dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Background : For over 20 years and despite the development of new social networks, health forums have remained a privileged place for patients to exchange around health issues. This study researches the participants' motivations to post a message in an online French Health Forum (called 'Doctissimo'). Method : Between 1st January 2017 and 31st December 2019, the rst posts were recorded on the 'Doctissimo' health forum, in their initial format by a crawler. The transcripts were imported in the qualitative analysis software Nvivo. Two researchers codi ed the data until a theoretical saturation was obtained. Results : Four categories of motivations were identi ed : 1) 'Requesting' allows the exchange of mainly medical information, or a feedback on experiences with the disease : 44. 81%, 1722 codes ; 2) 'Worrying, need for reassurance' : 27.
Another practical advantage of these forums is getting an immediate response which could also be offered by the development of teleconsultation in France. It is necessary to integrate this new source of (online) information available to all, in order to increase the patient's trust and adherence to a fair and reasoned model of care. The patient-doctor relationship should be based on appropriate communication. This communication, if well conducted, should allow for a better analysis of the patient's expectations, whether they are clearly visible or hidden. In this way, emotional needs can be better met and the patient's feelings can be soothed. Creating a space of trust in which the patient feels free to con de is also a challenge in primary care. A further quantitative statistical analysis of the database should be led so as to speci cally examine the links between 'mentioning a doctor' (before or after a consultation) and the patient's motivations, and then compare the results with the interactions among forum participants who do not mention a doctor.
Data collection The questionnaire was originally written in English and later translated into French. It was double-checked by the authors and backtranslated to avoid mistakes during the translation process. The questionnaire was designed to be self-administered in the months after the launch of the app. An access panel company sent email invites to participants for the survey. Its completion time was 10-15 min. Online respondents were given a presentation of the app proposed by the access panel company. The final sample comprised 366 respondents (representing only those above 20 years of age; 47. 3% were male). We used multiple-choice questions to collect data on the demographic profile of the participants and their use of the mobile tracing service (Table  1 ). The participants belonged to multiple age groups between 20 and 80 years (mean: 48 years; standard deviation: 16 years).
Nearly half had a monthly income between 2000 € and 4000 €. A majority are working, with nearly 40% executives, or higher intellectual or intermediate professionals. The proportion of the sample that used the app accounted for 9. 6%; however, only 1. 9% considered StopCovid as the most suitable method to fight against COVID-19. Other measures to fight the spread of the infection included use of masks (49. 5%) and the imposition of a lockdown (31. 7%). Of the sampled respondents, only 27. 1% use (19. 7%) or used (7. 4%) a tracing app, and 25. 7% experienced data misuse. The most used tracing app related to following an itinerary. On average, the intention to use StopCovid was 2. 6/5. On average, older adults' intention (2. 86) was greater than the younger's (2. 65), but the difference was not significant.
Limitations, future research, and conclusion This study presents limitations that future research must acknowledge and address. Respondents recruited online may not be fully representative of the population, and their digital literacy and willingness to share data may be higher than others. The sample was representative of French people above 20 years only, so the findings cannot be generalized beyond. Renewing this study after the second lockdown, which started on 30 October 2020, would have made it possible to measure the difference in the intention to use TousAntiCovid. It has a different design, supplies a lot of information about the spread of COVID-19 in France, and lists testing locations. It has been better promoted than StopCovid. People had to download the app to fill up the form to go out during this lockdown, but they could also obtain it through government websites.
Methods We used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol  (Moher et al. , 2009)  to conduct and report the systematic review, and checked it with the AMSTAR 2 Checklist  (Shea et al. , 2017)  to examine any potentially remaining issues with the systematic review following the PRISMA protocol  (Johnson and Hennessy, 2019) ; see Supplementary Materials SM. 1 for PRISMA and AMSTAR 2 statements. We chose to do a systematic review rather than a meta-analysis given the wide variety of research designs, measures, and outcomes within the conspiracy belief literature. We moreover did not want to focus on a singular aspect of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, and instead present an accessible overview of potential antecedents and consequences. We ran a database search to inform this review in October 2020 and repeated the search in March 2021; the results of these searches have been combined and the final set of reports is presented in Fig.
2. We searched Web of Science (incl. MEDLINE), Scopus, and PsycINFO databases for articles on COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs. Our search strategy included the words 'COVID*(-19)' or 'corona*(virus)' or 'SARS-CoV-2' and 'conspir*(acy)'. Our strategy was to cast the net wide and to include all COVID-19 articles mentioning conspiracy beliefs. After removing duplicates, 142 records were identified. All authors moreover conducted their own searches for additional articles, and to avoid publication bias, we also allowed for preprints and searched the online preprint database PsyArXiv (https://psyarxiv. com/) (listed under 'Additional records identified through other sources', Fig. 2 ). Finally, Google Scholar alerts were enabled to ensure the inclusion of accepted articles and preprints  (Goreis and Voracek, 2019).
The records were screened (title and abstract) by the first author for three eligibility criteria: (1) The article must contain primary, empirical data; (2) The article must assess COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, or general conspiracy belief/thinking concerning specific COVID-19 phenomena such as guideline adherence; (3) The article must be written in English, to ensure that all authors would be able to accurately assess the article. Next, full-text articles were assessed for eligibility for this review in duplicate -by the first author and authors of each subsection (authorship was determined prior to the database search; see Table  SM. 2). The final selection consisted of eighty-five articles, which were critically evaluated whether the conclusions made in each article were appropriate given the article's (i) sample, (ii) research design and methods, (iii) conspiracy belief measures, and (iv) analyses  (Higgins et al.
Discussion The COVID-19 pandemic is an extraordinarily challenging time for many: Not only do people have to deal with the possibility of catching a potentially debilitating and even lethal disease, but they also have to deal with many uncertainties about the present and future that have implications for their social relationships, health, and economic wellbeing. Even though COVID-19 has been experienced as challenging for many, not all endorse COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs. Here, we conducted a rigorous systematic review of the current evidence of potential antecedents and consequences of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs using PRISMA protocol  (Moher et al. , 2009)  and the AMSTAR 2 Checklist  (Shea et al. , 2017). Since we also included preprints, checked four major databases, and had co-authors search through reference lists and other venues, it is unlikely we missed many articles published on COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs and written in English before March 2021, and believe this systematic review is a reasonable representation of the phenomenon of interest.
Introduction Tremendous progress has been made in access to Earth Observation (EO) in the last decades-in providing EO products, data and services (EOPS). Application areas include land use, natural resources exploration and exploitation, agriculture, hazard monitoring and early warning systems, public health and environment, settlement and migration dynamics. EO datasets are increasingly in the public domain, thanks to the efforts of the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the French space agency, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Indian Department of Space Research Organisation (ISRO), among others. In the context of the Copernicus Programme  (European Commission 2014 , 2021) , ESA provides free access to EO data from various European and non-European missions.
Third, information systems and technological innovations, through improved geo-Information technologies have enhanced access to new types of EO data and provided access to analytical tools for processing spatial big data up to planetary scales. Although personal computers have also become more affordable, high-performance computers are still out of the reach of many African entities. Only 6 out of 54 African countries run EO receiving and tracking stations  (Woldai 2020). ArcGIS ® /QGIS and other open-source GIS and remote sensing software and cloud-computing platforms dedicated to EO such as Google Earth Engine (GEE) and the Amazon Web Services (AWS) have also stimulated interest in EO and Geo-information technologies in Africa  (Woldai 2020). This is also demonstrated by the development and operation of open-source portals as part of the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security, and Africa (GMES and Africa) Programme (see below for more details on GMES and Africa).
This reflects the limited access to the technology and inadequate human capability despite that the EO datasets are freely available. Further, a major flow of EOPS goes to public sector organisations but a lack of highresolution (typically better than 10 m/pixel) data limits the applications, for instance for urban planning  (Andreu et al. 2019; Bhargava et al. 2018; Mahabir et al. 2018; Prakash et al. 2020; Weerasinghe et al. 2020; Wimberly et al. 2021; Martin 2022). When the needed EO data is not freely available, the cost of acquiring such datasets becomes another major barrier to access and use  (Dube et al. 2016). The flow of EO to the public sector at local levels has been very low, probably because of the inadequate technical capacity of locallevel actors (e. g. local government officers) to use EO data.
Thus, awareness of and access to Africa-generated EO remains low. There is little information about local-level actors in the field of technology provision in Africa. Despite the African satellites, one can conclude that African satellite data, except for South Africa and Morocco, currently plays no substantial role, neither in the private business sector  (Woldai 2020)  nor to our knowledge in the use of such data in academia. Further, the sharing of EO datasets remains non-existent between agencies and researchers, and between African space agencies thereby stifling partnerships between African countries  (Woldai 2020). Although a Nigeria satellite had the best capture of Hurricane Katharina, a lack of cooperation and weak government support of private sector actors stifles innovation, and restrictive bureaucracy for obtaining EO data makes users prefer to download Sentinel or Landsat data for use instead  (Woldai 2020).
For Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the trend of the ratio of research and development (R&D) to gross domestic product (GDP) between 1981 and 2011 declined, while the ratio of R&D/Cropland is US$9 per hectare, the lowest in the world  (Fuglie et al. 2019). It thus becomes clear that EOPS cannot thrive and reach its full potential in such an environment. The investments of the private sector in Agricultural R&D are heterogeneous, with South Africa showing a high private sector share of 19% relative to other African countries in 2008 (e. g. Kenya, Senegal, Tanzania, and Zambia had 8% in 2008). Often, cloudiness restricts the use of old EO datasets hence, some EO data from long-term archives in ESA/ NASA/NOAA cannot be used. Considering the drawback of limited spatial data such as agricultural masks, crop calendars and meteorological data  (Fritz et al.
, 2021). "The United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) -which jointly operates weather satellites with NASA", "is using FAO's latest data from East Africa to expand a model that projects locust flight paths". (FAO 2020). Satellite data from the NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA), provide FAO experts information on rainfall, soil moisture and vegetation conditions and by extension information on locations with potentially favourable breeding conditions to anticipate the locust hazard (FAO 2020). Challenges amongst others include building and maintaining a community of practice to ensure locus officers could maintain their knowledge over periods without locust outbreaks, maintaining collaboration with software developer partners and the willingness of the affected countries to pay for data transfer service (FAO 2016).
Success is reflected in the degree to which these challenges have been addressed. A success factor amongst others is maintaining open standards and using opensource software in such an application  (FAO 2016). The FAO reports that long-term public-private partnerships and commitments were key to the success of the eLocust3. Such PPPs, range from free 3D extension of Novacom Services-eLocust3 software (eLo-cust3 3D is a custom open source map application) from the Italian company Trigolis Srl. , free World Wind technology from the United States NASA and free services on supplied hardware by Panasonic ®. Country commitments through annual contributions and covering costs for training through the FAO Regional Desert Locust Commissions as well as data sharing ensured the sustainability of the use of the eLocust3.
The EO Africa Project (African Framework for Research, Innovation, Communities and Applications, funded by the ESA) aims to foster an African-European R&D partnership, to facilitate the adoption of EO and related space technology in Africa. It follows an African user-driven approach with a long-term vision for the digital era in Africa-via an R&D Grant provided through Invitation to Tenders (ITTs, ESA 2022b). It builds on 17 years of experience gained through the ESA TIGER initiative (ESA 2022a) and its African network of EO experts. Together with the framework of EO Africa, the advent of the European Copernicus programme and observations collected by its Sentinel satellites offer unprecedented open access and free data for African institutions, amounting to 1. 2 petabytes per year over the African continent.
The Sentinel-1 (radar) and -2 (multi-spectral) missions provide geospatial information (radar data and multi-spectral images with 13 bands in the visible and near-infrared domain) at resolutions relevant to various areas of fundamental and applied research. They include, for example, geology/exploration of natural resources, oceanography, hydrology, agriculture, monitoring and mitigation of natural hazards, and monitoring of the degradation of the environment due to anthropic activities, including the consequences of climate change  (Phiri et al. 2020; Torres et al. 2012). The frequency of this data acquisition over the same place (5 days with the combination of Sentinel-2A and -2B) is a decisive advantage when compared to previous image datasets. It enables rapid evaluation of critical situations and even emergency management through specific programs of data acquisition (e.
The GMES and Africa aims to improve the decision-making capacities of African policy makers and planners through the provision and use of EOPS to design, implement and monitor policies and to enhance sustainable management of natural resources (European Commission 2015; African Union 2017; European Union 2015a, b) for the private, public and academic sectors. Acknowledging the limitations of past numerous EO initiatives in Africa and their short durations, the GMES and Africa initiative builds on infrastructure and capacity established by previous initiatives and is active in various areas. The GMES and Africa aims at the following major achievements : (1) Maintain, improve and sustain EO access in Africa; (2) Inform African policy makers and users by providing an African Water and Natural Resources service, and a Marine and Coastal monitoring Service; (3) Enhance capacities of African public institutions and private sector to use EO-based information at regional and national levels; (4) Inform African policy makers, administrators, entrepreneurs, scientists and civil society of opportunities provided by EO data and geospatial information technologies at regional, national and local levels (summarised from European Union 2015b: 17-21; African Union 2017).
GMES and Africa also offers a Copernicus Masters in Digital Earth led by the University of Salzburg, Austria-"Erasmus Mundus Joint Master Degree"  (Lang 2021). As of 2020, the GMES and Africa initiative made progress in various dimensions to improve access to EO data including receiving stations, upgrading existing software and digital applications, and enhancing access to Copernicus data. Such developments include, amongst others, a Regional Flood Event Database and an android-based mobile application for reporting and assessing heavy flooding (MIFMASS), an ocean forecasting and tools for tracking accidents at sea (MARCOSOUTH), apps to facilitate navigation on the Congo River (CICOS), and for automatic reception and processing of spatial data (various projects). Others include providing access to baseline data for wetland managers for assessing wetlands dynamics, enabling the protection of livelihoods for wetland dependent communities (WEMAST), monitoring service for forest activities (SEFAC) or the installation of satellite receiving and processing stations in various countries for meteorological and environmental applications (various projects and partners), the monitoring and assessment of seasonal crop and rangeland conditions in East and Central Africa (GDZHAO), monitoring fishing zones for the Mediterranean Sea (NAfCOAST), or an integrated vessel tracking tool for monitoring illegal fishing and smuggling in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region (MAR-COSOUTH) (Space in Africa 2022a).
Partnerships between projects are actively sought, for example, training Tunisian technical staff in the fields of agriculture, agricultural research and remote sensing was conducted in the frame of both the AfriCultuReS and GMES-Africa projects by the OSS and its Tunisian partners (OSS 2020) or exchanging lessons-learned in the projects (OSS 2020). The GMES and Africa Initiative plans to involve the private sector, and by providing free and open-source software, integrating "ICT with EO-leveraging on cloud computing capabilities" as a way to address the infrastructure and electric power limitations. For example, the project WEMAST, implemented by a SASSCAL-led consortium (Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management 2018a, b) involved the private sector during the development, deployment and operation of the WEMAST geoportal, which provides data and products related to wetland monitoring and assessment to stakeholders in the SADC region.
Of the above-mentioned EWS, the FEWS NET has a long history, providing EObased early warning and analysis on acute food insecurity in West, East and Southern Africa (FEWS NET 2022). Supported by NOAA and USGS and with strong engagement of local partners, FEWSNET develops real-time agroclimatic early warning information products and services, which help to alert on emerging or likely food-related disasters. As a principle, data and products are made available to African stakeholders to support decision-making. In addition, training programmes are regularly conducted to improve local and national capacities in the fields of remote sensing, modelling and insitu observation.
The integrated data layers enable viewers to comprehend the changes in temperatures and rainfall over the last century (ICPAC 2022a). The ICPAC also provides a monthly-quarterly East Africa crop monitor for the region (ICPAC 2022b), which users can sign-up for or download. Besides these products, the ICPAC provides weekly, monthly and seasonal weather forecasts as well as climate monitoring and is involved in the regional Food Security and Nutrition Working Group. Through advisories, it informs decision-makers about ensuing conditions that might warrant their action.
2020). The potential for using EOPS in local extension services has thus not been widely exploited. The African Union Agenda 2063 aims at increasing indigenous initiatives in EOPS. Geomatica  (Geomatica 2022) , a company based in Senegal that specialised in geomatics solutions, addresses this gap. Geomatica comprises a group of experts in GIS, Remote Sensing, Cartography, Computer Science, Web-mapping and Topography, and offers solutions for setting up databases, processing geographic information and distributing geographic data on several platforms. It offers a package of solutions adapted to the management of local communities such as land parcels, topographic plans, urban networks, and land tenure.
Other Regional, National or Local Initiatives for Earth Observation in Africa Over the last decades, the popular Google Earth Observations have been widely used as a generic tool in various research areas. African researchers and other African actors in EO also increasingly use the Google Earth Engine, the publicly available cloud computing service, offering access to large volumes of EO data. It requires skills in programming language, and remote sensing processing techniques. It also offers various statistical tools and includes packages in the artificial intelligence domain. The (heavy) computation time is achieved on the platform and only results (not raw data products) may be downloaded from the server at the end of the processing step. Naturally, this private free service comes with the usual risks of interruption or modifications of the economic model (change of conditions of use from free services to paid services).
The provided tools allow exploring DE data, products, and visualising the African continent with satellite images to understand its geographic diversity and changes through time. The DE Africa Sandbox is a cloud-based computational platform that operates through a Jupyter Lab environment. It provides a limited, but free compute resource for technical users and data scientists to explore DE Africa data and products. It enables access to remote-sensing data and analysis tools for ad-hoc report generation and the rapid development of new algorithms. This analysis environment is improved continuously to meet the needs of users. Connected to DE and supported by a public-private partnership (e. g. ESRI ® , African countries) the Africa GeoPortal is an open mapping community of local GIS professionals from various African countries, working together to provide data and insights across Africa (Africa Geoportal/ESRI ® 2022).