dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
4 percent in Sweden, 13. 1 percent in Denmark, 22. 3 percent in Great Britain or 26. 3 percent in Canada. At the other extreme is a second group of countries in which teachers ask their students to take notes from the board much more frequently than to work in groups. The gap is particularly high in Japan, France, Mediterranean countries, and East European countries. In this group of countries, the majority of students also report that they always take notes from the board, with a peak of 74. 2 percent in Japan, 64. 3 percent in Turkey, 55. 8 percent in France. Table  1c  reports the correlation between the different indicators of teaching practices at the country level. In particular, we check the consistency of the practices as reported in the CES and the TIMSS databases. The phrasing of the questions differs between the two surveys, but they capture the same broad contrast between vertical and horizontal teaching.
Teaching practices and Student Beliefs: Micro Evidence This section investigates the relationship between teaching practices and individual student beliefs about cooperation. We use the CES database that asks students detailed questions about their beliefs, and then asks these students' teachers questions about their teaching practices. We start with the micro evidence to see how far we can go to isolate the effect of teaching practices per se, as opposed to merely showing the correlation between parental beliefs in a school as expressed in that school's teaching practices and student beliefs.
Database and specifications The main explanatory variables of interest are the teaching practices reported in the teacher survey described in Section 2. We focus first on two CES indicators "Teacher Lectures" and "Students work in groups". We also use more comprehensive indicators of "Vertical Teaching" and "Horizontal Teaching" from the principal component analysis described in Section 2. In addition to teaching practices, we control for many background factors from student, principal, and teacher questionnaires that are traditionally included in cross-country estimates of the education production function (see  Woessman (2005)  for an analysis based on TIMSS, and Hanushek and Woessmann (2010) for a synthesis). At the student level, the basic characteristics include age, gender and immigration status (dummy equal 1 if the student is born abroad and 0 otherwise).
Schuetz et al (2008)  show that the number of books at home is a very good proxy for household income, a variable that is not reported in the CES dataset. At the teacher level, we include the teacher's age, gender, highest level of formal education, and years of experience. We also use questions about teachers' beliefs in cooperation and proxies for their social capital. These measures make it possible to identify the specific role of teaching practices on students' beliefs, independently of alternative ways through which teachers could transmit their social capital and shape students' beliefs. Furthermore, if there is a low geographic mobility of teachers, their level of social capital might be considered as a proxy for the local level social capital in the area where students live. We use this information as an additional control to isolate the specific role of teaching practices on student beliefs, which roughly holds constant social capital in the geographic location, and thus, perhaps, in the family.
Unfortunately, the teacher questionnaire does not contain questions about generalized trust. At the school level, the regressions include a measure of school resources, the size of the class being interviewed, and the number of students with low socio-economic backgrounds. From the school principal's questionnaire, we also code whether the school is public or private. We run cross-country micro-estimates at the student level, with robust standard errors clustered at the school level. For students who have multiple teachers, we consider the average characteristics of the teachers as independent variables. The results are not markedly different when we consider as separate observations the teaching practices of each teacher for each student, since there is very few variations in teaching practices within schools in the database.
The relationship between student beliefs and teaching practices is not statistically significant, however, when we run the estimates with school fixed effects, i. e. , when we look at the role of variation in teaching practices within school. We identify the relationships between teaching practices and student beliefs within countries by including country-fixed effects in all the regressions. We thus exploit the variation in teaching practices across schools, making it possible to disentangle the specific role of teaching practices on students' beliefs from other national characteristics such as social capital or institutions. All standard errors are clustered at the school level. Since the CES dataset uses a stratified sampling design, all estimations are weighted by the sampling probabilities.
Teaching practices and Aggregate outcomes Turning to the aggregate implications of teaching practices for social capital, we assess crosscountry relationships between teaching practices measured at the country level and various social outcomes, including trust and civic life, but also the organization of firms and institutions. In line with the micro-estimates, we focus on the distinction between vertical and horizontal teaching, captured by the indicators "Students take notes from the board" for the former, and "Students work in groups" for the latter. These indicators are taken from the TIMSS database, which has the advantage of covering more countries than the CES data used in the micro estimates. In addition, TIMSS covers more diverse countries (the CES is mainly centered on European countries).
Following our analysis of the TIMSS database in Section 2, we focus first on the difference between the country share of students who report taking notes from the board and that working in groups, and second on the country share of students who report that they always take note form the board. The Appendix results are similar when we focus on the average values of "Students take notes from the board" and "Students work in groups". The regressions include several controls. The first is the level of education from the Barro and Lee database for 2000. Education has been found to be crucial in explaining various civic outcomes as well as the development of democracy  (Lipset 1959 , Helliwell and Putnam 2007 , Glaeser, Ponzetto and Shleifer, 2007). Another concern is that teaching practices proxy for per capita income.
In poor countries, it might be less costly for teachers to lecture than to ask students to work in groups. We control for total annual expenditure per student in public institutions for secondary education, which corresponds to the grades where teaching practices are measured in TIMSS. Total expenditure per student is calculated as a percentage of GDP in US 2002 dollars adjusted for PPP. The data come from UNESCO. An additional control is GDP per capita, expressed in US 2000 dollars. These last two controls are highly correlated.
Teaching practices and Cognitive skills Are teaching practices also related to student cognitive performance? This section addresses this question both at the individual and country level. We use the TIMSS database for the micro estimates. TIMSS report test scores in mathematics for students in 8 th Grade, along with teaching practices and student backgrounds. TIMSS math performance is measured on an international achievement scale with the international mean of 500 and the international standard deviation of 100. These achievement tests are evidently representative of national cognitive skills and have been endorsed by all the participating countries (see  Martin and Kelly 1997). We measure teaching practices using the variables: "Students take notes from the board" and "Students work in groups".
More details on these two methods are given in  Peyron et al. (2013). For the MAT and the WAPLS, we use the modern pollen dataset developed by  Dormoy et al. (2009)  restricted to the Mediterranean area (longitude: -10 to 40 • , latitude: 30 to 45 • ) and containing 1146 samples. The number of selected analogues was 8 (MAT) and the number of components taken was 2 (WAPLS), based on the results of the crossvalidations (leave-one-out and bootstrap). As another validation test, we have distinguished two distinct subsets in the modern pollen database by applying a random samples selection. This step produced two modern datasets, each containing 573 samples that were used respectively for the training and the validation of transfer functions based on WAPLS and MAT methods. Statistical processing and transfer functions were performed using R, especially packages "rioja" (http://www.
Pollen results A total of 123 pollen and spore types (including 35 tree and shrub taxa and 75 herbs) were identified. Due to the high sedimentation rate of the last 3000 yr, quite good detail is obtained for the period, with an average of a sample every   6 cm (i. e. interval between samples is ca. 50 yr). Data from core PG2 are shown in Figs. 4 (arboreal and non-arboreal taxa) and 5 ("ecological groups" and total concentration).
Pollen Zone 2 (PZ2) Pollen Zone 2 (PZ2) ranges from 570 to 470 cm (ca. 5375-3150 cal BP). The Sicanian's tephra layer, radiocarbon dated at 3055 ± 75 yr BP in core PRG1 was detected between ca. 465 and 475 cm. AP are between 30 and 65 %, pollen concentration ranges from 12 000 to 110 000, and the number of taxa from 28 to 45. The transition to this pollen zone is marked by an abrupt decrease of AP from 80 to 50 %, involving both oak pollen types (from > 30 % to < 5 %) and a relative increase of Poaceae (ca. 10 to 30-40 %), becoming dominant from this zone to the top of the sequence; several herbs (in particular Chenopodiaceae, Plantago, Ranunculaceae, Apiaceae, Asteroideae undiff. , Artemisia) show a Table  1. Lago di Pergusa: chemical data for the tephra layer from core PG2 (this paper) and PGR1  (Sadori and Narcisi, 2001).
Conclusions In order to assess the degree of human-environment interactions there is the urgent and unavoidable need to carry out scientific investigations on natural archives linked to human history like Lago di Pergusa. Lago di Pergusa turned out to be a privileged observatory for climate changes and human activity, even if the two signals cannot be easily distinguished only by pollen. This is not a negative issue at all, but a positive one. Failure to consider the complex interactions between humans and their environment could have lead either to an environmentally deterministic view of socio-cultural change or to a complete neglect of possible environmental impact on human action and history. Our data show that the first phase of opening of forests recorded in the core lasted for more than two millennia, from ca.
The important fluctuations of vegetation around Lago di Pergusa seem to be mostly dependent from climate variations even over the recent past, but cannot be regarded as totally independent from human activities. Our climate reconstruction is inevitably influenced by human-induced changes of the landscape and the amplitude of the reconstructed changes might be overestimated in our work. However, our results are consistent with former works from various sites all around the Mediterranean basin, which were based on independent proxies. Our data underlines a synergy between human activities and climate in shaping the landscape in Sicily in the recent past. We also propose that climate had an effect on human activities, which could have been oriented towards the culture of olive trees in the Sicilian inlands, during a period of climate conditions favourable to its spread.
Acknowledgements. This work was funded by the  French CNRS  through the  ANR Program  "LAMA". The authors are in debt with  Rosa Termine, Università degli Studi di Enna "Kore" , for her help in the logistic during the drilling campaign. The coring operations have been authorized by  Ente Gestore della Riserva of Provincia Regionale di Enna. The help of four anonymous referees is acknowledged. Edited by:  N. Combourieu Nebout.
Locations were calculated from the maps produced by this survey by measuring from the grid lines on the original publications. Wherever possible, efforts were made to correlate features shown on the original maps with satellite imagery in order to check the accuracy of the calculated locations. The information was compiled into a database which was used to generate maps of site distribution in Groucutt and Petraglia, 2012  [3]. The attribution to cultural phases (e. g. Lower Palaeolithic, Neolithic, etc. ) reflects the terminology of the discoverers, and should be interpreted with caution. In particular 'Upper Palaeolithic' is a problematic designation in Arabia (e. g. [38] ). The problems of the original survey methodology aside, Figure  4  reveals the widespread evidence for prehistoric occupation in the western Rub' al-Khali area.
Palaeohydrological Mapping In order to further our understanding of the palaeohydrology of the Lake Mundafan Basin and the surrounding regions, and the relationship of the palaeoriver network to the other large palaeoriver systems of the Arabian peninsula, DEMs and Landsat TM imagery was analyzed to map channel networks and palaeolake sediment outcrops. It should be noted that DEM data relate to the modern landscape, and that Pleistocene palaeohydrology may have been different, prior to episodes of drainage capture or dune emplacement. For this reason, DEMs and flow data were examined in concert with satellite imagery and palaeolake remote sensing analyses to allow the interpretation of past landscape change. Regional palaeochannel networks were derived using GIS flow analyses  [39]  based upon the Hydrosheds 3 arc-second resolution global hydrology dataset  [40] , following a method formerly utilized in the Nefud region in northern Saudi Arabia  [22].
Radiocarbon Dating While no remains of ostrich have yet been identified in the Mundafan region, ostrich eggshells are common. For radiocarbon dating selected pieces were treated with 0. 5M HCl to remove the possibly contaminated outer layers. The remaining material was reacted with concentrated H 3 PO 4 in a vacuum line and the generated CO 2 was reduced with H 2 and Fe powder acting as a catalyst to graphite following the procedures described in Czernik and Goslar  [44]. The resultant graphite was analyzed for 14C by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS;  [45] ). After correction for isotopic fractionation based on the simultaneously measured 13C/ 12C ratio, radiocarbon ages were calculated. Calibration was performed using the software OxCal 4. 1  [46]  and the calibration curve IntCal09  [47].
Analytical results show that the three Mundafan samples are derived from a peralkaline obsidian source. The comparison of their composition with an obsidian source reference dataset from the Mediterranean, Anatolia, Trans Caucasia, South Arabia and East Africa, shows that the only peralkaline source that matches the composition of the three artefacts (by combining different element contents or ratios) is that of Yafa' ridge in highland Yemen, Southwest Arabia  [78]  (Table  3  and Fig. 13 ). This source is ,450-460 km in a straight line from Mundafan. Ostrich egg shells were also identified at MDF-13 and MDF-14. Ostrich fossils have not been recovered at Mundafan (  [37] , p. 182). The ostrich adorns rock art in other Holocene settings such as at the Jubbah palaeolake  [79] ,  [80] , with their extinction in Arabia occurring in the early 20 th century AD  [81].
Acknowledgments We thank  HRH Prince Sultan bin Salman bin Abdul Aziz (President of General Commission for Tourism and Antiquities ) ,  Prof. Ali al-Ghabban  ( Vice-President of SCTA ),  Jamal Omar (Head of the Research and Excavation Centre, SCTA)  and  Salih al-Morreah  ( Head of Najran Region Branch, SCTA ) for permission to carry out this study. We also thank the police station's staff of Mundafan for their support and assistance with the field investigations, and its chief  Al-Ha'if bin Sahud Al-Dawsari. Lithic illustrations are by  Gauthier Devilder  (CNRS,  UMR-5133 ) and  Mathieu Leroyer  (CNRS,  UMR-7041 ).
Population sample and collected data The Decennial Health Survey is a national survey of households, representative of the French population, performed on a 10-year basis since 1970  [12]. Its sampling is clustered and stratified (on region and size of urban unit) and random, all individuals in the households selected being included in the survey. In the first step, specifically trained interviewers collected, during home visits, socio-demographic characteristics and information on health status. Present and past chronic morbidities were addressed and recorded by the interviewers and were further coded using the ICD-10 (international classification of diseases, 10th revision). During this visit, several selfadministered questionnaires, including the SF-36 were given to the subjects. These questionnaires were collected during a second home visit 2 months later.
Because of the probable correlation between subjects from the same households, we tested whether such a clustering effect may affect the estimates of predictors by using random intercept models that allow intercepts to differ between households (multilevel analysis). Results from this sensitivity analysis were comparable to those from standard fixed effects models (monolevel analysis). Consequently, only results from standard fixed effects models are reported here. These analyses were performed using STATA 11. 0 (multilevel modeling, xtmelogit, StataCorp, College Station, TX) and SAS 9. 2 (standard fixed effects modeling, PROC LOGISTIC, SAS Inst. , Cary, NC) software packages.
In the case of missing items, the information used was other non missing items of the same dimension, and other dimensions of the SF-36 together with sociodemographic and morbidity data. In the case of missing forms the information used was only socio-demographic and morbidity data. We used the multiple imputation procedure in SAS statistical software (SAS Proc MI, SAS Inst. , Cary, NC) to impute missing data. Variables included in the imputation models were those used in the polytomic logistic regression (socio-demographic parameters, comorbidity and SF36 dimensions). Following the recommendations of Graham  [19] , 20 datasets were created using the Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) with a single chain. The starting value for the chain was computed from the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm.
We therefore strongly recommend using missing value methods such as multiple imputation to evaluate the consequences systematically  [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] 11]. In conclusion, this empirical study confirms serious problems with HRQoL measurement in the general population due to missing data (both items and forms), especially in elderly, educationally and socio-economically deprived, foreign and isolated groups. Missing data methods and imputation techniques, which are increasingly implemented in standard software packages (SAS, SPSS, etc. ), appear to be useful for quantifying potential biases and are therefore recommended to evaluate HRQoL estimates systematically and, if necessary, correct for the resulting biases.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the  French ANR project (Agence Nationale pour la Recherche) , the  Department of Prehistory of the National Museum of National History , the  Conseil Regional d'Ile-de-France  and the  Ministere de la Culture, Sous-direction de l'Archeologie, Service Regional de l'Archeologie of the Centre Region (France). We would like also to thank warmly the editor  Fred Smith  and the two anonymous reviewers who helped us to improve this paper.
, 1999; Molnar et al. , 2002). The gamma-ray spectra were evaluated using the Hypermet-PC program  (Révay et al. , 2005). The spectroscopic data library used in the analysis was established earlier at the Centre for Energy Research  (Révay and Molnár, 2003; Révay et al. , 2004). The composition of the analysed samples was determined using the methods described in  Révay (2009) , while the uncertainties of the concentrations were calculated according to ISO GUM (1995) and  Révay (2006). Due to the elevated germanium background (about 1000 mg/g) caused by the detector crystal itself, this PGAA setup has an unusually high detection limit for germanium; accordingly, our test analyses did not show a significantly higher response for this element for a small piece of known meteoritic iron than for fully corroded smelted iron.
ToF-ND The ToF-ND at the Budapest Neutron Centre is a high-resolution time-of-flight powder diffractometer. The fast double choppers can produce as short as 10 ms neutron pulses; the total flight path of neutrons to the detectors is 25 m. In the highest resolution mode and back scattering geometry diffraction spectra with peak widths of 1. 5 Â 10 À3 A can be collected. The data acquisition is solved by an event recorder: all the event (neutron capture, chopper signs and any external signal) is registered together with a time stamp to a file. In the present experiment the beads were individually placed in cylindrical capsules made of thin Teflon foil and rotated continuously around their longitudinal axis (due to curatorial concerns three-dimensional rotation was avoided); signals of the incremental rotary encoder were registered as well.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge the  CHARISMA  project (Grant agreement no. :  228330 ) for beam time at the BNC in December 2011, and  NKTH NAP VENEUS  ( OMFB-00184/2006 ),  NKTH   Gábor Baross grant  ( REG_KM_09-1-2009-0007 ) for funding the PGAA and NORMA instruments. The beads used for this study are held at the  UCL Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology , which also facilitated and partly funded the transport of the beads for analysis. Comments from three reviewers helped us to improve the manuscript, and are gratefully acknowledged; any remaining errors of fact or interpretation are ours. Note added in proof stage: We are delighted to see that our results have been corroborated by a more recent study done on another bead from this tomb, currently held at The Manchester Museum (Johnson et al.
Viral Genome Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analyses Viral genomic RNA was extracted from CHIKV grown once on mosquito C6/36 cells. RT-PCR was performed using SuperScript One-Step RT-PCR with platinum Taq (Invitrogen) using primers targeting the complete genome  [15]. Amplicons sequencing reactions were performed by using Big Dye Terminator v1. 1 cycle sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems) and sequencing was performed in ABI3730XL sequence analyzer (Applied Biosystems). For sequence analysis, contig assembly and sequence alignments were performed using program BioNumerics version 6. 5 (Applied-Maths, Sint-Martens-Latem, Belgium). For phylogenetic analysis, maximum-likelihood tree was constructed using MEGA version 5 (www. megasoftware. net), based on the Tamura-Nei model. Reliability of nodes was assessed by bootstrap resampling with 1,000 replicates.
Acknowledgments We thank  Marie Vazeille ,  Camilo Arias-Goeta  and  Laurence Mousson  for their technical advices. We are grateful to  AndreYebakima from the ''Centre de Demoustication de la Martinique '',  Paban Dash  and  Nata Gopalan  from the  Defence Research and Development Establishment in Gwalior (India) , for providing mosquito strains. We are also grateful to  Peter Sahlins  for revision of our manuscript.