dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
| Semiautomatic entity reconciliation Semiautomatic entity reconciliation was done employing the domain knowledge contained within the project. This was based on the Recon 20 tool, which is designed for digital humanities scenarios where trusted accuracy is important  (Hyvönen, Ahnert, et al. , 2019)  and hence entity matching cannot be done completely automatically, but instead a person is consulted to consider possible candidates for matching. Initially possibly useful reconciliation scenarios were devised, based on the domain expertise and computational possibilities for finding possible candidates for matching. For each scenario, a predefined configuration and SPARQL queries were created to provide the domain experts with candidates to reconcile manually. In the matching, entities were considered unique in a single source dataset and matched only between the datasets.
The match candidates were scored and sorted and relevant metadata about the entities, including links to the data in the source datasets, was shown to the user to make an informed decision. In this fashion, the project matched 3,136 actors and 1,067 works between the source datasets. Additionally, a number of manuscripts were reconciled manually by manuscript scholars in a spreadsheet, instead of using Recon. Eighty manuscripts were matched between two or three of the databases in this way.
| PUBLISHING THE HARMONIZED KG When dealing with scholarly data, the MMM system follows the "FAIR guiding principles for scientific data management and stewardship" 21 To enable data-driven manuscript research and facilitate data reuse, the harmonized dataset of 24 million RDF triples is available in several ways: 1. In the Zenodo repository 22 with a canonical citation  (Koho et al. , 2021) ; 2. Hosted on the LDF. fi platform, 23 from where it can be accessed via a SPARQL endpoint or using a web browser; 3. On the online MMM Portal, 24 through which the 222,600 manuscripts and other entities can be searched and browsed.
| Data service The MMM KG is available on the Linked Data Finland (LDF) platform  (Hyvönen et al. , 2014) , providing a home page for the KG, and a public SPARQL endpoint. 25 To support reuse, the home page provides additional information about the KG, such as, (a) schema documentation automatically generated by the platform, (b) sample SPARQL queries, and (c) metadata using SPARQL Service Description, 26 and Vocabulary of Interlinked Datasets (VoID). 27  The MMM SPARQL endpoint is hosted on an Apache Jena Fuseki 28 SPARQL server. The whole KG and Fuseki are contained in a Docker image, that can be easily built and started when and where needed. The LDF platform provides dereferencing of URIs for both human users and machines, and a generic RDF browser for technical users, which opens when a URI is visited directly with a web browser.
The user interface of the MMM Portal is implemented with the Sampo-UI framework  (Ikkala et al. , 2021). This means that the user interface is a web-based application written purely in JavaScript. The application consists of a NodeJS 29 backend built with Express framework 30 and a client based on React 31 and Redux. 32 The client contains all logic for displaying the data and reacting to F I G U R E 3 Visualization of the movement of premodern manuscripts from places of production to last known locations using the MMM Portal user's selections. In order to fetch data, the client makes use of the MMM SPARQL endpoint by sending API requests 33 to the Node. js backend. Based on the API requests and predefined configurations, the Node. js backend generates the SPARQL queries, sends them to the SPARQL endpoint, maps and merges the raw result rows, and returns the results as nested JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) structures to the client, where the data is interpreted and visualized to the user.
| Using the KG The data analysis tools and visualizations of the MMM Portal combined with faceted search provide an easy-touse starting point for analyzing manuscript provenance. In addition to this, one can use the public SPARQL endpoint to explore and analyze the data. The information in the MMM KG contains several benefits compared to the source datasets: • The user is able to execute arbitrary SPARQL queries over the whole KG, instead of being limited to using the predetermined search user interfaces of the individual source datasets; • Harmonized basic unit for manuscripts (FRBRoo class Manifestation Singleton). For example, the user cannot search for or count manuscripts in the SDBM database, but only observations of them (e. g. , entries in sales catalogs); • Reconciled and enriched actors and places across source datasets.
For example, from the Bibale database, plotting manuscripts or events on a map is not possible; • Last known locations are not available for most of the manuscripts in the source datasets. These have been inferred based on the harmonized data. The MMM data service and SPARQL endpoint can be used by any external application or tool. For example,  (Klyne & Lewis, 2020)  provides a report on exploring the MMM KG using ResearchSpace 34 for addressing specific research questions, such as "Who collects manuscripts with texts by Ramon Llull?" Data relating to more than 8,000 manuscripts formerly owned by Phillipps have been extracted via SPARQL and reused in a nodegoat database environment. 35.
| EVALUATION An initial evaluation of the MMM aggregated data was carried out using the 25 research questions developed for the project. Each question was tested first against the three source datasets individually. In almost every case answering the questions fully proved difficult. At best, the user was presented with a partial answer to the question, often as a broader list of results which had to be scanned manually to identify relevant items. Some questions could not be answered using the source datasets (8 in Bibale, 8 in Oxford, 6 in SDBM). When the same questions were run against the MMM Portal, 17 out of 25 could be answered with a combination of filters and text searches. Only a few, more complex, questions required further manual scanning of the result sets (8 out of 25). This group of questions was then explored further by running queries against the MMM SPARQL endpoint.
This evaluation demonstrated that the aggregated MMM dataset can support more sophisticated and complex queries from researchers than the source datasets. The results of this evaluation are summarized in Table  2. One of the more complex research questions was: "What French collectors purchased manuscripts since the end of the Wars of Religion (after 1598)? Where are their manuscripts now?" This cannot be answered in Bibale or the Oxford catalog. In Bibale, it is impossible to run a query on transactions of a specific period, while in the Oxford catalog the list of people can be filtered by role (e. g. , owner) but not by place. SDBM does make it possible to identify people linked to France with life dates after 1,598, and then view the individual entries linked to them. But this will not cover people linked to specific places within France, since place names are not nested hierarchically.
In the MMM Portal, on the other hand, the "Actors" perspective can be filtered for persons with an "Activity Location" of France. This covers all places within France. Finding French collectors active after 1,598 involves adding one of the timeline filters to find persons born after (say) 1,550. The resulting list of 572 people includes a list of manuscripts and collections attached to each of them. These manuscripts and collections can then be inspected to see their subsequent history and last known locations. The list of people can be sorted by "Role" to distinguish manuscript owners and collection owners from authors of works. To amalgamate all the relevant information about each manuscript and each collection for each owner who falls within the specific parameters, a SPARQL query can be constructed.
The ability to find interesting knowledge from the MMM Portal has been noted in  Engels (2020). An evaluation of the MMM Portal by three postdoctoral manuscript researchers is reported in  Burrows, Pinto, et al. (2020). As well as providing detailed feedback on the functionality of the Sampo-UI interface, this report made recommendations for fuller public documentation. It also identified some specific issues with the display of results in the portal. These issues arose largely from ambiguities and inconsistencies in the data in the source datasets, rather than errors in the mapping and transformation processes. Among these issues identified was the occurrence of multiple production places for the same manuscript. This might result from disagreements between the data sources, but was more like to reflect uncertainty about its origins: Southern France or Northern Italy? Multiple and sometimes conflicting production date ranges were also fairly common, reflecting differing opinions among cataloguers and scholars.
Some authors had multiple different entries in the list of persons, whereas others had only one entry, with all the variant versions harmonized; this was the result of incomplete coverage in the reconciliation process. Similarly, the titles of works were only rarely reconciled, making it very difficult to track specific textual traditions-although this was never one of the goals of the project. Dealing with ambiguous and inconsistent naming conventions related to geographical regions was another challenge. For example, the term "Northern Italy" is used in all source datasets, but it is impossible to interpret automatically which specific regions and cities this term covers. There may also be multiple varying conceptions of Northern Italy, caused by varying data curation practices. Inconsistent naming conventions and the granularity of the available data affect the analysis of geographical distributions.
| CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS LEARNED This paper presented an approach for harmonizing heterogeneous manuscript metadata databases with a focus on the manuscript description and provenance, leading to four primary results. These are: 1. The design of a proof of concept for an event-based harmonizing data model capable of representing both manuscript metadata and their provenance information in detail, that can also be used for integrating heterogeneous local manuscript datasets into a global KG. 2. The design of a production model for aggregating and harmonizing distributed heterogeneous datasets into a global Linked Data Service, based on the harmonizing data model and a set of shared vocabularies for populating the model. 3. A successful example of a style of iterative and discursive collaboration among manuscript scholars, metadata specialists, digital humanists, and computer scientists that informed the development of the data modeling, the processes of transformation, and the design and defined purpose of the interface as an entry and initial guide to the exploration of the combined datasets in the unified KG.
4. A better understanding of the behavior of the three different approaches used in the source datasets to manuscript description and metadata in a SW environment and recommendations for future projects involving digital manuscript description. The semantic portal demonstrator MMM and its underlying LOD service created and published on the SW provide evidence for the success of the first two results. In the process of developing the portal and the service, the project also produced the following artifacts that have the potential to impact future work that may build upon the MMM model. These are: • A unifying data model for manuscript metadata and provenance; • Data transformation pipeline and tools for linking and harmonizing the source datasets; Harder to quantify but no less important are the third and fourth primary results.
The fruitful collaboration between the two working groups identified at the outset-the first group focused on the requirements of manuscript provenance scholarship, and the other on the information science research needed to meet those requirements-was key to the success of the project. The ability to maintain open lines of communication throughout the development process as it progressed iteratively from identification of research questions, to modeling design and implementation, and finally to publication and evaluation, provided the mechanism to build a robust, transparent, and intuitive resource for manuscript discovery. The challenges presented by the three datasets were overcome through careful analysis of them by the "scholarship" group that was then communicated to the "information science" group to provide building blocks for designing the first iteration of the data model.
Upon implementation of the model, both groups worked together to apply the initial research questions to test the model. Testing the model through extensive SPARQL querying produced two significant results. It allowed the "information science" group to fine-tune the data model in response to particular successes or roadblocks discovered in the application of the initial research questions. Second, the "scholarship" group became more proficient in querying the data, which encouraged them to develop new research questions not previously considered. Testing thus gave the "scholarship" group greater clarity about the contents, limitations, and new possibilities for research and discovery presented by the combined dataset. For example, a query to determine the average ratio of the page size of liturgical manuscripts produced between 500 AD and 1,601 AD produced 4,498 results.
The query is available 36 in the online Yasgui tool, which is also used to visualize the results. Presented in the scatter plot graph of Figure  4 , the data shows an expected average height to width ratio to be between 1. 5 and 2. 0 for liturgical manuscripts in codex form. More interesting are the three outlier points where the ratio is greater than 8. 0. Two instances between the ratios 8. 0 and 11. 0 are the result of data entry error in the source datasets. The highest ratio, however, points to an atypical context for a liturgical manuscript, a roll in which the text would begin at the top and continue down the face of the roll (its recto). The text is a set of prayers from a breviary, a book that outlines the liturgical regime of religious institution over the course of a year. A breviary is typically held in the hands for an individual's reference.
Humanists on their own will not be able to harness the expressive power latent in the tools without an interdisciplinary collaboration with technologists and managers in which all parties have a common understanding of the possibilities of Semantic technologies and the structure and complexity of the humanists' discourse. " (p. 255). The project results have further implications for manuscript research and description in a digital and LOD environment. From the technical point of view, the MMM Portal provides a proof of concept for: 1. Provision of flexible access to the integrated data based on LOD publishing principles, such as the 5and 7-star models, linked data browsing, and URI resolving; 2. Studying, analyzing, and reusing the data through a public SPARQL endpoint and APIs; 3. Intelligent user interfaces for semantic searching and exploring the global data  (Marchionini, 2006)  for more comprehensive views; 4.
For example, it may not be possible to align different vocabularies used in different datasets precisely, and errors in entity reconciliation may arise. The place concepts used in a dataset may be contemporary while historical places may be used in another. There may also be fundamental mismatches between the data models used. A related concern for users is the danger of not understanding the "completeness" of the data, or in other words, how well the data represents all manuscripts. For the MMM data, the notion of "completeness" is further complicated by the data sources. MMM cannot claim universal coverage of manuscript data. The Oxford data only represents manuscripts in Oxford collections. The SDBM represents observations of manuscripts, many of which are duplicate observations of the same manuscript at different times of its existence.
Bibale's focus on collections as opposed to individual manuscripts further skews the data picture. As a result, any analysis of the data has to be interpreted within the context of the collected data, not necessarily as a representation of a universal truth in the real world  (Warren, 2018). Rather than handicapping the project, the challenges presented by the aggregated data led the team to develop a system that could present the unique structures and relationships of data as transparently as possible. The result is a lighter user interface that illuminates rather than obscures the complicated pathways through the aggregated data, so that users eventually learn how to understand the semantic relationships and therefore how to ask better questions. Other lessons learned that can be drawn from the MMM project for manuscript scholars and metadata specialists concern the implications for manuscript description in a digital LOD environment.
Traditional descriptive practices such as those commonly used in print catalogs favor unstructured prose. For manuscript metadata to be interoperable, however, it must be structured and dependent upon established authorities. For example, the provenance data in the Oxford records was presented descriptively in a note field, a common practice in traditional manuscript description. Although some elements had been consistently encoded, the full information embedded in the field could not be extracted for inclusion in MMM. The highly structured provenance data in the SDBM and Bibale might lack the narrative detail of the Oxford data, but it is more amenable to manipulation in a digital environment, much easier to extract, and more fully represented in MMM. The experience of the data transformation process for provenance data thus suggests that in a SW environment descriptive manuscript data serves a different purpose than traditional manuscript description.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was funded by the  Trans-Atlantic Platform  under its Digging into Data Challenge 37 for 2017-2020. The project was led by the  University of Oxford , in partnership with the  University of Pennsylvania, Aalto University, and Helsinki Centre for Digital Humanities (HELDIG) at the University of Helsinki , and the  Institut de recherche et d'histoire des textes (IRHT). The authors wish to acknowledge  CSC-IT Center for Science, Finland , for computational resources. The transformation of the Oxford Manuscript data into RDF builds upon earlier work by the  OXLOD  project. Authors who contributed to the writing of this paper are named first, followed (in alphabetical order) by authors who made a substantial contribution to the work reported here. The authors acknowledge the contributions of the following:  Antoine Brix  (IRHT),  Petri Leskinen  ( Aalto University ), Synnøve Myking (IRHT),  Pierre-Louis Pinault (IRHT) , and  Pip Willcox  ( University of Oxford ).
Morphology: The Associative Construction Another aspect of linguistic structure which will be important to consider in our analysis pertains to morphologically complex forms, including compounds and possessive forms, all of which are formed in Med umba using the associative construction, as was seen in (  5 ). This description also extends to traditional names, which typically involve this construction. Though the associative construction can be used to form verbs and adjectives, we limit ourselves here to a description of nounbased constructions, which were the most common within our song dataset. In the associative construction, the noun class of the head noun in the construction (the leftmost noun) determines the tone of the associative morpheme (H or L) and this tone then docks to the head noun to mark the construction  (Voorhoeve 1971).
Rhythmic Alignment and Mismatch Between Language and Song In spite of the considerable rhythmic variation noted within and among the songs in our dataset, we find substantial alignment between song structure and linguistic structure in the sung parts of both the chorus and the master drummer voices. In the first song, both the chorus refrain and S1M1 of the master drummer's verses reflect a preference for steminitial syllables (whether occurring within isolated stems or as a part of an associative construction) to be placed on wholenumbered beats within the staff-notated lines. Meanwhile, stemfinal syllables and other prosodically weak particles are relegated to beat fractions. Indeed, the prevailing pattern is one in which wholenumbered beats within the song are either occupied by stem-initial syllables or are completely empty; rarely are they found to host a prosodically weak element.
However, it is also possible that this pattern reflects a phonetically based pattern of foot-internal shortening, rather than a weight-based pattern  (Fowler 1977; Kim and Cole 2006). Another area of the grammar in which syllables are consistently mapped to shorter note lengths is among functional item such as discourse particles and affixes. It is well-known that function words in the world's languages tend to be prosodically weaker than lexical words; thus, this pattern may simply be a reflection of relative syllable prominence. We note, though, that stem-initial syllables, despite bearing greater rhythmic prominence, are only realized with greater note length in monosyllabic words, and not within disyllabic stems; thus, there is no perfectly straightforward mapping between syllable prominence and note length in our dataset.
Our results thus highlight the fact that rhythmic variability of a particular morpho-prosodic structure within song does not indicate its lack of rhythmic status, but rather a flexibility in the mapping constraints between language and music. Variability in mapping constraints can only be ascertained through careful analyses of distinct rhythmic modes within and across songs. Finally, it should be noted that the present work represents a rich, but small dataset on Med umba speechbased song. Undoubtedly, a wider survey of musical genres from the region will reveal additional patterns and complexities which can increase our understanding of musical and linguistic grammars, and mappings between the two.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank  Paul Hansen  and  Michael Lewis  for their generous help with music transcription and discussions about African rhythm, as well as  Kofi Agawu ,  Tim Broscious , and  Gene Koshinski  for additional discussion and feedback. As the authors we take responsibility for any and all errors. We are deeply grateful to  Guy-Flaubert Kuitchou  for coordinating the music for the ntánlá' and for his perspective as a master drummer. We also thank  Emmanuel Kuitcheu ,  Ernest Kwanga ,  Tagni Amos Datcheu ,  Magni Madeleine Tchouta  and the many members of the Lafeng community who participated in the ntánlá' musical ensemble and contributed to this study. We thank  His Majesty Mbiandou Yogang Bernard , Chief of the  Lafeng District , and  His Majesty Yonkeu Kuika Jean ,  Paramount Chief  of the  Bangoulap community , for their support.
Noninvasive approaches have been recently proposed for parchments, for instance, to identify the animal species  (7, 8). Regarding the degradation state, the current analytical techniques show some limitations. Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy provides information on the extent of gelatinization in a parchment  (9). However, it requires scraping the parchment surface before measurement to avoid interferences from surface materials, such as calcium carbonate layer or dust. Near-infrared spectroscopy can estimate the S C I E N C E A D V A N C E S | R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E 2 of 9 shrinkage temperature of parchments noninvasively  (10) , but needs to be calibrated with a large database of reference samples. Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy was suggested for estimating the collagen-to-gelatin ratio, but it has not been correlated to quantitative assessment of collagen degradation such as the shrinkage temperature  (11).