G' curves was recorded for both PP + 30%Sn and PP + 30%Sn + SA specimens.
For this apparatus a Dynisco PT422A-70B-6/18 pressure transducer with ranging pressures from 0 to 350 bars was equipped. A small purge was performed prior to each experiment. After purging 20% of the volume, a 90 sec rest step was performed. Apparent shear rate steps were chosen between 10 -2 and 10 4 s -1 according to the ones accessible with regard to the die diameter and attainable piston speeds. Each step was maintained for at least 10 seconds with a sampling frequency of 4 Hz. Data were checked during posttreatment to assess pressure stability. Upon the assumptions that the flow is isothermal, that the material is incompressible and that there is no wall slip, data were looked at using a conventional capillary post-treatment data method, described below. The recorded pressure is actually the total overall pressure; it is therefore needed to isolate the pressure drop corresponding to the flow within the die only.
The slope of the linear log-log plot of apparent shear rate versus real shear stress provides with the correction needed to determine the real shear rate. The apparent shear rate , defined as: = 4. ( 2 ) is the Newtonian wall shear rate, taken as a reference. Qv is the volumetric flow, and R the radius of the die. The real shear rate, , is then calculated from the apparent shear rate and the slope of the apparent shear rate versus corrected shear stress plots (logarithmic values): = 1 4 3 + ln( ln( ) ! (3) Once the real values of both shear rate and shear stress at the wall are calculated, the viscosities can be determined using eq. 4  [3] ,  [13] ,  [25] : " = (4) Data were also looked at with the Benbow-Bridgwater method detailed in section 2. 2. 5. 2.
Acknowledgments The work was supported by the  Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA) , in partnership with the  Centre d'Elaboration et de Mise en Forme des Matériaux (CEMEF -Mines ParisTech ). The authors are thankful to  Gauthier JOUAN  and  Mathilde PONS  for the SEM pictures taken on the raw powders. The authors would also like to acknowledge their colleagues,  Pascal ANTONUCCI ,  David RUDLOFF ,  Thomas PIALLAT ,  Patrice SIGNORET  and  Marc BATAILLE  for their help regarding testing apparatus and material characterizations. A special thanks to  Aurélie CHEVALEYRE  for the sketches and conception of the laboratory ram extruder used in this project and to  Marc CLEMENT  for his valuable work on the optimization of extrusion conditions.
This allowed for retrieval of key parameters, namely the phase fraction and the volume change very accurately. To this end, we applied the Pawley approach [Pawley1981] using the Topas software  [Coelho2018] , and a similar method to the one recently applied for powder diffraction studies of photo-induced structural changes [Azzolina2019, Mariette2021]. The refinements details are provided in Methods. In short, this method constrains the Bragg peak positions according to the refined unit cell parameters, but allows the Bragg peak intensities to vary freely. At room temperature, the sample is fully in the HS phase. At 100 K, it was not possible to fit the pattern satisfactorily considering LS phase only, therefore a biphasic state had to be considered, in contrast with the bulk single crystal.
Time-resolved XRD study of photoinduced dynamics The tr-XRD images were recorded at 100 K with the setup described above. The crystallites were excited with 1 ps pump laser at 800 nm, as in previous optical studies  [Bertoni2016a]. The experimental time resolution was limited by the X-ray pulse duration to 100 ps. The details about the setup and data reduction are given in Methods. The time-resolved patterns covering several decades in time are shown in figure  2a. Photoinduced changes can be seen on these patterns for all positive delays, and they are emphasized in the difference patterns (figure  2b ). The comparison with steady state diffraction patterns measured at low and high temperature allows for a qualitative description. The shape of the difference patterns can be explained by a weight transfer of the diffracted intensity from LSto HS-Bragg peaks.
Single crystal X-ray diffraction Temperature-dependent X-ray diffraction (XRD) study was performed on [Fe III (3-MeO-SalEen)2]PF6 single crystal using a laboratory SuperNova Agilent Technologies 4-circle diffractometer, with Cu-Kα microsource (λ = 1. 5406 Å) and EosS2 CCD camera. The sample was cooled down using 800 Plus nitrogen flow cryostat from Oxford Cryosystems. To obtain good precision of cell parameter change with temperature, a set of short scans within 2 Å resolution was taken from 100 K to 250 K, with 2 to 5 K steps. Data reduction was performed with CrysAlisPro software [CrysAlisPro2018]. The single crystal had a plate shape, with a long dimension around 100 µm.
3, 5. 5, and 30. 7 m, with a Rayonix MX170-HS CCD camera, allowing covering a broad q-range of 3 × 10 -3 -6 nm -1 , where q is the magnitude of the wavevector: q = 4π/λ sin(θ/2), with θ being the scattering angle. Transmissions were measured synchronously with acquisitions. Samples were injected in a flowthrough quartz capillary (Hilgenberg GmbH, Germany) of 50 μm wall thickness and 2 mm inner diameter. Data reduction was performed automatically following the beamline workflow, checking the absolute scale from the scattering intensity of water at 25 °C (1. 68 × 10 -2 cm -1 ). The scattering from the empty capillary was subtracted from high q data; at mid and low q, the weak signal of pure solvents and standard mixtures measured is dominated by refraction near the direct beam, and due to the excess generated by quartz-air interfaces, the background subtracted was that of a pure solvent.
Small-Angle Scattering Data Analysis. SAS data modeling was performed with the program SASET. 20 Up to four contributions were used: 1. a constant accounting for a spin incoherent background and other q-independent scattering in the small-angle regime; 2. an Ornstein-Zernike (OZ) contribution: I OZ (q) = I OZ (0)/(1 + ξ OZ 2 q 2 ) accounting for clusters, with ξ OZ being the correlation length of the OZ domains; 3. a broad peak (BP) reproducing the prepeak accounting for a locally linear dynamic network  21  of correlation length ξ BP and characteristic spacing D*: I BP (q) = I BP /[1 + ξ BP 2 (q -2π/D*) 2 ]; and 4. either a Porod: I Porod (q) = a P q -4 orif form factor oscillations are visiblea form factor for polydisperse spheres: I spheres (q) = 1 n ∫ 0 ∞ pdf(r|μ,σ) P(q, r) dr, where 1 n is the number density of droplets, pdf(r|μ, σ) is the Schulz-Zimm probability density function: pdf(r|μ, σ) = [(z + 1)/μ] z+1 r z exp(-(z + 1) r/μ)/Γ(z + 1)Γ is the γ function, μ is the mean radius, σ is the standard deviation, z = (μ/σ) 2 -1, where P(q, r) is the sphere form factor P(q, r) = [4πΔSLDj 1 (qr)/qr] 2 , with j 1 being the first-order spherical Bessel function and ΔSLD being the contrast (scattering length density difference).
The oil droplet (oil-rich phase) was injected in the capillary at 1000-2000 rpm. Measurements were performed in the range 2000-8000 rpm, using only data obtained from the range of rotational speed, resulting in almost constant values of the interfacial tension. At least two different oil droplets were measured at different speeds of rotation. Standard calculation of the interfacial tension from the size of the rotating droplet requires density data of both phases, which were obtained by mapping the entire monophasic region of the ternary phase diagram using an Anton-Paar DSA 5000 densitometer. The Laplace pressure ΔP estimated for Ouzo droplets was then obtained from the Young-Laplace equation for a spherical surface: ΔP = γ2/R, based on the drop radius R and the interfacial tension γ. Interfacial tension values are shown in Figure  S2.
The entropy, which is dominant in the bulk pre-Ouzo,  24  is balanced by the structuration inside the ternary structured oil-rich phase that constitutes the core of the Ouzo droplets (ϕ = 49%). With a larger one-step dilution, the point MHC is reached. SANS data of the two coexisting phases still show the same features as before, but the correlation length of the water-rich phase is only 0. 38 nm, in the progressive aggregation regime. Within each phase, polar phase fractions (water and hydroxyls), determined via density measurements, are now 87 and 36%. Pre-Ouzo aggregates become very scarce, while the intensity of the broad peak reveals stronger structuring of the oil-rich phase (D* = 2. 3 nm). Its composition is 50% octanol, 28% ethanol, and 22% water: the high water content of the oil-rich Ouzo droplet is large; therefore, the mixing entropy implied by the phase separation is smaller  24  and easily compensated by the weak structuration present at the nanometer scale in the octanol-rich phase.