dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Observations and Data Reduction This section reports our spectroscopic observations with FOCAS IFU  (Ozaki et al. 2020). FOCAS IFU is an IFU with an image slicer installed in FOCAS  (Kashikawa et al. 2002)  mounted on a Cassegrain focus of the Subaru 8. 2 m telescope. The large diameter of the Subaru Telescope allows FOCAS IFU to perform deep integral-field spectroscopy with a 5σ limiting flux of ∼1 × 10 -17 erg s -1 cm -2 arcsec -2  (Ozaki et al. 2020). 41  The field of view (FoV) of FOCAS IFU is 13 5 (slice length direction; hereafter, X direction)×10 0 (slice width direction; hereafter, Y direction). The pixel scale in a reduced data cube is 0 215 (X direction) and 0 435 (Y direction). We carried out spectroscopy with FOCAS IFU for the six EMPGs (Section 2). The observing nights were 2021 August 13, November 24, and December 13.
We set pointing positions so that the whole structures of EMPGs are covered with single FoVs. We used the mid/high-dispersion grism of VPH680 offering the spectral resolution of R ∼ 7500. We took comparison frames of the ThAr lamp. We observed Feige67, HZ44, BD28, Feige110, and Feige34 as standard stars. All the nights were clear with seeing sizes of ∼0 7. We use a reduction pipeline software of FOCAS IFU 42  based on PyRAF  (Tody 1986 ) and Astropy  (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013). The software performs bias subtraction, flatfielding, cosmic-ray cleaning, sky subtraction, wavelength calibration with the comparison frames, and flux calibration. We estimate flux errors containing read-out noises and photon noises of sky and object emissions. It should be noted that there remain systematic velocity differences among the slices even after the wavelength calibration with the comparison frames.
Parametric Method We conduct detailed dynamical modeling with the 3D parametric code GalPaK 3D  (Bouché et al. 2015). Simultaneously constraining the morphological and kinematic properties from 3D data cubes, GalPaK 3D provides the deprojected maximum rotational velocity (v rot ) that is irrespective of the inclination. GalPaK 3D also calculates σ 0 free from the velocity dispersions driven by the self gravity (e. g. ,  Genzel et al. 2008)  or mixture of the line-of-sight velocities. Because GalPaK 3D does not support rectangular spaxels, we divide the spaxels in the Y direction based on the linear interpolation so that the pixel scale in the Y direction is the same as that in the X direction. We have 10 free parameters of XY coordinates of the disk center, systemic redshift, flux, inclination (i), position angle, effective radius of Hα (r e,Hα ), turnover radius (r t ), v rot , and intrinsic velocity dispersion σ 0.
Stellar Mass Profile The stellar masses of four out of the six EMPGs (J1631 +4426, J2115-1734, IZw18NW, and SBS0335-052E) are drawn from the literature (Paper I;  Izotov & Thuan 1998; Izotov et al. 2009). For the other two targets (J1044+0353 and HS0822+3542), we provide here an estimate of their stellar mass. We use the spectral energy distribution (SED) interpretation code of BEAGLE  (Chevallard & Charlot 2016). The BEAGLE code calculates both the stellar continuum and the nebular emission using the stellar population synthesis code  (Bruzual & Charlot 2003)  and the nebular emission library of  Gutkin et al. (2016)  that are computed with the photoionization code CLOUDY  (Ferland et al. 2013). We fit the SED models to the SDSS ugriz-band photometries (DR16;  Ahumada et al. 2020). We run the BEAGLE code with four free parameters, namely, the maximum stellar age t max , stellar mass M * , ionization parameter U, and V-band optical depth τ V whose parametric ranges are the same as those adopted in Papers III and IV.
Acknowledgments We are grateful to  Yoshiaki Sofue ,  Alessandro Romeo , and  Roberto Terlevich  for having useful discussions. We also thank the staff of  Subaru Telescope  for their help with the observations. This research is based on data collected at the  Subaru Telescope , which is operated by the  National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). We are honored and grateful for the opportunity of observing the universe from Maunakea, which has the cultural, historical, and natural significance in Hawaii. The Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) collaboration includes the astronomical communities of  Japan and Taiwan , and  Princeton University. The HSC instrumentation and software were developed by the  NAOJ , the  Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (Kavli IPMU) , the  University of Tokyo , the  High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) , the  Academia Sinica Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics in Taiwan (ASIAA) , and  Princeton University.
Based on data collected at the  Subaru Telescope  and retrieved from the HSC data archive system, which is operated by  Subaru Telescope and Astronomy Data Center at NAOJ. This work was supported by the  joint research program  of the  Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) ,  University of Tokyo. Y. I. , K. N. , Y. H. , T. K. , and M. O. are supported by  JSPS KAKENHI  grant Nos. 20H01895 ,  21K13909 , and  21H05447. Y. H. is supported by  JSPS KAKENHI  grant Nos. 21J00153 ,  20K14532 ,  21H04499 ,  21K03614 , and  22H01259. H. Y. is supported by  MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI  grant No. 21H04489  and  JST FOREST Program  grant No. JP-MJFR202Z. J. H. K acknowledges support from the  National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) , grant Nos. 2020R1A2C3011091  and  2021M3F7A1084525 , funded by the  Korea government (MSIT).
This work has been supported by the  Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)   Grantsin-Aid for Scientific Research  ( 19H05076  and  21H01128 ). This work has also been supported in part by the  Sumitomo Foundation Fiscal   2018 Grant for Basic Science Research Projects  ( 180923 ), and the  Collaboration Funding of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics "New   Development of the Studies on Galaxy Evolution with a Method of Data Science. " The  Cosmic Dawn Center  is funded by the  Danish National Research Foundation  under grant No. 140. S. F. acknowledges support from the  European Research Council (ERC)   Consolidator Grant  funding scheme (project  ConTExt , grant No. 648179 ). This project has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under the  Marie Sklodowska-Curie  grant agreement No.
2023  for additional details). The LVK consortium has recently published a study on the impact of lensing on the GW detection rate and on searching for multiple images due to strong lensing within the events of the first half of O3, concluding against the occurrence of lensing  (Abbott et al. 2021c  ). This study relied on the analysis of the GW data stream by LVK. We argue for the need of optical follow-up observations of candidate lensed GW sources in order to localize the source to a gravitational lens -i. e. sub-arcsecond accuracy. This is currently not achie v able with the LVK data alone, despite the impro v ements in sk y localization achieved with three detectors  (Abbott et al. 2017a , b , c ). This moti v ates concentrating on lensed BNS mergers because BNSs are now confirmed as being associated with EM counterpart, i.
5log ( μ), equalling m ≈ 30. Therefore, lensing is crucial not only to boost the EM counterpart signal, but also necessary to access BNS mergers at redshift z 1. This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 , we motivate our observational strategy and summarize the GW events from LVK's third run that we have targeted in our follow-up campaign. In Section 3 , we describe the data reduction and analysis. In Section 4 , we introduce the assumptions and models used for assessing the impact of lensing on the detectability of BNS mergers and their EM counterparts, and present the models of KN light curves that we use to validate our follo w-up observ ations. In Section 5 , we discuss the physical interpretation of our observations and the candidates that we observed. We close by summarizing our results in Section 6 , and by discussing the impact of posterior parameters on the observing strategy of future campaigns.
Observing strategy and target selection Our intent is to obtain new observations of strong lensing cluster cores soon after the detection of a GW event, to search for EM transients Downloaded from https://academic. oup. com/mnras/article/521/3/3421/7069348 by University of Durham user on 24 May 2023 Table  1. Summary of the salient posteriors and their 90 per cent confidence interval of the confirmed GW events considered in this study, from LVK data release assuming no lensing. From left to right, name of the confirmed GW event, trigger ID, mass gap probability released by LVK with low latency, individual masses and chirp mass of the binary, luminosity distance, redshift, network match-filtered SNR, and credible area of the sky localization from  Abbott et al. ( 2021a )   by comparing them to archi v al data sest and to communicate the finding within the transient community to extend the follow-up efforts.
GW200115 042309 The event (announced as S200115j) was detected on 2020 January 15 at 04:23:09. 742 UTC with false alarm rate of ≈ 1 in 10 3 yr and a mass gap probability > 94 per cent. The initial skymap produced by the online pipeline BAYESTAR was updated three times within a few hours of the initial event release. As suggested in the LIGO/Virgo GCN 26759, the third skymap release was the preferred choice presenting a 50 per cent sky probability of 186 deg 2. The mass gap probability was updated to > 99 per cent and distance 331 ± 97 Mpc. Within this skymap, we identified three strong lensing clusters including Abell 370 ( z = 0. 38, Einstein radius: 45 arcsec). The cluster is the closest to the sky localization peak and located at p = 0. 163 corresponding to an area = 31. 53 deg 2. Due to the large Einstein radius of the cluster, together with the plethora of ancillary archi v al data which include deep multiband HST imaging, serving as reference image for our science case, we triggered a 1-h observation with Gemini South in the z band (program ID: GS-2020A-Q-136).
DATA C O L L E C T I O N A N D A NA LY S I S Our choice to use the Gemini telescopes is moti v ated primarily by the 5. 5 sq. arcmin field of view of the GMOS instrument, which is large enough to co v er the typical angular extent of the strong lensing region of the clusters in our sample, together with the capability of accessing both northern and southern sky. In addition, we used  Notes. a The airmass at the mid-point of the observation. b Mean full width at half maximum of point sources in the reduced data. c 5 σ point source sensitivity within a photometric aperture of diameter 2 arcsec , estimated from the magnitude at which the photometric uncertainty is 0. 2 mag. Director Discretionary Time at the UKIRT telescope to access the WFCAM instrument, whose field of view is well matched to the size of the ICECUBE localization uncertainty of the neutrino detection discussed abo v e.
Gemini obser v ations Our target of opportunity observing programmes at the Gemini Observatory co v ered the duration of LVK's third run, from 2019 April to 2020 May (Program IDs GN-2019B-Q-205, GN-2020A-Q-139, and GS-2020A-Q-136; PI: Bianconi). Each of these programs allowed for a single 1-h visit with the GMOS instrument on the Gemini-North and South telescopes. Table  3  summarizes the conditions and integration time of the individual observations. We have applied the same data reduction pipeline to each cluster observation, as described hereafter. Individual GMOS exposures were de-biased, dark-subtracted, flatfielded, and de-fringed using Gemini DRAGONS Python package 1 , to produce a single science frame per exposure comprising the mosaiced individual chips. The individual exposure frames are stacked to produce a single frame per visit, after masking bad pixels.
Photometric calibration The angular extent and depth of the GMOS frames meant that there was no o v erlap between unsaturated bright stars in our field of view and measured in all-sky surveys. Therefore, we benchmarked the photometric calibration by measuring the ( gz ) colours using archi v al SDSS catalogues and comparing it with model colours for massive early-type galaxies at the clusters' redshift. These model colours were computed using the EZGAL code 2  , and considering a single stellar population that formed at high redshift and evolved passively to the relevant cluster redshifts based on the  Bruzual & Charlot ( 2003 )  populations. Formation redshift and the metallicity do not impact significantly the predicted colours. We obtained a consistent 5 σ sensiti vity le vel across each cluster observations reaching m ≈ 25.
The data obtained reach magnitude m z ≈ 25. 5 at 5 σ , and we detect no clear transient within the data limit, when comparing the newly obtained observations to deep HST archi v al imaging. This is the continuation of the deep pilot search for EM transients to GW events started by  Smith et al. ( 2019a )  in anticipation of the upcoming opportunities afforded by the Vera Rubin Observatory. Due to state-of-the-art light-curve models for KN-like transients, we are able to confirm that EM counterparts to lensed GW events would have been detectable due to lensing magnification using 8-m class ground-based telescope within days from the binary mergers. Lensing arguments highlight that posterior values of chirp masses up to M ≈ 9 M can be compatible with that of BNS mergers. Furthermore, we tested the scenario in which  GW 190930 133541 and 191216  213338 are multiple images of a single, multiply imaged gravitationally lensed event.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The work was supported by the  Basic Science Research Program  through the  National Research Foundation of Korea  funded by the  Korean government (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, MEST) , Grants No. 2021R1A2C2093368  and No. 2018R1A5A1025563  (H. -Y. W. and H. -Ch. K. ) and by the  France Excellence Scholarship of the Ministére de l'Europe et des Affaires  étrangéres, No. 141295X  (H. -Y. W. ). This work was also supported by the  U. S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Nuclear Physics  under Contract No. DE-AC05-06OR23177  (J. -Y. K. ).
Measurements were performed for different pump energies while keeping the same pump spot size to observe the effect of changing pump fluence. The spot size of the pump laser beam was more than twice that of the probe to ensure uniform excitation of the material in the probed area. The probe transmission through the switch was monitored using an InGaAs detector (DET10D2 Thorlabs photodiode) with a ∼25 ns rise time. A mechanical laser shutter (Uniblitz) was placed in the pump beam path to isolate single pulses, thus ensuring that the sample was always at its equilibrium state for each measurement. The data was acquired over a timeframe of hundreds of microseconds by connecting the photodiode to a digital oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS5054B) and synchronizing the acquisition with the arrival of the pump pulse using a trigger.
g. ,  Spite et al. 2013; Yong et al. 2013; Yoon et al. 2016). The first group, the carbon-normal metal-poor stars, is less populated towards lower metallicities (see e. g. ,  Cohen et al. 2005; Carollo et al. 2012; Placco et al. 2014)  with important consequences on the likelihood of low-mass star-formation at earlier times (see e. g. ,  Bromm & Loeb 2003). The second group is made up of CEMP-s and CEMP-r/s (also known as CEMPi), and they are likely binary systems where carbon and the heavy elements were produced by a more massive stellar companion and subsequently donated to the star  (Herwig 2005;  Based on ESPRESSO GTO collected under ESO programmes 1104. C-0350, 108. 2268. 001, PI: P. Molaro. Based also on UVES data retrieved from the ESO archive under programme 105. 20K7. 001. Jones et al.
Nordlander To derive radial velocities from UVES and ESPRESSO, we followed the same iterative process explained in  Aguado et al. (2022). We used a template based on the same set of stellar parameters and performed a cross-correlation function (CCF) against each individual exposure in the range 420-431 nm. The CCF was done in Fourier space using the algorithm from  Tonry & Davis (1979)  implemented in the fxcor package within IRAF  (Tody 1993). Then, by correcting all the spectra and by combining them, we created a natural template in the rest of the frame for both instruments. Finally, we cross-correlated these templates with all individual spectra and derived final v rad measurements. This step allowed us to significantly reduce the derived uncertainties that are summarised in Table  A. 1.
While with UVES we get uncertainties of a few hundred of metres per second, with the ESPRESSO data these are an order of magnitude lower (tens of metres per second). On the other hand, as previously explained, the v rad measurement from MIKE data is directly taken from Nordlander et al. (2019; see our Table  A. 1). Although no error bar is provided, from our experience with MIKE with giant metal-poor stars, we estimate it as 1 km s - 1. Finally, we have searched the literature for further v rad measurements associated with this object. Unfortunately, SMSS 1605-1443 is not bright enough to be observed with the Radial Velocity Spectrometer (RVS,  Cropper et al. 2018 ) within the Gaia mission, and no data were found. We also checked the Survey of Surveys (SoS,  Tsantaki et al. 2022 ) including v rad measurements from different spectroscopic surveys, and no measurements were available.
Carbon isotopic ratio 12 C/ 13 C Metallic absorptions in the ESPRESSO spectra are almost exclusively due to carbon (CH) features. The extremely low metallicity of this star and the very high carbon enrichment account for this fact. However, the resolution and the relatively high quality of the ESPRESSO spectrum allowed us to derive the absolute carbon abundance A(C) and set a critical lower limit on the carbon isotopic ratio 12 C/ 13 C. By assuming stellar parameters (T eff , log g, and [Fe/H]) discussed in Sect. 3, microturbulence of 1. 8 km s -1 , and a [α/Fe] = +0. 4, we computed a stellar model with the ATLAS 9 model atmosphere code using an opacity distribution function of metallicity -5. 5 2. Using this model atmosphere, we computed a grid of synthetic spectra using the with SYNTHE code  (Kurucz 2005; Sbordone 2005 ).
The underlying assumption of linear variation is, in general, not realistic, and it accounts for the small difference between the two calculated ratios. The time baseline covered by the v rad observations is too short for a reliable Keplerian analysis of the SMSS 1604-1443 system. We ran a preliminary set of orbital fit simulations on the joined radial velocity data (including MIKE, UVES, and ESPRESSO) within a Bayesian scheme with wide priors for all binary parameters, including the orbital period, semi-amplitude velocity, and eccentricity. The result points to long orbital periods above 8 yr, as well as low eccentricity and semi-amplitude velocity. New ESPRESSO observations are required during the next years to better constrain the orbital period and other binary parameters.
We find clear similarities between SMSS 1605-1443 and HE 0107-5240, another binary system likely composed of two low-mass stars. Unfortunately, due to the faint magnitude of SMSS 1605-1443 (G Gaia = 15. 4), no spectral distribution of energy could be analysed since no GALEX ultraviolet data  (Martin et al. 2005 ) are available for this star. Therefore, confirmation of the precise nature of its companion could not be obtained. More observations with ultra-stable ESPRESSO spectroscopy are required in a longer time interval to determine an orbit for the system.
Acknowledgements. DA ans SS acknowledge support from the  ERC Starting  Grant  NEFERTITI H2020/808240. EC acknowledges support from the  French National Research Agency (ANR)  funded project " Pristine " ( ANR-18-CE31-0017 ). JIGH, CAP, ASM and RR acknowledge financial support from the  Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN)  project  PID2020-117493GB-I00. MRZO acknowledges financial support from the  Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation  through project  PID2019-109522GB-C51. ASM acknowledges financial support from the  Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN)  under  2018 Juan de la Cierva program   IJC2018-035229-I. ASM acknowledges financial support from the  Government of the Canary Islands  project  ProID2020010129. FPE, CLO, and TMS would like to acknowledge the  Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF)  for supporting research with ESPRESSO through the  SNSF  grants nr.
Non-negative LS estimation (NNLS) The NNLS estimator takes into account the positivity of the object by solving the LS problem with positivity constraints: x NNLS = argmin ||b -b 0 || 2 subject to x i ⩾ 0. ( 13 ) For simplicity, we use the in-built Matlab function lsqnonneg based on  [66]. On the studied objects, we verified that it approximately behaves as FISTA with positivity constraints.
Funding We acknowledge financial support from the  Aix-Marseille University (A * MIDEX) ,  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ,  ANR  grants ( ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02 ,  ANR-10-INSB-04-01 ,  ANR-11-INSB-0006 ,  ANR-16-CONV-0001 ,  ANR-21-ESRS-0002 IDEC ),  ANSES  grant ( ANSES-22-EST-077 ). European Union  (ERC,  101052911   SpeckleCARS  and  EU ICT 101016923  CRIMSON). C S has received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under the  Marie Skłodowska-Curie  ( 713750 ).
Context. Chondrules originate from the reprocessing of dust grains. They are key building blocks of telluric planets, yet their formation, which must happen in strongly localized regions of high temperature, remains poorly understood. Aims. We examine the dust spatial distribution near regions of strong local heating produced by current sheets, as a step toward exploring a potential path for chondrule formation. We further aim to investigate current sheet formation under various conditions in protoplanetary disks in the presence of ambipolar diffusion and Ohmic resistivity and the effect of current sheet morphology on dust dynamics in their vicinity. Methods. We used the RAMSES code including modules for nonideal magnetohydrodynamics and the solution of the dynamics of multiple sizes of dust grains to compute unstratified shearing box simulations of current sheet formation.
Numerical scheme In this work, we use the RAMSES code  (Teyssier 2002; Fromang et al. 2006 ) and its dust dynamics solver  (Lebreuilly et al. 2019 ) extended to neutral grains in MHD by  Lebreuilly et al. (2020). We also use the implementation of ambipolar diffusion and Ohmic resistivity of  Masson et al. (2012). We integrate Eqs. (1) replacing the momentum equation by Eq. (  6 ). We use the MUSCL scheme of RAMSES with the HLLD Riemann solver for the barycenter part of the MHD equations and for the induction equation  (Miyoshi & Kusano 2005). For stability and similarly to  Fromang et al. (2013) , the solver automatically switches to a Lax-Friedrichs solver where β < 10 -3. As in  Fromang et al. (2013)  and again for stability reasons, we use the multidimensional slope limiter of  Suresh (2000)  for.
Acknowledgements. We thank the referee for providing useful comments that helped to improve our manuscript. We acknowledge financial support from the  Programme National de Physique Stellaire (PNPS) of CNRS/INSU, CEA , and  CNES, France. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of  CINES (Occigen)  and  IDRIS ( Jean Zay ) under the allocation  DARI A0080407247  made by GENCI. Computations were also performed at the  Common Computing Facility (CCF)  of the  LABEX Lyon Institute of Origins  ( ANR-10-LABX-0066 ). Ugo Lebreuilly  acknowledges financial support from the  Annette Kade fellowship  of the  AMNH , from the  Ecole Normale Supérieure Paris-Saclay  via the  Contrats doctoraux spécifiques pour normaliens  (CDSN) and from the  European Research Council (ERC)  via the  ERC Synergy Grant ECOGAL  (grant  855130 ).