dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Consequently, we chose to adjust the above model using a data augmentation procedure implemented in a Bayesian framework  [23]. This approach has two major advantages: (1) It allows all available information to be taken into account, and (  2 ) it provides unbiased estimates of the parameters, providing the missing values are MAR (missing at random)  [24]. All analyses were performed using R and OpenBUGS software (MRC Biostatistics Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom)  [25, 26]  (with package R2OpenBUGS  [27] ).
The relationships between the U. S. values and income are similar across the three agencies; the relationship of the OECD estimate to income differs significantly. These recommended values change periodically as new studies are completed and researchers develop new insights into best practices. For example, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has proposed to update its estimates based on meta-analysis of selected studies and advice from its expert panels (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016;  Khanna et al. , 2017). In addition, researchers are now updating the database and meta-analysis that underlies the OECD estimates. 5 ecently, Viscusi and Masterman recommended instead relying on metaanalysis of wage-risk studies that use data from the U. S. Census of Fatal Occupation Injuries (CFOI) (Viscusi, 2015b; Viscusi & Masterman, 2017a,b; Masterman  & Viscusi, 2018; Viscusi, 2018).
6 In this research, Viscusi and Masterman assess the effects of publication-selection bias, which occurs when researchers or journals reject estimates that fall outside of a range deemed acceptable. They find substantial evidence of such bias both in U. S. studies that rely on other sources of risk data and in datasets that include international sets of revealed-or stated-preference studies. Their recommended base estimate, derived from meta-analysis of U. S. studies that rely on CFOI data, is a VSL of $9. 6 million in 2015 U. S. dollars. This U. S. estimate is very similar to the values currently used by U. S. regulatory agencies. If we update the values in Table  1  to 2015 dollars, using the approaches for adjusting for inflation and real income growth followed by each organization, the U.
Methods We conducted a single-center prospective observational study at the "hôpital Conception" (Assistance Publique des hôpitaux de Marseille APHM). All hemodialysis patients were screened in the first mid-session of June 2014 (the 4th or 5th of June 2014). Inclusion criteria were an HD patient with vascular access defined as AVF or AVG and HD for more than 3 months. Exclusion criteria were missing laboratory data (platelet count, MPV), the presence of platelet clusters, thrombocytopenia < 50 G/L, refusal to participate, and inability to give informed consent. Patients were followed prospectively until 1 June 2016 (2 years of follow-up). Clinical and biological features, comorbidities, treatments, and HD parameters were collected. The population was divided into four subgroups determined by quartiles of MPV: quartile 1 < 25% percentile; quartile 2 between the 25% percentile and the median; quartile 3 between the median and the 75% percentile; quartile 4 ≥ 75% percentile.
Data are expressed as the mean and SD for data with normal distribution or median (minimum, maximum) for non-normally distributed data. All numeric variables were tested for normality by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Statistical analyses were performed with the Prism (GraphPad Software Inc. , La Jolla, CA, USA) and MedCalc (Ostend, Belgium) software. Differences were considered significant for p = 0. 05. Baseline variables were compared by chi-square tests for categorical variables, t-tests for continuous variables with Gaussian distributions, and Mann-Whitney tests for continuous variables with non-Gaussian distributions. Correlations between MPV and continuous variables were obtained using Spearman correlation coefficients. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to estimate the cumulative VA event-free rate for the time to the first VA events in patients depending on the quartile of MPV.
The log-rank test was used to compare the Kaplan-Meier curves. Univariate and multivariate analyses of VA events were performed using a Cox proportional hazard model as a function of MPV as the continuous variable. In multivariate analyses, the model was adjusted for age, sex, platelet count, native AVF, absence of treatment with antiplatelet agents (AAP), antithrombotic treatment, C-reactive protein (CRP), hemoglobin, and treatment with a stimulating agent of erythropoiesis (SAE). Software R  [21]  and the Survival package were used. The VA event-free survival was censored by death. Only the first event was included in the analysis.
Baseline Characteristics of the Cohort Two-hundred and twenty-six (226) hemodialysis patients were screened in the HD center in June 2014. Sixty-four patients were not included (40 patients had a central venous catheter and 24 had begun dialysis sessions in the last three months) and nine patients were excluded (8 for thrombocytopenia and 1 for platelet clusters). The study, therefore, included 153 patients (Figure  1 ). After a median follow-up of 644 days, 40 patients had died, 20 had received kidney transplantation, and one was lost. Eighty-one patients were still on dialysis in the center and 11 had moved to another dialysis center but medical data were available. Data from patients who underwent a kidney transplantation were recorded after the transplantation. Statistical analysis was performed on the total patient population (153 patients).
Study population Between 8th February and 1st June 2016 a phone survey was conducted amongst a random and representative sample of individuals aged between 18 and 44 years. People under the age of 18 were excluded because there was already data available on asthma in children and adolescents in Reunion  [7, 8]. People over 44 years were excluded in order to reduce the risk of misclassification of asthma symptoms as those of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which is more common among older smokers. The questionnaire primarily included questions from the European Community Respiratory Health Survey (ECRHS)  [9]  and the Epidemiological study on the Genetics and Environment of Asthma (EGEA)  [10]. The questionnaire was developed in conjunction with respiratory and allergy medical specialists in Reunion.
The replacement of an unsuccessful number due to non-response only occurred after repeated calls, set at a minimum of 8 attempts, at different times of the day and days of the week. In responding households with more than one eligible household member, the household composition was recorded, and a random draw undertaken to select the person to be interviewed. The questionnaires were administered in French and Creole by trained investigators, using ASKIA software, and the CATI (computer-assisted telephone interview) system. The questionnaire included questions about sociodemographics (e. g. gender, age, commune of residence, level of education, and place of birth), anthropometrics (e. g. height, weight, and body mass index (BMI)), smoking habits, chronic health problems and diseases, symptoms suggestive of asthma, asthma attacks and trigger factors, and the interviewees' home environment (both interior and exterior).
Data analysis The estimators produced were consistent with the sampling design (stratification, sampling weights, primary sampling units). Additionally, post-stratification weighting was implemented, using the "Reweight Iterative Method", to adjust estimates to the population age and gender distribution obtained from the INSEE 2013 census of the population. These estimates were calculated along with their 95% confidence intervals (CI) taking into account the adjustment made to the sample and its impact on increasing the variance of the proportion estimator. Chi-square tests were used to compare proportions between groups. Univariate analysis was used to calculate odds ratios and their 95% CI estimated by the Woolf method. Data were analysed using Xlstat and R software. Multivariate analysis using logistic regression models was undertaken to identify the factors associated with current asthma and suspected asthma.
In each model, a pre-selection of explanatory variables was conducted by reviewing all variables considered as risk factors for asthma (e. g. gender, age, smoking, BMI, having a family member with asthma) as well as variables that could potentially be associated with asthma (such as the home environment). At the end, 23 explanatory variables were chosen to be tested in each model. The glmulti library in the R software was then used for an initial selection of variables through the likelihood ratio test and the Akaike information criterion. The first order interactions were then added to the initial models and an exhaustive selection of models was conducted with the glumult algorithm.
For this reason, the classification is subject to possible reporting biases, especially regarding exposure to risk factors, which depends on the participants' status and ability to recollect past events. In order to reduce the reporting bias for asthma, all questions relating to symptoms were asked before mentioning asthma itself. Since the profile of those who refused to participate and the reasons for nonparticipation are unknown, it was impossible to compare respondents and non-respondents to assess the impact of any non-response bias. Furthermore, data about risk factors such as exposure to air pollution or allergens at home were not collected through objective measurements of air quality or allergy tests (such as skin prick tests or IgE blood tests), but rather relied on answers to questions about environmental characteristics.
Strategic noise maps were produced for the whole city using "CadnaA" acoustic prediction software including both airport and road traffic noise sources. Regarding road traffic environmental noise, the French national method of calculation "NMPB-Routes-96 (SETRA-Certu-LCPC-CSTB)" is applied, as stated in '"Arrêté du 5 mai 1995 relatif au bruit des infrastructures routières, Journal officiel du 10 mai 1995, Article 6" and the French standard "PS 31-133". In the relevant guidelines, this method is referred to as the "XPS 31-133" method. This method describes a detailed procedure for calculating the sound caused by road traffic near a road, taking into account the impact of weather conditions affecting propagation. As far as the environmental aircraft noise, the method of calculation is ECAC. CEAC Doc.
29, "Report on Standard Method of Computing Noise Contours around Civil airports", 1997  [16]. From the various methods of simulation of the volatile routes, the segmentation technique is used, as mentioned in part 7. 5 of the ECAC. CEAC Doc. 29. A detailed 3D model for both areas, including the International Airports based on the latest and most accurate cadaster and town planning data, was implemented. In order to calibrate the model and achieve the best correlation between measured and calculated noise values, a full 24 h noise measurement monitoring program was executed in the same period with the questionnaires survey. Then, 24 h acoustic measurements were executed by using class 1 statistical noise analyzers, on special-designed masts securing the European directive guidelines. The measurement results were compared with the theoretical results from the CadnaA  [11, 12] , as presented in the following Figure  4.
and most accurate cadaster and town planning data, was implemented. In order to calibrate the model and achieve the best correlation between measured and calculated noise values, a full 24 h noise measurement monitoring program was executed in the same period with the questionnaires survey. Then, 24 h acoustic measurements were executed by using class 1 statistical noise analyzers, on special-designed masts securing the European directive guidelines. The measurement results were compared with the theoretical results from the CadnaA  [11, 12] , as presented in the following Figure4.
Methods : The review included scientific papers published on the MEDLINE and PsychINFO databases between January 2000 and September 2018. The inclusion criteria were: (i) articles that focused on SUD in physicians. The exclusion criteria were: (i) no mention of SUD; (ii) no mention of barriers to seeking help; (iii) articles focused on burn-out and work-related stress; (iv) articles focused on risk factors or treatments for SUD; (v) articles focused on psychiatric comorbidities and (vi) those focused on other professionals. Results: Potential barriers to seeking help that were identified for impaired physicians with SUD included denial of the disease and of loss of performance, fear of stigma, psychiatric comorbidities, fear of familial/social/professional and economic consequences and a lack of knowledge.
Eligibility criteria We conducted a literature review between January 2000 and September 2018 on the MEDLINE and PsychINFO databases. We used the following keywords: "impaired physician", "substance use disorder", "mandatory report", "occupational health", "opiate substitution treatment", "denial" and "psychiatric". The search terms were selected during a discussion after an exploratory search of the relevant literature. The reference lists of articles that were included and topic-related systematic reviews were also scanned to identify possible additional articles of interest. Articles published before the year 2000 were not included. In fact, the authors wished to focus on recent studies because developing knowledge and specific policies related to SUDs have become a priority since the late 1990s.
Data collection process The selected articles were included in the review and data were extracted independently by one reviewer and checked by a second reviewer. The information comprised the identification of the article (authors, year of publication, journal) and the methodology used. The data gathered was used to address the following aspects: barriers associated with SUD, familial/social/professional and economic consequences of SUD, barriers associated with psychiatric comorbidities, lack of knowledge related to addictology and finally barriers for relatives and co-workers of impaired physicians. Data extraction was performed independently by 3 authors (FV, BJ and NF) with 2 reviewers per article.
Limitations Our review has several limitations that should be noted. First, the number of studies that were included was relatively small due to the limitations of the search and screening processes. In addition, such a small number of studies may have been a result of the restricted inclusion criteria. To limit potential confounders, we chose to include only studies that clearly dealt with barriers to seeking help. The source of data gathered for this review was articles characterized by various levels of evidence. Characterization of SUD among physicians is a burning issue. Collecting data on the subject remains difficult considering the impact of the stigma associated with such a disease. Information concerning the early phases of substance abuse is also scarce since physicians are more likely to share their experience after admission into therapeutic programs.
Introduction: A major consideration for the implementation of a learning health system (LHS) is consent from participants to the use of their data for research purposes. The main objective of this paper was to identify in the literature which types of consent have been proposed for participation in research observational activities in a LHS. We were particularly interested in understanding which approaches were seen as most feasible and acceptable and in which context, in order to inform the development of a Quebec-based LHS. Methods: Using a scoping review methodology, we searched scientific and legal databases as well as the gray literature using specific terms. Full-text articles were reviewed independently by two authors on the basis of the following concepts: (a) LHS and (b) approach to consent.
The selected papers were imported in NVivo software for analysis in the light of a conceptual framework that distinguishes various, largely independent dimensions of consent. Results: A total of 93 publications were analysed for this review. Several studies reach opposing conclusions concerning the best approach to consent within a LHS. However, in the light of the conceptual framework we developed, we found that many of these results are distorted by the conflation between various characteristics of consent. Thus, when these characteristics are distinguished, the results mainly suggest the prime importance of the communication process, by contrast to the scope of consent or the kind of action required by participants (opt-in/opt-out). We identified two models of consent that were especially relevant for our purpose: metaconsent and dynamic consent.
Research in a LHS can include both observational (record-based) studies and interventional studies such as the so-called "pragmatic" clinical trials or cluster randomization studies (in which sites, such as hospitals or services, may be randomized to two acceptable and currently used clinical interventions). * However, we limited our scoping review to observational studies since the first application of the Quebec LHS will concern such studies. We also do not distinguish between "research" and "quality improvement" (QI). An extensive literature search was performed in May 2017 in several databases: Medline (through PubMed), Scopus, PsycINFO, HeinOnline, and in the gray literature (Google Scholar). The search strategy was developed with the assistance of a university librarian and was adapted to each database.
In order to perform an in-depth and broad research, no article was excluded on the basis of its year, type, or place of publication. Every discrepancy between reviewers was discussed to obtain a consensus. If a consensus could not be reached, a third reviewer (A. C. ) was consulted. A manual search of references was performed to identify further relevant articles. The selected articles were imported into the NVivo software. This program was used to code the relevant sequences of the included articles according to the themes consistent with the research question and to the most recurrent themes as sorted by NVivo. One reviewer (R. J. ) coded all articles, a process that was subsequently validated by a second author (A. C. ). The coding was performed in an iterative manner to permit the emergence of themes, which were organized manually in a tree of nodes within NVivo.
| RESULTS The initial literature search yielded a total of 495 citations. After examination, 86 were removed because of duplication, incomplete text, or publication in a language other than French and English, leaving 404 citations for full-text review. Using the criteria mentioned above, 68 relevant articles were identified. The manual examination of the references of these articles led to the inclusion of 25 additional publications. Thus, a total of 93 articles were analysed (see Data S1 for the exhaustive list). We then concentrated on relevant findings and assertions dealing with observational studies and summarized them in this scoping review (50 publications cited). Our analysis led to two results helping to meet our objective of determining how to best implement consent in a LHS model for Quebec.
| Legal views In the United States, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 permits a waiver of consent for secondary use of EHR data without approval by a REB when data has been deidentified according to the Safe Harbor and Limited Dataset policies 10 -that is, when a set of 18 identifiers are removed. 2] [13] [14]  Exceptions exist for research use of health data: "limited data sets," which include all elements of dates and zip codes, may be disclosed without patient consent if the recipient signs a data use agreement that prohibits reidentification of the data. Of note, waivers of consent do not meet legal standards in some jurisdictions, even for de-identified recordbased data  15  (for considerations on the similarities with the European system, see Kaplan, Meystre et al, and Rumbold & Pierscionek  [16] [17] [18]  as well as the European Commission website 19 ).
| Why communicate? Some systems do not require active consent from participants, such as consent waiving or opt-out. In those systems, communication with participants might seem useless to some LHS leaders for certain research activities such as QI, which many participants may assume are already occurring. 51 However, there are good reasons to communicate about all research activities. A first reason is that the ability to opt-out loses its meaning when participants are not aware that they are participating to research activities and that they can opt-out. This was clear in Thiel et al,  39  which showed a lack of public awareness about a program named "BioTrust"; the public seemed not satisfied with the lack of information when implementing the opt-out model. A second reason is building trust.
In a study by Lee et al,  4  REB members disagreed on whether consent was required for various LHS activities including randomization or data use, but most of them felt that transparency was important, and that studies involving participant randomization should be fully disclosed to participants, even in the absence of a formal consent process. This is in line with Kelley et al,  12  who conclude that patients care most about how risks and consent are managed and communicated within a trustful physician-patient relationship. Conversely, as patients may expect to be informed,  39  a deficient communication can have devastative effects on trust. In the context of the care. data project (a central database of primary care medical records in England), many Tweeter users expressed a lack of trust arising from a perceived lack of transparency, which some interpreted as dishonesty or incompetence; this lack of trust led to a massive optout.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank  Hervé Zomahoun , scientific coordinator of  Health and Social Services Systems, Knowledge Translation Implementation component of the Quebec SPOR SUPPORT Unit (Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research -Support for People and Patient-Oriented Research and Trials)  for his support with the methodology of scoping review as well as  Josée Toulouse , information specialist of the  Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke  for her help with the development of the electronic search strategies. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for their very useful comments and suggestions. This study was supported by the  Quebec SPOR SUPPORT Unit , an initiative funded by the  Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) , the  Ministère de la santé et des services sociaux du Québec , and the  Fonds de recherche du Québec -Santé.
Population Estimation Haemodialysis prevalent and incident counts for the 10 countries in MONITOR-CKD5 are presented in Table  3. Data for 7 of the 10 countries were obtained from the 2014 ERA-EDTA Registry Annual Report  [22]  Slovenia was included in the 2013  [23]  but not the 2014 ERA-EDTA Report; hence, 2013 data were utilized. Neither Germany nor Italy are included in the ERA-EDTA Registry. The most recent and sufficiently detailed data from their respective national databases were used instead, which were 2006 data for Germany  [24]  and 2013 data for Italy  [25]. Country-level prevalent and incident counts were extrapolated from year of data to 2017 using an annual growth rate of 5%. However, this growth rate was not included in the calculation of projected life-years over the 5 years, thus providing a conservative, lower-bound estimation of life-years gained.