dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
I ideally we would want to measure change in probability that an individual becomes an entrepreneur. Given that our dataset that lacks observations of individuals, we focus on the changes in our variables of interest. For our first proposition, we measure this as the change in percentage of self-employed people per county (Changect). For our other propositions, we measure the change in non-employed establishments per million people in each county (Changecit) by industry. The large number of 4 digit NAICS classifications causes us to use the million people denominator; simple percentages would lead to coefficients that become cumbersome to read.
Gentry and Hubbard [11] use US Census panel data to estimate how changes in effective marginal tax rates impact the propensity for an individual to become self-employed and find a significant effect. Overall their dataset has about 3% of individuals entering self-employment over the panel time period; they estimate a 5% increase in tax rates lowers the probably of self-employment to around 2. 75%. Cullen and Gordon [4] build a theoretical model that enables them to identify various channels linking tax rates to entrepreneurship and use income tax data to find a large effect on risky businesses that incur losses early on. Da Rin [5] uses firm level panel data for Western Europe and finds drops in corporate tax rates increases firm entry. Djankov et al.
We next focused on the impact of oxidative stress in the repressive effect of CSE on DC maturation. As expected, CSE exposure, despite the presence or not of S. pneumoniae, increased the expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO1) within MDDC (Fig. 6a ). This was confirmed by increased fluorescence in DCFDA-pre-treated MDDC after 3 h incubation (data not shown). Oxidative stress involvement in CSE inhibitory effects was next tested by adding before CSE exposure, antioxidants targeting different oxidative pathways. After addition of N-Acetyl-Cystein (NAC), the inhibitory effect of CSE on comaturation marker expression and cytokine expression was not reversed except for CD80 and CD86 for which NAC tended to increase their expression (p = NS) (Fig. 7 , Additional file 6). Similarly, two other antioxidants, tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) were not able to reverse CSE inhibitory effects (data not shown).
After demonstrating the inhibitory effects of CSE on DC maturation, we would like to decipher those mechanisms. In a recent study, Givi et al. has reported that Fig. 7  Treatment with the anti-oxidant N-acetylcystein (NAC) did not reverse the inhibitory effect of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) on the phenotype and the secretion of cytokines by monocyte-derived dendritic cell (MDDC) activated by S. pneumoniae (Sp). The expression of (a) CD83 and the secretion of (b) IL-23 by MDDC treated or not with NAC and then exposed to CSE and Sp for 24 h were evaluated by flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively. Data are reported as mean ± S. E. M of 6 experiments. There was no statistical difference between groups 8 In vitro exposures to rotenone (Rot) and antimycin A (AmA) inhibit the phenotype of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDC) activated by S.
pneumoniae (Sp) but not the secretion of cytokines. a Expression of CD83 and b the secretion of IL-23 were evaluated by flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively, in MDDC exposed to inhibitors and then activated or not by S. pneumoniae for 24 h. Data represent mean ± S. E. M of 6 and 4 experiments for a and b, respectively. There was no statistical difference between groups short-term CSE exposure induced maturation of DC whereas 10 days exposure suppress it  [27]. In our model, both short-term and 6 days exposure (data not shown) had inhibitory effects on DC maturation. We think that these differences may be linked to the use of different cells, namely murine bone marrow derived DC and Hodgkin's disease-derived cell line L428, and of cigarette smoke from commercial cigarette without filter. In fact, other authors using human MDDC have reported that exposure to CSE of LPS-activated DC decreased IL-12 secretion and expression of costimulatory molecules  [13, 14].
Acknowledgements This study was possible at the instigation of our dear colleague,  Pr Isabelle Tillie-Leblond  (died), who participated in the study concept and design, and with the support of the " Fonds de Dotation Recherche en Santé Respiratoire " request for proposal 2010 and the  French-language Society of Pneumology , and the  Conseil Régional Nord-Pas de Calais. All the materials used in this study and the data are available.
Population and data collection The study was carried out among all the patients who consulted their general practitioner (GP) either at their medical practice or as home visits during the data collection period. The exclusion criterion was the unwillingness to participate in the study. Investigators consisted of 54 students assigned as interns alongside the practitioners. Data collection was carried out over a 20-day period. Each investigator entered the data collected through printed questionnaires into a centralized database accessible via a dedicated website. The data regarding consultation outcomes and care procedures were collected using the form of the 2nd edition of the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-2) with an online coding system.
Strengths and limitations This was a large national cross-sectional multicentric study, unique in France. To the best of our knowledge, this is the only study that aimed to describe the mental health disorders seen in general practice, as well as many socio-demographic characteristics associated with their condition. As far as the representativeness of the general practitioners is concerned, the ECOGEN study has showed that the 128 doctors involved in the study were representative of the population of French general practitioners  [16]. The collection of data from general practice consultations was performed using the ICPC-2, which allows for comparisons between countries. Furthermore, the control of the reliability of the data collected by each investigator was verified and validated  [12].
Background: Looking at what makes General Practitioners (GPs) happy in their profession, may be important in increasing the GP workforce in the future. The European General Practice Research Network (EGPRN) created a research team (eight national groups) in order to clarify the factors involved in GP job satisfaction throughout Europe. The first step of this study was a literature review to explore how the satisfaction of GPs had been studied before. The research question was "Which factors are related to GP satisfaction in Clinical Practice?" Methods: Systematic literature review according to the PRISMA statement. The databases searched were Pubmed, Embase and Cochrane. All articles were identified, screened and included by two separate research teams, according to inclusion or exclusion criteria.
Search strategy and inclusion criteria Relevant studies were identified by systematic research in the databases Pubmed, Embase and Cochrane. The search was limited to articles published between 1 January, 2000 and 31 December, 2014. The year 2000 was set as the search start year as a turning point for the vision of GP with international work being initiated on its definition (and the WONCA definition being introduced in 2002)  [1]. Practice and work organisation in general practice have been changed in many countries in the past decade, which might have a strong influence on job satisfaction. Four researches worked independantely with a merging of their results at each search and inclusion steps. The database-specific search included the following algorithm for Pubmed: (("Family Practice" ).
Those equations were adapted for Cochrane and Embase according to their own specifications. "Job satisfaction" was chosen by the research team because it was the best possible MESH term to describe positive factors at work. The use of a MESH term was efficient, because it included all possible synonyms. In addition to the database search, grey literature was identified by the EGPRN's national representatives. National teams (eight countries) were asked to provide grey literature citations, using the same keywords or known from experience. These were assessed by the national representatives and included in the review by consensus. Finally the bibliographies of all the included articles were checked in order to find additional references  [11].
Selection of the articles The initial search in the different databases produced 458 different articles. Based on the abstracts, 104 fulltext articles were eligible for further assessment and, ultimately, 17 articles were included in the review  [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31]. The full process is described in the PRISMA flow chart (Fig. 1 ). All included studies were published in the English language. Six of the 17 studies were conducted in Canada, four in Australia, two in the USA, two in Germany, one in New Zealand, one in the United Kingdom and one in Switzerland. Of these 17 selected publications, 11 were crosssectional questionnaire studies; five used qualitative methods and one was a quantitative comparative study. Additional file 1 provides an overview of the studies included in the review.
These questionnaires did not examine in depth the aspects GPs might find satisfying in their profession. The data from the qualitative studies were very relevant. Qualitative studies allow a deeper investigation into the specific aspects of General Practice. However their research question sometimes focused on a particular context. Confounding factors or interpretation bias could come from differences between social health systems and linguistic understanding. This bias was limited by working with an international research team, containing GPs from diverse cultures, and regular users of different health systems. During the screening of the research, different ways to estimate GP satisfaction were found. Some of the studies asked, "Why are you satisfied?" or "Which policies would lead to an improvement in GP satisfaction?" The research group decided to keep the various question forms although this could have caused confusion bias.
A unique journal for multimorbidity Independently of its name, the Journal of Comorbidity is of unequalled interest for all of those, like us, who have a particular interest in multimorbidity and are actively involved in its research. This is the only journal that specifically addresses multimorbidity. In that sense, it uniquely allows any stakeholders interested in the field to keep abreast of the latest developments and provides a primary source for the dissemination of research findings. The Journal of Comorbidity is currently indexed in many searchable databases and directories, but is not yet in the MEDLINE database. Increasing the volume of its published content may substantially contribute to compliance with the requirements outlined by MED-LINE. As indexing in MEDLINE is key to helping any journal seeking the widest dissemination of its content, we encourage all researchers, clinicians, and other stakeholders with an interest in multimorbidity to consider the Journal of Comorbidity for publishing their research.
Competing Interests: Prof Lofaso and Dr Prigent were consultants to RESMED for an evaluation of home ventilators in different clinical conditions. Their University (University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Versailles, France) received 50 000 euros in January 2014 for this work. The present study was independent from this consulting work. This does not alter the authors' adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. No conflict exists for the other authors. based on a cross-over design to test NIV versus spontaneous breathing (SB). If patients used both a nasal interface and a mouthpiece during eating, their usual nasal mask was used. As breathing-swallowing interactions are altered in the neuromuscular patients with an inverse correlation between respiratory muscles strength and breathing-swallowing dysfunction  [12] , the impact of the percentage of inspiration-followed swallows was chosen as primary endpoint.
Considering that the number of swallows followed by an inspiration is estimated at 45% with spontaneous ventilation with a standard deviation of 25% in patients with severe respiratory failure  [18]  the enrolment of 10 patients will give a 80% power to detect a difference of 25% between NIV and SB assuming a standard error of 25% for this difference. The appropriate ethics committee (CPP Ile de France XI, Ref 11074) approved the study. All patients provided written informed consent prepared by and addressed to the Clinical Investigation Center of our Hospital (CIC) labelled by the French Minister of Health. The protocol was registered in clinical trial (ClinicalTrials. gov NCT01519388).
Data analysis The recording examiner (MG) was blinded from pressure and flow signals in order to be also blinded to the presence or not of nasal mechanical ventilation. Swallowing onset was defined as the onset of phasic submental EMG activity and swallowing termination as the beginning of the downward laryngeal movement detected by the piezoelectric sensor  [19]. For each bolus size, duration of swallowing, number of swallows, and fragmentation of swallowing by respiratory events (defined as the number of respiratory interruptions (inspiration, expiration or both) of a single bolus swallowing) were recorded. Using respiratory movement direction (inspiration or expiration) immediately after each swallow, the percentage of swallows followed by inspiration (the sequence believed to contribute to aspiration during swallowing  [11, 22] ) were computed for each patient.
Dyspnea while swallowing was assessed with the modified Borg scale (from 0 = "No Dyspnea" to 10 = "Maximal Dyspnea") at the end of each swallowing trial. Likewise, swallowing comfort was evaluated with a visual analog scale (VAS) (from 0 = extremely uncomfortable to 10 = extremely comfortable). The percentage of swallows followed by an inspiration was considered as the primary outcome whereas other parameters were considered as secondary outcomes. Data were monitored by the CIC, which is independent from the investigators and the sponsors. They were anonymized and kept in the database which was password-protected, was authorized by the CNIL (French Data Protection Authority) and available only to the authors. All results are reported as means ± standard deviations in the text and as means ± standard error of the mean in figures.
Random Sequence Generation and Allocation Concealment Volunteers were randomly allocated to either the active or control product. To avoid selection bias, the randomization scheme was generated by data managers in line with the Cochrane guidelines  (38)  (with even assignment at investigation sites ascertained by using symmetric [1:1 ratio] randomization) using Statistical Analysis Software (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC) version 8. 02 for Windows New Technology. The randomization list was kept confidential at the sponsor's premises and remained confidential with the exception to those involved in the production of the study products and for biostatistical managers (after the first part of data locking was performed).
Code-breaking systems were available in case of occurrence of a serious adverse event for which the medical personnel needed to be aware of what the participant received (active or control product). Raw data were also blinded during the blind review. The code was broken after the database was locked. Two bottles of 100 g of the active or control product were ingested per day for 3 consecutive months (200 g per day in total). The 2 bottles were ingested separately, usually 1 in the morning and 1 in the afternoon.
Baseline data and demographic characteristics for each volunteer were collected at visit 1, and a clinical examination was conducted by physicians. At visit 2, the PedsQL quality of life questionnaire was completed and the personal diary was initiated. The personal diary was then completed daily for the duration of the study period. At each evaluation visit, the PedsQL quality of life questionnaire was completed, the volunteer responses were recorded within the personal diary, and a clinical examination was conducted. Other visits resulting from the occurrence of clinical symptoms related to CIDs were conducted 2 to 4 days following the start of such symptoms. The diagnosis of CID was assessed by the physician, and data on the type and severity of the infection, prescribed medication, and subject's temperature were recorded.
Data Analysis The primary outcome measure was the number of all CIDs reported during the 3 months of the study product's consumption. The secondary outcome measures were the number of all CIDs reported during the 1-month follow-up period and during the entire study period, and the number of URTIs, LRTIs, or GITIs or each type of CID during the product consumption, follow-up period or entire study period. Other secondary outcome measures were the time to event (beginning of a CID episode), the global severity of infection, the duration of infection, the occurrence of fever, medication intake and pathogens associated to CID, the duration of sick leave from day-care and parental missed days at work, and the impact on quality of life. Safety was further evaluated through vital signs (blood pressure and heart rate), body weight, and spontaneously reported adverse events.
Therefore, a total of 600 children were planned to be included in the study. To meet the recommendations of the Cochrane Collaboration for preventing detection bias  (38) , blinding of outcome assessment was ensured by a blind review of raw data and by unblinding after the database was locked, and by conducting statistical analysis in compliance with the statistical analysis plan. All volunteers who were randomized and received the study products were included in the intent-to-treat (ITT) population and were used for all statistical analyses. The per protocol (PP) population was built-up with all volunteers from the ITT population without any major protocol deviations during the intervention phase (product consumption period). As the number of subjects with !1 major protocol deviation was low, the ITT and PP populations were close.
Therefore, analysis on the PP was conducted on the primary main outcome only. To avoid attrition bias according to the recommendations of the Cochrane Collaboration  (38) , the distribution of the missing data across the intervention groups and the magnitude compared with the effect size were assessed. Missing data were replaced by the last observation carried forward (LOCF) method using the last postbaseline value for 1 subject at the previous time. Reporting bias by selective outcome reporting  (38)  was prevented by the availability of the study protocol and prespecification of (primary and secondary) outcomes, and by adhering to these specifications. The baseline demographic characteristics of the 2 groups were compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA), x 2 test, or Wilcoxon test as appropriate.
Material and Methods Project promoters intensively invested in the Nile Valley of BS Governorate justifying our choice of investigating the milkshed of this area. The BS milkshed surrounds the city of Beni Suef (120 km south of Cairo) (Fig. 2 ) and follows the Nile Valley borders (excluding desert land and Fayoum Oasis in the west). A literature review helped us to identify relevant data on the BS region: history, demographic trends and changing demands. An in-itinere socio-economic impact study of the project has been conducted during three years (2014-2016) at farms, community and supply chain level. In BS, three villages were selected according to their involvement with the project in 2014 (had an MCC, will receive an MCC and no link with the project). A total of 76 farmers were interviewed, selected according to their milk marketing practices (dealing with MCC or not).
11 dairy collectors and 4 MCC of these villages were also interviewed. They all received a visit every year. Semi-structured interviews were performed to collect data on socio-economic and technical characteristics of these diverse systems. Historical qualitative data were also collected on their dairy activity and the milkshed recent evolution. It will be the main material for this analysis. Participatory meetings were also held in the village with the longest involvement of the project to assess the dairy sector evolution after the MCC opening, including milk hygienic quality evolution. It gathered diverse dairy stakeholders of the village: a milk collector, 2 farmers, a feed trader, 2 MCC employees, a veterinary, an animal trader, and 2 cooperative employees. Additional data were collected via open discussions with key figures involved in the local dairy sector and in the project.
EHRs may also change over time, reflecting evolving technology capabilities or external influences (e. g. , changes in type of data collected related to coding or reimbursement practices). EHRs emerged largely as a means to improve healthcare quality  [5] [6] [7]  and to capture billing data. EHRs may potentially be used to assess study feasibility, facilitate patient recruitment, streamline data collection, or conduct entirely EHR-based observational, embedded pragmatic, or post-marketing randomized registry studies, or comparative effectiveness studies. The various applications of EHRs for observational studies, safety surveillance, clinical research, and regulatory purposes are shown in Table 1  [3, [8] [9] [10].
Safety surveillance and regulatory uses Active post-marketing safety surveillance and signal detection are important, emerging applications for EHRs, because they can provide realistic rates of events (unlike spontaneous event reports) and information on real-world use of drugs  [20]. The EU-ADR project linked 8 databases in four European countries (Denmark, Italy, The Netherlands, United Kingdom) to enable analysis of select target adverse drug events  [21]. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) coordinates the European Network of Centres for Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance (ENCePP) which aims to conduct post-marketing risk assessment using various EHR sources  [22, 23]. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) uses EHR data from several different sources (e. g.
Finally, EHRs might enhance patient safety and reduce   [36]. A shift towards pragmatic trials has been proposed as a mechanism to improve clinical trial efficiency  [37]. Most of the data in a pragmatic trial are collected in the context of routine clinical care, which reduce trial-specific clinic visits and assessments, and should also reduce costs  [38]. This concept is being applied in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Health Care Systems Research Collaboratory. Trials conducted within the NIH Collaboratory aim to answer questions related to care delivery and the EHR contains relevant data for this purpose. Studies may have additional data collection modules if variables not routinely captured in the EHR are needed for a specific study. Similarly, the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI) has launched PCORnet, a research network that uses a common data platform alongside the existing EHR to conduct observational and interventional comparative effectiveness research  [9, 39, 40].