dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Study site The study used wild populations of A. gambiae s. l. and natural gametocytes of P. falciparum. Data were collected during four consecutive years, from 2007 to 2010, in the rainy season (August-November). Mosquitoes were collected as stage 3 and 4 larvae at the site of Goundry (12°30' N and 1°30' W), a rural village in the Sudan-Savanna ecological zone located 35 km north-east of Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso. The landscape is modified by human activity, creating many mosquito breeding sites during the rainy season, including a dam, mud brick pits, small ponds, hoof prints, puddles, and streams. Four population groups of A. gambiae s. l. are sympatric in and around Goundry, the A. gambiae s. s. groups M, S, and Goundry, and sibling species A. arabiensis  [19, 28]. The susceptibility of the Goundry subgroup to P.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank  Christopher Brent Murray  for critical review of the manuscript,  Estelle Devevre  from the  Plateforme d'imagerie, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, UMR S 872, Paris, France  and  Anne-Marie Faussat  from the  Plateformes Cytométrie et Imagerie ,  IFR65 ,  Faculté de médecine Saint-Antoine, Paris. This work was supported by grants from  INSERM ,  ANR  blanc ( AO5120DD ),  ANR   Maladies Neurologiques et Psychiatriques  ( ANR-08-MNPS-003 ),  ANR  Geno 2009 ( R09099DS ),  ANR   Programme Emergence 2012  ( ANR-EMMA-050 ), and  ERC starting Grant  ( ERC-2007  St. G. 210345) FS and CC are recipients of a contract 'Interface' from  Assistance Publique-Hopitaux de Paris.
Axon length measurements All the grooves were photographed under epifluorescence and the length of the axon was measured with Matlab. The imaging algorithm consists of first enhancing contrast and brightness, then binarizing the image (threshold value manually optimized for each image), then applying a Hough transformation and finally measuring the gap between the channel edge and the end of the axon. For each voltage and frequency, we defined the standardized axon length as the ratio of the distance between the observed axon length  (AL on Fig 2a)  and the distance between the edge of the channel and the first electrode  (DCE on Fig 2b). For the axon-lock system, the axon lengths were measured with the same algorithm than previously. When the growth cone was hidden by the electrodes, the position was assumed to be the middle of the electrode itself with an error of the electrode width.
Action potential recording Action potentials were recorded through the microelectrodes themselves in the axon-lock triangle chip. Microelectrodes from the same microchannel were connected as stimulation and as recording electrodes via the ZIF module. A pulse generator (TTi) was linked to a current converter (Isolator-10, Axon Instruments) then to the stimulation electrodes. The recording electrodes were linked to a lock-in amplifier (×10 4 gain, ISO-80, World Precision Instruments) and to a PC oscilloscope (PicoScope, PC oscilloscope software). The signals were then exported into Matlab and temporally synchronized.
Acknowledgments This project was funded by a post-doctoral grant from the  French "Direction Générale des Armées" (DGA)  and the  "Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique" (CNRS)  and  NIH   R01 EUREKA Award  ( R01-NS066352 ). The authors are gratefully thankful to  Yong-Ak Song  for his help with action potential recordings.
Very high-energy γ-ray emission from PKS 0447-439 was detected with the H. E. S. S. Cherenkov telescope array in December 2009. This blazar is one of the brightest extragalactic objects in the Fermi Bright Source List and has a hard spectrum in the MeV to GeV range. In the TeV range, a photon index of 3. 89 ± 0. 37 (stat) ± 0. 22 (sys) and a flux normalisation at 1 TeV, Φ 1TeV = (3. 5 ± 1. 1(stat) ± 0. 9(sys)) × 10 -13 cm -2 s -1 TeV -1 were found. The detection with H. E. S. S. triggered observations in the X-ray band with the Swift and RXTE telescopes. Simultaneous UV and optical data from Swift UVOT and data from the optical telescopes ATOM and ROTSE are also available. The spectrum and light curve measured with H. E. S. S. are presented and compared to the multi-wavelength data at lower energies.
E. S. S. analysis, using an updated analysis chain, are presented, together with simultaneous data at other wavelengths. Constraints on the emission processes and on the redshift of the source are discussed. Details on the VHE data analysis are provided in Section 2. The discovery of VHE emission triggered observations of the source with the RXTE and Swift space telescopes in the X-ray, UV and optical bands. All the available multi-wavelength (MWL) data, including also optical data from the ATOM and ROTSE telescopes, situated on the H. E. S. S. site, are presented in Section 3. The spectral energy distribution (SED) and the temporal flux evolution in different energy bands are discussed in Section 4. The comparison of the spectra measured with Fermi-LAT and H. E. S. S. is used to derive a firm upper limit on the redshift of the source.
H. E. S. S. data analysis A total of 13. 5 hours of good quality data were taken between November 2009 and January 2010 at the source position of PKS 0447-439 with the Cherenkov telescopes of the H. E. S. S. array, located in the Khomas highland in Namibia. Data taken when less than three of the four telescopes were fully operational have been rejected. Most of the data presented here are from December 2009. Only 0. 9 hr of observations from November 2009 and 0. 4 hr from January 2010 were kept in the final data set after standard quality selection  (Aharonian et al. 2006). Zenith angles of the observations range from 20 • to 26 •. Data were analysed using the model analysis (de Naurois & Rolland 2009), which yields a more than twice as high significance for this source than a standard Hillas-type analysis  (Aharonian et al.
5 ± 1. 1) × 10 -13 cm - 2  s -1 TeV -1. The equivalent χ 2 of the fit is 36 for 26 degrees of freedom (d. o. f. ) with a chance probability of 0. 1. The systematic uncertainty in the flux normalisation is about 25%. There is no significant indication for a spectral break or curvature in the observed spectrum. The nightly binned integrated flux above 250 GeV has been extracted using the measured photon index (cf. Table  1  and Fig. 2 ). No significant signal is seen during the short observation time in November 2009 and January 2010. A fit of a constant to the nightly binned fluxes detected only during December 2009, weighted by the statistical uncertainties, yields an average flux level of (4. 7±1. 0)×10 -1  cm -2 s -1 with a χ 2 of 16. 3 for 9 d. o. f. and a chance probability of 0. 06. When including the data from November and January in the fit (in nightly bins), a lower average flux of (3.
X-ray data from RXTE and Swift XRT The discovery of a VHE signal from PKS 0447-439 triggered observations with the RXTE and Swift space telescopes. In December 2009, 11 pointings were taken with the PCA units of RXTE  (Jahoda et al. 1996). The STANDARD2 data were extracted using the HEASOFT 6. 9 analysis software package provided by NASA/GSFC, and filtered using the RXTE Guest Observer Facility (GOF) recommended criteria. Only signals from the top layer of the PCA were selected. The faint background model was applied. Due to low statistics, the data from several consecutive pointings had to be added together to allow the extraction of energy spectra (cf. Table  2 ). The spectra were extracted between 3 and 12 keV using XSPEC v. 12. 6. 0, with a fixed column density of N H = 1. 24 × 10 20 cm -2  (Kalberla et al.
Ultra-violet and optical data from Swift UVOT, ATOM and ROTSE Simultaneously to the Swift XRT pointings, observations in the ultra-violet (UV) and optical bands were made with the Swift UVOT instrument  (Roming et al. 2005). Data were taken with the six available filters (v, b, u, UVW1, UVM2, UVW2 -in order of increasing frequency). UVOT counts were extracted within a radius of 5 arcseconds centered on the source. Flux densities have been extracted with uvotmaghist v1. 1 and have been multiplied with the central wavelength of each filter  (Poole et al. 2008). Galactic extinction has been corrected for, following  Roming et al. (2009) , with an extinction coefficient E B-V = 0. 014  (Schlegel et al. 1998). The light curves are included in Fig. 5  and nightly averaged fluxes are listed in Table  4.
Apart from the data from the Swift UVOT instrument, optical data are also available over longer intervals from the ground-based ATOM  (Hauser et al. 2004 ) and ROTSE-IIIc  (Akerlof et al. 2003 ) telescopes, both located on the H. E. S. S. site. Data from the 75 cm ATOM telescope are available in the B and R bands from September 2009 to December 2012. During the H. E. S. S. campaign, only few observations were taken in the B band and some of them were of insufficient quality to yield acceptable flux measurements due to the presence of clouds. A 4 arcsecond radius of aperture was used to extract the data. In the R band, the ATOM light curve (Fig. 5 ) shows a slow flux decrease in December 2009. In the 2009 ATOM data and up to mid 2010, the magnitude increased by about 0. 7 mag. The source was still in a relatively high flux state in December 2009 as compared to the following months.
On longer time scales, variations of about 1 mag were observed, and the source reached again about the same flux level as in December 2009 by the end of 2010 and by the end of 2011. ROTSE has a wide field of view (1. 85 • ×1. 85 • ) and is operated without filters. A relative R magnitude is derived by comparison of the instrumental magnitude with the USNO catalogue  (Akerlof et al. 2000). The ROTSE light curve, included in Fig. 5 , shows the same slow flux decrease during December 2009 as seen in the ATOM data. Long-term optical data taken with ROTSE between 2005 and 2010 confirm that the optical flux was decreasing, but in a relatively high state in December 2009. The data from both instruments have been corrected for Galactic absorption as described above.
However, the fit of a constant to the light curve has a χ 2 of 75. 3 for 24 d. o. f. , corresponding to a chance probability of less than 10 -6 , which indicates a deviation from a constant flux after the stable period between MJD 55050 and MJD 55185 (cf. Sec. 3. 1), notably due to the low fluxes on MJD 55195 and MJD 55207. When comparing the H. E. S. S. and Fermi-LAT light curves, it can be seen that the absence of a positive excess in the H. E. S. S. data in November 2009 is reflected in the absence of a signal in the Fermi-LAT flux for the same night where the H. E. S. S. data were taken. Rapid variability on nightly time scales is clearly detected in the X-ray data (third panel). Fits to a constant of the Swift XRT and RXTE PCA light curves yield chance probabilities below 10 -15. The fractional RMS variability amplitude for the data Table  2.
Hard X-ray spectra measured with RXTE/PCA. The columns provide for each pointing the start t 0 and end t 1 of observations (in MJD), the live time ∆t (in seconds), the count rate (per second), the integrated deabsorbed flux between 2 and 10 keV (in units of 10 -11 erg cm -2 s -1 ), the photon index, reduced χ 2 and the number of degrees of freedom. Data from the observations in the second to fourth row and in the sixth to ninth row have been summed up to extract spectra with improved statistics. The columns provide for each night the start t 0 and end t 1 of observations (in MJD), the live time δt (in seconds), the count rate (per second), the integrated deabsorbed flux between 0. 3 and 4 keV (in 10 -11 erg cm -2 s -1 ), the photon index below the break energy, the break energy (in keV), the photon index above the break energy, the reduced χ 2 and the number of degrees of freedom.
For nights where no break energy is given, Γ 1 is the photon index for a power law over the whole energy range. t 0 t 1 δt CR F(0. 3 -4 keV) Γ 1 E break Γ 2 χ 2 t F v F b F u F UVW1 F UV M2 F UVW2 55182 4. 81 ± 0. 12 * 5. 16 ± 0. 14 * 5. erg cm -2 s -1. Errors represent the RMS spread between points for nights where more than one measurement was available (marked with an asterisk *) and the statistical uncertainty in the single measurement otherwise. from XRT is F var =0. 22 ± 0. 01 and for PCA F var =0. 32 ± 0. 05. In the hard X-ray band (2-10 keV), data from RXTE PCA show a flare on MJD 55185 (December 20). The flux drops to about half its peak value on the following night. As far as can be concluded from the limited statistics available, the flare is not accompanied by any significant spectral variation.
When looking at the nightly averaged UV fluxes, the flux increase in the UVOT data between MJD 55182 and MJD 55183 is not significant, but there is evidence of a flux decrease of about 10% between MJD 55183, where the X-ray flare is seen, and the following night (see Fig. 6  and Table 4 ). In the optical band (last panel of Fig. 5 ), flux variations during the period where the X-ray flares are seen are not statistically significant (with a 2% chance probability for a fit of a constant to the light curve in the UVOT v-filter), but there is an indication for a flux decrease between MJD 55183 and the following night in the v-and b-filters observed with Swift UVOT. This is not visible in the R band, covered with ATOM and ROTSE. ATOM data in the B band suffer from large uncertainties during several nights, since these observations are affected by clouds, and no significant variation was detected.
Spectral energy distribution The spectral energy distribution of PKS 0447-439 is presented in Fig. 7  (the models are discussed in Section 5). The VHE spectrum is not corrected for absorption by the EBL, since it depends on the unknown redshift of the source. The spectral slope is very steep, which might be at least partially due to absorption on the EBL. In the high-energy γ-ray band, the rather flat Fermi-LAT spectrum, extracted over a period of more than four months of relatively constant flux (cf. Section 3. 1), suggests a wide peak, followed by the steep spectrum in the VHE range. In the X-ray range, the combined spectrum including Swift XRT and RXTE PCA data for MJD 55184 is included in the SED. These data represent an average flux level between the observed peak and the lowest observed flux in the Swift XRT light curve.
Swift UVOT data and optical data from the ATOM telescope are also included for this night. The optical and X-ray data have been corrected for Galactic absorption as described in Section 4. 1. Archival radio data from several catalogues (PKSCAT90,  Wright & Otrupcek (1990) ; PMN,  Wright et al. (1994) ; SUMSS,  Mauch et al. (2003) ; CRATES,  Healey et al. (2007) ; AT20G,  Murphy et al. (2010) ;  ATPMN, McConnel et al. (2012) ) have been added to the SED. The SED clearly shows the double-bumped structure that is characteristic of BL Lac objects. The peak frequency of the highenergy bump is relatively well constrained with the information from the Fermi-LAT and H. E. S. S. data, if a certain redshift of the source and EBL model are assumed. The detection of a flare in X-rays and a correlated variation in the UV flux suggests a common origin for the emission in these wavelength bands (at least above the R band).
Upper limit on the redshift of PKS 0447-439 The combined Fermi-LAT and H. E. S. S. data set is used to derive an upper limit on the redshift of the source. No assumptions are made on the source emission characteristics, other than excluding spectral upturns beyond the Fermi-LAT energy band, which are not expected in general and would be theoretically difficult to account for. One case of a spectral upturn at high energies might have been seen during a flare of Mrk 501  (Neronov Semikoz & Taylor). Lefa, Aharonian & Rieger (2011)  interpret this hypothetical spectral upturn as resulting from the combination of several emission regions in a leptonic scenario with Maxwell-like particle disbributions. The observational evidence for this feature, however, is weak. For PKS 0447-439 , there is no indication of an upturn in the Fermi-LAT data.
Spectral upturns might also occur in a scenario where the γ-ray flux in the Fermi-LAT band suffers from internal absorption in the source, e. g. on emission from the Broad Line Region (BLR)  (Senturk et al. 2011; Poutanen & Stern 2012)  or from the accretion disk or torus (e. g. Donea & Protheroe 2003) , and recovers in the VHE band (see also  Zacharopoulou et al. 2011 ). However, the absence of line features in the optical spectra from BL Lac objects in general suggests that emission from the BLR is negligible in these sources. In the case of PKS 0447-439, the available optical spectra, as discussed in Section 1, do not show any significant features, except for absorption lines from the Earth's atmosphere. The γ-ray data from PKS 0447-439 are best described by power laws, with no indication for absorption on internal photon fields.
6×10 15 cm for the upper limit of z=0. 59, derived in Section 4. 3. These values are not unusual for BL Lac objects. The synchrotron and SSC peaks are not directly detected, but the peak frequencies can be constrained from the available data. The high flux level and hard spectrum in the optical and UV band, compared to the relatively low flux in the X-ray band, exclude a synchrotron peak position that is too far above the UV data and imply a peak frequency between 10 15 and 10 16 Hz in the observer's frame. In the Thomson limit, the Lorentz factor at the break in the electron spectrum (γ br ) is defined by the ratio of the observed synchrotron and SSC peak frequencies, ν s and ν c , respectively  (Tavecchio et al. 1998) : γ br = 3ν c 4ν s 1/2. (3) This implies a value of γ br between 10 4 and 10 5 , when assuming an SSC peak position between 10 24 and 10 26 Hz.
Acknowledgements. The support of the  Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia  in facilitating the construction and operation of H. E. S. S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the  German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) , the  Max Planck Society , the  German Research Foundation (DFG) , the  French Ministry for Research , the  CNRS-IN2P3  and the  Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS , the  U. K. Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) , the  IPNP of the Charles University , the  Czech Science Foundation , the  Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education , the  South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation , and by the  University of Namibia. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in  Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay , and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment.
Drift GED The GED drift is classical section (radius of 2. 3 m) with a counter vault, supported by bolts, sliding arches and 10 cm thick layer of fiber shotcrete. The shotcrete is cut to allow sliding of the arches at a defined load. Due to location of drift GED, no borehole could be installed before the excavation work (Fig. 2 ). Convergences were measured in 6 sections and two sections of extensometers have been emplaced (one during the work and one after). Numerous boreholes have been drilled and cored for different experiments and a consistent data set was provided for induced fractured analysis.
Tree detection and reconstruction is of great interest in large-scale city modelling. In this paper, we present a marked point process model to detect single trees from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data. We consider single trees in ALS recovered canopy height model (CHM) as a realization of point process of circles. Unlike traditional marked point process, we sample the model in a constraint configuration space by making use of image process techniques. A Gibbs energy is defined on the model, containing a data term which judge the fitness of the model with respect to the data, and prior term which incorporate the prior knowledge of object layouts. We search the optimal configuration through a steepest gradient descent algorithm. The presented hybrid framework was test on three forest plots and experiments show the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Motivation Marked point processes offer a powerful tool for the inclusion of constraints in the prior at object level. But the model is linked with images via a data term measured using hypothesis testing schema. This inherited property of stochastic model requires explorations of huge configuration spaces in order to find the optimal configuration, especially for non-data-driven model which does not make use of any low-level information that can be extracted from images. The optimization process of such model is usually computationally expensive and takes a long time to converge. Methods have been proposed to overcome this drawback in traditional marked point process  (Descombes et al. , 2009). This paper proposes to combine the virtue of marked point process and traditional image process techniques, and presents a hybrid framework to detect single trees from ALS data.
Experimental Data The study area is a boreal mature coniferous forest located in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region, Ontario, Canada, near a power line corridor. Discrete ALS data was acquired over the study area by Riegl LMS-Q560 in August, 2009. The forests has intermediate dense canopy with some open space. The canopy height is homogenous with average height of about 20m. There are some small white pines and shrubs growing in the understory of about 2-3m. Three plots with size of 82 × 95 m, 50 × 50 m and 80 × 80 m, were selected to test the proposed single tree detection model (see Figure  5 (a)-(c)). The CHM images for each plot were produced with a resolution of 0. 5m.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS We have proposed a hybrid framework to detect single trees from ALS data by combining of marked point processes and low-level image processing techniques of local maxima filtering and marker-controlled watershed segmentation. In this model, tree crowns in ALS recovered CHM are considered as a realization of a point process of circles, which enables to take into account both the geometric characteristics and pair-wise interactions of objects in the configuration. Local maxima filtering and marker-controlled watershed segmentation are employed to produce low-level representation of the image, which provides a constraint configuration space for the marked point process to sample for the optimal configuration. Experimental results on real forest plots showed the proposed model has an improvement in detection quality over the traditional local maxima filtering.
Acknowledgements We thank  Mr. Maurille Ouamba , Dean of the  Faculty of Sciences in Marien Ngouabi University (Brazzaville-Congo ), and the  Scholarships National Agency of Gabon. This work is supported by the authorities of  INSU/CNRS  (GLANEC Projects 1 and 2). We thank  Ms Laurence Vidal ,  Mr Didi  the  GLANEC Project. Our st entific and technical suppo scie Pytheas Institute. We also thank  Mr. Bruno Tourlière  for his pre-review and  Mr. Michael Carpenter  for his translation.
Mannans are hydrolyzed by the coordinated action of several types of glycoside hydrolases (GH) among which endo-b-1,4 mannanases (EC 3. 2. 1. 78) are the key enzymes that depolymerize the mannan backbone. They are encountered in families GH5, GH26 and GH113 in the CAZy database  [4, 5]. Beta-mannanases are useful in several industrial processes such as reduction of viscosity of coffee extracts  [6]  or biobleaching of softwood Kraft pulp  [7]  and it is now acknowledged that they will become increasingly important for the biorefining of lignocellulose, especially from softwood biomass  [8] [9] [10] [11]. In the biorefinery process, enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass is one of the major bottlenecks due to the recalcitrance of the plant cell wall and the high cost of enzymes, mainly due to the fact that large amounts are required to breakdown lignocellulose to fermentable sugars  [12] [13] [14].