dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Determining I/O Environmental Matrix Once the final demand is combined with the economic matrix to yield the industrial output (Equation  4. 8), this must be multiplied by the environmental impacts per dollar output. Databases provide pollutant emissions and energy and resource use for each sector of the economy. So, each emission factor is calculated by dividing the total emissions for each sector by that sector's total output. Figure  4. 6 compares the direct emissions of CO 2 per dollar spent in each U. S. economic sector for the Open-LC  (Norris 1999)  and Comprehensive Environmental Data Archive (CEDA)  (Suh et al. 2004; Suh 2005)  databases. The correspondence between the.
Supplying Industries Using Industries Industrial UseC onsumers & Govt. Transaction Matrix Z Ind. 1 Ind. 2 Ind. 3 Ind. 4 Ind. 5 Ind. 6T otal intermediate input  two databases is limited, with the Open-LC emission factors smaller than the CEDA factors for the majority of sectors. However, the sectors with the highest emissions per dollar have more consistent factors between the two databases, particularly the electricity sector. Figure  4. 7 plots the same comparison, but accounting for emissions over the entire supply chain, resulting in much better correspondence between the two. This is because the cumulative coefficients are dominated by sectors with high emission levels, which have the best correspondence of direct emissions. + Final demand = To tal industrial output (M$)( M$)( M$)( M$)( M$)( M$)( M$)( M$)( M$).
I/O Country-Specific Databases Some software programs and databases directly provide the emissions or impacts associated with expenses in different sectors (see Appendix I for websites from which the information in this subsection was extracted and to access more detailed information). For the United States, several databases extend the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) economic I/O matrix for environmental assessment and LCA applications. Carnegie Mellon University provides the "Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA) method to estimate the materials and energy resources required for, and the environmental emissions resulting from, activities in the US economy, with summary results for various environmental impacts" (Appendix I). The MIET freeware software, developed at Leiden University, provides an I/O database for the United States in 2002, with 1170 environmental inventory flows.
CEDA is a "suite of environmentally extended input-output databases that covers a comprehensive list of over 1500 environmental interventions including fossil fuels, water, metals ores and minerals, and various emissions to air, water and soil" (Appendix I; North American I/O CEDA database described in  Suh et al. 2004; Suh 2005). Integrated into the SimaPro software, it consists of a commodity matrix from 2002, supplemented with data for capital goods. The I/O matrix is linked to a large environmental intervention matrix compiled from several data sources. By using the databases mentioned, the impacts of small and medium enterprises (SME) have been added to the environmental intervention matrix, along with those from diffuse sources such as transport. In Asia, the Japanese I/O database  (Nansai et al.
2012)   On the European level, Danish and Dutch institutions have also created databases that have been integrated into the SimaPro LCA software. The I/O database for EU27 and Denmark (  2003 ) is based on statistical data from 1999, which have been modified and improved by 2. 0 LCA Consultants to make the I/O data more relevant to LCA applications. It is based on the hybrid I/O model FORWAST that provides complete balanced monetary and physical supply-use tables. The Dutch Input Output 95 library is based on a survey of average consumer spending in 350 categories grouped by economic sector  (Goedkoop 2004 ). The I/O table was extended to also account for imports from both Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and non-OECD regions. CML-LCA also allows a combination with the E3IOT database (see Appendix I), which distinguishes approximately 500 production sectors.
I/O Multiregional Databases Several methods have combined national I/O matrices into MRIO databases covering the whole world. Developed at the University of Sydney, the EORA MRIO  (Lenzen et al. 2013 ) provides the highest level of detail, with data for 187 individual countries comprising more than 15,000 industry sectors. It has been applied to carbon, water, ecological footprinting  (Lenzen et al. 2013) , and employment, with a detailed study of uncertainties. The EXIOPIOL project has developed a new series of European matrices directly coupled to environmental data, and then extended the system to a global scale to create the global commercial EXIOBASE (see Appendix I). Based on the year 2000, it covers 43 countries (95% of the global economy) and distinguishes 129 industry sectors and products by country, covering 30 emitted substances and 80 resources by industry.
Peters and Hertwich (2008)  used this data to determine the influence of global trade on CO 2 emissions. The WIOD database includes 40 countries and a model for the rest of the world (see Appendix I). It includes data on employment capital stocks, gross output, and value, as well as on energy use, CO 2 emissions, and emissions to air at the industry level  (Timmer 2012). Finally, the tracking environmental impacts of consumption (TREIC) project  (Friot 2009 ) combined matrices from the Global Trade Analysis Project with the emissions database for global atmospheric research (EDGAR) and an impact assessment model to evaluate the public health impacts associated with global consumption. Using the matrices to link a consuming region to the supply chain regions of production and emission, the TREIC project estimates health impacts due to each consuming region of the world, both locally and in the other regions.
I/O also allows the extension of the life cycle approach to certain socioeconomic aspects, providing a platform for consistently comparing environmental, social, and economic performances of a product or service (Section 6. 8). The main limitations of I/O stem from the necessary aggregation of subsectors into economic sectors for which data are available. Numerous and varied products and technologies are thus all combined into the same sector and treated as equivalent. Since two products that serve the same function are often produced by the same sectors, it is difficult to use I/O to differentiate such products, and a process-based approach would better identify the differences in emissions and energy use. Another limitation of the I/O approach is the availability of environmental data to link to the relatively accessible economic data.
Exercise 4. 5: Matrix Formulation of the Inventory: Aluminum Manufacturing For the manufacturing of aluminum, you are given the set of simplified matrices given here, describing the technology matrix (A), the demand vector for 1 kg aluminum (d), the matrix of direct emissions and extractions (B), and the aggregated matrix of emissions and extraction factors (E). b = E × d = B (-A) -1 d E = B(I-A) -1 Answer the following questions to see if you understand the formulation:  After gathering data on the raw material extractions and substance emissions associated with a product's life cycle, the third phase of a life cycle assessment (LCA) is the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). The inventory determines the quantities of materials and energy extracted, as well as the emissions to water, air, and soil.
PURPOSE OF IMPACT ASSESSMENT The inventory phase generally involves a first aggregation of data by summing emissions of each substance and each resource extraction across the life cycle, resulting in an inventory table of total emissions and extractions for each substance and resource. Even if one scenario has lower emissions of most substances, it generally has higher emissions for several others. To determine which scenario is better, it is then necessary to evaluate the magnitude of the impacts generated by each substance. Therefore, it is also necessary to have methods for aggregating emissions according to their potential(s) to cause one or more environmental impacts. Due to the complex fate and exposure models needed to predict impacts of such a wide variety of substances, the development of these environmental impact assessment methods may involve complex models.
INTERPRETATION EXAMPLE: DESKTOP VERSUS LAPTOP COMPUTER To demonstrate how to apply interpretation throughout the LCA process, we discuss the comparison of a desktop and a laptop computer. This example, used for instructional purposes, is based on the studies of Tekawa (1998) and Atlantic Consulting (1998), and the data should not be used as a basis for new projects. These data are then compared with the more recent, extensive, and reliable computer data from the ecoinvent database.
Each input parameter of the LCI has an uncertainty characterized by a lognormal distribution, as defined by its data pedigree within the ecoinvent database  (Section 4. 3. 2, Frischknecht et al. 2005). The LCA software SimaPro 6. 0 provides the corresponding GSD 2 for each parameter in each of the ecoinvent unit processes, with 74% of all processes being characterized as lognormally distributed and 26% undefined. SimaPro 6. 0 was used to calculate the sensitivity of climate change impacts to each parameter, as well as to run Monte Carlo simulations with 1000 iterations on these climate change impacts. To reflect the 35% uncertainty on the global warming potential (GWP) indicated by the IPCC 2007 report, this study used a squared geometric standard deviation (GSD 2 ) of 1. 35 as a close approximation.
The Quantis Suite software has been developed recently to achieve the balance of a company as a whole and over all of its life cycle (Section 7. 3. 7). Several free LCA software programs are also available. A first open-source free program is being created within the framework of the openLCA project (Appendix 1) to provide a modular software program for life cycle analysis and sustainability assessments. Initially, it will begin with a basic framework for LCA calculations of results and uncertainty, along with a tool to convert among different data formats. The Open-IO project  (Ciroth 2007 ) has already released a U. S. input-output database specifically for openLCA. Second, Brightway2 is a powerful recently developed tool allowing analysts to quickly perform cutting-edge calculations and visualizations (Appendix I).
Third, CMLCA (Chain Management by Life Cycle Assessment;  Heijungs and Frischknecht 2005 ) is a program intended to support the technical aspects of LCA. Although its user interface is not very flexible, it can be used for rich data analysis, including a complete matrix algebra tool with matrix inversion, as well as integrated methods for sensitivity analysis and uncertainty assessment. CMLCA supports fully hybrid inventories that consist of both process-based and IO-based data, though the comprehensive IO database is not free. The EORA input-output database also offers several assessment tools on its website that can be highly useful in interpreting multiregional IO results (see website listed in Appendix I). Finally, there are various non-LCA-specific tools that use a life cycle approach, such as the carbon tool of the Association Bilan Carbone (BC Bilan Carbone 2010), originally developed by the French Ministry of the Environment (ADEME).
inventOry Based on the processes and references flows included in the system boundary, the next phase calculates the inventory of raw material extractions and substance emissions associated with each FU. This is often based on existing databases of processes, supplemented by first-hand product-specific data. When the product studied is associated with other coproducts, it is necessary to allocate which emissions and extractions should be assigned to each of these coproducts. Allocation should be avoided whenever possible, either by separating out only the processes associated with the considered product or by expanding the system boundaries to count the avoided emissions due to substituting an existing product with the coproduct. A poor choice of the substituted product, however, can give totally false results; thus, it is important to consider the following questions: 10.
Data Sources and Quality Thanks to the direct involvement of industries in the study, most reference and intermediary flows and direct emission factors come from measurements on industrial plants or plant design models  (Houillon and Jolliet 2001) , reducing uncertainties by making them as close as possible to real conditions. Additional emission factors come from OFEFP (1998) and  Suter et al. (1996a,b). Table  8. 4 presents a sample of emission factors for CO 2 and CH 4 emissions associated with each input in sludge treatment. Sensitivity studies comparing these original data with those from the ecoinvent database  (Frischknecht et al. 2005)  do not show major differences for the considered processes and did not justify a full update in the final study stage. For a selection of the same flows, ecoinvent 2.
Ratios of fossil CO 2 emissions to consumption of nonrenewable primary energy for different materials, energy systems, and means of transportation. The coal, oil, gas, and wood categories represent the energy processes yielding electricity or heat. "Ren. " refers to renewable wind and solar energy, as well as heat pump technology. "El. CH," "El. UCTE," and "El. US" refer to the Swiss, European, and US electricity mixes, respectively, calculated from the ecoinvent database.
Benoit-Norris et al. (2012;l LCA byBenoit-Norris et al. (2012; alsosee the Social Hotspots Database listed in Appendix I) represent an interesting initial operationalization toward a more complete social LCA. You will now use LCA software (e. g. , SimaPro) to calculate results that can be compared to your previous hand calculations from Exercises 4. 2 and 5. 2. • Step 1: Enter data for the two scenarios in the software (see guidelines for performing calculations in SimaPro on the CRC Press website, Exercise 6. 1) and calculate the emissions inventory and impacts. • Step 2: Compare the energy use, CO 2 emissions, and other inventory flows.
The ecoinvent database (Section 4. 3. 2) is available and it is possible to access all of the unit processes of the database. GaBi has the advantage of introducing nonlinear relationships programmed by the user. It also offers the opportunity to purchase additional data for the automotive and telecommunications sectors. The ecoinvent database is available and presented in an aggregate manner. GaBi is less flexible in terms of interpretation: The determination of the contribution of each pollutant requires a separate worksheet and the tool does not provide details on each unit process that composes the data. English and German versions are currently available, but compatibility is limited at the moment. Quantis Suite applies the principle of product LCA to a whole enterprise, taking into account the supply and user chain.
The program also allows the creation of hybrid inventories, consisting of process data and I/O data. However, the complete I/O database is not free. The OpenLCA project is a modular software for life cycle assessment and sustainability evaluations. The software will be available free of charge as open source. It is an LCA calculator, with a format converter and an uncertainty module. The Earthster aims to provide to all businesses the means to conduct evaluations of and publications on the life cycle, in order to document and publish their environmental and social performance. This "open source" software is available on the Internet free of charge. Producers have the possibility of downloading and using the free software to quickly assess their performances and compare them with the industry averages.
LCI DATA: ECOINVENT This appendix presents extracts from the ecoinvent 2. 2 database. The comprehensive database provides more than 650 emission and extraction factors (1200 when including subcompartments such as low and high population densities) for close to 4000 processes, covering • Energy supply, including all of the electric mixes (coal, gas, cogeneration, nuclear, wind, etc. ) and energy carriers (extra light oil, fuel oil, kerosene, steam, coal, high-and low-pressure natural gas, heat pump, etc. ), for a wide range of countries in Europe and worldwide • Materials and construction processes (bricks, glass packaging, primary and secondary aluminum, lead, nickel, stainless steel, all the most common plastics [polypropylene, polystyrene, etc. ], wood construction materials, etc. ) • Chemicals (oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
) • Detergents • Papers (graphics, recycled, etc. ) • Waste treatment services (household waste, sewage sludge, plastics, solvents, etc. ) • Most common agricultural products and processes (potato, sugarbeets, etc. ) • Transportation (trucks, cargo, trans-and transoceanic freight, air, shortand long-distance passenger airplanes, trams, buses, short-and long-distance trains, etc. ) • Computers, printers, and related accessories Table  A3. 1 provides the values of nonrenewable primary energy, air emissions of fossil CO 2 , the ratio of CO 2 emissions/nonrenewable primary energy, the CO 2-eq (100 and 500 years) emissions and scores for four damage categories of IMPACT 2002+ for 50 process values. The full database also provides impact scores calculated by other impact assessment methods (IMPACT 2002+, ReCiPe, TRACI, etc.
Ratios of fossil CO 2 emissions to consumption of nonrenewable primary energy for different materials, energy systems, and means of transportation. The coal, oil, gas, and wood categories represent the energy processes yielding electricity or heat. "Ren. " refers to renewable wind and solar energy, as well as heat pump technology. "El. CH," "El. UCTE," and "El. US" refer to the Swiss, European, and US electricity mixes, respectively, calculated from the ecoinvent database. Cement 2 emissions to nonrenewable 2 /MJ) primary energy consumption (gCO Bio-based products Metals Concrete Mortar Materials from petroleum Glass combustion Coal Fuels without Oil Gas Hydro El. CH Nuclear UCTE Wood El. Road Train Ren. Airplane B El. US FIGURE 4. 2.
Benoit-Norris et al. (2012;l LCA byBenoit-Norris et al. (2012; alsosee the Social Hotspots Database listed in Appendix I) represent an interesting initial operationalization toward a more complete social LCA. You will now use LCA software (e. g. , SimaPro) to calculate results that can be compared to your previous hand calculations from Exercises 4. 2 and 5. 2. • Step 1: Enter data for the two scenarios in the software (see guidelines for performing calculations in SimaPro on the CRC Press website, Exercise 6. 1) and calculate the emissions inventory and impacts. • Step 2: Compare the energy use, CO 2 emissions, and other inventory flows EXERCISES Exercise 6. 1: Comparing Hand-Drying Scenarios Using LCA Software.
171-173 nonlinear modeling, 170 parameter, 160 -163 principles and types of, 160 scenario analysis, 170 sensitivity analysis, 169-170 Taylor series, 173-174 Inventory analysis, 201-202 combined hybrid use of process and I/O approaches, 84-85 coproducts and allocation, 85-99 avoiding, 88 causal physical relation, 94 economic or functional causality, 95 marginal variation, 92-93 open-loop recycling, 96-98 physical allocation, 92 procedure from ISO 14044, 87-88 process subdivision, 88-89 product categories, 85-86 recycled waste and by-products, 86-87 representative parameter, 93-94 sensitivity analysis and, 95 system expansion, 89-92 waste, 86 databases for process-based approach, 64-71 data quality and uncertainties, 71 ecoinvent, 66-71 existing databases, 64-66 Ecosludge project (LCA case study), 224-225 exercises, 100-103.
-a--b- The optical performance experimental characterization was performed for the fabricated lens by using a particular optical setup, as shown in Fig. 4. This optical setup is operated in the same way that was explained by Peng Wang  [11]. The difference in our optical setup is that we used the Tungsten Halogen from Ocean Optics (type HL-2000) as a white light source which supplies light in the Vis-NIR range of the spectrum. Furthermore, we used the "Ocean Optics Maya pro Spectrometer" to analyze the spectrum of the diffracted light by using the ocean view software. It is important to mention that TE polarisation was used for the simulations and a linear polariser was used in the experiments as a variable attenuator to avoid photodetector saturation. With the relatively large diffractive structures studied here no significant polarisation dependence was encountered either in simulations or experiments.
We describe the creation of a data set describing changes related to the presence of ice sheets, including ice-sheet extent and height, ice-shelf extent, and the distribution and elevation of ice-free land at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which were used in LGM experiments conducted as part of the fifth phase of the Coupled Modelling Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) and the third phase of the Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP3). The CMIP5/PMIP3 data sets were created from reconstructions made by three different groups, which were all obtained using a model-inversion approach but differ in the assumptions used in the modelling and in the type of data used as constraints. The ice-sheet extent in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) does not vary substantially between the three individual data sources.
0:  Argus and Peltier, 2010; GLAC-1a: Tarasov et al. , 2012; ANU: Lambeck et al. , 2010) , which differ in the assumptions used in the modelling and in the type of data used as constraints on these models. The purpose of this paper is to explain the ice-sheet configuration that was used in the CMIP5/PMIP3 simulations, which was created by blending the three individual realisations, and to explore the consequences of this choice. This paper provides the information on the difference between the individual ice sheets and the blended ice sheet as well as ice-sheet configuration of previous phases of PMIP. The individual ice-sheet reconstructions are described in Sect. 2, and the procedure for creating the blended ice sheet is described in Sect. 3. The differences between this blended ice sheet, the individual ice-sheet reconstructions, and previous ice-sheet configurations used by PMIP, and their impact on forcing and climate, are discussed in Sect.
, 2002; Patagonia: Peltier, 2004; and Antarctica: Peltier, 2004) , where each regional analysis is performed in a global context to yield a globally consistent response. In the most recent versions of the model, including the one used as an input to the CMIP5/PMIP3 composite ice sheet, satellite geodetic data (e. g. GPS, GRACE) are used to provide additional constraints  (Peltier and Drummond, 2008; Argus and Peltier, 2010). ICE-4G  (Peltier, 1994)  was used to define the land-sea mask, the ice-sheet extent and elevation, and land-surface topography and palaeo-ocean bathymetry in the first phase of PMIP (PMIP1) and ICE-5G  (Peltier, 2004)  in the second phase of PMIP (PMIP2). ICE-5G was improved relative to ICE-4G largely through the incorporation of revised information about the extent of the Eurasian ice sheets at the LGM from the QUEEN project  (Svendsen et al.