dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
PITY, which is one of the minor relationships presented by Tournier and which could be paraphrased as "to affect / be affected by X"  [Tournier 2007: 188] , is not present in its simple form in the data but is used in a compound relationship with BEHAVE. Finally, the MAKE LIKE relationship is based on the MAKE relationship and on the observation that in most cases of creation-events, the result is not the original creation but only something similar. If we compare joke  (Tournier [2007: 185] ) with Manhattanize, we can notice that the MAKE paraphrase "to make X" applies to joke but is more problematic for Manhattanize. The specific nature of PNs may explain this difference: Manhattan is a When Proper Names Become Verbs: A Semantic Perspective Lexis, 16 | 2020 specific island situated in a specific location and looks a certain way, as a result it is impossible to create Manhattan somewhere else, the only option is to create something resembling Manhattan in some respects.
The analysis of the country of origin of each PN, for instance, shows the links between English-speaking countries and other countries around the world. Apart from the expected United Kingdom (UK) and United States of America (USA), a large number of different countries (  40 ) are present in the data, most of which appear to have a relatively low influence on English culture(s) as the majority (57%) have only one entry in the data set. This includes English-speaking countries such as Canada, Australia or Ireland. This observation is probably linked to the methodology of the OED which appears to favour the two main English standards for their sources 26. It is also possible that the influence of British and American cultures spread more widely around the English-speaking world and, as a result, British or American PNs are more salient to the linguistic communities.
This differentiation is not possible with the OED alone and corpus linguistics would be of help in this case. What this branch of linguistics can also bring is a frequency analysis of these verbs which would deliver a better picture of relative influence. Apart from the national origin of PNs, thematic origin can also provide a window to the culture and society of the time a verb was coined. As most of the data (47%) is of the type 'historical', categorizing each PN according to a theme -the domain the PN referent is known for, may give a picture of the themes of interest at a given time. suggests that some themes are more salient according to the period. EME appears to favour three main themes, in order of importance: 'Civil life', 'Humanities' and 'Culture'. Once again, the ModE period is put aside as not enough data is included in the study.
The evolution of meaning through time Figure  5  shows the five main semantic families of the data and their evolution through time. 36 Once again, the data for the ModE period need to be put aside as the discrepancymostly visible for the BEHAVE family -with the other periods may not reflect a linguistic reality but most likely a lack of data. The strong stability of the BEHAVE family through the whole period is striking. As mentioned in Section 3. 3. 3. , the BEHAVE family is usually linked to Person-PNs. As a result, the stability of the semantic family is simply linked to its connection to human behaviour. To a lesser extent, the situation is the same for the MAKE LIKE family which is -in the data -linked to Place-PNs. This stability is most likely linked to the stable nature of a location.
Person-PN As mentioned earlier, the main type of PN represented in the data is the Person PN type (71%). From this figure, the following predictive assumption can be inferred: Person-PNs are the most likely to generate a derived verb. This observation seems to be directly linked to the nature and distribution of PNs in the real world. Indeed, as there The predictive model for Person PN is presented in the Figure  6 : When Proper Names Become Verbs: A Semantic Perspective These cases suggest two things: (i) intermediate cognitive processes are possible and impact the selection of the property which leads to the verbal meaning; (ii) most verbs follow the same two-step process which seems to be the most typical semantic structure for verbal derivation from PN. The MAKE+BEHAVE family confirms (ii) even more strikingly as no intermediate process is included in the present data.
Minor patterns and oddities The analysis provided in Section 3. 3. gave explanations for the existence of minor processes in the Person-PN paradigm. When a verb is created from a Person-PN, the data shows that not only a behaviour or process (abstract object) can be selected, but also a concrete object created by the PN. This observation allows for the existence of the USE, PLASTER and MAKE behaviours. When a concrete object is selected from a Person-PN, then I argue that it behaves like a P&S-PN. The situation is different for the MAKE LIKE behaviour. Indeed, there is no intrinsic connection between this semantic pattern and a Place-PN apart from their compatibility. The fact that MAKE LIKE is considered a typical pattern for Place-PN is based on the present data. However, it appears that this pattern is also compatible with a Person-PN although it does not seem to be as productive as the main patterns described above.
35. It is possible for an event to be related to a specific person, but in this case, I argue that we would identify this event to a behaviour linked to this event. 36. The MAKE and APE families are put aside because of their very low number of occurrences in the data (4 in both cases), but also because the APE family is considered a specific instance of the BEHAVE family, and the MAKE family has ties to the MAKE LIKE family but the latter is more relevant when dealing with PNs (see Section 3. 3. 2. ). Conversely, the GARDEN family, despite its equally low number of occurrences (4 as well) is kept as the analysis in Section 3. 3. 2. showed that it is narrowly linked to Place PNs.
: 300 μL) and the spectra were recorded at ambient temperature. The slits of the excitation and emission monochromators were both set at 5 nm. The number of scans was established, after same experimental measurement, at one, in order to avoid sample alteration by UV excitation beam. At the beginning of each day, the blank is measured and its value is valid for subsequent sample measurements. The acquisition speed was set at 500 nm/min, the response at 1 s, and the data pitch at 1 nm as a compromising solution between noise in the spectra and collection time. The excitation and emission wavelengths range were 250-500 nm and 275-600 nm, respectively, with wavelength increments of 5 nm. The landscapes were registered as multiple emission spectra. The wavelength system was calibrated every day by means of the Raman peak to account for a possible wavelength drift of the instrument.
The spectrofluorometer used a conventional right -angle optical setup. Total scanning time per sample was approximately 30 min. The measurements were performed within a short period of time (10 days) to minimize the effect of instrumental fluctuation (e. g. lamp intensity) in a similar manner which was previously reported by other authors  5. Chemometrics methods and software. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to make a descriptive analysis of the spectral data and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) was applied to classify this data. EEM data analysis was performed by using PLS_Toolbox 7. 9. 5, demo version (Eigenvector Research Inc. , Wenatchee, WA) working under Matlab version 7. 1. 0 (the Mathworks Inc. , Natick, MA). Before analysis, EEMs data were corrected for Rayleigh and Raman scattering by using FLUCUT function, included in PLS_Toolbox.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the  Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation  through the  National Core Program  No. PN19-35-02-02. Publication costs were supported by the  Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation   through Program 1 -Development  of the national research and development system, Subprogram 1. 2 -Institutional performance -Financing RDI excellence, Project no. 32PFE/19. 10. 2018.
b. Property and velocity fields Property and velocity fields are calculated on a grid along the OSNAP section. The grid uses a Cartesian coordinate system with the x-axis parallel to the OSNAP line passing through all moorings, the y-axis perpendicular to that line, and the positive z-axis pointing upward. The horizontal resolution of this grid is ~1/4° and the vertical resolution is uniformly 20 m. Mooring data in the boundary arrays are interpolated to estimate the temperature, salinity and density fields in these areas. Away from the arrays, gridded property fields are produced down to 2000 m via an objective analysis method based on temperature and salinity from Argo profiles, OSNAP gliders and moorings, and World Ocean Atlas 2013 (WOA13) temperature  (46)  and salinity (47) climatology.
The WOA13 data are also used in the unmeasured areas on the Labrador and Scottish shelves (Figure  2  of  Li et al. , 14). Details on the validation of the objective analysis method can be found in previous studies  (14, 41). Below 2000 m, hydrographic data from 407 OSNAP CTD stations occupied during the summers of 2014 and 2016 are used to fill the grid. See complete cruise information at http://www. o-snap. org/observations/research-cruises/. Mooring velocity data are interpolated to determine the velocity field in the boundary arrays. Away from the arrays, Ekman velocities calculated using ERA-Interim winds  (48)  are added to the surface Ekman layer, and geostrophic velocities are calculated with two different choices of reference depending on the availability of deep moorings. Where available, directly measured velocities at the top of deep moorings are used to provide the reference, with two exceptions: one in the western Labrador Basin and one in the central Iceland Basin.
This calculation produces a very similar MOC estimate (a 0. 7 Sv or ~4% difference) to that produced using time-varying velocities away from the arrays (r= 0. 80 and RMSD= 3. 3 Sv, using 10-day filtered data for both time series). Thus, we conclude that most of the daily MOC variability occurs in the directly measured boundary currents. Nonetheless, we report the MOC mean and uncertainty based on 30-day estimates, and only show the daily values to indicate the scale of variability on that time scale. We continue to refine the spatial and temporal resolution of the objectively analyzed fields so that in the future we will be able to report OSNAP flux estimates at time scales less than 30 days.
were produced and distributed by the Copernicus Marine and Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) (http://www. marine. copernicus. eu). Funding: We gratefully acknowledge funding from the Physical Oceanography Program of the U. S. National Science Foundation; UK's Natural Environment Research Council programmes UK OSNAP, the Extended Ellett Line and ACSIS (National Capability). Additional support was received from the European Union 7th Framework Programme (FP7 2007-2013) under grant agreement 308299 (NACLIM) and the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreements 727852 (Blue-Action), 308299 (NACLIM), 678760 (ATLAS) and 633211 (AtlantOS). We also acknowledge support from the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, from China's national key research and development projects (2016YFA0601803) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (201424001).
7924/r4z60gf0f). Calibrated and quality-controlled data from moored instruments and gliders were generated by each participating group and are available in designated repositories with identifiers as follows: Canadian shelf break array, doi:10. 5281/zenodo. 1285757; US Labrador Sea eastern boundary array, doi: 10. 7924/r4fj2dr7k; US east Cape Farewell slope array, doi:10. 7924/r4fb50z9b; NOC DWBC array, doi:10/cwf4; NIOZ western Mid-Atlantic-Ridge array, doi:10. 4121/uuid:77b2c4fc-c253-4494-91bd-8d1ef66a014a, doi:10. 4121/uuid:9ae97ceb-39e4-43ec-abdb-614103285c16; US eastern Mid-Atlantic-Ridge array, doi:10. 7924/r42n52w51; WHOI/OUC gliders, doi:10. 7924/r4m905g03; SAMS gliders, doi:10/ckbr; SAMS Rockall Trough array, doi:10/cwf3.
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge exceptional support provided by the officers, crews and technicians of the  R/V Neil Armstrong ,  R/V Knorr ,  R/V Pelagia ,  R/V Maria S Merian ,  CCGS Hudson , and  RRS Discovery  in the completion of the fieldwork. We are also grateful to  Eric Itsweire  for his guidance and support during the initiation of this program. Argo data were collected and made freely available by the  International Argo Program  and the national programs that contribute to it (http://www. argo. ucsd. edu,http://argo. jcommops. org). The Argo Program is part of the Global Ocean Observing System (http://doi. org/10. 17882/42182 ). The Ssalto/Duacs altimeter products.
Microscopy For microscopy cells from sporulating cultures were suspended in sterile demineralized water, and spotted onto microscopic slides. After placing a cover slip over the cell suspension, cells were immobilized by squashing the slide in a filter paper block, and afterwards the cover slip was sealed with clear nail varnish. Microscopic analysis was done using a Zeiss Axio Imager. M2 (Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen, Germany) epi-fluorescence microscope equipped with the appropriate filter sets to detect red, yellow, and cyan fluorescence. A 63× objective (Plan-Apochromat, aperture 1. 4) was used for taking black-and-white images with a Zeiss AxioCam MRm CCD camera controlled by AxioVision 40 software v4. 8. 2. 0. For chromosome segregation experiments 9-20 and for recombination assays 20-25 randomly selected fields of view were photographed and evaluated.
Imaging flow cytometry The ImageStreamX Mark II (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) is an imaging flow cytometer, where an image of each individual cell is acquired as it flows through the cytometer. It measures hundreds of thousands of individual cells in minutes, combining the high-throughput capabilities of conventional flow cytometry with single-cell imaging. The ImageStream measures not only total fluorescence intensities but also the spatial image of the fluorescence plus bright-field and dark-field images of each cell in a population. For a more extensive overview of data acquisition and analysis in ImageStreamX, see  Basiji (2016). Briefly, the INSPIRE acquisition software generates raw image data (. rif file) without compensation which can then be directly loaded into IDEAS for further analysis.
Using the IDEAS software, the. rif files will then be converted into compensated image files (. cif) by applying the compensation matrix (. ctm) generated from single fluorescence controls during the acquisition. The file resulting from analysis is stored as. daf (data analysis file), which is used for plotting features derived from the bright-field, dark-field, and fluorescence single cell images in the form of histograms or bivariate scatter plots. Subpopulations are generated using these plots and saved as analysis template for further datasets. For imaging flow cytometry, cellular material containing asci was suspended in 1× PBS, pH 7. 5 (8 g/l NaCl, 2 g/l KCl, 1. 15 g/l Na 2 HPO 4 •7H 2 O, 2 g/l anhydrous KH 2 PO 4 ), harvested by centrifugation (6000×g, 30 s), and re-suspended in 1× PBS, pH 7.
5. Data was acquired on the ImageStreamX Mark II using INSPIRE acquisition software (Merck kGaA). Cellular parameters were measured in Channel 1 (Brightfield, BF), Channel 2 (GFP*, a yellow-shifted version of green fluorescent protein, using a 485 nm laser), Channel 4 (RFP, red fluorescent protein, 561 nm), Channel 7 (CFP, cyan fluorescent protein, 405 nm), and Channel 12 (side scatter, 785 nm) with magnification set to 60×. Briefly, objects of interest (asci) with a BF Barea^of 50 to 200 μm 2 and an Baspect ratio^(ratio of minor axis to major axis) lower than 0. 5 (Bdoublet area^) were selected. Focused cells were identified by a Bgradient RMS^feature value of 50 or higher. A typical file contained about 25,000 focused yeast cells. Data evaluation for identification of asci and spore phenotyping were performed using IDEAS software (version 6.
In the next stage, the gated GFP* population was subanalyzed for the modulation of RFPand CFP-containing spores (Fig. 3b ). Employing the ability of the IDEAS software for creating Boolean logic, masks with good determination of spore borders in each fluorescent channel were selected, and these advanced combined masks determined spores with particular fluorescent phenotypes (Fig. 3c ). For example, spores with all three fluorescent proteins are only possible, if recombination happened between GFP* and CFP, whereas spores containing RFP and CFP are only possible, if recombination happened between RFP and GFP*. Finally, asci were quantified within the triple merged combined fluorescent populations by using the newly created shape features BLength^versus BElongatedness^in brightfield. Thereby, asci with recombination products were identified within a BLength^< 20 and an BElongatedness^> 2 (Fig.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to  Scott Keeney ,  Franz Klein ,  Jürg Kohli ,  Josef Loidl ,  Kim Nasmyth ,  Ken E. Sawin ,  Gerald R. Smith ,  Takashi Toda ,  Matthew C. Whitby , and the  National BioResource Project (NBRP) Japan  for providing strains and/or plasmids; to  M. N. Asogwa ,  A. Bebes , and  L. Duncan  for technical assistance; and to  M. De Carvalho  for spotting a critical typographical error in an earlier version of the manuscript. Microscopy was performed at the  University of Aberdeen Microscopy & Histology facility  ( Kevin Mackenzie ). This work was supported by a  Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland Research Incentive Grant  (No. 70021 ), and the  University of Aberdeen (College of Life Sciences and Medicine Start -up grant).
Snowfall (1 cm net accumulation on the ground) occurred on 30 April between 03:00 and 11:00 (Fig. 2 , pink shading). A snow event, causing a net accumulation of 1 cm of snow, also occurred during the 2016 experiment (Fig. 3 , pink shading) when day and night periods were present. The snow event occurred on 9 April between 10:00 and 15:00. During the 2016 experiment, conducted between 6 and 9 April, the snow temperature was not registered due a technical problem with the temperature probe installed in the snow. Air temperature ranged between -7 and -3 • C and solar radiation between zero at nighttime and a maximum of 227 W m -2. As for the first experiment, wind speed was below 3 m s -1 , minimizing the effect of blowing snow. Wind direction was almost constant and prevailing from east. The GEM and the surface snow mercury datasets were de-trended to emphasize the diurnal variation and remove the decreasing trend present in both datasets.
The de-trended series were obtained calculating the linear regression line for both series and subtracting this value from the data. Figure  3e  reports the detrended mercury dataset while Fig. 4  shows the raw data and the methods used to remove the trend. The 2017 winter experiment (Fig. 5 ) was characterized by a snowstorm that occurred on 24 January (10 h after the experiment began; pink shading). Differently to the previous experiments, the wind speed averaged 9 m s -1 during the storm, with a maximum speed of 16 m s -1 (Fig. 5 , orange line). Strong winds can redistribute surface snow and significantly change chemical concentrations. For these reasons, the winter experiment began on 24 January and ended on 29 January for 5 d in total, compared the 3 d adopted for the 2015 and 2016 experiment.
Concentrations and standard deviation (in brackets) are calculated for the entire dataset; an asterisk indicates that the concentration has been calculated without considering the snowfall events. I snow (ng g -1 ) Na snow (ng g -1 ) Hg snow (ng g -1 ) Hg atm (ng m we expect to find enrichment values close to the seawater abundance. However, during the 2017 experiment, iodine had higher than expected enrichment values suggesting that (an) extra source(s), in addition to sea spray emission, may exist and that it might be dominant during winter. Saiz-Lopez et al. (2016)  suggests that nighttime radical activation can occur. They indicate that the reaction of HOI with NO 3 , to yield IO + HNO 3 , is possible under winter tropospheric conditions  (Saiz-Lopez et al. , 2016). The inclusion of this reaction, along with that of I 2 + NO 3 , has a number of significant implications, such as the nighttime activation of iodine radical chemistry that can cause an enhanced nighttime oceanic emissions of HOI and I 2  (Saiz-Lopez et al.
Correlation coefficient between iodine and sodium, bromine and sodium (only 2016), and atmospheric and snow mercury. The correlation is calculated for the entire dataset. When the correlation is marked with an asterisk, this indicates that the correlation has been calculated without considering the snowfall events. During the 2016 experiment the correlation between Hg snow and Hg atm * has been detrended to highlight the antiphase between Hg atm and Hg snow. The "+" and "-" indicate whether the association is positive or negative, and the values in parentheses are the p values. NA = not available. Hg snow vs. Hg atm Hg snow vs. Hg atm *.
Acknowledgements. This project has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under grant agreement no. 689443  via project iCUPE (Integrative and Comprehensive Understanding on Polar Environments). We are grateful to the  Dirigibile Italia Arctic Station  from the  National Research Council -Department of Earth System Science and Environmental Technologies  ( CNR-DSSTTA ) for logistical support. We acknowledge the help of ELGA LabWater in providing the  PURE-LAB Pulse  and  PURELAB Flex , which produced the ultrapure water used in these experiments. Financial support. This research has been supported by the  European Commission (ERA-PLANET  (grant no. 689443 )). Review statement. This paper was edited by  Ashu Dastoor  and reviewed by  Henrik Skov  and one anonymous referee.
Elongation of the PSP repeat unit Downstream of wpsA and wpsB, the four genes wpsC, -D, -E, and -F encode putative glycosyltransferases, which could be involved in the iterative synthesis of the PSP repeat unit. The four glycosyltransferases WpsC, -D, -E, and -F are devoid of putative transmembrane segments, indicative of a probable cytoplasmic location, which thus supports the notion of intracellular synthesis of the PSP subunit. The wpsC and wpsD genes encode two glycosyltransferases (with 264 and 330 AA, respectively), belonging to family 2 (Pfam PF00535) with a GT-A-type fold, whose substrate and product cannot be predicted from sequence analysis. The gene wpsE encodes a protein (332 AA) with a Stealth_CR2 (PF11380) domain (positions 40 -141), present in D-hexose 1-phosphate transferases, which generate interglycosidic phosphate diester linkages  (47).
Export of the PSP subunits The wpsG gene encodes an integral membrane protein containing 13 predicted TMHs. Blast analysis revealed 24% sequence identity with Escherichia coli flippase Wzx involved in O-antigen synthesis, more precisely involved in flipping the subunit linked to Und-PP outside of the cytoplasmic membrane. In addition, HHpred analysis of WpsG revealed significant structural similarity to lipid II flippase MurJ (probability, 100%; E-value, 5. 7e Ϫ36 ; Protein Data Bank (PDB) structure 5T77) that catalyzes the translocation of the lipid-linked precursor of peptidoglycan across the lipid membrane. Despite these similarities with flippases acting on Und-PP-linked substrates and because no other putative flippase is encoded in the cwps cluster, we hypothesize that WpsG represents the flippase that transfers Und-P-linked PSP subunit to the extracellular face of the bacterial membrane.