dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Thus, contrary to the earlier mantle δ 202 Hg estimate, terrestrial igneous rocks fall within the range defined by chondrites in MDF (Figure  4 ). The Hg abundance and isotopic composition of Hg recorded in terrestrial igneous rocks may have been affected by any one, or a combination of, the following processes: 1) core formation; 2) volatilization during accretion, and 3) late accretion. The concentration of Hg in the bulk Earth is not well known, as it is presently not possible to accurately determine the fraction of Hg partitioned into the core as no metal/silicate/sulphide experimental data presently exists. Based on concentration measurements in peridotites and crustal rocks,  Canil et al. (2015)  suggested a concentration of 0. 4 to 0. 6 ppb of Hg in Earth's upper mantle. On the other hand, estimates based on the continental crust composition and considering elemental ratios (e.
Acknowledgements We thank  Mathias Meier  and an anonymous reviewer for very insightful comments that greatly improved the paper. Raj Dasgupta  is thanked for efficient editorial handling. This study was supported by the  National Natural Science Foundation of China  ( 41625012 ,  41961144028 ,  U1612442 ,  41830647 ) to JB. C and by the  China National Space Administration  (No. D020205 ) to ZW. FM thanks  Yongsheng Liu  for making the visit at CUG Wuhan possible. MGJ thanks.
Grain size Laser grain-size analyses were carried out in each centimeter along the TAH17-1 core using a Beckman-Coulter LS13320 (Géosciences Montpellier Laboratory, France). Prior to analysis, in order to prevent flocculation, samples were suspended in deionized water and exposed to ultrasound during the measurement for 90 s. Each sample was measured twice to ensure accurate and consistent results. According to  Friedman and Sanders (1978) , the particle sizes obtained are classified into three categories (clay, silt and sand). Grain-size parameters (D50 and sorting) were calculated according to the geometric method of moments using GRADISTAT software  (Blott and Pye 2001). Additional grain-size measurements were performed on Fig. 1  a Google Earth image showing the Gulf of Cadiz. Historical data of seismic events generating (or believed to have generated) tsunami waves are from NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI 2020).
We maintained 150 s for each measurement with soil mode. Geochronology ( 210 Pb ex , 137 Cs and 14 C) Radiochronological data for the last century was obtained using 137 Cs and 210 Pb ex measurements with a CANBERRA BEGe 3825 gamma spectrometer (Géoscience Montpellier Laboratory, France). Samples were collected in the first 30 cm. The 137 Cs activity vs. depth distributions was done according to  Robbins and Edgington (1975) , while CFCS ("Constant Flux, Constant Sedimentation rate") model was used for the 210 Pb ex  (Golberg 1963; Krishnaswamy et al. 1971). In order to complete the chronology over longer periods of time, 14 C dates were performed on 5 marine shells in the LMC14 laboratory (the ARTEMIS accelerator mass spectrometry at the CEA Institute in Saclay (Atomic Energy Commission)) according to the procedure described   2001 ).
2015). (  6 )  (Chahid et al. 2016 ). (  7 )  (Mellas 2012). (  8 )  (El Talibi et al. 2016). (9)  This study  (Khalfaoui et al. ,). The question marks indicate an estimated age submersion events. The combination between crossshore and long-shore cores, coupled with more proxies, like Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) and microfaunal analysis, can provide more information about these deposits identified with the TAH17-1 core. The two dated events in this paper will feed the regional database on past extreme sea events, especially along the Moroccan Atlantic coasts, where there is a lack of studies on this topic. The objective is to assist coastal managers to develop proactive adaptation to protect the coastal population from future damages that can be caused by these events.
Latency to the sensory response substantially increased when GSH was given to animals in the quiescence phase, not less than 20 min (fig. S1B ). These results together indicate a high arousal threshold with a >20-min episode of the behavioral quiescence, operationally defining the length of a sleep bout in Hydra. The daily averaged profiles of sleep bout length and sleep duration time in LD cycles indicated that Hydra displayed longer sleep at night (Fig. 1 , I and J), consistent with their diurnal activity. As expected, Hydra showed a low amount of movements during sleep bouts, as assessed by the averaged pixel change per awake-bout frame or sleep-bout frame during the LD cycle (Fig. 1K ). Also, a quantitative trace of their head positions using the Tracker software (https://physlets. org/tracker/) revealed that Hydra moved shorter distances at lower velocity during sleep bouts (fig.
Video recording of Hydra behaviors The behavioral recording was performed as described previously  (13)  with minor modifications. Each Hydra was transferred from the LD-entrained culture to a silicone container (16 mm by 16 mm by 5 mm) filled with 1-ml HCS at zeitgeber time 10 (ZT10). After acclimation, video recording was initialized. Hydra was illuminated with infrared light (Sousin Digital) and visualized with an E3 CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) camera (Visualix) through an infrared high-pass filter (FUJIFILM). Frames (1920 × 1200 pixels) were gained every 5 s using a Visualix ImageView software version 3. 7 (Visualix). For pharmacological experiments, drugs were added to HCS 12 hours before the video recording for LD sleep analysis. HCS or dimethyl sulfoxide (≤0. 1%) was used as vehicle control.
The sleep bout was then defined if the duration of quiescence persisted for longer than 20 min (i. e. , 10 × 2-min bin). Additional sleep parameters, including daily sleep amount, averaged sleep bout length, the number of sleep bouts, latency to sleep onset after light transitions, and the averaged pixel change per awake-bout frame (i. e. , waking activity), were calculated accordingly. For pharmacological experiments, sleep parameters were calculated from the first-day recordings to avoid any effects from the altered drug concentrations by evaporation. The head positions were tracked using the video analysis and modeling tool Tracker (https://physlets. org/tracker/). After the length calibration, the XY coordinates of a hypostome region were manually pointed and recorded. Using the output data of XY coordinates from the Tracker program, moving distance and speed were calculated.
Complementary DNAs (cDNAs) were synthesized from total RNAs using Oligo(dT) 12-18 Primer (Invitrogen) with SuperScript III (Thermo Fisher Scientific) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Real-time PCR was performed with Mx3000P (Agilent Technologies) using Brilliant III Ultra-Fast SYBR Green QPCR Master Mix (Agilent Technologies). The PCR conditions were 5 min at 95°C, followed by 40 cycles of 94°C for 15 s and 60°C for 30 s. Translation elongation factor 1 (EF1) was used as the internal control for normalization. Data were averaged from three independent experiments.
Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was performed using Prism (GraphPad Software) or R (version 3. 5. 3). For the two-sample test, normality and homogeneity of variance were checked by the Shapiro-Wilk normality test and F test, respectively (significance levels are 0. 05 in both tests). A two-tailed Student's t test or Welch's t test was then applied to compare unpaired two groups with normality. When the normality was rejected, the Mann-Whitney U test was applied. For the multiple comparison test, normality and homogeneity of variance were checked by the Shapiro-Wilk test and Brown-Forsythe test, respectively. To on October 11, 2020 http://advances. sciencemag. org/ Downloaded from compare unpaired multiple sample groups, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Holm-Sidak's multiple comparisons test or Welch's ANOVA followed by Dunnett's T3 multiple comparisons test were used for the dataset with normality.
When the normality was rejected, Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA followed by Dunn's post hoc test or Aligned ranks transformation ANOVA followed by the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was applied. To compare paired sample groups, paired t test was applied for the dataset with normality, while Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test or Friedman's test followed by Dunn's post hoc test were applied for the dataset violating the assumption of normality. The details of statistical analyses, including the number of samples analyzed, the type of statistical tests performed for each experiment, and P values, were described in the appropriate figure legend.
Acknowledgments: We thank  T. Tanimura ,  A. Matsumoto ,  K. Tomioka ,  T. Yoshii ,  K. Yasuda , and  A. Doi  for helpful suggestions regarding the experiments and analyses and  Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center ,  Korea Drosophila Resource Center , and  National Institute of Genetics  for reagents. Funding: This work was supported by grants from the  Suh Kyungbae Foundation  ( SUHF-17020101 ) (C. L. ); the  National Research Foundation  funded by the  Ministry of Science and Information & Communication Technology (MSIT) ,  Republic of Korea  ( NRF-2017R1E1A2A02066965 ;  NRF-2018R1A5A1024261 ) (C. L. ); the  NRF  funded by the  MSIT, Republic of Korea  ( NRF-2018H1A2A1063084 ) (J. -h. K. );  Qdai-jump Research Program  ( 01292 ) (T. Q. I. ); the on October 11, 2020 http://advances. sciencemag.
Spatial and temporal patterns of lateral connectivity were assessed using a simple, rasterbased method, developed in MATLAB and C++ environments. The procedure requires a DEM, rating curves, and flow time series to calculate relative altitude, overflow discharge, flood frequency, and flood duration for a period determined by the flow time series. The method projects the water levels derived from the rating curves into the floodplain to compute overflow discharge and its attributes, assuming that the water level is constant in each of the cross sections and gradually decreases in the downstream direction  (Dzubakova et al. , 2015). An example of data obtained for Péage-de-Roussillon can be seen in Fig. 1C. This method is based in recent hydrological data.
This study was conducted as part of the  Rhône Sediment Observatory (OSR) program , a multipartner research program funded through  Plan Rhône  of the  European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) ,  Agence de l'eau Rhône Méditerranée Corse ,  CNR , EDF and three regional councils ( Region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, PACA and Occitanie). The work was performed within the framework of the  EUR H2O ' Lyon  ( ANR-17-EURE-0018 ) of  Université de Lyon (UdL)  through the  "Investissements d'Avenir" program  operated by the  French National Research Agency (ANR)  and through  Labex DRIIHM ,  French programme "Investissements d'Avenir"  ( ANR-11-LABX-0010 ) managed by the  ANR of the Observatoire Hommes-Milieux Vallée du Rhône (OHM VR). We would like to thank  EVS 5600 Laboratory staff Brice Noirot ,  Jérémie Riquier ,  Kristell Michel ,  Massor Hind  and  Lise Vaudor  for their support with the field campaigns and with data treatment and analysis.
5 km below the summit (Figure  1 ). In the past, El Misti has displayed a variety of eruptive styles, including Vulcanian and Plinian eruptions (Table  1 ). From these, two eruptions have been selected as reference hazard scenarios  (Sandri et al. , 2014) : 1) The small magnitude and high frequency VEI 2 (Volcanic Explosivity Index,  Newhall and Self, 1982)  Vulcanian eruption that occurred in 1440-1470 CE  (Chávez Chávez, 1992)  and emplaced an andesitic plug in the 400 m-wide vent, nested in the large 2070 cal yr BP crater, is the most likely scenario for renewed activity; 2) The VEI 4 2070 cal yr BP event (weighted mean age 2070 ± 20 14 C cal yr  BP, i. e. , 1990 -2060 cal yr BP; Cobeñas et al. , 2014)  because of its high recurrence rate, estimated between 2,000 and 4,000 years based on the chrono-stratigraphical dataset (see Table  1  and  Thouret et al.
, 2001; Sandri et al. , 2014). The aim of  Cobeñas et al. (2012 Cobeñas et al. ( , 2014) )  was to describe and explain how the 2070 cal yr BP tephra fallout and PC deposits were formed, and to understand the mechanisms that triggered the eruption with a rationale of providing civil authorities with a clear understanding of the likely effects of a major eruption of El Misti on Arequipa's urban area. With an increasing population and sprawling of developed area by ≥30% in the past 30 years, one of the goals of this study is to re-assess the PC extents, volumes and hazards around El Misti, using new high-resolution field-based, remote sensing, and numerical modeling tools. Field mapping and stratigraphic surveys conducted in seven valleys affected by the 2070 years BP PCs were combined with a new high-resolution (2 m) digital surface model (DSM) of the volcano obtained by fusing a stereo-pair of Pleiades optical images with lower-resolution (10 m) TanDEM-X (TDX) radar TABLE 1 | Summary of magnitude and frequency data for each eruptive and non-eruptive phenomenon at El Misti volcano collected from eruptive records over the last 50 kyr of activity.
Surveys and DSM embedded in GIS tools allow to better estimate the distribution of individual PC volumes emplaced in each of the valleys impacted by this Plinian event. In addition, sedimentological analyses were performed on 16 samples collected during stratigraphic surveys to investigate the facies variations of the main valley-confined PC deposit units both longitudinally and laterally across the NW to SE flanks. Finally, this dataset was used to calibrate the source conditions (i. e. , location, initial volume, and particle mean diameter) for probabilistic numerical simulations of potential similar PC events on the SW flank of the volcano using the two-layer VolcFlow model and assess the impacts of both the concentrated and dilute portions of these currents in Arequipa. We discuss probabilities of PC inundation both in terms of their implications for the dynamics of such highly mobile PCs and for their integration into the current multi-hazard assessment at this high-risk volcano.
DATA ACQUISITION AND MATERIALS Optical Imagery and Digital Surface Model Generation A combination of optical and radar imagery were acquired and processed to generate an improved DSM of the El Misti-Arequipa area (Figure  3 ). Firstly, a stereo-pair of very high-spatial resolution panchromatic (0. 5 m) and multispectral (2 m) Pleiades-1A images taken on March 28, 2013, which covered an area including the western part of the volcano as well as the entire city of Arequipa and its suburbs (Figure  3 ), was processed with the ERDAS Imagine software (Hexagon Geospatial). Using the Photogrammetry toolbox, a DSM of 2 m spatial resolution was extracted after performing an automatic tie point generation and triangulation. Different combinations of parameters for the photogrammetric processing were tested and we opted for those that maximized the number of matched points [see  Bagnardi et al.
(2016)  for more details about this procedure]. In addition, the differential Global Positioning System solutions for the X, Y, and Z position of 58 selected ground control points (GCPs) measured in July 2010 were used to assess the horizontal and vertical accuracy of the new Pleiades DSM. The mean offsets between the selected GCPs and their clearly visible positions in a pansharpened image are <2. 0 m (less than the size of one DSM cell) horizontally and 0. 87 ± 2. 86 m vertically, much lower than the nominal absolute location accuracy of Pleiades-1A imagery (8. 5 m after  Oh and Lee, 2014). Secondly, in order to cover the summit area of the volcano and the eastern portion of the studied area (Figure  3 ), a digital elevation model (DEM) of 10 m spatial resolution was generated using a pair of bistatic synthetic aperture radar data taken from the TDX mission (German Aerospace Center, DLR) in 2011 and 2013.
Field Data Two field campaigns were carried out in May 2018 and 2019 to collect new data and samples from the 2070 cal yr BP PC deposits. Following the work done by  Cobeñas et al. (2012 Cobeñas et al. ( , 2014) )  on the stratigraphy and sedimentology of these deposits, we focused our field mapping, stratigraphic survey and sampling in seven radial valleys (from northwest to southeast) affected by the various 2070 cal yr BP PCs: Río Chili, Q. Pastores, Q. San Lázaro, Q. Huarangal, Q. Agua Salada, Q. Grande and Q. Honda (Figure  1 ). In order to better estimate the volume of these deposits, 45 thickness measurements of the different PC units were collected using a TruePulse 360 laser rangefinder with a vertical accuracy of <0. 3 m within the range of horizontal distances (<100 m) measured.
Additional 15 thickness measurements were collected digitally, using the new elevation data acquired from the Pleiades DSM at 2 m spatial resolution with the VHR panchromatic Pleiades-1A images draped on top for clear visible recognition of the 2070 cal yr BP PC outcrops, along the different valleys surveyed in the field (Figure  4 ). Because distal valley-confined PC deposits have been eroded away, we focus our data collection on the proximal and medial channeled deposits at distances from 5. 2 to 9. 5 km to the summit. Stratigraphic logs were built at each location to identify and describe the different PC units and their facies, as well as tentatively correlate them longitudinally inside the same channel and laterally across the different radial valleys (Figure  5 ). Volumes of the different PC deposits were calculated using the ArcGIS software "Surface Analysis" toolbox (ESRI, Redlands, CA, United States) and the methods described in  Charbonnier and Gertisser (2009, 2012).
Estimates based on the loss of fines during wet sieving showed that the fraction smaller than 5 phi never exceeded 20 wt % of the total sample mass. The GRADISTAT software  (Blott and Pyle, 2001)  was used to compute statistics of the grain size distributions. A lithological component analysis of seven selected samples was performed under a binocular microscope by point counting of ∼700 to 1,000 particles (converted to abundance % in Table  2 ) from the +2 phi fraction only. This grain size fraction was chosen because 1) it corresponds to the most abundant matrix fraction (by weight) according to the grain size analyses performed on these samples (Table  2 ), and 2) the size range (250-500 µm) is small enough to avoid particle clusters (i. e. , with glass adhering to and/or crystals attached to other grains).
To decrease the computation time, some approaches consider that the vertical variations of properties and the energy balance can be neglected, and they simplify the equations in 2D, with an isothermal, depth-averaged formulation of problem. A new version of VolcFlow has been developed especially for the simulation of PCs  (Kelfoun, 2017). Unlike the previous version of VolcFlow  (Kelfoun and Druitt, 2005) , it couples two fluids: one for the concentrated part, another for the dilute part. Exchange laws allow the concentrated part to form the dilute part or, inversely, the dilute part to form a deposit or a concentrated current by sedimentation. Details about the two-layer VolcFlow code and its applications to PCs at Merapi and Soufriere Hills volcanoes can be found in  Kelfoun (2017) ,  Kelfoun et al.
To our knowledge, the mapping of PC probabilities with the two-layer VolcFlow code represents the first attempt at using a two-phase depth-averaged model to generate probabilistic maps of PCs over natural terrain, where the concentrated PC can be modeled jointly with the dilute PC but mapped separately. The use of a physical-based model like VolcFlow to calculate the propagation of the currents gives more realistic outputs than an empirical model like the Energy Cone (EC) model previously used at El Misti by  Harpel et al. (2011). Indeed, the EC model does not simulate the channelization of concentrated PCs, which is recognized here as a critical process in order to correctly assess the PC hazards at El Misti and Arequipa. With such an approach, we are also able to obtain the probability for the dilute and concentrated parts of a PC, in contrast with the TITAN2D model used by  Constantinescu et al.
CONCLUSIONS 1. This multi-disciplinary study demonstrates the benefit of collecting and combining a quantitative dataset from field data and optical imagery to better calibrate the input parameters of a probabilistic ensemble run using a twolayer, depth averaged mass flow model like VolcFlow. 2. In the case of the 2070 cal yr BP PCs at El Misti volcano, new stratigraphic surveys, sedimentological analyses and thickness measurements of the different PC deposits, combined with a new high-spatial resolution (2 m) DSM of the volcano, allow to better estimate the distribution of individual PC volumes emplaced in each of the valleys impacted by this Plinian event. Such data acquisition is particularly critical for two of these valleys (San Lázaro and Huarangal-MM) for which the medial and distal reaches now cross the suburbs of Arequipa.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The TanDEM-X data were provided by the  German Aerospace Center (DLR)  under proposals  OTHER0653  and  XTIGEOL6738. The VolcFlow simulation code is distributed and written by  Karim Kelfoun  at  Laboratoire Magma et Volcans, Clermont-Ferrand, France. We thank our Peruvian colleagues from  INGEMMET  for their hospitality and support over the years and for kindly sharing their ideas about the 2070 cal yr BP of  El Misti. SC would like to thank  Apollo Mapping  for their help with the Pleiades optical imagery and  Fenghui Deng  for processing the TanDEM-X data. JT acknowledges support from CLERVOLC.
In this paper, the notation used for data assimilation will be as in  Ide et al. (1997). At Météo-France, 90% of the observations assimilated in the ARPEGE model come from satellite instruments. Currently, 75% of the observations used to estimate meteorological analyses come from infrared instruments. They mostly come from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI;  Guidard et al. , 2011) , the Cross-track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) and the Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder (AIRS;  Auligné et al. , 2003). These instruments are respectively on board the polar satellites MetOp-A, B and C, SUOMI-NPP and NOAA-20, and Aqua. The Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) on board geostationary satellites METEOSAT-8 and 11 also provides useful information for weather forecasting.
Thus, VarBC is capable of correcting large-scale biases induced by the use of single chemical profiles in RTTOV, but it does not allow correcting biases arising from the small-scale variability of some atmospheric constituents such as CO 2 , O 3 , CH 4 and CO. However, it would be more efficient to correct the biases at the source in order to better model the radiative transfer and thus improve the data assimilation system. Engelen et al. (2001)  has shown, for example, that neglecting the variability of CO 2 has a strong impact on the quality of temperature retrievals from the radiance data provided by AIRS instrument. Subsequently,  Engelen and Bauer (2014)  showed that the use of realistic CO 2 treated as a tracer in the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) model has a positive impact on the simulation of AIRS and IASI radiances from the RTTOV RTM by reducing the bias correction for almost all sensitive channels in the CO 2 absorption band.