dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The flux (Stokes parameter I) energy spectra have been binned to have at least 30 counts per energy channel. The same energy binning was also applied to the spectra of the Stokes parameters Q and U. Taking into account the high number of source counts and low background level, the unweighted approach has been applied (Di  Marco et al. 2022). All of the spectra were fitted with the XSPEC package  (Arnaud 1996)  using the instrument response functions of version 12 and a χ 2 statistic. The uncertainties are given at the 68. 3% confidence level unless stated otherwise.
e. , const DU2 = 0. 96 and const DU3 = 0. 91. The fit results are summarized in Table  3 , and the corresponding confidence contours for PD and PA are presented in Figure  8. The variability of the polarization properties of Cen X-3 with the pulse phase is presented in Figure  9  and is fully compatible with the results obtained from the pcube analysis. In the data collected during the eclipses in July, no significant polarization was measured. The corresponding 3σ upper limit on the PD in the phase-averaged spectrum was obtained with the same best-fit model at the level of 28%.
Introduction Gravity field variations measured by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and GRACE Follow-On (GRACE-FO) missions are sensitive to the redistribution of masses located above, at or below the Earth's surface  (Chen et al. , 2022). GRACE & GRACE-FO (referred to as GRACE) satellite data are used to estimate the Earth's mass variations from regional to global scales since 2002  (Tapley et al. , 2004; Landerer et al. , 2020). For example, GRACE satellite data became essential to monitor the evolution of terrestrial water storage, ice sheets, glaciers and sea level in a worldwide changing climate  (Tapley et al. , 2019). GRACE satellite data are, by nature, integrative, so that it may be difficult to separate the sources of change in the gravity field. Each process has a specific spatial and temporal signature that can go from global to local and from the secular to the sub-daily scales (Fig.
Non-tidal oceanic loading We compare three oceanic loading models, namely Ocean Model for Circulation and Tides (OMCT)  (Dobslaw et al. , 2013) , Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology Ocean Model (MPIOM)  (Jungclaus et al. , 2013)  and Toulouse Unstructured Grid Ocean model (T-UGOm)  (Carrere & Lyard, 2003). These models are used in GRACE solutions to correct for oceanic loading effects. For official centers, these models correspond to the GAB solution that contains the contribution of the dynamic ocean to ocean bottom pressure. OMCT has been used by official GRACE centers between Releases 1 and 5. MPIOM is used for the Release 6. T-UGOm is used by the CNES for the correction of the GRACE data (and not for GRACE-FO). OMCT and MPIOM are baroclinic ocean models with a spatial resolution of 1 o.
Impact of geophysical corrections on Stokes coefficients We have quantified the uncertainties of GRACE solutions and correction models in terms of RMS of the differences over grids. Another interesting approach is to look at SH coefficients. Dumberry and Mandea (2021a)  predicted that a potential core signal might be present from degree 2 onward to higher degrees with decreasing amplitudes. To estimate the impact of an error in a model on specific SH coefficients, we have performed some synthetic test. An artificial synthetic signal is added to the GRACE gravity data on a bounded area. We study the effects of this synthetic signal on the retrieved Stokes coefficients in terms of RMS value. To compare with the time-variable gravity measured by GRACE, we normalized each SH coefficients by the standard deviation σ GRACE l,m of the degree-l, order-m Stokes coefficient from the COST-G solution.
Acknowledgments This work is supported by the  Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES)  and by the  Doctoral School Earth and Environmental Sciences  ( ED 413 ) of the  University of Strasbourg in the Institut Terre et Environnement de Strasbourg (ITES ,  UMR7063 ). This project  Isostatic Adjustment in Antarctica and Canada. Geophysical Journal International. doi:  10. 1093/gji/ggs030  Gillet, N. , Dumberry, M. ,  & Rosat , S. (2020). The limited contribution from outer core dynamics to global deformations at the Earth's surface. Geophysical Journal International ,  224  ,  216-229. doi: 10. 1093/gji/ggaa448 -24-manuscript submitted to JGR: Solid Earth.
The Van Allen Probes Electric Fields and Waves (EFW) instrument provided measurements of electric fields and spacecraft floating potentials over a wide dynamic range from DC to 6. 5 kHz near the equatorial plane of the inner magnetosphere between 600 km altitude and 5. 8 Re geocentric distance from October 2012 to November 2019. The two identical instruments provided data to investigate the quasi-static and low frequency fields that drive large-scale convection, waves induced by interplanetary shock impacts that result in rapid relativistic particle energization, ultra-low frequency (ULF) MHD waves which can drive radial diffusion, and higher frequency wave fields and time domain structures that provide particle pitch angle scattering and energization. In addition, measurements of the spacecraft potential provided a density estimate in cold plasmas (< 20 eV) from 10 to 3000 cm -3.
02 mV/m and 0. 20 mV/m, respectively) have been subtracted from the datasets for calibration purposes. The electric field variation results mainly from the quiet time wind dynamo, with positive radial and azimuthal components corresponding to westward and northward convective drifts in the ionosphere, respectively livering reliable near-equatorial electric field measurements at L < 3. This technical feat provided much-needed data in a region of space historically deprived of in-situ electric field measurements. Lejosne and Mozer (2016a, 2016b)  showed that the Van Allen Probes can resolve the dynamo electric fields produced by tidal motion of upper atmospheric winds flowing across the Earth's magnetic field lines (the ionospheric wind dynamo), and can detect electric field perturbations associated with changes in background magnetic activity  (Lejosne and Mozer 2018, 2020).
2015) , which had not been previously explained. At higher latitudes (> 20 deg, and beyond the orbit sampled by the Van Allen Probes) chorus waves can become highly oblique due to refraction and are thought to provide important scattering with relativistic (hundreds keV) electrons (e. g. ,  Horne and Thorne 2003). Agapitov et al. (2018a)  combined Cluster spectral data and Van Allen Probes EFW and EM-FISIS spectral observations to obtain a model parameterizing chorus wave power as a function of geomagnetic activity level and spatial location including magnetic latitude. These wave statistics are critical for properly characterizing the interaction of chorus and electrons Total power for each frequency is shown in panel (e) for the magnetic field (dashed curve) and electric field (solid curve).
Panel h shows the electron energy spectrum along (solid) and perpendicular (thin curve) to the magnetic field. Right plot shows a population of large amplitude, highly oblique lower band whistler mode waves identified with filter bank data outside of the plasmasphere by  Tyler et al. (2019b)  that may be the result of this interaction and show that quasi-parallel wave modes significantly underestimate the true levels of electron energization and precipitation into the atmosphere due to the far more oblique waves that are actually present  (Artemyev et al. 2016; Agapitov et al. 2019 ). In the presence of hot resonant electron beams, even moderate amplitude and moderately oblique whistlers can become highly non-linear. Agapitov et al. (2018b)  used EFW observations combined with a particle-in-cell simulation to show how electrons modulated by a whistler wave can produce a hot electron beam-driven electrostatic mode which then interacts with the original whistler mode wave.
Agapitov et al. (2017)  analyzed five hours of EFW burst waveform data around two consecutive apogees within the chorus generation region when the separation between the two Probes ranged from ∼ 100 to 5000 km. Figure  14  shows an example of chorus waves on both spacecraft. The correlation coefficients of wave amplitude between each were analyzed, with the results in the right panel indicating that the maximum source size (at which a single chorus element could be observed on both spacecraft) for lower band chorus was 600-800 km. The scale of phase coherence (not shown), in contrast, was only 150-200 km. The latter is critical for characterizing the nonlinear interaction that produces energetic electron microburst precipitation, shown by  Shumko et al. (2018)  to have a similar scale size when mapped to the magnetic equator.
However, this parameterization ignores the fact that hiss is found only within the plasmasphere, which itself varies in size and shape with L and magnetic activity. Malaspina et al. (2016 Malaspina et al. ( , 2017 Malaspina et al. ( , 2018a) )  used Van Allen Probes data to provide a natural sorting of hiss (and other) waves by relative distance to the plasmapause. The plasmapause location was identified using high-spatial-resolution density values determined from EFW spacecraft potential. Comparing the left and right columns in Fig. 15  shows that this sorting gives a much more natural representation of hiss waves. A surprising result is that this simplified parameterization is repeatable in power distributions that are largely independent of activity level (AE) and MLT, but depend mostly on local plasma density.
2009 ), they had not been observed in the inner magnetosphere prior to the Van Allen Probes. Figure  16  illustrates examples of TDS from EFW burst data. The top panels show closeup views of a few TDS  (Mozer et al. 2016)  clearly displaying the typical bipolar parallel electric field signatures. The EFW instrument was able to collect waveform data for much longer time periods than any other mission, providing clear evidence for the long duration of intervals filled with these structures and their occurrence rate. An example illustrating large numbers of TDS (electron phase space holes) obtained upstream of a substorm dipolarization front is shown on the bottom  (Malaspina et al. 2014b). Clear evolution of the structures with respect to upstream distance from their source plasma double layer is seen in panels c-e.
Science Results from Collaborative Campaigns Untangling the spatial and temporal variations in loss and acceleration processes is a fundamental requirement for understanding the dynamics of the inner magnetosphere. This requires near-simultaneous multi-point observations and is the primary motivation behind the current trend of multi-satellite missions including the Van Allen Probes (2 sc), THEMIS (5 sc), Cluster (4 sc), MMS (4 sc) and others. One way to obtain the necessary measurements is to combine data sets from big-budget, fully instrumented satellite missions with data from instruments on low cost ground-based networks, rockets, balloon arrays, and small satellites including CubeSats. Under this paradigm, collaboration between multiple missions is critical for maximizing the scientific data return.
Science Results from EFW and BARREL The BARREL mission was a mission of opportunity with the Van Allen Probes  (Millan et al. 2013). Over the course of six campaigns, balloons were launched from locations in Antarctica and Kiruna, Sweden to measure X-rays caused primarily by precipitating electrons of tens to hundreds of keV in energy. Typically aloft for multiple days, they drifted across a range of magnetic field lines threading the magnetosphere, leading to frequent magnetic conjunctions with the Van Allen Probes. Breneman et al. (2015)  analyzed data from a near perfect magnetic conjunction between a single balloon and Van Allen Probe A to identify distinctive modulations occurring in both plasmaspheric hiss amplitude and X-ray flux for two hours, as shown in Fig. 18. By inverting the X-ray spectrum into a precipitating flux spectrum, they were able to definitively show that observed hiss directly caused tens of keV electron loss in a manner consistent with quasi-linear scattering theory, the first such direct comparison.
Science Results Involving EFW and the CubeSat Missions FIREBIRD II and AC-6 EFW worked closely with both the low Earth orbiting FIREBIRD and AC-6 CubeSat teams over 18 focused (roughly month long) collaborative campaigns from early 2016 until the end of the Van Allen Probes mission in late 2019. The primary goal of these campaigns was to coordinate equatorial observations of waves with non-relativistic (> 30 keV dosimeter, AC-6) and relativistic (200 keV to > MeV, FIREBIRD) electron precipitation events. This precipitation commonly takes the form of impulsive (subsecond) events termed microbursts, and one of the important goals of the Van Allen Probes mission was to understand their cause and relevance to outer radiation belt dynamics  (Mauk et al. 2013 ). EFW's collaborative effort with FIREBIRD and AC-6 resulted in a novel dataset of hundreds of hours of high time resolution waveform and particle measurements near magnetic conjunctions.
For a detailed description of these campaigns see  Johnson et al. (2020) ,  Sample et al. (2020), and Spence et al. (this journal). Using data during a particularly close conjunction,  Breneman et al. (2017)  established, for the first time, a direct connection between chorus and microbursts. Results are presented in Fig. 19 , which shows similar cadences in chorus observed on Van Allen Probe A and microbursts on FIREBIRD (Flight Unit 4) occurring over 80 seconds during an outer belt conjunction near MLT = 10. 5. Probe A observations for roughly 1 hour centered on this conjunction indicate that no other wave populations were observed during this time, so that the microbursts could only have been caused by the chorus waves. Waveform and spectral observations from EFW and EMFISIS (via shared data channel) showed that the chorus waves consisted of parallel-propagating rising tones near the magnetic equator.
WWLLN Campaigns with EFW For a few months in 2013 (Jul-Sep) and 2014 (Mar-Apr), EFW collaborated with a team from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN,  Dowden et al. 2002)  in an effort to better understand the coupling of lightning sferics into lightning whistler mode waves in the magnetosphere, where they are known to drive electron loss from tens of keV to several MeV at L < 2. 5  (Green et al. 2020 ). To guide the EFW burst data collection, the WWLLN team would first predict the most likely ten-minute timespan that each Van Allen Probe would be conjugate to thunderstorm activity based on the previous three years of optical WWLLN lightning stroke data. This resulted in a large amount of burst data collection, which at a sample rate of 16,384 S/sec could not all be telemetered.
Efforts thus focused on small (typically 1-2 min) chunks of time when lightning was present within a 500-1000 km footpoint separation of one of the Van Allen Probes. This scheme proved highly successful and culminated in the statistical study of  Zheng et al. (2016). Their timing analysis was used to directly associate 22. 9% of the whistlers observed in EFW burst data with a lightning stroke, most at L = 1-3. The analysis included modeling the whistler pulse dispersion associated with propagation along the magnetic field line to the Van Allen Probes, and then removing observed dispersion to obtain the original signal at the source (called 'dechirping'). Figure  21  shows an example of this analysis, demonstrating the close association on a stroke-by-stroke basis between the de-chirped whistlers observed on EFW and the lightning pulse timing from WWLLN.
Collaborations with Arase The EFW team collaborated with the Arase satellite team  (Miyoshi et al. 2018)  to take joint observations of the inner magnetosphere, identifying and collecting burst data from over 500 conjunctions from 2017-2019. The higher orbital inclination angle of Arase, relative to the more equatorial orbit of Van Allen Probes, allowed observations at different latitudes but the same L-shell and MLT. This collaboration has significantly enhanced our understanding of the spatial and temporal structures of dynamic phenomena occurring in the inner magnetosphere, including wave propagation (see  Miyoshi et al. 2022  for a review). Matsuda et al. (2021)  used observations of the same EMIC waves observed at Arase, the Van Allen Probes, and several ground stations to verify their theoretical growth, waveguiding by density irregularities in the magnetosphere, and their effect on subsequent ion heating.
Summary EFW collaborations with BARREL, FIREBIRD, Aerocube6, WWLLN, Arase, and others have resulted in numerous publications significantly advancing our understanding of the spatial and temporal variability of important magnetospheric processes. The resulting datasets of spatially separated, high time resolution data during dynamic times that will remain useful long into the future. These can be found at the following locations: FIREBIRD: http://solar. physics. montana. edu/FIREBIRD_II/, BARREL: http://barreldata. ucsc. edu/data_products/ (also at http://cdaweb. gsfc. nasa. gov/), Aerocube6: https://rbspgway. jhuapl. edu/ac6 (registration required), WWLLN: http://wwlln. net (contact information only), Arase: https:// ergsc. isee. nagoya-u. ac. jp/index. shtml. en (also at http://cdaweb. gsfc.
EFW Measurements, Data Quantities, Error Sources and Software This section introduces the measurement of electric fields using the double probe technique, specific measurements and data products provided by EFW, and possible sources of error. Some data products include magnetic field data quantities obtained via shared channels with EMFISIS  (Kletzing et al. 2013; Kletzing et al. this journal). Detailed discussions of the design and operation of the EFW instrument, as well as current biasing, effective boom length and spacecraft charging, are presented in  Wygant et al. (2013).
Eclipse Flag The eclipse flag is also related to spacecraft charging. During eclipse (both umbra and penumbra) the spacecraft tends to charge to large negative potentials due to the lack of photoemission. Due to the difficulty of controlling these potentials, EFW did not attempt to maintain sensor potentials near the plasma potential with biasing, but allowed them to float relative to the plasma. Note that the eclipse flag is padded by ±10 min relative to the entry/exit of eclipse. Boom Flags In addition to monitoring the charging status of each boom using the charging and extreme charging flags, EFW also considered whether all the single-ended potentials are consistent with each other. Consistency was quantified using V median , defined as the median value of V 1 , V 2 , V 3 , and V 4. The boomflags are 1 when |V i -V median | > 5 volts, a threshold chosen empirically based on a comprehensive analysis of the entire spin-fit dataset.
Software for EFW The standard software package for access and analysis of the EFW dataset is through the SPEDAS package for IDL. The software is available as part of the IDL SPEDAS bleedingedge software package  (Angelopoulos et al. 2019). Installation instructions for this software can be found at http://spedas. org/wiki/index. php?title=Main_Page. Specific code for loading the electric field and related data at the cadence of spin period (∼ 11 sec), survey mode (16 or 32 S/sec), and burst mode (512-16,384 S/sec) are documented at https://spdf. gsfc. nasa. gov/pub/data/rbsp/documents/efw/. Routines for loading supporting data related to EFW are also listed. Other software for loading the EFW CDF data products include pyspedas https:// github. com/spedas/pyspedas and autoplot https://autoplot.
Summary The Electric Field and Waves instruments on the twin Van Allen Probes have provided an unprecedented dataset of high-quality DC and AC electric field measurements throughout the inner magnetosphere. This dataset has been used in combination with data from the other Van Allen Probes instruments and in collaboration with other missions in hundreds of publications addressing fundamental physics of the magnetosphere and ionosphere (as laid out by the primary mission science goals) and providing exciting new discoveries. The final calibrated dataset, described in detail in this chapter, will remain highly relevant for decades to come.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION [Pd(cptn)2Br] Br2 (1) was synthesized using the same procedure as described previously. 33 X-ray diffraction patterns of single crystals were collected using a Bruker APEX-II diffractometer equipped with an APEX II CCD detector and a JAPAN Thermal Engineering Co. , Ltd. Cryo system DX-CS190LD. The synchrotron single-crystal X-ray diffraction data were collected on the NW2A Beamline in the Photon Factory Advanced Ring of the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK, Proposal No. 2014G008), the Swiss-Norwegian Beamlines (SNBL) in European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), and on the 2D Beamline in Pohang Accelerator Laboratory (PAL) (λ = 0. 700 Å). The synchrotron powder-crystal X-ray diffraction data were collected on the BL02B2 Beamline in SPring-8 (λ = 1.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was partially supported by a  JSPS KAKENHI  grants  JP19H05631 ,  JP20K15293 ,  JP21H04988  and the  National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC ,  22150710513 ). The synchrotron single-crystal X-ray diffraction data were collected on the  NW2A Beamline in the Photon Factory Advanced Ring of the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK , Proposal No. 2014G008 ), the  SNBL in ESRF , and on the 2D Beamline in PAL. The synchrotron powder-crystal X-ray diffraction data were collected on the BL02B2 Beamline in SPring-8. P. M. Yamashita acknowledges the support of the 111 project ( B18030 ) from China. We elucidated the mechanism of CDW:  Pd II -Pd IV / MH: Pd III -Pd III  phase transition and the phase separation mechanism of [Pd(cptn)2Br]Br2 on the atomic and molecular levels using synchrotron X-ray techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I had the opportunity to interact with many people when writing this paper. I would like to thank  Laurent Bétermin ,  Djalil Chafaï ,  David Dereudre ,  Peter Forrester ,  Subhro Ghosh ,  Michael Goldman ,  Jonas Lampart ,  Thomas Leblé ,  Joel Lebowitz ,  Elliott Lieb ,  Satya Majumdar ,  Simona Rota Nodari ,  Nicolas Rougerie ,  Gregory Schehr ,  Robert Seiringer ,  Sylvia Serfaty  and  Daniel Ueltschi  for useful discussions. This project has received funding from the  European Research Council (ERC)  under the European Union's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  (grant agreement  MDFT No 725528 ).
Acknowledgments This research was supported, in part, by the  Center for Research Computing of the University of Notre Dame  through access to key computational resources. We acknowledge financial support from  Fondazione E. U. L. O. in the frame of the project " Trasporto quantistico in sistemi nanostrutturati con applicazioni ai biosistemi ". FB and FM acknowledge support by the  Iniziativa Specifica INFN-DynSysMath. This publication has been financially supported by the  Catholic University of Sacred Heart  within the program of promotion and diffusion of scientific research. Research has been financially supported by  Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca  within the project  PRIN 20172H2SC4. GLC acknowledges the funding of  ConaCyt Ciencia Basica  project  A1-S-22706.
Acknowledgements This work was supported in part by the  Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)  Project -ID 433682494 SFB 1459 , by the  French National Research Agency (ANR) ,  ANR   MAESTRO  project, Grant No. 18-CE24-0021  and as part of the  "Investissements d' Avenir" program  ( Labex NanoSaclay , reference:  ANR-10-LABX-0035  " SPiCY " and by the  Ile-de-France region SESAME  ( IMAGESPIN  Project No. EX039175 ).