dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Both types of LQs are excluded for masses below 800 GeV independently of B. For the limiting cases of B = 1 and B = 0, masses below 1000 GeV and 1030 GeV (970 GeV and 920 GeV) are excluded for LQ u 3 (LQ d 3 ). Searches for LQs with off-diagonal couplings to third-generation quarks and first-or second-generation leptons have also been performed  [17, 18]. The CMS experiment has performed searches for leptoquarks  [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] , obtaining similar mass exclusions. This paper presents a dedicated search for the pair production of LQ d  3 in the  decay mode. This search uses the full Run 2 dataset of   collisions at √  = 13 TeV recorded with the ATLAS detector and corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 139 fb -1. Events are selected if they have at least one light lepton (electron or muon, denoted by ℓ) and at least one hadronically decaying -lepton, or at least two light leptons.
Data and simulated event samples A dataset of   collisions at √  = 13 TeV collected by the ATLAS experiment during 2015-2018 and corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 139 fb -1 is used. The uncertainty in the integrated luminosity is 1. 7%  [28] , obtained using the LUCID-2 detector  [29]  for the primary luminosity measurements. The number of additional   interactions per bunch crossing (pile-up) in this dataset ranges from about 8 to 70, with an average of 34. Only events recorded under stable beam conditions and for which all detector subsystems were known to be in a good operating condition are used. The trigger requirements are discussed in Section 5. Monte Carlo (MC) simulation samples were produced for the different signal and background processes using the configurations shown in Table  1 , with the samples used to estimate the systematic uncertainties in parentheses.
The pseudorapidity is defined in terms of the polar angle  as  =ln tan(/2). Angular distance is measured in units of Δ𝑅 ≡ √︁ (Δ𝜂) 2 + (Δ𝜙) 2. detector geometry and response using G 4  [35] , and through the same reconstruction software as the dataset of   collisions. Corrections were applied to the simulated events so that the particle candidates' selection efficiencies, energy scales and energy resolutions match those determined from data control samples. The simulated samples are normalised to their cross sections, and computed to the highest order available in perturbation theory. Samples used to model the LQ d 3 signal were generated at next-to-leading order (NLO) in QCD with M G 5_aMC@NLO 2. 6. 0  [36] , using the LQ model of Ref. [37]  that adds parton showers to previous fixed-order NLO QCD calculations  [38, 39] , and the NNPDF 3.
Conclusion A search for pair production of third-generation scalar leptoquarks with a significant branching fraction into a top quark and a -lepton has been presented. The search is based on the full Run 2 dataset recorded with the ATLAS detector at Large Hadron Collider, which corresponds to 139 fb -1 of   collisions at √  = 13 TeV. Events are selected if they have one light lepton (electron or muon) and at least one hadronically decaying -lepton, or at least two light leptons, and additional jets. Six final states, defined by the multiplicity and flavour of lepton candidates, are considered in the analysis. Each of them is split into multiple event categories used to search for the signal and improve the modelling of several leading backgrounds. The signal-rich event categories require at least one hadronically decaying -lepton candidate and employ the total effective mass distribution to discriminate between the signal and the background.
In addition, individual groups and members have received support from  BCKDF ,  CANARIE, Compute Canada ,  CRC  and  IVADO ,  Canada ;  Beĳing Municipal Science & Technology Commission, China ;  COST ,  ERC ,  ERDF ,  Horizon 2020  and  Marie Skℓodowska-Curie Actions ,  European Union ;  Investissements d'Avenir Labex, Investissements d'Avenir Idex  and  ANR, France ;  DFG and AvH Foundation ,  Germany; Herakleitos ,  Thales  and  Aristeia  programmes co-financed by  EU-ESF  and the  Greek NSRF, Greece; BSF-NSF  and GIF, Israel;  La Caixa Banking Foundation ,  CERCA  Programme.
Simulations We applied our analysis to two types of simulations in order to check that our results are robust against different ways of modelling reionisation. First, we consider the rsage simulations  (Seiler et al. 2019) , which are based on a N-body simulation with 2400 3 dark matter (DM) particles and a side length of 160 Mpc. A modified version of the Semi-Analytic Galaxy Evolution (SAGE) model  (Croton et al. 2016) , which accounts for delayed supernovae feedback and radiative feedback, describes the evolution of the galaxies and their properties within the simulation. The ultraviolet background (UVB) is generated with the semi-numerical code cifog  (Hutter 2018a,b). cifog also follows the time and spatial evolution of the ionised hydrogen regions in the simulation box. Three different prescriptions for the escape fraction of ionising photons from galaxies into the IGM, f esc , cover the physical plausible parameter space: In rsage const, f esc is considered to be constant regardless the redshift and properties of the galaxies.
Acknowledgements. The authors thank the referee for useful comments on this manuscript, which helped improve its overall quality. They also thank  Catherine A. Watkinson ,  Ian Hothi ,  Adrian C. Liu  and  Jordan Mirocha  for their input on a draft version of this paper; as well as  Jacob Seiler  for providing the rsage simulations. AG and JP acknowledge financial support from the  European Research Council  under  ERC  grant number  StG-638743  ("FIRSTDAWN"). AG's work was additionally supported by the  McGill Astrophysics Fellowship  funded by the Trottier Chair in Astrophysics, as well as the  Canadian Institute for Advanced Research  ( CIFAR) Azrieli Global Scholars program. AH acknowledges support from the  European Research Council 's starting grant  ERC StG-717001  (" DEL- PHI "). The idea of this work was developed thanks to visits between the authors of this paper, partly funded by the  Leids Kerkhoven-Bosscha Fonds (LKBF).
Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge research support from the  Hydrogen Materials -Advanced Research Consortium (HyMARC) , established as part of the  Energy Materials Network  under the  USA Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office , under Contract Number No. DE-AC36-08GO28308. The views and opinions of the authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, The authors would like to acknowledge the  EMSL  facilities for allowing access to their NMR capabilities.
1 km. Processing of the detector images was carried out at the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IKI RAS). A set of corrections is applied to each data frame that includes masking hot pixels, accounting for a subpixel drift in position caused by the instrument's thermal state, and an orthorectification. A dark image (I dark ) accounting for dark current and thermal drift is computed from the observations made when the sun is fully obscured. A solar reference image (I sun ) is computed by stacking observations made at tangent heights from 80 to ~250 km. For the spectral range provided by secondary grating positions 11 and 12, 80 km is sufficiently high to be free of gaseous absorption. The transmission at each altitude z is computed from the observations I(z) as (I(z) -I dark )/(I sun -I dark ).
For this work, SO channel data measured between April 2018 and February 2020, spanning both hemispheres, were analyzed. HCl features should be observed in several orders (125 to 130), and orders 129 (2889 to 2921 cm -1 ) and 130 (2920 to 2943 cm -1 ), which have been regularly observed, have been used to detect HCl. These datasets represent in total 264 observations in which 36 are positive detections. A positive detection is a 5- retrieved VMR for which the weighted average of the bins is greater than 0. 3 ppb at more than two tangent heights ( is the SD of the mean of retrievals from the four bins). The HCl mixing ratio is retrieved by fitting the entire spectral range of either order 129 or 130. The temperature, pressure, and CO 2 VMR are taken from the values predicted by the GEM-Mars model  (56)  for each altitude, taking into account the GDS  (17).
Acknowledgments: The ExoMars mission was jointly developed and operated by  ESA  and  Roscosmos. The ACS experiment is led by the  Space Research Institute (IKI) in Moscow , assisted by LATMOS in France. The NOMAD experiment is led by the  Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (IASB-BIRA ), assisted by teams from  Spain (IAA-CSIC), Italy (INAF-IAPS) , and the  United Kingdom (Open University ). D. Catling ( University of Washington, Seattle ),  J. Abbatt  ( University of Toronto ), and  F. Forget  ( LMD/CNRS ) provided insightful feedback on this paper. Funding: The  ACS  project acknowledges funding by  Roscosmos  and  CNES. The science operations of ACS are funded by  Roscosmos  and  ESA. IKI affiliates acknowledge funding from the  Russian Foundation  ( RSF-ANR 20-42-09035 ) (data analysis and interpretation).
0. S), and by the  Spanish Science Ministry Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa Program  (grant  SEV-2017-0709 ). S. A. acknowledges funding from the  Belgian Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS). Author contributions: K. S. O. has first recognized the HCl signature in ACS spectra. O. K. , K. S. O. , F. L. , and F. M. conceived the study and wrote the paper. A. T. , assisted by L. B. , Y. S. I. , and A. P. , prepared and calibrated the ACS dataset. K. S. O. , with the help of F. M. , A. A. F. , A. T. , and I. A. , analyzed the ACS data, retrieved profiles, and upper limits. A. A. F. , assisted by A. T. , J. A. , D. A. B. , and N. I. I. , retrieved supportive information. A. T. , A. P. , A. V. S. , A. V. G. , and G. L. have designed ACS observations. S. A. analyzed the NOMAD data. I. R. T. and J.
Acknowledgments: The author warmly thanks Mohamed A. Gharbi for his invitation to submit a paper in this Special Issue of Applied Sciences, Pawel Pieranski and Guilhem Poy for useful comments, Artem Petrossyan for the loan of the ultrasonic soldering machine and J. Ignés-Mullol for the sample of the polyimide Nissan SE-4811 and for careful proofreading of the manuscript.
Acknowledgements. This work is based on observations obtained with the  HER-MES spectrograph , which is supported by the  Fund for Scientific Research of Flanders (FWO) ,  Belgium , the  Research Council of K. U. Leuven, Belgium , the  Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (F. R. S. -FNRS) ,  Belgium , the  Royal Observatory of Belgium , the  Observatoire de Genève, Switzerland  and the  Thüringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg, Germany. We acknowledge with thanks the variable star observations from the AAVSO International Database contributed by observers worldwide and used in this research. S. V. E. and T. M. thank  Fondation ULB  for its support. MM acknowledge support from the  ERC  consolidator grant 646758 AEROSOL. BF acknowledges support from the  Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet)  and the  ERC Advanced  Grant  883867 EXWINGS.
This sample consists of all blazars observed with the X-ray Telescope (XRT) on board Swift more than 50 times from November 2004 to November 2020. The statistical identification of a flaring state is done using the Bayesian Block algorithm to the 1 keV XRT light curves of frequently observed blazars. We categorize flaring states into classes based on their variation from the time-average value of the data points. During each flaring state, we compute the expected muon plus anti-muon neutrino events as well as the total signal for each source using the point-source effective area of Icecube for different operational seasons. We find that the median of the total neutrino number (in logarithm) from flares with duration < 30 d is N (tot)  + ¯ ∼ 0. 02.
The second objective is to enhance the capability of Auger to study ray composition by a direct measurement of the muonic shower component. The muon detection is achieved by 30 m 2 scintillator detectors buried 2. 3 m underground alongside all surface stations. The 540 g/cm 2 of overburden determined by the local soil density completely shields the electromagnetic component of the showers and only muons of energy greater than 1 × 10 9 eV are capable of hitting the detectors. The main function for the AMIGA Data Acquisition System is to manage the data transfer from the muon counters in a modular, flexible, easily configurable and scalable fashion compatible with In the blow-up the positions of the engineering array are named "Unitary cell" and enclosed by a dotted line. The central communication tower is located about 7 km to the west (distance not to scale).
The denser 433 m infill is not shown in this figure for simplicity, but can be observed in figure  10  the Pierre Auger Observatory data trigger. These characteristics led to specifications on how to design the firmware, software, hardware, network structure and protocol, and finally the monitoring system. For each of these important aspects of the data acquisition system, we dedicate a section on this paper, where we describe in more detail the motivation and the chosen solutions. The AMIGA buried stations work in sync with the SD, receiving the local triggers by their accompanying WCD. The energy and geometry of the showers are reconstructed by the SD while extra information on the particle composition is provided by the muon-related observables such as the timing and size of the signal provided by buried scintillators.
More recently, the SD 433m array was also completed. The companion UMD had an engineering array (EA) phase of seven stations to validate and optimize the detector design. This prototype phase ended in 2017 with two major changes: the replacement of the optical device from PMTs to SiPMs and improved electronics, which is presented in this work. Immediately after the EA phase, the production phase started and the UMD array completion is foreseen by the end of 2022  [7]. AMIGA uses a telecommunications system that consists of a point-to-multipoint 802. 11n WiFi radio link, with redundant coordinators located at the Coihueco fluorescence detector building (about 6 km to 10 km link distance). That link provides TCP/IP remote access to the LAN of each station  [8]. The system is also designed to be energy efficient (as power from the photovoltaic system is limited) and has the capacity to transmit a high amount of data from those remote areas.
All AMIGA stations are expected to work at least 10 years in remote (and possibly hard to reach) areas. Under these conditions, the systems need to have a long service life and to allow remote access for diagnostics and early fault detection for high quality of data. The electronics were designed as embedded systems to ease eventual hardware upgrades. They run Linux as open source operating system to be free from any particular commercial software and be able to implement different hardware choices used on the detectors.
Electronics Overview The electronics for the UMD was designed to provide a reliable data transfer from the buried scintillator modules to the main data storage server in Malargüe. In order to do this, each UMD is connected to an SD to use the Pierre Auger Observatory trigger. In order to provide a safe data transfer and not to overload the existing SD telecommunications and power system, each station was equipped with a new telecommunications system  [8] , a new solar power system  [9] , a trigger relay system (the distributor, see section 2. 5), three buried modules that comprise the UMD itself, and a synchronization system that connects the UMD data acquisition system with its corresponding SD data acquisition system. The motivation for the telecommunications system is stated in the mentioned reference, as a summary, an 802.
Communications The telecommunications system connects the AMIGA stations to the central storage server, and it comprises of an Ethernet LAN network (connecting the UMDs and the SD electronics) and a WLAN telecommunications system for the data transmission to CDAS. The WLAN is implemented as a point-to-multipoint WiFi radio link attached to the original Auger inter-FD microwave links and it is provided by a Mikrotik RB493 router, which includes an Ethernet switch and a 802. 11n WiFi radio. These characteristics are mentioned in  [8] , where we can also find that the network structure for the UMDs was implemented over the 2. 4 GHz WiFi band. The motivation for this decision was to have a modular system that is higly reliable to work outdoors and that can handle the throughput required for the network of detectors over the 2.
Acquisition and Control System In this section we present the functional structure of the Data Acquisition and Control (DAQ) system of the UMDs. We describe the implementation at the hardware level on a Cyclone IV FPGA, the timing issues and memory requirements for the tasks performed by the DAQ system, including the firmware of each UMD and the soft microprocessor platform used to implement every function required by the UMD. We also describe the power system distribution and consumption of the electronics, the interface required and finally a short description of the printed circuit board layout and how it was designed. As we will see in this section the constraints of speed and memory are significant, therefore we emphasize the need for a soft microprocessor platform in order to have easy access to upgrades or future hardware changes that may be required due to spares availability.
Hardware In this section we describe the back-end digital hardware used for data acquisition on each UMD. We introduce the basic structure of the main system, comprised of an FPGA and a memory that functions as a ring buffer storing data according to a trigger provided by the SD. The main CPU controls the interface and data transfer to the surface, as well as monitoring several key hardware parameters that indicate its good performance. As the main motivation for the design, we should mention the need for a compact flexible embedded system that can easily be reprogrammed remotely, as we will see in the following sections. As mentioned, the CPU and firmware were implemented using an FPGA connected to two physically independent LPDDR1 memories. This board has an expansion port with 150 pins using a 1.
FPGA and memory The board is built around an Altera Cyclone IV FPGA (model EP4CE40U19I7) which provides 39 600 logic cells and a memory of 1. 16 Mbits. Table  2  summarizes the usage of these resources for the custom logic (Firmware) and the LEON3 softcore CPU. While only 18 % of the logic cells are not used, there is nearly half of the memory cells (48 %) left for future improvements. The chosen industrial package with 329 I/O pins (of which 257 are used) works in a wide temperature range (-40 • C to +100 • C), which is adequate for the operating conditions of the electronics (buried underground). The FPGA series is optimized for low power consumption with a low core voltage of 1. 2 V. The firmware incorporates the Altera Remote Update system  [16]  with a remote recovery option, which ensures additional safety in case of an upgrade failure.
Interface and Communications The board provides two expansion connectors: one for data/logic signals and one for power supplies. The data expansion connector is a single high-speed connector, Samtec QSH-090-01-LDAK-TR, capable of transmitting signals with a maximum frequency of 9 GHz. It also has a central ground bar that ensures low resistance for the return currents through the connector. The connector has 180 lines, with a pitch between pins of 0. 5 mm. The power expansion connector provides the 24 V input power (directly from the PPoE connector) and the 3. 3 V power supply. Additionally, two control lines provide the functionality to switch on or off the connected expansion board. The Ethernet PHY driver is a DP83848IV from Texas Instruments, which is supported by the Leon 3 built-in Ethernet MAC and the Linux operating system.
The other memory was connected using part of a bank for the address pins and part of another for the data bus, as indicated by the FPGA manual  [17]. Once this was defined, the routing of the tracks from the FPGA to the memories was done. The tracks between RAM and FPGA must be striplines of controlled impedance and length to conserve signal integrity and the timing constraints imposed by the RAM. The track width and distance between the signal and reference layers needed for a specific impedance was determined by specialized programs taking into account the properties of the PCB material. They must also have equalised lengths to ensure that the propagation times of the signals are within the values recommended by the RAM manufacturer.
It was originally designed by the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), part of the European Space Agency (ESA), and after that by Cobham Gaisler Research. It is described in synthesizable VHDL. This Soft microprocessor has numerous advantages, particularly for a such long-running project: The base code (CPU without Floating Point support and most peripherals) is available under a free-software license (GPLv2), it is FPGA-independent (upstream code supports Altera, Xilinx and Microsemi FPGAs), comes with a complete library of peripherals, and allows a wide array of configuration options (both in adding and removing peripherals and selecting or removing CPU features to prioritize performance or resource usage). The peripherals used are: SPI Memory controller (used for early boot and remote Firmware upgrade), I2C (used for environmental sensors), RS-232 serial ports (used for High Voltage power supply and acquisition control/data transfer), GPIO ports (used for the front-end power supply control, reboot/power-off and watchdog), and 10/100 Ethernet MAC (used for communications).
UMD firmware In this section we introduce the details of the firmware functionality for a UMD back-end. It handles the data flow and secondary tasks required of the UMD hardware. We describe each part of the firmware in a block diagram divided into three parts: the CPU core, the back-end main task of muon data storage and the interface with the front-end and the peripherals. The current FPGA implementation is divided into six main blocks, as shown in figure  8. The EMC block drives 128 MiB of external LPDDR1 memory for temporary event data storage. This data has a fixed size (2048 anode samples for each SiPM, plus data from both ADCs and the aux digital outputs from both ASICs, equivalent to 6. 4 µs per event). The trigger block receives the T1 signal, immediately notifies the incoming event condition to the data block and forwards the LTS value corresponding to the incoming event once it has been fully received.
Operating System Following the open source philosophy adopted for the soft microprocessor, the operating system used is also open source. The underground scintillator detector modules and the TDRs use Linux [19] as the operating system. It was chosen for user familiarity, relative ease of use, and because it has full hardware support for LEON3 (CPU and required peripherals). Therefore the motivations for implementing the software in this manner is to facilitate remote upgrades and configuration, with a complete access to the hardware functionality of the UMD electronics deployed in the field. The current version used at the time of the writing of this paper is 4. 9, with patches (provided by Cobham Gaisler) for hardware support forward-ported to 4. 9. Additionally, the kernel was patched to use the built-in GPIO power-off driver, which has been-setup to instruct the FPGA to program the Application image.