dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Introduction Reactivity worth measurements by the oscillation technique in the MINERVE reactor of CEA Cadarache were performed with small cylindrical samples of 10 cm long. Since the shutdown of the facility, hundreds of samples containing actinides and non-fissile nuclides are now available for other type of experiments. The samples which contain an element enriched to a specific isotope mixed in a UO 2 matrix are well adapted to transmission measurements at the GELINA facility. The first phase of the program undertaken in collaboration with JRC-Geel and CEA of Cadarache deals with MINERVE samples containing non-fissile nuclides. This paper briefly reminds the origin of the MINERVE samples (section 2), the formalism developed to analyze the transmission data measured at the GELINA facility (section 3) and the results obtained since the beginning of the experimental program (section 4).
The experiments were performed in the DIM-PLE (UKAEA) and MINERVE (CEA) reactors. Results are reported in Refs. [1, 2]. The integral trends delivered by the BUC program were complemented by the OCEAN program carried out in the MINERVE reactor only. This program was also designed to measure separately 16 nuclides with the aim of validating the capture cross sections of fission products not yet studied with MINERVE, but also of absorbant materials, such as hafnium, dysprosium and erbium. Analysis of the OCEAN results is still in progress. Obtaining final trends took time mainly because of contradictory sample compositions. Due to the importance of the gadolinium isotopes as burnable poison, we also find an interest in samples that were measured in the framework of the GADOLINIUM program  [3].
This wide program was designed to study enriched UO 2 pellets (5. 1% 235 U) containing different amounts of gadolinium oxide (Gd 2 O 3 ). Our study only focuses on experiments carried out in 1983 with samples containing microspheres of Gd 2 O 3 of various diameters, ranging from 80 to 380 μm (Fig. 1 ). Since 2010, a substantial effort was performed to accurately characterize samples used in the MINERVE programs by conventional chemical methods. In parallel, we decided to investigate the Neutron Resonance Transmission Analysis (NRTA) capabilities of the JRC-Geel as a non-destructive analysis technique for validating the composition of the MINERVE samples and testing resonance parameters recommended in the evaluated nuclear data libraries.
Conclusions The transmission experiments carried out at the GELINA facility with the MINERVE samples are useful for improving nuclear data libraries and the interpretation of past reactivity worth measurements performed at CEA of Cadarache. For example, in the case of the Burn-Up Credit program, results of the GELINA facility confirm the volume density of the main nuclides contain in the MINERVE samples and highlight the presence of impurities in the UO 2 matrix, such as tungsten and molybdenum. In the case of the GADOLINIUM program, the obtained results demonstrate that the particle self-shielding correction proposed by Doub can be used at the nuclear data processing level in order to avoid time-consuming Monte-Carlo calculations. The experimental program on the MINERVE samples at the JRC-Geel is still in progress.
Simple Summary: We investigated the influence of modifying the voltage of an X-ray tube, and therefore its photon energy spectrum, on the Total Ionizing Dose deposited in a single-mode, radiation sensitive, optical fiber. Simulation data, obtained using a toolchain combining SpekPy and Geant4 software, are compared to experimental results and demonstrate an increase of the deposited dose with operating voltage, which is mainly caused by low-energy photons below 30 keV.
Optical Fiber Irradiation The actual OF irradiation experiments were carried out in the LabHX facility of Laboratoire Hubert Curien of Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, France. This irradiator is equipped with a COMET MXR-225/26 X-ray tube operating up to 225 kV and a current up to 30 mA (20 mA at the highest voltage). This X-ray tube includes a tungsten anode with an angle θ of 30 • , which center is located 4. 3 cm above a 2 mm-thick sealing window made of beryllium, resulting in a nominal irradiation cone with an angle α of 40 •. A simplified schematic of the X-ray tube is shown in Figure  1 , along with the definition of the coordinate system used in this paper, which is the same as the software SpekPy (cf. Section 2. 2): x is orientated in the anode-cathode direction and positive towards the cathode, and z is the central axis and positive in the X-ray beam propagation direction.
Optical Fiber Irradiation The actual OF irradiation experiments were carried out in the LabHX facility of Laboratoire Hubert Curien of Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, France. This irradiator is equipped with a COMET MXR-225/26 X-ray tube operating up to 225 kV and a current up to 30 mA (20 mA at the highest voltage). This X-ray tube includes a tungsten anode with an angle θ of 30°, which center is located 4. 3 cm above a 2 mm-thick sealing window made of beryllium, resulting in a nominal irradiation cone with an angle α of 40°. A simplified schematic of the X-ray tube is shown in Figure  1 , along with the definition of the coordinate system used in this paper, which is the same as the software SpekPy (cf. Section 2. 2): x is orientated in the anode-cathode direction and positive towards the cathode, and z is the central axis and positive in the X-ray beam propagation direction.
Simulation of X-ray Spectrum and Fluence Rate In order to determine the X-ray spectrum and fluence rate as it reaches the irradiated OF, we programmed a simulation based on the SpekPy software. SpekPy  [36]  is a Python library that models the spectrum of X-ray tubes. It is the successor of the stand-alone software SpekCalc  [37]. SpekPy is able to calculate the spectrum, but also key parameters like fluence, half-value layer or air kerma, at any position from a defined X-ray source. It handles tungsten (W) anodes operated at voltages between 30 and 300 kV, as well as molybdenum (Mo) and rhodium (Rh) between 20 and 50 kV. It also features the functionality to accurately simulate the filtration of materials standing between the source and the sample, which takes into account the increase of filtration path observed for off-axis measurements.
Simulation of Deposited Dose in Optical Fiber In order to obtain the dose deposited by X-rays in the different parts of the irradiated OF, we programmed a simulation based on the Geant4 software. Geant4  [39] [40] [41]  is a C++ toolkit that provides all the necessary elements to build a Monte-Carlo simulation of particle physics over a wide domain of energies, scales and applications. It was first developed by CERN and is now maintained by an international collaboration  [39] , which provides regular updates to its core and physics engines. In this work, we used Geant4 v11. 1 (released in December 2022), along with the QBBC_EMZ physics package, which is the recommended package for the simulation of radiation effects in a space environment  [42]. It includes the G4EmStandardPhysics_option4 physics module, which uses the most accurate electromagnetic models and tracking of charged particles, especially at low energies  [43].
20 g/cm 3 for the cladding, and acrylate C5H3N1 with density 1. 18 g/cm 3 for the coating. The incoming particles were configured using the G4GeneralParticleSource module, with a particle type set to photons, a rectangular source of dimensions 250 µm × 1 mm (the projected surface of the OF on a horizontal plane) placed 1 mm above the simulated OF, and a direction set vertically towards the OF. The spectrum of the particles was either monoenergetic from 1 keV to 2000 keV, or using the spectrum simulated by SpekPy, as described further in this article. Dose deposition was determined using the G4PSDoseDeposition primitive scorer, which divides the energy deposited in a volume, determined by the physical processes implemented in the physics libraries, by the mass of this volume. Energy deposition is simulated discretely at every step of a cut in range (set to 1 nm in our case), and continuously in-between  [39, 41].
It highlights a maximum that is always located off-axis, i. e. , at an x position different than 0. As the X-ray tube voltage increases, the beam maximum moves even further from the axis. Figure  4b  shows a two-dimensional map of the simulated fluence rate for a single voltage of 100 kV. This image shows that although the beam is shifted several centimeters The incoming particles were configured using the G4GeneralParticleSource module, with a particle type set to photons, a rectangular source of dimensions 250 µm × 1 mm (the projected surface of the OF on a horizontal plane) placed 1 mm above the simulated OF, and a direction set vertically towards the OF. The spectrum of the particles was either monoenergetic from 1 keV to 2000 keV, or using the spectrum simulated by SpekPy, as described further in this article.
All numerical simulations of solid-state DNP NMR polarization build-up curves were carried out using either Matlab or COMSOL Multiphysics, according to the methodology described by Pinon et al. 33  Descriptions of Models A-E used in the numerical simulations are shown schematically in Fig. 3. For each model, it is assumed that the material comprises spherical particles of uniform size (dened by radius R), with the different models differing in the spatial distribution of Form I and Form III within the particles. Further details of the mathematical foundations for calculating the build-up curves for each model are discussed in ESI (Section 2 †). In assessing the quality of agreement between the simulated NMR data for each model and the experimental NMR data, the numerical simulations involved variation of the radius R of the spherical particles, and the relative amounts of Form I and Form III.
Acknowledgements We thank  Basile Heresanu  ( CINaM-CNRS/AMU laboratory ) and  Andrew Williams  ( Cardiff University ) for recording the powder XRD data in Fig. S2. † This project received funding from  ERC  under the  European Union   Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  (Grant Agreement No. 758498 ) and from  CNRS  under the  International Emerging Actions  (Grant Agreement No. 00211 ). We are grateful to  Cardiff University  for nancial support.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We acknowledge  J. Unterberger ,  E. Kussell ,  A. Amir ,  Y. Sughiyama ,  T. J. Kobayashi , and  Y. Wakamoto  for stimulating discussions. A. G. and D. L. received support from the Grants No. ANR-11-LABX-0038  and No. ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02. T. N. received support from  JSPS KAKENHI  Grant No. JP21K20672  and  JST   ERATO  Grant No. JPMJER1902.
We investigate these engineering datasets for scientific purposes and perform a feasibility study of solar energetic particle event detections using EDAC counters from seven European Space Agency Solar System missions: Venus Express, Mars Express, ExoMars-Trace Gas Orbiter, Rosetta, BepiColombo, Solar Orbiter, and Gaia. Six cases studies, in which the same event was observed by different missions at different locations in the inner Solar System are analyzed. The results of this study show how engineering sensors, for example, EDAC counters, can be used to infer information about the solar particle environment at each spacecraft location. Therefore, we demonstrate the potential of the various EDAC to provide a network of solar particle detections at locations where no scientific observations of this kind are available.
Plain Language Summary Space Weather is the discipline that aims at understanding and predicting the state of the Sun, interplanetary medium and its impact on planetary environments. One source of Space Weather is Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs), which are emitted by the Sun and enhance the radiation and particles that flow in space. Predicting the motion of these particles is important but difficult as we need good satellite coverage of the entire inner Solar System, and only a limited number of spacecraft have the necessary instrumentation. Thanks to the European Space Agency flotilla, that is, Venus Express, Mars Express, ExoMars-Trace Gas Orbiter, Rosetta, BepiColombo, Solar Orbiter, and Gaia, we performed a feasibility study of the detection of SEP events using engineering sensors in the main body of the spacecraft that were originally placed there to monitor its health during the mission.
The results of this study have the potential of providing a good network of solar particle detections at locations where no scientific observations are available. Knutsen et al. (2021)  demonstrated the scientific potential of these engineering datasets. Nevertheless, despite several of them being publicly available at the European Space Agency (ESA) Planetary Science Archive (PSA), EDACs remain mostly unexplored. In addition, EDAC datasets have shown some promising signs of also being sensitive to short-term radiation activity, such as Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) and Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections (ICMEs) (e. g. ,  Jiggens et al. , 2019, Figure 21). However, no systematic study has been performed so far, and only a small step has been taken towards developing the scientific potential of this data set.
We do not consider Cluster-II  (Escoubet et al. , 2001)  or any other mission crossing the radiation belts at Earth as the data analysis in these cases is more complex due to combined radiation effects from the Van Allen belts, Earth's magnetosphere and SEP events. Although not all of the missions in this study were active at the same time, they provide a good network of solar particle observations at locations where such observations are not necessarily available (e. g. , when scientific instruments are off or when the payload did not include an energetic particle instrument). Solar Orbiter and BepiColombo include such instruments and are used for direct comparison in this paper. The seven missions of this study cover heliocentric distances of ∼0. 3-5 au and the time period from 2003 to the present.
, 2017; Sánchez-Cano et al. , 2018; Zeitlin et al. , 2010)  and have a sensitivity limit of ∼2. 5 MeV for high radiation fluxes. We also use the Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on board the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)  (Hassler et al. , 2012)  at the surface of Mars. In particular, we use the L2match-5 count rate. Because the Martian atmosphere provides approximately 21 g/cm 2 of shielding at the location of MSL, RAD is only sensitive to particles with energies above ∼160 MeV/nuc. We note that data from the Liulin-MO dosimeter, which forms part of the FREND instrument on the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, were not available at the time that the present study began, but are now available at the ESA PSA. • Venus: We use the background particle detections from the Venus Express Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-4) instrument  (Barabash et al.
In particular, there is an increase of 50 counts in less than a day, while on average the increase is of 0. 7 counts/day during no SEP events (which could be considered, to a first order, as the GCR background). The difference in the increase of these two events and the change in the order of magnitude in the pink profile for both events indicate that protons of >49 MeV energies are likely to trigger these EDAC increases at Rosetta. Figure  2b  shows an event measured by Gaia, in which case the SEP observations come from the OMNI database at 1 au. This SEP event is most probably the combination of two events starting on the 18th and late 21st of June 2015. Despite the difficulty and limitations of comparing counts and flux units in these two events, the presence of high energetic particles >30 MeV in the OMNI data seems lower than in Rosetta with also a less sharp onset, but still it was able to produce a rise in the Gaia EDAC counter, particularly the second SEP event peak where fluxes are the largest.
However, since the change in the flux magnitude for the second event is not as dramatic as for the Rosetta case, it is difficult to conclude which energies are more likely to trigger an event in this EDAC counter when considering only this case (a second Gaia event is discussed in Section 3. 3). We note that we have used three representative energy channels from OMNI but particles with energies between the last two channels could trigger the event as in the case of Rosetta. This will be better characterized with a larger event in Section 3. 3. It is interesting to note that the event starts several minutes after it is seen in OMNI. As will be discussed later, this could be the consequence of several factors, such as the data sampling. We note that although there is a single error caused probably by the first SEP event arrival on the 19 June, we cannot conclude that this is a real effect of the SEP event as there is a similar error occurring on the 5 July where we do not have a significant rise in the particle flux.
Non-Detection of Solar Particle Event on 28 October 2021 Figure  7  shows the SEP event of 28 October 2021, which is a non-detection event on EDAC counters. The structure of the figure and color code is the same as the previous figures, with the EDAC profiles in black and the SEP detections in colors as indicated. This event was an impulsive X1 solar flare that started at 15:35 UTC on 28 October from the AR 2887 and it was followed by a CME. It even created GLE event at Earth. It was a very widely spread SEP event that was seen at least by Mars' missions and Solar Orbiter, which were separated by nearly 180° in longitude. The event was directed toward Earth and Solar Orbiter, and therefore, Mars was only impacted by a very moderate SEP event which was four orders of magnitude smaller than the previous events shown in this work as seen by ASPERA-3.
Although these datasets do not provide accurate observations or flux measurements of the SEP events, the indirect detection of an SEP event by an EDAC memory can be important for solar wind modelers, particle propagation studies, as well as for transient propagation studies. A clear example was shown by  Witasse et al. (2017)  where the propagation of a very large ICME through the entire Solar System was investigated. Although the ICME hit Venus in its journey, no observations from science instruments on Venus Express were available because Venus was in superior solar conjunction with Earth. However, thanks to EDAC counters on Venus Express,  Witasse et al. (2017)  were able to detect the arrival time of the event, which was extremely useful to the investigation as they had an additional data point to constrain the propagation models used in that study.
For each spacecraft, there are thousands of housekeeping parameters that may warrant further exploration, not only EDACs, which may also provide useful scientific information. However, we note that the advantage of EDAC counters is that there is a sufficient number of SEUs to provide good statistics, while although other parameters are occasionally affected by SEUs, the frequency of such events may not be high enough. A further investigation of other housekeeping parameters will be performed in the future. We also note that examination of these datasets is a particularly challenging task as the parameters are not properly described and for which dedicated help from operations and engineering staff of each mission is needed. It is important to note that the response of EDAC counters is not the same for all spacecraft.
The comparison of the spin-to-charge and charge-to-spin efficiencies remains difficult for this type of material, and a summary of the charge-to-spin efficiencies in topological insulators can be found in ref. [58]. The structure of Sb 2 Te 3 under the CoFe electrode, that is, at point B (Figure  3b ) where the interconversion takes place, is, however, more relevant for the spin-charge interconversion. Here, while the Sb and Te planes are still visible, they appear to be blurred and non-parallel to the plane of the substrate. This indicates that the nanofabrication process has induced the disorientation of Sb 2 Te 3 grains whose c-axis is now no longer perpendicular to the substrate. In addition, the EDX maps of Figure  3d  show that the continuity of the TiO x layer has been broken in some points and that a large number of magnetic Fe atoms are present in Sb 2 Te 3 (see Figures  S4  and S5 , Supporting Information for the extensive EDX data set).
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge support from the  Institut Universitaire de France , from the  Project CONTRABASS  under grant agreement no. ANR-20-CE24-0023  from the  Agence Nationale de la Recherche , from the  EU   TOCHA  project  H2020-FETPROACT-01-2018 , and the  Marie Sklodowska-Curie   H2020-MSCA-ITN-2020  project  SPEAR  grant agreement  955671. P. N. acknowledges the support of the  ETH Zurich Postdoctoral  Fellowship Program  19-2 FEL-61. This project has been partially supported by the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program  under grant agreement no. 824957. The French research group named  GdR CHALCO  and supported by the  CNRS  is also thanked for fostering fruitful interactions in the French chalcogenide community. The authors thank  Théo Monniez  for the FIB lamella preparation.
Acknowledgements P. G. and N. B. acknowledge financial support by the  French National Research Agency ANR  Project  DILEMMA  ( ANR-20-CE09-0027 ). P. G. and E. M. acknowledge financial support by the  French National Research Agency ANR  Project  Meta-On-Demand  ( ANR-20-CE24-0013 ). P. G. acknowledges support from the  European Innovation Council (EIC)  project  TwistedNano  (under the grant agreement number  Pathfinder Open 2021-101046424 ). P. G. thanks  J. Y. Duboz  for useful discussions on the part related to complex plane integration. O. M. and K. A. acknowledge funding from the  European Research Council  ( ERC-2015-AdG-695206 Nanofactory ) and from the  Swiss National Science Foundation  (project  PZ00P2_193221 ). R. C. and S. B. acknowledge funding from the  German Research Foundation  (DFG,  Excellence Cluster MATH+ ,  EXC-2046/1 , project  390685689 ) and the  Helmholtz Association (Helmholtz Excellence Network SOLARMATH , project  ExNet-0042-Phase-2-3 ).
The reason of the different slope is not clear and could be produced by several factors, including the uncertainty of BSC analysis due to the two-step procedure and the angular selection of the HE population that is measured by the EMS, which can be non representative of the whole HE bunch and can depend on laser intensity. The conversion efficiency of laser energy to hot electrons estimated by the BSC analysis was in the range η = (0. 4 -0. 6)% for both the shots with and without the driver beams, showing no clear trend with laser intensity or I ov L/T parameter. A confirmation of the T hot values was finally obtained by reproducing with the GEANT4 simulations the K α signal measured by using targets of different plastic thickness. Even if the GEANT4 code does not account for the hydrodynamic evolution and for the ionization state of the targets, its predictions are adequate for first-order interpretation of the experimental results  [32, 33].
CONCLUSIONS In the present experiment LPI is investigated by using a bundle of 9 partially-overlapped laser beams in an irradiation regime of interest for direct-drive inertial confinement fusion. Laser intensities are here intermediate between those envisaged for classical direct-drive scheme, massively explored at OMEGA laser facility and those expected in the Shock Ignition scheme. Experimental data show that TPD develops in a strongly saturated regime and turns off before the laser peak, while SRS steeply grows in linear convective regime in nearthreshold conditions, therefore resulting in modest values of scattered light reflectivity. SRS reflectivity is well reproduced by considering the convective growth in independent speckles, where local laser intensities are distributed according to an exponential function and saturation of the SRS growth into the most intense speckles is taken into account.