dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Data Availability Statement The specially-processed COSMIC-2 data were obtained from the COSMIC Data Analysis and Archive Center (CDAAC) website https://data. cosmic. ucar. edu/gnss-ro/hthh_2022. Colocated ERA5 reanalysis temperatures were also obtained from the CDAAC website. MLS temperatures were obtained from the NASA EarthData website (https://search. earthdata. nasa. gov/search/granules?q=ML2H2O_004). The radiosonde H2O profiles were obtained as described in  Vömel et al. , (2022)  with data at https://gdex. ucar. edu/dataset/288_voemel. html.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank the EPOCH support team for help https: //cfsa-pmw. warwick. ac. uk. The authors acknowledge the financial supports of:  European Research Council (ERC)   682032-PULSAR ,  Region Bourgogne-Franche-Comte  and  Agence Nationale de la Recherche  ( EQUIPEX+ SMARTLIGHT  platform  ANR-21-ESRE-0040 ),  Labex  ACTION  ANR-11-LABX-0001-01 , I-SITE  BFC  project (contract  ANR-15-IDEX-0003 ), and the  EIPHI Graduate School   ANR-17-EURE-0002. This work was granted access to the  PRACE HPC resources MARCONI-KNL ,  MARCONI-M100 , and  GALILEO at CINECA, Casalecchio di Reno, Italy , under the Project " PULSARPIC " ( PRA19 4980 ),  PRACE HPC resource Joliot-Curie Rome at TGCC ,  CEA, France  under the Project " PULSARPIC " ( RA5614 ),  HPC resource Joliot-Curie Rome/SKL/KNL  at  TGCC, CEA, France  under the projects  A0070511001  and  A0090511001 , and  Mésocentre de Calcul de Franche-Comté.
Here we invert seismic data 294 including the relative travel times of core-transiting phases, 295 requiring that the resulting models fit the mean planetary 296 density (3. 935±0. 0012 g/cm 3 ) and mean normalized moment 297 of inertia of Mars (0. 3634±0. 00006) (13). 298 We conduct three separate sets of Bayesian inversions, two 299 of which use the SKS differential travel times presented here. 300 The first set of inversions -hereafter referred to as producing 301 "geophysical" models -use the travel times from direct, re-302 flected, and converted crustal, mantle, and core seismic phases 303 gathered in (7), and have a similar modeling approach for the 304 mantle parameterization. The second and third sets of inver-305 sions use the "geodynamical" parameterization of (67) with 306 their dataset of direct and reflected mantle-and core-sensitive 307 travel times (8).
89 -5. 05 km/s, depending on assumptions of mantle composition. Using EH45 to inform the mantle composition, the geophysical and geodynamical models presented here have median CMB core velocities of 4. 94 (IQR: 4. 87 -5. 05 km/s) and 4. 89 (IQR: 4. 78 -5. 01 km/s) respectively. These estimates are lower than those measured for pure liquid iron (e. g. 5. 14 ± 0. 14 km/s at 20. 5 GPa and 2,300 K, 72), providing a further, independent argument in favor of a substantial fraction of light elements in the Martian core. Geodynamical inversions using the seismic travel time dataset of (  8 ), but excluding the core-transiting signals, re- 427 By constructing a one-dimensional model of the planet's elastic properties, we implicitly assume that the portions of crust and mantle of Mars transited by waves from S0976a and S1000a are not too dissimilar to that under InSight.
Our observations provide the first 594 direct constraints on the elastic properties of the Martian 595 core. We find that the median seismic velocity at the top 596 of the Martian core is ∼ 4. 9 -5. 0 km/s, with the precise 597 value depending on the mantle-sensitive seismic data, assumed 598 mantle composition, and inversion methods employed. The 599 seismically-determined density and velocity, estimated without 600 any a priori assumption on composition, can be compared to 601 those of an Fe-O-S-C-H alloy at Mars' core conditions to con-602 strain the abundance of light elements. This comparison yields 603 further evidence in favor of a high fraction of light elements 604 alloyed with iron, independently of the inversion method, man-605 tle chemistry, and mantle travel-time dataset used.
614 We used seismic data from the InSight mission in this research. 615 InSight waveform data and the Mars Quake Service catalogue, 616 which contains details of all events and phase picks for events up to the end of June 2022, are available from the IRIS-DMC, ods of  (7, 8) , are provided in supplementary section S4. Details 626 of the compositional inversions are also given in supplementary 627 section S4.
The first samples collected by the Perseverance rover on the Mars 2020 mission were from the Maaz formation, a lava plain that covers most of the floor of Jezero crater. Laboratory analysis of these samples back on Earth would provide important constraints on the petrologic history, aqueous processes, and timing of key events in Jezero crater. However, interpreting these samples requires a detailed understanding of the emplacement and modification history of the Maaz formation. Here we synthesize rover and orbital remote sensing data to link outcrop-scale interpretations to the broader history of the crater, including Mastcam-Z mosaics and multispectral images, SuperCam chemistry and reflectance point spectra, Radar Imager for Mars' subsurface eXperiment ground penetrating radar, and orbital hyperspectral reflectance and high-resolution images.
, 2023). Crater densities on the Maaz formation may also provide important constraints on interpretations of the global martian crater chronology, if the surface's erosional, burial, and exhumation history can be constrained  (Quantin-Nataf et al. , 2023). However, additional geologic context from rover and orbital data sets is needed to understand how the Maaz formation fits into the regional history. In this paper, we tie in situ observations from Perseverance to orbital data to understand the emplacement history and geochronological significance of the Maaz formation. We seek to understand the relationships between stratigraphic members in outcrop and how these members relate to morphologies and spectral properties observed from orbit, in order to develop a framework for the emplacement history of crater floor rocks and their relationship to the delta.
We investigate the compositional and morphological diversity of stratigraphic members within the Maaz formation as observed by Perseverance using Mastcamera-Zoom (Mastcam-Z) multispectral images, SuperCam reflectance spectra and elemental chemistry, as well as Radar Imager for Mars' Subsurface Exploration (RIMFAX) ground penetrating radar (GPR), and compare these results to orbital spectral data from Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) and orbital images from High Resolution Science Imaging Experiment (HiRISE). of time, and were subjected to variable erosion, burial, exhumation, weathering, and tectonic modification. The two unique samples from the Maaz formation are representative of this diversity, and together will provide an important geochronological framework for the history of Jezero crater.
, 2021). Spectra are then converted to relative reflectance (R*) by dividing by the cosine of the solar incidence angle. Mastcam-Z acquired >300 multispectral images as well as ∼300 landscape mosaics during the crater floor campaign (sols 0-380) and the following "rapid traverse" over the crater floor to the delta (sols 381-409,  Sun et al. , 2023). Spectral diversity was assessed in multispectral images using enhanced-color images, decorrelation stretches, and spectral parameter maps  (Rice et al. , 2022a; Rice et al. , 2023). Representative bedrock spectra were extracted from approximately co-located regions of interest (ROIs) in images from both left and right cameras, and collected into a database along with key image metadata  (Rice et al. , 2022b; Rice et al. , 2023; St. Clair et al.
In some locations, this area exhibits OPX absorptions in CRISM data similar to the delta top, and thus consistent with erosion from the delta or previously overlying sediments  (Holm-Alwmark et al. , 2021). However, the overall spectral signature in the area is most consistent with a mixture of OPX with CPX, which could suggest that the lower Maaz formation is the main substrate in the area. While these interpretations suggest that the lower Maaz formation is widespread across the crater floor, the upper Maaz formation may be more localized. The upper Maaz formation is associated with rough textures and partially preserved craters, and we hypothesize that the CRISM signatures in the rough terrains to the east of the landing site are due to coarse feldspar and/or high-Ca pyroxene, as also observed most strongly in Mastcam-Z and SuperCam spectra of the upper Maaz formation.
These properties extend across an area south and southeast of the landing site (dashed outline in Figure  14 ). To the south of Artuby ridge, upper Maaz forms a sharp boundary that could represent an erosional front. However, there is no evidence for Chal or Nataani-like materials west of this margin in any orbital data sets, so we instead interpret this as a possible original flow margin. Furthermore, no textures or spectral properties consistent with upper Maaz are observed north or west of the landing site. Together, these properties are consistent with emplacement of the upper Maaz formation as lava flows with a much more restricted extent across the crater floor than the lower Maaz formation. A variety of factors can influence lava flow area, flow paths, and spreading, including eruptive volume, substrate topography and roughness, and viscosity (e.
, 2021) , but the age of Rochette member samples help constrain this by placing an upper bound on the timing of the delta. In addition, the crystallization age of Chal member sample may help better constrain the martian cratering chronology, although the complex and extended exhumation history of the crater floor will make this connection challenging. Previous estimates for the age of the crater floor have included 1. 4, 3. 45 + 0. 12/-0. 67, and 2. 6 ± 0. 5 Ga  (Goudge et al. , 2015; Schon et al. , 2012; Shahrzad et al. , 2019) , where the range of ages is largely due to inclusion or exclusion of a small number of larger craters in the data set. More recently,  Quantin-Nataf et al. (2023)  showed that the strong gradient in crater density on the floor, which increases away from the delta, is consistent with gradual lateral exhumation of lake sediments on the crater floor toward the delta, resulting in higher crater densities in the floor units to the east that were exposed earlier.
Refinement of these models may provide constraints on the martian cratering chronology, especially if they can be supplemented by additional samples from other geochronological targets beyond the crater floor, most notably including the regional olivine/carbonate-bearing unit, which also has a well-defined crater retention age  (Mandon et al. , 2020). Additional samples from the rim of Jezero crater and megabreccia in the surrounding plains may also further aid in dating the Jezero and Isidis impacts, which would be important data points in the global cratering chronology.
Data Availability Statement The data in this publication are from the Mastcam-Z, RIMFAX, SuperCam, and SHERLOC/WATSON instruments on the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover, as well as data from the CRISM and HiRISE instruments on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. All image data presented here from Mastcam-Z (Bell & Maki, 2021), SHERLOC/WATSON  (Beegle, 2021) , RIMFAX  (Hamran & Paige, 2021) , CRISM  (Seelos, 2016), and  HiRISE (McEwen, 2007)  are available through the Planetary Data System Imaging Node (https://pds-imaging. jpl. nasa. gov/portal/mars2020_ mission. html) and GeoSciences Node (https://pds-geosciences. wustl. edu/missions/mars2020/). The Mastcam-Z multispectral database from sols 0-380 is published in Rice et al. (2022b), which includes all Mastcam-Z spectra shown here. Software packages used for Mastcam-Z image processing, spectral extraction, and statistical analyses are part of the open source "marslab" suite by Million Concepts, LLC (St.
2 (i. e. at least 1:5 mergers) is only 1-4. For most of the galaxies the last significant merger happened >8 Gyr ago, similar to our current expectations for the MW (see Helmi 2020, for review and references in the introduction), with the single exception of the M 31 analogue in the 09-18 simulation which, however, is in perfect agreement with the M 31 observational data suggesting a major merger (≈2. 5×10 10 stellar mass) event 2. 5-4. 5 Gyr ago (see, e. g. A89, page 6 of 17 The figure suggests that in the HESTIA simulations even the oldest stars of M 31 and MW galaxies were formed as flattened 'discy' components which however formed and remained dispersion-dominated populations. The impact of the mergers is seen in some cases, which, however, do not have a dominant impact on the shape and overall kinematics of the in situ stars.
R max -Z max composition of the in situ stellar halo In this section, we analyse the orbital composition of the stellar component of the HESTIA galaxies. For all star particles, we have reconstructed their orbital parameters by integrating their orbits in the fixed galactic potential at z = 0 using the AGAMA code  (Vasiliev 2019 , see Sect. 2. 2 for more details). In Fig. 15  we show the density distributions in the R max -Z max plane, where R max is the apocentre and Z max is the maximum height from the midplane. Similar to a number of MW studies we present the distribution of stellar density in R max -Z max coordinates (top) (see, e. g. ,  Haywood et al. 2018; Koppelman et al. 2021 ). In the top panels, we detected a few diagonal overdensities (or 'wedges') separated by the prominent gaps.
Acknowledgements. We thank the anonymous referee for their valuable comments. S. K. acknowledges the HESTIA collaboration for providing access to the simulations. F. A. G. acknowledges support from  ANID FONDECYT Regular   1211370  and from the  ANID BASAL  project  FB210003. F. A. G. acknowledges funding from the  Max Planck Society  through a  Partner Group  grant. A. K. is supported by the  Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN)  under research grant  PID2021-122603NB-C21  and further thanks Field Mice for Emma's house. J. S. acknowledges support from the  French Agence Nationale de la Recherche  for the  LOCALIZATION  project under grant agreements  ANR-21-CE31-0019. Y. H. has been partially supported by the  Israel Science Foundation  grant  ISF 1358/18. E. T. acknowledges support by  ETAg  grant  PRG1006  and by  EU  through the  ERDF CoE   TK133.
Specifically, the fundamentally different nature of the redshift-drift experiment with respect to CMB, SNe, galaxy cluster-ing, or weak lensing experiments, allows for novel correlations within the relevant parameter space, witnessed by degeneracy breaking. As a consistency check and to gain further insights on the degeneracies of the dark energy parameters, it is of great interest to complement current Fisher forecasts with a more thorough MCMC analysis for accurate sampling of the distributions. Similarly to the previous section, we account for a possible dynamical behavior of dark energy with two degrees of freedom, w 0 and w a , through the CPL parametrization. The mock dataset for the ELT is generated according to the prescriptions of the third section for 30 QSOs populating 5 redshift bins between z = 2 and z = 4.
We implemented the theoretical redshift-drift signal to the dynamical landscape at the background level within the Boltzmann solver CLASS  21. The theoretical drift is constrained to follow Planck 2018's cosmology 22 not to bias the relative distributions and to ease the comparison. The true posterior is then sampled with the Bayesian sampler MontePython 23 in which we integrated the simulated datasets and the scripts to generate the associated Gaussian likelihoods. The priors over all relevant cosmological parameters are consistent with the ones used in the Planck analysis. The most noteworthy results from the forecast illustrated in Fig. 4  are first that there is no significant deviation from Gaussianity within the distribution, which further legitimates previous Fisher analyses. More importantly, one can note the remarkable degeneracy breaking of the redshift drift probability density function on most of the parameters with respect to the other probes.
In particular, the clear degeneracy within the w 0 -w a space tends to suggest that the joint analysis of classical probes with future redshift drift datasets could further improve the constraints on the first-order term of the CPL parametrization and therefore work toward a better characterization of the possible dynamical behavior of dark energy. Here, the contribution of the low redshift SKA2 sample is important to this endeavor as it probes the dark energy-dominated era and allows to reveal a positive correlation between the two parameters whereas w 0 and w a are anticorrelated for the other current cosmological observables. Nevertheless, one should keep in mind that such a combination of datasets requires particular attention to the possible correlations between probes and individual systematics.
That being said, in the light of these results, we should expect a consistent gain in the constraints on Ω m , w 0 , and w a with this type of configuration for SKA and ELT from the joint analysis of the redshift drift measurements with current cosmological probes. In the near future, a better instrumental characterization of these facilities is likely to refine the present conservative forecasts, and the CAC program, as well as intensity mapping experiments, will provide more data samples and homogenize the covered redshift range. Furthermore, by the time of the first observations of the redshift drift, next-generation galaxy surveys (Euclid, DESI), supernovae surveys (Vera C. Rubin Observatory) but also CMB experiments (Simons observatory, CMB-S4) will improve individual constraints, although in absence of new observable to present different correlations, these experiments will still highly benefit from the redshift drift degeneracy breaking.
Conclusions and outlook The era of redshift drift measurements (rather than upper limits) is coming. These experiments need to be optimized for a specific purpose, which might be the detection of the drift signal itself, or constraining specific model parameters, such as the matter density or the energy equation of state, or providing a definitive consistency test for the model-dependent analysis of traditional cosmological datasets. Our analysis shows that optimized observational strategies for each of these are significantly different. We note that an assumption of our analysis is that the measurement redshifts are free parameters, thus ignoring instrumental and observational limitations. In practice one can only do the measurements with the known bright quasars and their absorption systems.
Acknowledgments This work was financed by  FEDER-Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional  funds through the  COMPETE 2020-Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalisation (POCI) , and by  Portuguese  funds through  FCT -Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia  in the framework of the project  POCI-01-0145-FEDER-028987  and  PTDC/FIS-AST/28987/2017. This work was partially enabled by funding from the  UCL Cosmoparticle Initiative.
Interdisciplinary Thematic Institute QMat, as part of the ITI 2021 2028 program of the University of Strasbourg, CNRS and Inserm. It was supported by IdEx Unistra (ANR 10 IDEX 0002) and by SFRI STRAT'US project (ANR 20 SFRI 0012) and ANR-11-LABX-0058-NIE and ANR-17-EURE-0024 under the framework of the French Investments for the Future Program. A. R. acknowledges financing from LABEX NanoSaclay and H2020 for the doctoral funding. Nion CHROMATEM at LPS Orsay and the FIB at C2N, University of Paris-Saclay were accessed in the TEMPOS project framework (ANR 10-EQPX-0050). The authors acknowledge SOLEIL Synchrotron for provision of beamtime under proposals 20211467 and 20221574. The authors thank M. Salluzzo and G. Ghiringhelli for critical reading of the manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS S. B. would like to thank  Andrea Caputo  for helpful discussion. S. B. is supported by funding from the  European Unions   Horizon 2020 research and innovation program  under Grant Agreement No. 101002846  ( ERC CoG "CosmoChart" ) as well as support from the  Initiative Physique des Infinis (IPI) , a research training program of the Idex SUPER at  Sorbonne Université. M. R. -Q. is supported by the  JSPS KAKENHI  Grant No. 20H01897. Y. Z. is supported by the  National Natural Science Foundation of China  under Grant No. 12175039 , the 2021  Jiangsu Shuangchuang  ( Mass Innovation and Entrepreneurship) Talent  Program No. JSSCBS20210144 , and the  "Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. ".
Current assimilation of integral experiments often consists in adjusting multi-group cross sections with feedbacks from critical reference benchmarks. In order to maintain the constraints coming from nuclear models, we present here a method to achieve assimilation of integral experiment on nuclear parameters, from which nuclear data are evaluated. This method, based on Bayesian inference, uses continuous energy reactivity sensitivities to nuclear parameters, throughout all the nuclear data types (cross section, angular distribution, energy distribution, fission multiplicity and spectrum). This improvement was made possible by coupling a stochastic transport code and a nuclear data evaluation code. The study of a test case -the assimilation of Jezebel ICSBEP benchmark on a plutonium-239 toy evaluation -shows that angular and energy distributions have a non-negligible impact on the assimilation process and results.
Conclusion This weak coupling between a nuclear data and a stochastic transport code allowed to assimilate reactivity to nuclear parameters, with feedback through all nuclear data and using continuous energy. A simple test case, with the Jezebel benchmark, shows the impact of neglecting angular and energy distributions. Further work is underway to achieve a strong coupling, in order to avoid formatting nuclear data and facilitate the assimilation process. Such coupling will also ease the development of more complex assimilation methods, such as those based on the Generalized Perturbation Theory, in order to achieve assimilation of reaction rates for example. At the same time, CONRAD evaluation capabilities will be extended, in order to work on more complete evaluation data.
Additionally, we investigate how the distribution and extension in the sky of the simulated streams vary with the Galactic potential by making use of three different models, either containing a central spheroid, not containing one, or containing a stellar bar. Overall, our models predict that the mass lost by the current globular cluster population in the field from the last 5 Gyrs is between 0. 3-2. 1×10 7 M. This amount is comparable to a value between 7-55% of the current mass. Most of this lost mass is found in the inner Galaxy, with the half-mass radius of this population being between 4-6 kpc. The outputs of the simulations will be publicly available, coinciding with the unique opportunity presented by the delivery of the ESA Gaia mission and complementary spectroscopic surveys. Their exquisite data will offer the possibility to carry out novel comparisons with the models discussed in this work.
Numerical method To model the formation and evolution of extra-tidal features around Galactic globular clusters, we use a set of codes, called Globular Clusters' Tidal Tails (GCsTT) developed by our group. It comprises two python codes, for the backward and forward integration of a stellar system, made of N test-particles (see Sect. 2. 1). These codes are separated for data organization and management, while the (computationally) most expensive part, namely, the calculation of the accelerations acting on the N particles and the orbits integration, is realized by means of a Fortran module written by our group. This module is interfaced to python by means of f2py directives from NumPy. The use of test-particle methods for modeling the tidal stripping process is widespread in the literature, where these methods are usually applied to one or few clusters at a time (see, e.