dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The plume's influence on the ATTO site lasted for about 4 days, with its onset on 9 April ∼ 12:00 and its end on 13 April ∼ 12:00, which is in good agreement with the corresponding remote-sensing data in  Moran-Zuloaga et al. (2017). During these 4 days, meteorology determined the variability of the LRT aerosol in the rain forest BL via air mass advection (i. e. , wind speed and direction), rain-related scavenging (i. e. , P ATTO and P TRMM ), and convective mixing (represented by SW in as a proxy). Throughout the LRT period, the dominant wind direction was mostly NE to E, which is characteristic for wet-season conditions (compare Fig. 3 ). Note that the BTs arriving from the NE are particularly prone to bringing dust-laden air into the ATTO region  (Moran-Zuloaga et al. , 2017). Furthermore, only few (major) rain events and related aerosol scavenging occurred during this time, which is a further prerequisite for efficient LRT transport.
Data for LRT conditions, shown in (c) and (d), represent the LRT3 period as shown in Fig. 3. A single-erf fit describes the experimental data accurately. Data for BB conditions, shown in (c) and (d), represent the time period in August 2014 as shown in Fig. 4. For the BB case, the experimental data have been fitted with a single-erf fit with two modifications: (i) the "default" fit with predefined variable a 1 = 1 as utilized for all other case studies tends to overestimate N CCN (S)/N CN,10 at high S;(ii) a corresponding fit with a free variable a 1 describes the experimental data more accurately. Data for MPOL conditions were separated into a MPOL-LRT case (g), representing sulfate-rich African aerosols, and a MPOL-BB case (h), representing plumes from close-by fires. MPOL CCN efficiency spectra are combined in (i) including single-erf fits.
Acknowledgements. This work has been supported by the  Max Planck Society (MPG)  and the  Max Planck Graduate Center with the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (MPGC). For the operation of the ATTO site, we acknowledge the support by the  German Federal Ministry of Education and Research  ( BMBF  contract  01LB1001A ) and the  Brazilian Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (MCTI/FINEP  contract  01. 11. 01248. 00 )as well as the  Amazon State University (UEA) ,  FAPEAM, LBA/INPA , and  SDS/CEUC/RDS-Uatumã. This work has been financially supported from the  German Research Foundation  ( DFG grant   KA 2280/2 );  Saint Petersburg State University, Russia  (project  11. 37. 220. 2016 ); the  EU   FP7  project  BACCHUS  (project no. 603445 ); the  Sao Paulo Research Foundation  ( FAPESP grants   13/05014-0  and  13/50510-5 ); and the  Atmospheric System Research (ASR) program ,  US Department of Energy.
2. 7. For the PR CCN efficiency spectrum, the double-erf fit is the better representation, although the single-erf fit also works as a good approximation. Data for LRT conditions, shown in (c) and (d), represent the LRT3 period as shown in Fig. 3. A single-erf fit describes the experimental data accurately. Data for BB conditions, shown in (c) and (d), represent the time period in August 2014 as shown in Fig. 4. For the BB case, the experimental data have been fitted with a single-erf fit with two modifications: (i) the "default" fit with predefined variable a 1 = 1 as utilized for all other case studies tends to overestimate N CCN (S)/N CN,10 at high S;(ii) a corresponding fit with a free variable a 1 describes the experimental data more accurately. Data for MPOL conditions were separated into a MPOL-LRT case (g), representing sulfate-rich African aerosols, and a MPOL-BB case (h), representing plumes from close-by fires.
Data and methods S2M-Sytron was evaluated over winter 2015/2016 from the perspective of an avalanche forecaster that needs to prepare a daily avalanche bulletin in a given mountain range including information about the occurrence and intensity of blowing snow. Therefore, the evaluation was carried out for each day and we assessed the ability of several versions of S2M-Sytron to simulate the occurrence of blowing snow days (BSDs). A BSD is defined as a day when a blowing snow event occurs. As in  Vionnet et al. (2013) , a blowing snow event corresponds to a time period of at least 4 h when snow on the ground is transported in the atmosphere in saltation and in turbulent suspension. The following subsections describe the data and methods used in this evaluation.
Trouvilliez et al. (2015)  have shown that FlowCapt sensors can be used to accurately monitor the occurrence of blowing snow. However, the quality of the measurements of blowing snow flux depends on the generation of the sensor and the sensor can be partially buried under snow during the winter. Therefore, we only used the signal of the FlowCapt to determine the occurrence of blowing snow. First, blowing snow fluxes measured by the FlowCapt sensors were the log-law assumption is used to provide a averaged to get an hourly representative flux at each station. A threshold value of 1 g m -2 s -1 was then applied at an hourly time step to remove non-significant blowing snow occurrence as in  Trouvilliez et al. (2015). Additional analysis of FlowCapt data was performed to remove some data which were considered suspicious.
For example, FlowCapt data were discarded when the sensors recorded blowing snow events without snow on the ground (the signal is probably due to high wind velocity or impact of soil particles) or when the air temperature was positive since more than 24h. In such a case, it is likely that the snowpack surface energy balance is positive resulting in surface melting and non-favorable conditions for blowing snow. The air temperature was used since the snow surface temperature is not measured at ISAW stations. Periods when the FlowCapt sensors were buried under snow and therefore delivered no signal were also removed. Finally, the remaining hourly data were analyzed and each day was classified as a BSD if at least four consecutive hours with blowing snow occurrence were found. ISAW stations also measure at a hourly time step snow depth (except at FPRA station) with a SR50 ultrasonic sensor and wind speed and direction with a Young wind monitor (at all stations).
Periods with wind speed below 0. 2 m s -1 have been excluded from the dataset to remove potential cases of riming. Snow also accumulates below the wind sensor during the winter and impacts the height of the wind measurement. Therefore, all remaining wind speed data were adjusted to a standard 10-m wind above the snow surface using measured snow depth. As in  Vionnet et al. (2013) , we used a standard log-law for the vertical profile of wind speed near the surface and an aerodynamic roughness of 1 mm typically found in alpine terrain  (Naaim-Bouvet et al. , 2010). The loglaw assumption is used to provide a first-order adjustment of wind speed, although the vertical profile of wind speed may vary near crests (e. g. Föhn, 1980)  or depending on atmospheric stability (e. g. Martin and Lejeune, 1998).
Therefore, a vertically-integrated blowing snow flux similar to the flux measured with FlowCapt was computed between 0. 2 and 1. 2 m from the measurements of the 4 SPC-S7 as in  Trouvilliez et al. (2015). The SPC-S7, which detects each particle, is a very sensitive sensor. Therefore, a filter was applied to the raw vertically-integrated blowing snow flux to only retrieve significant blowing snow occurrence. The same threshold value of 1 g m -2 s -1 as for the FlowCapt sensors was used. The 10-minute data were then averaged hourly and, similarly to the ISAW stations, each day was classified as a BSD if at least four consecutive hours with blowing snow occurrence were found. Wind speed measured at Col du Lac Blanc was also adjusted to a standard 10-m wind.
Introduction Our current understanding of early animal evolution and ecology has seen major improvements in recent years. Such advances were made possible owing in part to spectacular new fossil discoveries from several Cambrian Burgess Shale-type deposits, reappraisals of existing fossil collections, and the use of improved photographic and analytical techniques. In recent years, the reinterpretation of iconic taxa from the Burgess Shale biota such as Odontogriphus  [1] , Hurdia [2], Isoxys  [3] , Nectocaris  [4] , Pikaia  [5] , Ottoia  [6] , Wiwaxia  [7] , Hallucigenia  [8]  and Branchiocaris  [9]  has shed new light on the early history of animal phyla and has also revolutionized our vision of ecological diversity and trophic structure in Cambrian marine ecosystems. The integration of fossil and neontological datasets using modern cladistic approaches has helped clarify the wider evolutionary relationships of many previously problematic fossil taxa, although a consensus has yet to emerge as to the phylogenetic position of many clades.
Waptia first appeared in Charles Walcott's field notes at the beginning of the last century  [10, 11]  but had never been the focus of a comprehensive anatomical and interpretative treatment. Recent studies detailing the discovery of neural tissues  [12] [13] [14] [15]  and brood care  [16]  based on a limited number of specimens have opened an exciting new field of investigation into the neuroanatomy and reproductive strategies of ancient arthropods. Based on a much larger dataset, this study challenges previous interpretations concerning W. fieldensis. It is based on a thorough investigation of all W. fieldensis specimens available from the two major Burgess Shale repositories, around 860 specimens from the Smithsonian Institution (National Museum of Natural History), Washington DC, and around 1000 specimens from the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Phylogenetic methods Cladistic analyses based on a Bayesian probabilistic method were performed with MrBayes v. 3. 2. 6  [30]  on two datasets: (i) one of 85 adult panarthropod taxa (fossils and extant) and 219 characters, and modified from  [9]  (see §6); (ii) another of 97 adult and larval panarthropod taxa (fossils and extant) and the same 219 characters. In each case, characters were unordered and unweighted, and inapplicable entries were treated as uncertainties. The outgroup was set to be Priapulida and the monophyly of all taxa apart from Priapulida and Nematoda was constrained, with the offset exponential rooting set between 540 and 550 Myr. Parameters were configured according to the Mkv + Γ model  [31]. The analysis produced trees during four runs of 20 000 000 generations with four parallel chains, a tree sampled every 1000 generations and burn-in of 20%.
Using a topological backbone is a methodological alternative that synthesizes sound and consensual results obtained from various molecular as well as morphological studies focusing on extant taxa, without the need to enter a massive number of question marks in the fossil-inclusive dataset, as would be the case with a traditional total-evidence approach (see also  [9, 35] ). Instead of forcing the software to assume the states of a myriad of unfossilized characters in extinct taxa, these taxa are instead placed on the known topology using only the available evidence.
We provide in electronic supplementary material, S22, an alternative topology resulting from the inclusion of selected larval taxa, as was done in a previous iteration of this dataset  [9]. The implementation of larvae is of interest given the additional data it provides and the opportunity to investigate the possible placement of these forms on the tree-leading to an analysis of evolutionarydevelopmental trends, such as heterochrony. However, any interpretation of such analysis must be taken with great caution, precisely because of evo-devo and the fact that comparing character states between different ontogenetic stages may not make any evolutionary sense  [130]. In particular, 'recapitulating' larvae (i. e. larvae displaying traits similar to the ancestral conditions of their adult forms) may resolve much more basally than their corresponding adults.
g. [97] ). This is not surprising insofar as these taxa illustrate 'ideal' transitional states, both morphologically and anatomically, before the later specializations in pancrustaceans, especially of the mandibles and maxillules. However, this is different from the previous analysis of this dataset  [9] , in which these taxa were found to be derived crustaceans. This suggests that this scenario was also facilitated by the revision of Waptia and the addition of Herefordshire forms. This topology would imply that the well-defined mandibles of hymenocarines-lacking exopods and bearing highly modified endopods-are traits independently characterizing the origin of the myriapod lineage, rather than being very early derived states in the evolution of crustaceans. This is found here to be the most likely solution (in a Bayesian sense) for hymenocarines to coexist with the traditional view of crustacean evolution triggered by the discovery and description of the Orsten material.
Possible implications for the origin of the mandibulate body plan With our updated dataset, the very base of Mandibulata is now represented by Tanazios  [125]  and the somewhat less ambiguous and controversial Cascolus  [124] , both from the Herefordshire Lagerstätte. Cascolus may offer an interesting perspective on the origin of Mandibulata if the position of hymenocarines as pancrustaceans sensu lato is to be confirmed. Although the taxon is Silurian and probably has a number of autapomorphic character states, the very elusive origin of mandibulates invites one to test this hypothesis. In this taxon, the head tagma bears a shield and the anteriormost appendages are tripartite antennules not dissimilar to the morphology known in Oelandocaris  [135]  or (other) leanchoiliid larvae  [134]. Owing to its minute size, the Cascolus morphotype could also be immature, and thereby would reinforce the idea that early mandibulate features arose through the heterochronic selection of ontogenetic adaptations in more basal taxa  [9].
Acknowledgements. We are grateful to  T. Harvey  and  D. E. G. Briggs  for reviewing our manuscript and for their very constructive criticism, and to  R. Lerosey-Aubril  and  B. Schoenemann  for discussions in the early stages of our study. D. Erwin  and  M. Florence  cordially hosted the four of us on successive visits at the  National Museum of Natural History ,  Washington DC , to study the  Burgess Shale collections  and take photographs. L. Parry kindly helped with the use of time calibration in MrBayes. We thank  P. Fenton  and  M. Akrami  for technical help in the collections of the  Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) ,  Toronto ,  Marianne Collins  and  Lars Fields  for reconstructions,  Sharon Lackie  from the  University of Windsor (GLIER)  for elemental maps (figure 2e-o) and  Sara Scharf  for editorial suggestions.
Zhang et al. , , 2010)). The timing and modality of the crustal thickening, however, still remain debated. Low-temperature thermochronology data obtained on the Pengguan, Baoxing, Xuelongbao, and Tonghua crystalline massifs (slices of the South China basement) document a phase of exhumation of the belt since ca. 30 Ma  (Godard et al. , 2009; Kirby et al. , 2002; Tan et al. , 2017; Wang et al. , 2012). The shortening accommodated since the Oligocene has been estimated at ~35 km at the front of the LMS  (Hubbard & Shaw, 2009; Hubbard et al. , 2010). Although this value is likely to be a minimal Supporting Information: • Supporting Information S1 • Table  S1  estimate due to the propagation of blind thrusts into the Sichuan basin and to the oblique component of the BF imaged after the Wenchuan earthquake (e.
X-ray maps in samples ba15-12d were acquired at 15 keV, 100 nA, with a dwell time of 200 ms. Maps were quantified using the program XMapTools 2. 3. 1  (Lanari et al. , 2014). Tectonics RSCM thermometer  (Beyssac et al. , 2002)  was used to estimate the maximum temperature (T max ) experienced by the organic material-rich samples in order to provide an image of the paleotemperature at the scale of the belt. Ten to 15 spectra were acquired per sample using a Renishaw InVia Reflex microspectrometer (Paris, ENS) with a 514-nm Spectra Physics diode laser in circular polarization and processed them with the software Peakfit. RSCM was combined with the multiequilibrium thermobarometry based on the thermodynamic properties and solid solutions models of  Vidal et al. (2005 Vidal et al. ( , 2006) )  and  Dubacq et al.
Two new variations, namely Laplace EQ-MOM and Weibull EQMOM, are proposed along with a unified formalism among all six variations. The whole source code used to write this article (figures and data generation) is provided as supplementary data, as well as our implementations of EQMOM in the form of a MATLAB functions library  [19]. 2. Quadrature Based Methods of Moments: QMOM and EQMOM.
Moment inversion procedure The EQMOM moment-inversion procedure comes with analytical solutions for some kernels in the case of low-order quadratures. The one-node analytical solutions are detailed for all kernels in Appendix B. When they exist, the two-nodes analytical solutions are implemented in MATLAB code (see supplementary data) but are not detailed in this article. The current section is focusing on the numerical procedure used to compute the reconstruction parameters in absence of an analytical solution. The procedure proposed by Yuan et al. [15]  and Nguyen et al. [1]  is first recalled in section 3. 1. The section 3. 2 details how their approach can be shifted toward a new convergence criteria that will be applied to the specific cases of • the Hamburger moment problem (section 3.
The second tested implementation is the one described in section 3. 3, based on the realisability of m * 2P (σ) through the computation of the recurrence coefficients a * P -1 (σ) and b * P (σ). Both approaches are implemented in MATLAB  [19]  functions which take as input a vector of moments (size 2P + 1 × 1) and returns the vectors w P , ξ P (size P × 1) and the scalar σ. These implementations integrate a simple FLOP counter distinguishing each operation (+, -, * , /, exp, √ ) and counting the number of call to these operations for each step of computation (linear system, Chebyshev algorithm, quadrature computation and others). In order to evaluate the number of operations used in the computation of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Jacobi matrix (Eq. (  6 )), the Jacobi and the Francis algorithms which are suited for symmetric matrices  [32]  are used in place of the MATLAB built-in "eig" function  [19].
This resulted in our MATLAB implementations in a similar gain in terms of computation wall-time. In multiple works  [1, 15, 27] , EQMOM has been compared to other methods (Maximum Entropy approach or sectional methods) and exhibited (i) similar accuracy even with a lower number of resolved variables, and (ii) faster or comparable computation times. The new improvements of EQMOM will make it even more competitive as its stability and accuracy are kept while reducing the gap in terms of numerical cost between EQMOM and other cheaper methods such as Gauss or Gauss-Radau quadratures. We strongly believe that transparency about these developments will help further refinements of EQMOM. For that reason, all sources used to generate figures and data in this article are provided as supplementary data.
We also release all our EQMOM source codes both with this article and in an open-access GIT repository (url: https://gitlab. com/open-eqmom). It will be updated as well as supplemented with implementations of EQMOM in languages other than MATLAB. In the case of the Beta reconstruction kernel, some suggestions for further improvements in terms of accuracy and stability were listed in section 3. 5. These will be tackled in ulterior work.
The western Mediterranean atmosphere is impacted by a variety of aerosol sources, producing a complex and variable mixture of natural and anthropogenic particles, with different chemical and physical properties. Satellite sensors provide a useful global coverage of aerosol parameters but through indirect measurements that require careful validation. Here we present the results of a long-term regional scale analysis of the full dataset (March 2005 and October 2013) of POLDER-3/PARASOL ocean operational retrievals of the total, fine, and coarse aerosol optical depth (AOD, AOD F , and AOD C ), Ångström exponent (AE), and the spherical or non-spherical partition of coarse-mode AOD (AOD CS and AOD CNS ), respectively. The evaluation is performed using data from 17 coastal and insular ground-based AERONET sites on one side, and airborne vertical profiles of aerosol extinction and number size distribution obtained by the SAFIRE ATR-42 aircraft operated in the area during summer 2012 and 2013 on the other side.
AOD is an essential parameter to establish the climatology of the distribution and effects of atmospheric aerosols and it is often used for model evaluation (e. g. Chin et al. , 2002; Huneeus et al. , 2011; Nabat et al. , 2013). In this respect, advanced space-borne retrievals deriving the AOD as a function of particle size and shape, and possibly of wavelength, are most useful in evaluating the origin and the radiative effect of aerosols of different nature. In this paper, we present a first comprehensive qualityassessment study of the advanced dataset provided by the operational ocean retrieval algorithm of the third multi-spectral, multi-directional and polarised POLDER-3 (POLarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances) radiometer on PARASOL (Polarization & Anisotropy of Reflectances for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from a Lidar) satellite  (Herman et al.
Their regional distribution covers the entire western Mediterranean basin, including southern Europe (e. g. near the coastal stations of Barcelona, Toulon, Villefranchesur-Mer), North Africa (Blida), and island locations in the northern (Ersa), central (Palma de Mallorca), and southern (Lampedusa and Alboran) basin, therefore capturing the diversity of the aerosol population, resulting from the different sources contributing to the Mediterranean aerosol (desert dust, marine, urban, and industrial pollution, and biomass burning). The dataset also includes the ground-based supersites of Ersa and Lampedusa of the ChArMEx project  (Mallet et al. , 2016). Considering the 17 stations altogether, more than 18 000 daily observations of AOD are available in total in both POLDER-3 and AERONET datasets, among which 6421 are concurrent (see Sect.
The capability of the derived number size distributions to represent the aerosol extinction coefficient, henceforth to estimate aerosol optical depth, was assessed by comparing the calculated extinction and scattering coefficients σ ext and σ scat to the measurements of the CAPS-PMex and the nephelometer at 450, 532, 550, and 700 nm. The scattering coefficient σ scat was calculated by integrating the scattering phase function between 7 and 170 • , corresponding to the aperture of the sensing volume of the nephelometer. All optical calculations performed in this paper assumed the spectral complex refractive index m, representing the aerosol composition, as independent of size. An initial dataset per aerosol type was chosen (Table  S2 ). The calculations were iterated by varying the initial values of the complex refractive indices until both (1) the adjusted value for the calculation of the extended size distributions and (2) the comparison between calculations and measurements of the extinction and scattering coefficients agreed within errors.