dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Equation of state for Novec649 The reference equation of state (EoS) in REFPROP is based on experiments and modelling by  McLinden et al. (2015). Specifically, a multiparameter functional form based on the Helmholtz free energy is calibrated for Novec649, with estimated errors lower than 0. 1 % for temperatures from 165 to 500 K and pressure up to 50 MPa. Additional measurements   ). Here ℳ denotes the molar mass, Z the compressibility factor, R g the individual gas constant, c v,∞ the ideal-gas specific heat at constant volume, ω the acentric factor, ξ the dipole moment and subscript c is used for critical conditions. T c p c ρ c Z c R g c v,∞ (T c ) ω ξ (g mol -1 ) (K) (MPa) (kg m -3 ) (-) (J kg -1 K -1 ) (J kg -1 K -1 ) (-) ( near the critical region were reported by  Tanaka (2016)  and underlined some uncertainties in the definition of the critical point.
Flow solver The in-house finite-difference code MUSICAA is used to solve the compressible Navier-Stokes equations (2. 1)-(2. 3). The inviscid fluxes are discretised by means of tenth-order standard centred differences whereas fourth order is used for viscous fluxes. The scheme is supplemented with a tenth-order selective filtering to eliminate grid-to-grid unresolved oscillations. A four-stage Runge-Kutta algorithm is used for time integration. The implicit residual smoothing (IRS) method of  Cinnella & Content (2016) , modified in  Bienner, Gloerfelt & Cinnella (2022a) , can be used to enlarge the stability domain and enable the use of larger time steps. Adiabatic no-slip conditions are applied at the wall, and non-reflecting Tam and Dong's conditions are imposed at the inlet, top and outflow boundaries.
Here the compressible form  (Bogey & Bailly 2009)  is implemented with (•) the Reynolds average and ( •) the Favre average; prime quantities are Reynolds fluctuations and double prime Favre fluctuations. Note that Reynolds and Favre averaging provide essentially the same results at the present Mach number, with velocity statistics very close to the incompressible ones. These terms, normalised by ρw u 4 τ /ν w , are in very good agreement with incompressible DNS databases at Re θ ≈ 4000. In figure  17 , premultiplied spanwise energy spectra are shown for the streamwise velocity at Re θ = 2435 and 4963. An invariant maximum is found at a wall distance of y + = 12 with a wavelength λ + z = 120, corresponding to near-wall turbulent streaks. These values are the same as those observed for incompressible boundary layer  (Schlatter et al.
Zhang & Xia (2020)  and  Wenzel, Gibis & Kloker (2022)   FIK decomposition and has the advantage of being applicable to the heat-transfer decomposition (see also  Xu, Wang & Chen 2022). Both RD and twofold-integrated FIK have been applied to the present dataset but only the RD decomposition is presented here for brevity. Assuming no-slip wall, homogeneity in the spanwise direction and no body force, the RD identity can be written C f = 2 ρ ∞ U 3 ∞ δ 0 τxy ∂ ũ ∂y dy C f ,v + 2 ρ ∞ U 3 ∞ δ 0 -ρu v ∂ ũ ∂y dy C f ,t + 2 ρ ∞ U 3 ∞ δ 0 (ũ -U ∞ ) ρ ũ ∂ ũ ∂x + ṽ ∂ ũ ∂y - ∂ ∂x τ xx -ρ u u -p dy C f ,x. (5. 1) Note that we choose δ for the upper integration limit (   33  at Re θ = 2000, which is close to the maximum Reynolds number reached by LES-LA. The deviations that are observed are associated to the fact that a canonical turbulent state is not yet reached.
For the transonic to supersonic speeds of interest for turbine applications, the unstable mode in the boundary layer is the TS mode, which has a greater amplification for 3-D skewed waves. For the Mach number examined in the present study (M = 0. 9), a pair of oblique modes with an angle of 30 • is computed and entered at the inlet of the computational domain to trigger laminar-to-turbulent transition. The simulation with 3. 6 billion points costs several million CPU hours to simulate 1 cm of the plate and a Reynolds number based on the momentum thickness, Re θ 5000. The transition occurs few millimeters after the leading edge and the boundary layer thickness is estimated to be less than 0. 1 mm, which represents a considerable challenge for experiments. Despite the high subsonic Mach number, the DNS turbulent profiles are very close to incompressible databases due to the high specific heat of Novec649.
Acknowledgements. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of IDRIS and TGCC under the allocation  A0112A01736  made by  GENCI  ( Grand Equipement National de Calcul Intensif). 971 A8-40  https: // doi. org /10. 1017/jfm. 2023. 633 Published online by  Cambridge University Press High -subsonic boundary-layer flows of an organic vapour  971 A8-43  https: //doi. org/10. 1017/jfm. 2023. 633 Published online by  Cambridge University  Press X. Gloerfelt ,  A. Bienner  and  P. Cinnella.
plotted in figure14(a)with the wall shear stress evaluated as τ w = μw (∂ ū/∂y) w. The friction coefficient departs rapidly from the laminar correlation and is found to be in very good agreement with incompressible DNS databases (Wu & Moin 2009; Schlatter & Örlü 2010)  further downstream, meaning that a canonical zero-pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layer 971 A8-19 https://doi. org/10. 1017/jfm. 2023.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank  C. Genoud ,  J. Daraspe  and  D. De Bellis  for their advice on sample preparation and EM observations. A. Daley  and the  ANOM lab  team at the  University of Lausanne  are thanked for sharing their aquarium facility. GT, GBP, AM and NR were supported by the  Swiss National Science Foundation  grants  200021_179092  and  212614. CP was supported by the  Junior Professorship Grant  'A  connected underwater world ' awarded by the  French National Research Agency  and an associated start-up grant by the  French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS).
X-ray reflectivity. X-ray reflectivity (XRR) provides an orthogonal type of measurement granting access to further insights regarding the structural changes observed upon irradiation within the photoswitchable monolayers. XRR data were collected in-situ during irradiation of the monolayers at APM values identical to the corresponding compression isotherm measurements. The measured specular reflectivity intensities R were nor- malized by the Fresnel intensity for a perfect optically flat surface R F and were used to derive the scattering length density (SLD) of the monolayers. The SLD values were fitted using a two-slab model distinguishing the tail (l tail ) and head (l head ) of the membrane molecules with l total describing the total length. Details of the fitting process are given in the experimental section with fitting parameters listed in the supporting information (Table  S2 ).
With this procedure it was possible to achieve repeatable XRR measurements for a trans to cis to trans illumination cycle of the glycolipid doped DPPC membrane. The XRR data reduction for DESY was carried out using python-based software. The recorded 2D detector images were processed with a region of interest of 2750 µm × 550 µm which results in an angular resolution in q z direction of 0. 14 degree, to extract the specular reflected beam. The background was removed by subtracting the average background intensity at 0. 03 degrees next to the used region of interest. For the measurements at Diamond the beamline script was used with an angular resolution of 0. 13 degrees in q z direction for data reduction. The background was corrected at 0. 05 degrees and a footprint correction was carried out to compensate for over illumination at low angles.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge  DESY (Hamburg, Germany ), a member of the  Helmholtz Association HGF , for the provision of experimental facilities. Parts of this research were carried out at PETRA III and we would like to thank  Florian Bertram  and  Rene Kirchhof  for assistance in using P08 and  Milena Lippmann  for her assistance in using the PETRA III chemistry laboratory. Beamtime was allocated for proposals I- 20180411  and  I-20160864. We acknowledge  Diamond Light Source  for time on Beamline I07 under Proposal [SI15284-1] The research was supported by the  SFB 677 ,  BMBF 05K19FK2  and the  early science program   of the center for molecular water science ,  DESY.
Electronics and Data Acquisition System The readout electronics of the AHCAL technological prototype is based on common CALICE developments  [42]. It follows a hierarchical structure as illustrated in figure  4a. Up to 36 SiPM channels are read out by one SPIROC2E ASIC. The communication of all ASICs within a layer is handled by the Detector InterFace (DIF) board, while the POWER board handles the power supplies for the complete layer, and the calibration (CALIB) board handles the LED calibration system. These three boards are realised as mezzanines carried by the Central Interface Board (CIB). The data of up to 96 layers is aggregated by Link Data Aggregators (LDAs) and sent to a PC running the DAQ software. The LDAs also receive commands from the PC as well as from the Clock and Control Card (CCC) and distribute them to the DIFs.
For each of the 36 channels, two input preamplifiers, for a high gain and a low gain measurement, are needed to handle the required large dynamic range. Both are followed by variable slow shapers, for which a shaping time of 50 ns was chosen. The high gain preamplifier is in addition connected to a trigger line with a fast shaper and a discriminator, providing channel-wise self-triggering for thresholds as low as 50 fC (1/3 of a photo-electron). If one channel triggers, the data for all channels of this ASIC are kept. The time measurement is performed with a coarse 16-bit counter related to the bunch crossing clock and a fine time ramp based on this clock. The ramp has alternating directions from one bunch crossing to the next to avoid dead time connected with a ramp reset. The bunch crossing clock can be chosen between 250 kHz and 5 MHz.
The time resolution depends on the bunch clock, and is expected to reach 1 ns with a 5 MHz bunch clock. For low data rates also the data taking efficiency depends on the bunch clock, since the data acquisition should be stopped and the detector be read out when the bunch crossing counter overruns. In order to optimise data taking efficiency, the AHCAL prototype has been operated with a 250 kHz bunch clock during the beam tests so far, except for a few test runs. An analog memory array with a depth of 16 cells for each channel is used to store the time information and the charge measurement. If all 16 memory cells are filled, the ASIC provides a BUSY signal via the LDA to the CCC. This is used to stop the data acquisition phase and switch to the readout phase for all channels of the detector.
Link Data Aggregator (LDA) The LDA is also based on the Zynq 7020 SoC. It is available in two versions: the mini-LDA and the wing-LDA. The mini-LDA is realised as a dedicated mezzanine board for the ZedBoard, a commercially available development board for the Zynq. It has HDMI connectors for up to 10 DIFs and has been used in many beam tests with smaller setups. The wing-LDA has been designed with the geometry of the ILD barrel sectors in mind. It has two times 48 micro-HDMI connectors to handle two barrel sectors. It is realised as three passive boards, hosting the micro-HDMI connectors, connected to an active central board. The active central board has a slot for a Mars ZX3 module holding a Zynq 7020, and four slave Xilinx Kintex7 FPGAs for an efficient aggregation of the data volume. In the beam tests of the AHCAL technological prototype, the wing-LDA with only two passive boards and equipped with only two FPGAs has been used.
Beam InterFace (BIF) The BIF is based on the prototype of an AIDA mini-TLU  [46, 47] , which provides a simple and flexible interface for fast timing and triggering signals. It receives the 40 MHz clock from the CCC on a LEMO connector, and the start and stop signals of the AHCAL data acquisition phases on a RJ45 connector. The timestamps of up to four external signals provided on LEMO connectors can be recorded with a precision of ∼ 1 ns.
They can be controlled by the LabView DAQ software within a range of ∼ 4 V with a precision of ∼ 40 mV. In order to compensate for changes of the SiPM breakdown voltage caused by temperature variations, and thus keep their overvoltage constant, the SiPM bias voltage can be adjusted automatically according to the average temperature measured by up to six temperature sensors within a layer. This procedure has been set up with the measured mean dependence of the breakdown voltage on the temperature (section 3. 1. 1). During the beam tests, it was set to run at every run start, and in fixed time intervals between ten minutes and one hour.
Online software The dedicated DAQ and control software for the AHCAL technological prototype is based on LabView. It provides not only the fast commands for the data taking, but also the functionality for the configuration of the readout ASICs, the LDAs and the LED calibration system. This software has been interfaced to EUDAQ2  [50] , allowing easy integration with other devices (e. g. beam instrumentation such as wire chambers or beam telescopes) and user-friendly operation for non-experts. In the EUDAQ2 Producer for the AHCAL technological prototype, several methods for event building have been implemented. Within the AHCAL, the synchronisation of the self-triggered hits is based on the bunch crossing ID (BXID), the cycle number of the slow bunch clock. Synchronisation with other detectors can be achieved with the help of a time stamp with 25 ns resolution or a trigger number.
For this purpose, an external trigger signal, e. g. from a trigger scintillator, can be supplied to the AHCAL DAQ hardware. The synchronisation with other detectors and the data storage was handled by EUDAQ2 Data Collectors. The data were stored in a raw data format, and as LCIO  [51]  files for analysis. To reduce the data volume, pure noise events were suppressed in the LCIO file by storing only data for BXIDs with an external trigger signal. However, in the raw files all data were kept, such that a later re-creation of the LCIO files was possible. The readout speed depends strongly on the event size, which varies in self-triggered events due to the online zero-suppression. For the configuration with 38 modules, the typical sustained event rate was between 120 and 400 electron or pion showers per second, reaching up to 600 events per second for muons.
An example of event rates obtained during the beam spills in the data taking in May 2018 is shown in figure  4b. For LED calibration data, where all channels need to be read out, the online conversion to LCIO turned out to be a bottleneck. Therefore, these events were first stored only in raw data format and afterwards converted to LCIO. Nevertheless, the rate was limited to about 80 LED triggers per second. Typical sizes for one event in raw (LCIO) data format were 7-10 kB (3-5 kB) for muons, 10-17 kB (3-11 kB) for electrons and 28 kB (18 kB) for 100 GeV pion showers. During the beam tests, several methods for data monitoring were used. A very first cross check was provided by the LabView DAQ program, which shows event rates and raw data information per ASIC. EUDAQ2 also provides a simple online monitor, which was used to display hit positions in the layers and monitor the beam position.
It consists of a laser head with 12 fibres, and a base plate that can hold up to 144 SiPMs. The SiPMs are read out with 12 KLauS2  [55]  ASICs, whose signals are multiplexed and sent to a 12-channel ADC. The tests were done in a temperature-controlled environment at 25 • C. The measurements  [56]  comprise the breakdown voltage, the dark count rate, the cross talk and the gain for all devices. The temperature dependence of the breakdown voltage was determined only for a sub-sample, since it is a very time consuming measurement. Out of the 40 batches, 5 showed one outlier outside of the required 200 mV window for the breakdown voltage. The maximum window size containing all breakdown voltages of a batch was 270 mV. At 5 V overvoltage, the average dark count rate was measured to be 74 kHz, in agreement with the data sheet and well below our requirement of less than 500 kHz.
For ASIC configuration and readout, the test board is connected to a set of interface boards (CIB, DIF, POWER, CALIB), which are steered from a mini-LDA and a CCC. The measurement of the input DACs was performed with an Embedded Local Monitor Board (ELMB), which has originally been designed for the ATLAS experiment. For the tests, a dedicated LabView program was used that was derived from the AHCAL DAQ software. Around 850 ASICs have been tested. Most measurements were performed for three settings of the preamplifier feedback capacitors of 100 fF, 200 fF and 600 fF, the setting foreseen for beam operation. The following measurements were performed: Input DACs: The linearity of the 8-bit input DACs for the channel-wise adjustment of the SiPM bias voltage was tested for six values in the full range between 0 and 255.
HBU Functional Test with LEDs Once the electronics assembly is done, a functional test of the HBU can be done with the help of the LED system. For this the HBU is placed with the SiPMs facing a reflective surface and connected to the standard DAQ chain. This tests the complete signal chain, but does not yet allow a calibration, since the light output is not defined without the tiles. The test has been performed for all HBUs, and a few problems were spotted. Two bad HBUs were identified which have a short within the PCB that was impossible to repair. This led to only 38 modules being assembled in the end instead of the 40 we had originally planned. On the 158 working HBUs, in total one dead channel (out of 22, 752 channels) was found.
Module Assembly and Commissioning Four HBUs with SiPMs with the same operating voltage, a CIB with DIF, POWER and CALIB mezzanines and a SIB were assembled into a module (see figure  6 ). These modules were kept in their respective configuration, no re-arrangement of components was done. The assembled modules were connected to a small DAQ system and tested with LEDs. Afterwards, they were installed in horizontal position in a dedicated test stand for cosmic rays  [57] , that also provided position information with a few mm resolution, using a scintillator hodoscope constructed by the University of Tokyo. The last step in the module commissioning was a preliminary calibration performed in the DESY test beam facility with electrons of 3 GeV. Without additional absorber plates, up to five modules (including cassettes) could be calibrated in parallel, with the electrons penetrating all modules as quasi-MIPs.
Prototype Assembly and Test with Cosmic Rays After the successful commissioning of all modules, they were installed in the absorber stack. Based on the results from tests of the individual modules, the few modules showing dead channels were placed in the back. The modules were installed and connected to the DAQ one by one, making sure at each step that installed layers were showing LED signals in external trigger mode. The main difficulty in this step are the flex-lead connections that sometimes mechanically disconnect and require a removal and re-installation of a module. In this configuration, the LED calibration procedure was tuned to run with all layers in parallel. In addition, the full detector was operated in self-triggered mode for about 20 hours. The detector was running stably during that time.
Calibration The goal of the calibration procedure presented here is to convert the measurement from electronics units to a physics scale: for the amplitude measurement from ADC bins to the energy deposition of a MIP, and for the time measurement from TDC bins to nanoseconds. This equalises the response of all cells, and allows a prediction of the detector response to electromagnetic and hadronic showers. All measured energies are converted from the ADC scale to the MIP scale, according to 𝐸 𝑖 [MIP] = ( 𝐴 𝑖 [ADC] -Ped 𝑖 [ADC]) × 𝐼𝐶 𝑖 MIP 𝑖 × 𝑓 -1 sat,𝑖 ( 𝐴 𝑖 [pixel] ) with (5. 1) The MIP conversion factor MIP 𝑖 of each cell is determined using the approximately minimum ionizing muons, while the conversion factor to pixels Gain 𝑖 is extracted from externally triggered LED runs. For each data taking mode, the corresponding pedestals are extracted from runs with the same conditions.
Photos of the setup are shown in figure  11. It was operated with and without power pulsing, enabling a direct comparison between the two modes. All data were taken with temperature compensation (see section 2. 5). The prototype was exposed to negative muon, electron and negative pion beams. In order to monitor the stability of the MIP calibration, muons were collected at the beginning and the end of the data taking, with energies of 40 and 120 GeV. Electrons with energies between 10 and 100 GeV and pions between 10 and 160 GeV were measured. In order to determine the gain inter-calibration factors, for some runs the hit time information was dropped, and the amplitude was read out in high gain and in low gain modes. For the second beam period of one week in June 2018, one module with 6 × 6 cm 2 scintillator tiles was added.
It was installed in the 38 th absorber gap, and the module previously installed there was moved to the 41 st gap. In addition, the setup was extended by a pre-shower layer consisting of one HBU in front of the prototype, and a tail catcher behind it. The tail catcher consisted of twelve layers of one HBU each between absorbers of 7. 4 cm thick steel. These HBUs were equipped with older SiPMs and some of them with a different tile geometry. The tail catcher was read out with a second wing-LDA which was fully integrated into the AHCAL DAQ. The complete setup was installed on the x-y-table. Since the experience in May had been positive, all data were taken with power pulsing as well as temperature compensation. Muons of 40 GeV energy, positrons between 10 and 100 GeV and negative pions between 10 and 200 GeV were measured.
Due to improved beam steering, impurities observed in May for electrons and low energy pions could be reduced. In October 2018, the AHCAL prototype with 39 layers was operated together with the prototype for the silicon part of the CMS HGCAL  [59, 60]  for two weeks. Due to the size of the complete setup, it had to be installed on a fixed platform. Since the AHCAL prototype was placed behind the HGCAL prototype with a thickness of about 5 nuclear interaction lengths, only muons and the tails of hadron showers reached the AHCAL. The synchronisation of the two prototypes was implemented in EUDAQ2. The data taking rate was limited by the HGCAL prototype to about 50 events per second, resulting in about 2. 5 million events in the AHCAL prototype. During the five weeks of beam time and additional time of LED and cosmics data taking before, the DAQ operated reliably.
Detector Stability The stability of the detector operation was monitored in several ways: during a testbeam period, short LED runs were recorded daily, allowing the stability of the pedestal as well as the gain to be monitored on short time scales. Long LED runs in inter-calibration mode as well as muon data runs were recorded in all three testbeam periods, such that the long-term stability of the gain, the inter-calibration factor and the MIP calibration factor could also be monitored. The pedestal values were found to be stable on short and long time scales, they are consistent between all three testbeam periods. The stability of the gain, the inter-calibration factors and the MIP calibration factors between the beam test periods was excellent: the gain showed a mean shift of significantly less than a percent and a channel-by-channel spread of the shift of around 1%; the inter-calibration factors showed a mean ratio of 1.