dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Analysis We identified recurrent and less common linkages based on the types of data sources used, such as linkage of vital statistics data and medical birth register data, and how often these were linked across studies. All original data sources were accounted for in the analyses. In the Netherlands for instance, birth data held in the medical birth register are compiled from data held in the obstetric, paediatric and neonatal registers. Similarly, linked datasets such as the Oxford Record Linkage Study were described in terms of their constituent datasets (i. e. linkage of civil registration data, hospital discharge data and domiciliary midwives case notes). Data were analyzed using STATA 13. 0 software (StataCorp LP, College Station, TX). We used the software to describe the overall characteristics of the studies included in this review such as the time period, country, or the topic area, and also to identify and keep track of the different possible types of linkages available in the literature and their associated study outcomes.
Data on routine linkages from the Euro-peristat network We used data collected for the EPHR 2010 supplemented by additional information from the Euro-Peristat Scientific Committee (SC). Euro-Peristat indicators were compiled from routine aggregate data available from population-based registers. As part of the data collection exercise, SC members were asked to describe the characteristics of their national data systems and in particular: inclusion criteria, year in which the data source began, estimates of coverage (i. e. nationals vs. residents), capacity and use of linkage, and plans to modify or extend the data source. SC members were also asked to confirm the availability in routine of the most prevalent linkage types identified in our review of the literature: (i) linkage of birth and death certificates, (ii) vital statistics and medical birth register data, (iii) medical birth register data and hospital discharge data and (iv) vital statistics and hospital discharge data.
We compared the distribution of studies by groups of countries (Nordic, US, UK and other) between two time periods (2001-2006 and 2007-2011) and it was similar (P =. 224). The number of routine data sources used varied between 1 (i. e. when mother and newborn records were paired within the same data source) and 7 (mainly in the Nordic countries), but most studies used 2-3 data sources. The majority of studies merged vital statistics data and hospital discharge data, but other linkage types were also identified. Table  2  shows the wide variety of linkage types performed in perinatal health research between 2001 and 2011; we display the distribution of perinatal health record linkage studies for which at least two distinct types of routine data sources were used. We identified 16 types of data sources in the literature and tabulated all two-by-two linkages between these data sources as well as the total number of studies in which each type of data source was used.
Record linkage was also used to study women and mothers' long term health outcomes. For example, a study in Sweden examined reproductive patterns and pregnancy outcomes of women with congenital heart disease in a population-based study of 500 245 women. 57 Other studies looked at pregnancy outcomes and selected conditions later in life such as hypertension and diabetes. Among studies on methods in record linkage as applied to perinatal health, 42 focused on improvement of data quality, and other studies focused on the ascertainment of maternal and infant health outcomes, 13 and 18, respectively. Among these methods studies, 36 validated population estimates and 23 validated data items. A further 14 focused on the methods for extending routine data to serve other functions such as pharmacological surveillance and research on child abuse.
Among the 29 European countries participating in the Euro-Peristat project, 18 report using at least one type of linkage for routine statistics and 11 do not. Supplementary Annex SI provides more information on linked sources used in the 2010 report. Some countries such as Denmark can link their data systems for research projects but these linkages are not routine. Countries which currently merge national level datasets for perinatal health surveillance essentially link birth and death data but the data sources used for this type of linkage vary. Cyprus, Finland, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Norway, Sweden, UK Scotland, Iceland and the Czech Republic link data from their medical birth registers with death certificates. Austria, Belgium, Estonia, France, Germany, Poland, Switzerland and UK: England and Wales routinely link their birth and death data from vital statistics data sources alone.
For example, in the Netherlands, midwives, general practitioners, obstetricians and neonatologist have separate databases which are linked to bring together perinatal care data for women who have been client of more than one profession,  62  but other countries do not need to do this. Another example relates to cause of death recording: in the UK causes of death are recorded on stillbirth and death certificates, while in France linkage is necessary to access this information because civil registration of deaths is distinct from the medical certification of the causes. 7 apacity for linkage also depends on the availability of matching variables. Whereas many national registers in Europe anonymize their records, others countries and in particular the Nordic countries make universal identification numbers available in all their routine databases.
All European countries also have hospital discharge data,  71  yet routine linkage of these data with birth certificates and other population datasets was only carried out in only a fourth of countries. Data on hospitalizations contain valuable information about clinical procedures and diagnoses because their primary use is for management and financing. 6 Basic socioeconomic characteristics are rarely included in hospital data, but these can be retrieved from other data sources, such as census data or registers on education, occupation and income. Birth certificate data in most countries provide information on characteristics such as place of birth, place of residence, marital status or occupation. ] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82]  Record linkage also enables the surveillance of specific clinical subgroups such as infants born with congenital anomalies or from ART.
Linkage of routine systems also facilitates life-course research on the long term outcomes of mothers and their newborns. Half of the studies in our review were longitudinal. A cohort, e. g. of all women of reproductive age, can be identified and monitored by linking data relating to these women from multiple data sources thereby increasing the power of statistical analyses without having to incur the costs of a long follow-up time. This systematic review builds on a large number of studies linking routine databases on perinatal health. We also identified countries in which linkage is currently undertaken for routine perinatal health monitoring to get information about the linkages put in place and to permit other countries to benefit from their experience. In countries where specific data sets are linked regularly, as in the Nordic countries, authors did not always explicitly mention 'linkage' in the abstracts.
This could have led to an under-estimation of the number of perinatal health studies published during our review period. We only included studies in referenced databases and thus did not include studies published on statistical institution's websites only or other types of grey literature such as agency health and policy reports. Also, countries differed in the terminologies they used for their data sources, especially when translating them into English and this can make it difficult to distinguish between e. g. a morbidity database, hospital records and a birth register. Data linkage increases the availability of data for surveillance and assessment of differences across countries and over time. Linkage techniques can also contribute to the generation of knowledge about the causes and consequences of ill health.
More specifically, linkage of data from birth and death certificates provides more and higher quality information about mortality and should be prioritized in countries where these sources are not yet linked. Linking hospital discharge data and civil registration data should also be a priority as it increases the amount of information available about each birth and can be used to double check the completeness of registration of births and deaths in hospital databases. Finally, linkage makes it possible to augment commonly available birth data with information on specific outcomes or exposures in relation to health and well-being across the life course. These linkages will depend on other existing databases (i. e. congenital anomalies registers, pharmaceutical databases) and the use of linkage for surveillance and research in other health areas and sectors such as education, employment or housing.
Acknowledgements The member of the The Euro-Peristat Scientific Committee include:  Gerald Haidinger  (Austria),  Sophie Alexander (Belgium) ,  Pavlos Pavlou (Cyprus) ,  Petr Velebil  ( Czech Republic ),  Laust Mortensen  (Denmark),  Luule Sakkeus  (Estonia),  Mika Gissler  (Finland),  Beatrice Blondel (France) ,  Nicholas Lack (Germany) ,  Aris Antsaklis (Greece) ,  Istvan Berbik (Hungary) ,  Helga So  ´l O ´lafsdottir (Iceland),  Sheelagh Bonham  (Ireland),  Marina Cuttini  (Italy),  Janis Misins  (Latvia),  Jone Jaselioniene  (Lithuania),  Yolande Wagener  (Luxembourg),  Miriam Gatt  (Malta),  Jan Nijhuis  (Netherlands),  Kari Klungsøyr  (Norway),  Katarzyna Szamotulska  (Poland),  Henrique Barros  (Portugal),  Mihai Horga  (Romania),  Jan Cap  (Slovakia), Z ˇiva  Novak Antolic ˇ(Slovenia) ,  Francisco Bolumar (Spain) ,  Karin Gottvall (Sweden) ,  Sylvie Berrut (Switzerland) ,  Alison Macfarlane  ( United Kingdom ).
It is an approach which is empirically based but borrows a variety of thinking tools and concepts to identify patterns so as to make implicit belief systems explicit. Applied to New Labour party management, this method of enquiry helps uncover the main elements of a sweeping-1 This study is based on the empirical study of the changes undergone by the party and their manifestations at local, regional and national level, using ethnographic methods of data collection. As opposed to Lewis Minkin, whose seminal work on Labour party management  (Minkin, 2014)  has constituted a very useful source of information for this article, and who, as an adviser, enjoyed access to the party hierarchy and sought to have an influence on the evolution of party structures, I confined myself to roles which, like him, allowed me to collect the viewpoints and feelings of a wide range of actors, would give me access to behind the scene information not available to mere observers and would help me experience events as other party members did, but never with a view to exerting direct influence.
Acknowledgments I would like to thank my colleagues of the  Political Leadership group of the Political Studies Association  who gave me the opportunity to present a first version of this article as a paper, and in particular group convenor  Mark Bennister  for encouraging me to submit an extended written version. I also thank my university, the  Sorbonne Nouvelle , for giving me the financial backing necessary for taking part in the 2015 PSA Annual Conference as well as my colleague  Professor Richard Davis  for proofreading the final version.
Importance-The current literature focuses on mortality among children younger than five years. Comparable information on non-fatal health outcomes among these children is scarce. Moreover, there has been little systematic data collection and reporting on both the fatal and nonfatal burden of diseases and injuries among older children and adolescents. Objective-To determine levels and trends in the fatal and non-fatal burden of diseases and injuries among younger children (<5 years), older children (5-9 years) and adolescents (10-19 years) between 1990 and 2013 in 188 countries from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2013 study. Design-Data from vital registration, verbal autopsy, maternal and child death surveillance, and other sources covering 14,244 site-years (the number of years for which cause of death data were available for a particular geographic area such as a country or demographic surveillance site) from 1980 through 2013 were used to estimate cause-specific mortality.
Data from 35,620 epidemiological sources (mainly covered from 1990 to 2013) were used to estimate the prevalence of the diseases and sequelae included in the GBD. Cause-specific mortality for most causes was estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model strategy. For some infectious diseases (e. g. , HIV/AIDS, measles, hepatitis B) where the disease process is complex or the cause of death data were insufficient or unavailable, we used natural history models. For most non-fatal health outcomes, DisMod-MR 2. 0, a Bayesian meta-regression tool was used to meta-analyze the epidemiological data to generate prevalence and incidence estimates. Results-Of the 7. 7 (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 7. 4-8. 1) million deaths among children and adolescents globally in 2013, 6. 3 million occurred among younger children, 0.
Introduction The current literature focuses on mortality rates and time trends among children younger than five years. There is little comparable information on the fatal and non-fatal burden of diseases and injuries among older children and adolescents. Children and adolescents constitute about a third of the world's population and their health status is important for every country and society. to 2013 were used as input data. A full list of citations for sources organized by country are available in the appendix of a previous GBD paper (pp 97-653). 5 Epidemiological data for most causes were meta-analyzed with DisMod-MR 2. 0,5 a Bayesian meta-regression tool, which adjusts for variations in study methods between data sources and enforces consistency between data for different parameters, such as incidence and prevalence.
The tool evaluates all the data through a geographical cascade of four levels (global, super-region, region, and country). At first, all data in the world are evaluated to estimate the fixed effects on age, sex, study-level and country-level covariates and the random effects for countries, regions and super-regions (we grouped regions into seven super-regions for analytical purposes11). The outputs of the global level are then used as prior information for the next, super-region level of the cascade. After fitting the model to each super-region's data, the results are fed as priors to the region-specific fits and finally, region fits are used as a prior when modelling a country's results for a particular time period. For countries and time periods for which little or no data are available, the estimation is facilitated by country characteristics and random effects on super-region, region and country.
For this purpose, a database of country covariates for 93 topic areas and 242 variants was created, using data from household surveys, censuses, official reports, administrative data, and systematic reviews. 1,5 The sources and imputation methods used to generate time series for the covariates have been reported previously. 1 DisMod-MR 2. 0 also allows the user to add strong prior knowledge on the age pattern and/or epidemiological parameters including incidence, remission and excess mortality rate. For example, major depressive disorder cannot be detected at very young ages, and we set a prior of zero incidence in children younger than 4 years. The assumptions and priors by individual condition have been reported in the appendix of a previous GBD paper (pp 654-684). 5 Years lived with disability (YLDs) were computed by multiplying the prevalence of each sequela by a disability weight.
We plan to use more countryspecific redistribution algorithms in future rounds of the GBD. Third, the fact that the sum of cause-specific mortality estimates must equal all-cause mortality for a particular country, age, sex, and year, is a strength of the GBD approach, but it also has a limitation. Causes of death with very wide UIs (e. g. hemoglobinopathies) tend to be adjusted downwards relative to causes with narrower UIs. Fourth, in general, the epidemiological data coverage for the period 2006-2013 was relatively lower than the period 1998-2005 although there were variations by disease. For example, the percentages of countries that have epidemiological data on low back and neck pain for the period 1998-2005 and 2006-2013 were 41. 5% and 13. 3% respectively. The lower coverage for the latter might be explained by the lag in data collection, analyses and publications.
Acknowledgments Funding/Support: The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation received funding from the  Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Christina Fitzmaurice  was supported by  National Institutes of Health  grant  5T32HL007093-40. Joseph Murray  is supported by the  Wellcome Trust  [ 089963/Z/09/Z ]. Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funding institutions had no role in study design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Virtual reality (VR) facilities included immersive environments such as CAVEs, where the user is immersed in virtual scenes. 4. Scientific visualization facilities were dedicated to the navigation and understanding of results of data output by high performance computing or from physical observation. The infrastructure hosted external research projects. A call for projects was launched and any European research could apply for a Trans-National Access (TNA) project. A process, described in detail in the sequel, was designed to evaluate project proposals in order to accept or reject them. An information system was created to manage the 230 TNA applications received over the project's four years and ensure the realization of 122 of them, enabling projects that cover a wide spectrum of disciplines, including the following: This long list demonstrates the variety of projects managed within VISIONAIR and the difficulties associated with gaining control and managing the projects.
Acknowledgments. This paper was written within the scope of the VISIONAIR infrastructure project. VISIONAIR was lead by Grenoble  INP , 46 avenue Felix Viallet, F-38 031 Grenoble cedex 1, FRANCE. This project is funded by the  European Commission  under grant agreement  262044. This work has also been partially supported by the  LabEx PERSYVAL-Lab ( ANR-11-LABX-0025-01 ) and by the  Gordon Center for Systems Engineering at Technion ,  Haifa 32000 , Israel.
Introduction This paper provides a literature-based narrative on the relationship between management accounting and financial accounting in Germany from the late 19 th century to the early 21 st century. Reflecting accounting historians' interest in the development of accounting in specific country contexts  (Carnegie and Napier, 2002) , our analysis adds to the understanding of how the dual ledger accounting approach -a characteristic feature of the German accounting systems that prevailed for decades  (Jones and Luther, 2005; Ewert and Wagenhofer, 2007)  -emerged and then evolved towards a "partial integration of accounting systems"  (Weißenberger and Angelkort, 2011 ). 1   The German dual ledger accounting approach was promoted by Eugen Schmalenbach in the early 20 th century and consisted of two independent databases for financial and management accounting  (Schmalenbach, 1899) : Whereas management accounting relied on both transactionbased and imputed costs, financial accounting drew on transaction-based figures  (Schmalenbach, 1934; Ikäheimo and Taipaleenmäki, 2010).
Based on our reading of the literature, the unification of the previously separated databases for financial and management accounting, spurred by globalization, changes in corporate finance (economic pressures) and the establishment of international accounting standards (a coercive pressure) as well as mimetic behaviour, constitutes an antithesis. The tension between the thesis and antithesis led to the partial integration of accounting systems that represents a synthesis, which is driven by accounting user needs (an economic pressure), concepts by academia (a normative pressure) and, again, mimetic processes. In line with previous historical papers on German accounting (e. g. ,  Eierle, 2005; Küpper and Mattessich, 2005) , our analysis is based on a comprehensive review of the literature.
In Section 2 we outline the establishment of the dual ledger accounting approach against the background of the German economic and legislative context which constitutes the thesis in our dialectic framework. In Section 3 we shed light on the antithesis by outlining how the internationalization of companies' operating activities culminated in the intention to unify the previously separated databases. Finally, we discuss partial integration as a synthesis arising out of the tension between the dual ledger accounting approach and initiatives to integrate accounting systems. We discuss our chronological analysis in Section 5 and elaborate on avenues for further research.
In addition, resource consumption in production processes could incorporate "imputed" costs such as the opportunity cost of equity which are not part of the financial accounting database  (Schmalenbach, 1919; Schmalenbach, 1934). However, "neutral" expenses, e. g. for investment property which is not related to the core business, would be ignored in German cost accounting systems  (Schmalenbach, 1919; Bursal, 1992; Ewert and Wagenhofer, 2007). Thus, cost accounting's role was to facilitate business decision support, performance evaluation, resource allocation and managerial control  (Kloock and Schiller, 1997). These conceptual differences were later institutionalized through the national socialist regime to enforce state control. More precisely, the Accounting Guidelines ("Buchführungsrichtlinien", 1937) required companies to use the "Kontenrahmen" (master-charts of accounts)  (Schmalenbach, 1927 ) that relies on the dual ledger accounting approach.
Therefore, a HGB-based performance measure would include expenses incurred during each period while reflecting the corresponding revenues with a considerable time lag. From an incentive perspective, managers would be more reluctant to accept orders or projects with immediate cost consequences but deferred income recognition. Thus, German financial accounting data did not appear to adequately guide corporate long-term objectives and thus did not meet an important requirement for performance measures  (Kahle, 2003; Pelger, 2008; Merchant, 2006). As a consequence, German companies relied on cost-based information for business unit performance evaluation due to the HGB's inability to provide useful data for performance measurement and thus reinforced the separation of the two accounting databases  (Schneider, 1997; Schweitzer and Ziolkowski, 1999).