dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The project involves several partners; each partner is responsible for one specific task in the project. Vigi4Med Scraper was designed to complete the tasks of data extraction, semantic representation and anonymization. The anonymized graph generated by the first partner using the framework is further processed by another project partner to realize the annotation task. The pharmacovigilance end users are represented by two regional centers acting as partners in the project. These users are in charge of comparing case reports in the French spontaneous reporting system with potential ADRs identified within patients' posts after the annotation step. The application of our framework in this project involved an auxiliary script to extract a list of forums for each site chosen by the pharmacovigilance experts.
This list was filtered manually to exclude non medical-related forums. For example, the forum "fashion" was eliminated from the forum list of the website "www. doctissimo. fr". This list was the starting point of the extraction process, along with its parameterization in the Vigi4Med Scraper configuration file. Because we hypothesized that a non-related medical discussion within a medical forum could indirectly lead to information about adverse drug reactions, no specific selection was made to filter the threads and posts. In addition, the extracted content was annotated (by the following partner) to discard irrelevant posts. Regarding anonymization, we considered that pseudonymization was suitable for this project as none of the partners has access to both the anonymized data and the anonymization keys.
As a result, 55 websites were selected by the pharmacovigilance experts. Among these websites, 22 were scraped between January and June 2015. The scraping within this period was not continuous, and it always respected the specified delays between sequential requests. Over 60 million posts, 2. 5 million threads, and 5. 4 million pages corresponding to more than 200 gigabytes of data were collected. Fig  8  shows the size of the generated RDF graph, the number of pages, and the number of threads and posts of each scraped website in this experiment. The privacy protocol was strictly followed. None of the involved website owners objected to the crawling process. The anonymized semantic graphs were delivered to the Vigi4Med partner in charge of ADR annotation.
The proxy also guarantees a minimal delay between sequential requests to avoid network and server overload. Although the requirement of having a trained user fill out the configuration file can be considered as a potential limitation of the framework, it guarantees accurate and efficient data extraction. In addition, such user intervention can be facilitated by the DOM inspection tools of several internet browsers. For all these reasons, Vigi4Med Scraper was the adopted solution for extracting posts from several medical-related forums within the Vigi4Med project. The objective of our work focuses on the quality and the usability of the results, which cannot be quantified by experimental measures. Moreover, because we voluntarily added a delay between successive requests to prevent network overload, considering the execution time as a quantitative measure does not apply to our case.
Availability and Future Directions We have presented Vigi4Med Scraper, a generic tool to extract structured information from web forums. Vigi4Med Scraper is part of the  Vigi4Med  project for detecting adverse drug reactions in social networks. All the scraping and anonymization scripts were implemented in PHP. The proxy is a PERL program that is connected to a database (berkeleyDB [19]) for caching. To run the system, a PHP server and PERL installation are required. The complete source code is verbosely commented and publicly available under the GNU open source license. It can be accessed at the following address: https://github. com/bissana/Vigi4Med-Scraper. Full documentation (in English and French) regarding the code and configuration file is also provided at this URL. Although the configuration file for Vigi4Med Scraper guarantees the maximum flexibility of the application, preparing such a file is a sensitive step requiring special attention.
E. S. S. point spread function (PSF). Our best hope to make progress on our understanding of this very important CR accelerator relies upon better data from powerful future telescopes. The Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) is a next-generation observatory of imaging air Cherenkov telescopes (IACTs), which consists of an array of large, medium, and small-sized IACTs distributed over a km 2 area  (Actis et al. 2011; Acharya et al. 2013). The CTA will achieve better angular resolution and higher sensitivity in a wider energy range than the current IACT generation (see the following section). It is expected that we can obtain the most stringent constraints on theoretical models through their comparison with CTA data on RX J1713. 7-3946 and multi-wavelength observations of this intriguing object.
SIMULATIONS In this section, we evaluate the feasibility of achieving the scientific objectives discussed above using a series of observation simulations for CTA. The simulation software package ctools 5  (Knödlseder et al. 2013 (Knödlseder et al. , 2016) )  that we use in this study is developed as an open source project aiming at a versatile analysis tool for the broader gamma-ray astronomy community, and is very similar to the Science Tools 6 developed for the Fermi/LAT data analysis. ctobssim is an observation simulator which generates event files containing the reconstructed incident photon direction in sky coordinates, reconstructed energy, and arrival time for each VHE photon detected in the field-of-view. Simulated VHE sky images are produced by ctskymap using the simulated event files.
Leptonic component We used the X-ray image of RX J1713. 7-3946 as a template that traces the leptonic gamma-ray morphology. The X-ray image is extracted from the XMM-Newton archival data consisting of multiple pointing observations to cover the entirety of this remnant. The energy band of this image is restricted to 0. 5-8. 0 keV. The Non X-ray background is subtracted, and vignetting and exposure corrections are applied. The pixel scale is 5 ′′ and the image is smoothed with a Gaussian function with a σ of 3 pixels. Apparent point sources, likely foreground stars 5 version 00-07-01. See also http://ascl. net/1601. 005 (ascl. 1601. 005) 6 http://fermi. gsfc. nasa. gov/ssc/data/analysis/software/ 7 https://portal. cta-observatory. org/Pages/CTA-Performance. aspx. (version 2015-05-05) 8 available at http://fermi.
Roughly ∼ 10 yrs could be expected for ±10% variation as discussed in Section 2. Here we consider the purely leptonic scenario as an example (see Section 3. 1 for details). For each case, we explore how the detectability depends on the total exposure time by extracting subsets from the full dataset with different exposures shorter than 100 hrs. This is achieved by applying a time-based cut using ctselect. We Spectral energy distribution of the gamma ray emission obtained by analyzing the CTA simulation data for RX J1713. 7-3946. The blue and red squares are the spectral points for the leptonic and hadronic spatial templates, respectively. Vertical bars show statistical errors. The black squares are the total fluxes of the leptonic and hadronic components. The black vertical bars are the errors for the total fluxes obtained by adding the errors for two components in quadrature.
Possible effects due to a deviation from the actual PSF profile with a tail 9  may exist, since the PSF was assumed simply as a Gaussian in our simulations. Since RX J1713. 7-3946 is located at the Galactic Plane, the source is expected to be contaminated by the Galactic diffuse gamma-ray emission which constitutes the majority of the background events (i. e. , "noise" for our purpose). Possible existence of currently unknown TeV sources nearby, such as the CCO 1WGA J1713. 4-3939 for instance, can contribute to the systematic errors in such a crowded region on the Galactic Plane. On the other hand, CTA will measure gamma rays with energies far below 0. 3 TeV, where the Fermi/LAT and H. E. S. S. data points connect. If the gamma rays are mostly of a leptonic origin and the magnetic field strength B is around 10 or a few tens of µG, which has been inferred from theoretical studies (e.
Figure5. Significance of the detected variation of Ec as a function of exposure time for three observation scenarios (see text for detail). Top left panel: The same exposure time for the two epochs of observations. Dashed lines represent the best-fit curve to each dataset. Squares and circles represent results for the ∆Ec/Ec = -10% and +10% case respectively. Top right panel: The results for various exposure times for the first and second dataset for the ∆Ec/Ec = -10% case. Bottom left panel: The same as the top right panel, but for the ∆Ec/Ec = +10% case. Bottom right panel: The scenario of using H. E. S. S. results for the first epoch(Aharonian et al. 2007a). Squares and circles represent results for the ∆Ec/Ec = -10% and +10% case respectively.
S. National Science Foundation ,  U. S. Department of Energy ,  Argonne National Laboratory, Barnard College, University of California, University of Chicago, Columbia University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Institute for Nuclear and Particle Astrophysics (INPAC-MRPI program ),  Iowa State University, Washington University McDonnell Center for the Space Sciences, USA. The research leading to these results has received funding from the  European Union 's  Seventh Framework Programme  ( FP7/2007-2013)  under grant agreement n o 262053. We thank  S. Katsuda  for providing the original XMM-Newton image.
, 2008) )  and  SPARX Marsh et al. (2015)  are able to make a post-event prediction of the SEP intensity profiles. The core of SOLPENCO contains a database of pre-calculated synthetic flux profiles of gradual proton events for different interplanetary scenarios for energies up to 200 MeV. SPARX uses a pre-generated database of model runs containing varying proton injection locations for energies in the ranges E > 10 MeV and E > 60 MeV. When SEP forecasting is based exclusively on solar radiative signatures, there is no certainty whether the Earth or the spacecraft of interest is magnetically connected to the particle accelerator or not. The location of the eruptive activity is only a partial indicator. The problem is avoided by forecasting schemes based on in situ observations of energetic particles themselves.
2017, in preparation) , a tool for predicting well-connected >500 MeV events from soft X-ray, proton and neutron monitor data. HESPERIA UMASEP-10mw, the tool that is introduced in the present paper, is devised to predict SEP events with energies >10 MeV from microwave and proton data. Real-time UMASEP-10 forecasts are publicly available since 2010 in NASA's integrated Space Weather Analysis (iSWA) system, 2  in the European Space Weather Portal, 3  as well as in the University of Malaga's space-weather portal. 4 UMASEP-10 was also included as a module in the European Space Agency's SEPsFLAREs system  (García-Rigo et al. 2016). Section 2. 2 describes the UMASEP scheme, and Section 2. 4 the adaptation of this scheme to build the tool UMASEP-10mw using microwave data. 2. 2. UMASEP-10: the UMASEP scheme based on soft X-ray data The magnetic connectivity estimation of the well-connected prediction (WCP) model is based on the strength of the correlation between the time derivatives of the soft X-ray flux and the differential proton flux in at least one of the channels between 9 and 500 MeV measured by all available GOES satellites, as Figure  1a  illustrates.
The associated flare may be identified in the information within CCsequence. The highest original (X-ray) flux of the corresponding causative fluctuations in pairs within CCsequence corresponds to the peak of the associated flare. If the peak of the associated flare is greater than a certain X-ray flux threshold f, then a preliminary well-connected SEP forecast is sent to the Analysis and Inference Module, including the time and X-ray peak flux of the associated flare. The UMASEP-10 tool uses this scheme with soft X-ray and proton fluxes for predicting protons above 10 MeV. As mentioned earlier, in addition to forecasting well-connected events, UMASEP-10 also has a poorly-connected event prediction (PCP) model. The performance of the combined UMASEP-10 WCP and PCP models on GOES soft X-ray and proton data, updated for version 1.
The UMASEP-10mw tool Based on the UMASEP scheme, illustrated in Figure1a, the UMASEP-10mw tool was developed. In order to construct the tool UMASEP-10mw for predicting >10 MeV SEP events using microwave data, the time derivative of the soft X-rays was replaced by the microwave flux density, as illustrated in Figure  1b. The UMASEP thresholds were re-calibrated. The tool UMASEP-10mw has been developed to be used for calculating the correlation between the solar microwave flux densities at 4. 995 and 8. 8 GHz, which are monitored by patrol instruments (see Sect. 3), and the time derivatives of the nearearth differential proton fluxes measured in different energy channels (i. e. using the GOES satellites). The rest of this section describes in detail how the UMASEP scheme was adjusted to properly use microwave data for predicting >10 MeV SEP events; Section 3 presents the preliminary results of this tool.
For brevity, and since the emission is intrinsically broadband, we refer to the two microwave frequencies as 5 and 9 GHz instead of 4. 995 and 8. 8 GHz. The first calibration of UMASEP using microwave data was done using a set of thresholds that was very similar to that using soft X-ray data; however, the results in terms of probability of detection (POD) and false-alarm ratio (FAR) were not satisfactory. We found that the use of similar threshold values as UMASEP-10 led to a poor performance mainly because there are important differences between the time derivatives of soft X-rays and the microwave flux density in terms of candidate events, that is events where the time history has a positive slope during several successive time intervals. Because of the many fluctuations of the thermal soft X-ray emission of the Sun we had to impose a threshold f of the peak X-ray flux to be considered in UMASEP-10 when triggering an SEP event prediction.
A test run of UMASEP using microwave data There is no generally referenced publication on RSTN single-frequency patrol observations. A paper by Kennewell from June 2008 is available on the web. 8 The following information is drawn from this publication. The equipment is the same at the four stations. The observations at frequencies between 1. 415 and 8. 8 GHz on the one hand, 15. 4 GHz on the other, are carried out with two parabolic antennas of diameters 2. 4 m and 1 m, respectively. They track the Sun from sunrise to sunset. The observing periods of the four stations overlap. This overlap can be used for the intercalibration. Kennewell notes that power supply fluctuations, pointing errors and occasional drive problems are such that the tracking may have to be corrected manually. These corrections are carried out when the operator notes that the output signal is lower than expected.
Finally, 5-min integration further smoothes out short-term irregularities that remain after the data cleaning procedure. Figure  3  shows a sample 24-hr interval. In Figure  3a  the original data are plotted for the four RSTN stations, while Figure  3b  shows the corrected combined data after the semiautomatic procedure. Dips of the light curves in Figure  3a  near the centres of the observing intervals are due to the abovementioned calibration periods. The selected observing time for each RSTN station varies depending on the period of the year. The time intervals are typically 00-08 UT for Learmonth, 08-14 UT for San Vito, 14-19 UT for Sagamore Hill and 19-24 UT for Palehua. For the period 2012 March 01-07, measurements from Learmonth were not available at 8. 8 GHz, while from 2012 July 10-30, no Learmonth observations were available at all.
Acknowledgements. This research received funding from the  European Union 's  Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme  under Grant Agreement No. 637324  ( HESPERIA  project). It was also supported by the  Agence Nationale pour la Recherche (ANR/ASTRID, DGA)  project  Outils radioastronomiques pour la météorologie de l 'espace (ORME, Contract No. ANR-14-ASTR-0027 ) and by the  French space agency CNES. The work is based on radio data from the RSTN network (provided through NGDC) and the  Nobeyama Radio Polarimeters (NoRP). NoRP are operated by  Nobeyama Radio Observatory , a branch of  National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. Supporting information was provided by the Radio Monitoring web site maintained at  Paris Observatory  with support by  CNES. The authors acknowledge detailed and helpful comments by the referees.
These two types were chosen due to their common use in the composites industry and because of the contrast in the amount of sizing between them. An average filament diameter was measured at 6. 7 lm in a scanning electron microscope (Zeiss EVO LS15) for both types. The upper plate and lower platform were made from soda-lime glass for the tow-on-tool tests. The optical semi-reflective coating was deposited on one side of the upper plate (Tofico, France). The optical film has two layers: an 8 nm thick base layer of chromium and an outer 140 nm layer of silica which contacts the filaments. These layer properties were optimised in order to give the best contrast for distinguishing only carbon filaments in contact with the plate; further details are given in Smerdova and Sutcliffe  [27]. Surface line-profile data was taken over six scans (scan length and cutoff: 15 mm and 0.
1  and 2 ). The MPL-10 load cell had a capacity of 44. 4 N with nonlinearity, hysteresis and non-repeatability errors being 0. 1, 0. 1 and 0. 05% of the full scale value of 44. 4 N, respectively. The load cells were connected through a full bridge amplifier to a desktop PC via a data acquisition device (National Instruments NI USB-6009) and a Lab-VIEW program was written to acquire and output the load data. Images were acquired using a digital camera (Leica DFC295, Leica Microsystems, Switzerland) mounted on an Olympus BX51M microscope. A Â10 objective was used leading to a field of view measuring 1184 lm Â 888 lm. At the highest resolution setting this gave images with 2048 Â 1536 pixels resulting in a measurement resolution of 0. 578 lm. An image stitching procedure within the camera software (Leica Application Suite) was used together with an automated microscope stage to scan an area sufficiently large to be reasonably representative of the entire tow.
Data processing and analysis The filament contacts appear as distinctive bright strands in the images as shown in Fig. 3a. There is insufficient resolution to directly measure the true width of the contact patches, but the total length of filament in contact L can be accurately determined. In Smerdova and Sutcliffe  [27] , a Matlab algorithm to detect the filament contacts and calculate the total contact length was developed and described in detail. Fig. 3b  shows the filaments detected by the algorithm for the example image in Fig. 3a. Essentially, a filtering process is carried out whereby a structuring element (or kernel) containing a thin strip is convolved with the images to pick out long thin objects (i. e. the fibre contact regions). This is used to generate a binary image containing contact regions (ones) and non-contact regions (zeros) by employing a suitable threshold.
It is also evident that the tow friction force (Fig. 8 ) does not obey Amonton's law, but follows the more general power law description F = kW n with the friction coefficient f (Fig. 9 ) following the corresponding inverse power law relation (f = kW nÀ1 ). The first row of Table  1  gives the mean values of the fitting coefficients k and n based on the five tests on each tow type (coefficients were calculated using a least squares fitting approach in Matlab). These values give (on average) a friction force proportional to W 0. 72 for T700SC-12k-60E and to W 0. 83 for T700SC-12k-50C. These particular variations with normal load require some explanation; hence, we turn to the underlying contact mechanics of the carbon filaments and the well-established adhesion theory of friction. The adhesion theory models friction as arising from an adhesion shear stress s acting across the real contact area A: F ¼ sA ð1Þ This shear stress is generally thought of as being equal to the shear strength of the individual bonded junctions (i.
Tow-on-tow contact In tow-on-tow contact, the friction force required to pull-out a middle tow from between two fixed tows at various normal loads was measured and the procedure was described in Section 2. 4. Figs. 14 and 15 plot friction force against normal load for each tow type in the tow-on-tow parallel and perpendicular arrangements, respectively. The fitting coefficients corresponding to a fit of F = kW n to the data are shown in the last two rows of Table  1. Again, treating the filaments as idealised arrangements of touching cylinders, a Hertzian analysis would predict a W 1/2 dependency for the friction force in the parallel case and a W 2/3 dependency for the perpendicular case. As was the case for the tow-on-tool tests, this was not borne out experimentally and the mean exponents n in the parallel and perpendicular arrangements, respectively, were 0.
Acknowledgements and additional information The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of the  Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)  for supporting the present work under grant  Ref. EP/K032798/1  (Friction in Composites Forming). We would also like to acknowledge the contribution of our industrial collaborators at  Jaguar Land Rover  and  Granta Design Ltd , as well as our academic partners from the  Composites Research Group at the University of Nottingham  ( Dr Endruweit  and  Profs. Long ,  Warrior and De Focatiis). Hexcel UK  are thanked for supplying the tow material. The detailed data relating to this paper can be accessed at the following Cambridge Data Repository: http://dx. doi. org/10. 17863/CAM. 1671.
). The size of the circle is related to the number of connections that each node has with others, while the lengths of the connections do not have any significance. The graphs are developed following an ego network analysis approach and using the program "Pajek". See Appendix for a complete list of actors. Innovation activity is managed by the farmers with the direct participation of other actors such as researchers, farmers' associations, consumers etc. This structure of "collective management" of on-farm innovation that directly includes the spread of innovation in the process of innovation development itself is one of the most important characteristics of this transition pathway. These farmers work in close collaboration with individual researchers from public research institutions. The connection to a specific researcher is often followed by an exchange of material, in general seeds, with the researchers themselves or with other relevant actors.
Sea level is an essential climate variable (ECV) that has a direct effect on many people through inundations of coastal areas, and it is also a clear indicator of climate changes due to external forcing factors and internal climate variability. Regional patterns of sea level change inform us on ocean circulation variations in response to natural climate modes such as El Niño and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, and anthropogenic forcing. Comparing numerical climate models to a consistent set of observations enables us to assess the performance of these models and help us to understand and predict these phenomena, and thereby alleviate some of the environmental conditions associated with them. All such studies rely on the existence of long-term consistent high-accuracy datasets of sea level.