dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
We also find that an orbitally modulated component to the gammaray flux is in fact pulsed emission in phase with the magnetospheric gamma-ray pulses, rather than being an additional unpulsed component. We speculate that this could be due to inverse Compton scattering or synchrotron radiation from the high-energy pulsar wind. This is the second redback from which such an effect has been detected, and this may prove to be a valuable probe of the pulsars' high-energy winds in future studies. Newton data are available from the XMM-Newton Science Archive (http://nxsa. esac. esa. int). The ULTRACAM data are available in Zenodo (https://doi. org/10. 5281/zenodo. 3964204). The GROND data are available from the ESO Science Archive Facility (http://archive. eso. org/).
D. Analysis of force-displacement curves Force curves are processed using the JPK Data Processing software (version 6. 1). In all force curves the piezoheight is corrected with the deflection of the cantilever in order to get the accurate vertical tip position, which is then plotted as a function of the force. To determine the rigidity K and the contact point height, we use a simple model that describes the parabolic relationship between the indentation depth δ and the force f that deforms the membrane: f ¼ Kδ 2. To determine the rigidity of one nanotube (as in Fig. 5 ), we fit this model to all the forcedisplacement curves that are collected over the nanotube. Because the contact geometry at the nanotube borders is unclear, we select a region of interest (ROI) that always corresponds to the central regions of the nanotubes (see Fig.
CNRS, from the Genopole Biocluster at Evry (Research associate fellowship to G. L. ), and from the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR-18-CE13-0007-01 awarded to C. C. ). M. L. is supported by ANR Grant No. ANR-15-CE13-0004-03 and ERC Starting Grant No. 677532. Our group belongs to the CNRS consortium CellTiss. This work was supported by the Paris Ile-de-France Region/Respore program.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank  Andrea Campoleoni ,  Kurt Hinterbichler  and  Per Sundell  for useful comments and discussions. The work of NB is partially supported by an  F. R. S. -FNRS PDR grant  " Fundamental issues in extended gravity "  № T. 0022. 19. LT is Research Fellow of the  Fund for Scientific Research-FNRS. He wants to thank  IAP  for kind hospitality. CD and SGS are supported by the  European Research Council  under the European Community's  Seventh Framework Programme  (FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement no. 307934 ,  NIRG  project). SGS would also like to thank the  unit "Physics of the Universe, Fields and Gravitation" of UMONS  for generous hospitality.
Data collection and processing The ChemCam instrument suite onboard the Curiosity rover consists of a laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) instrument and remote micro-imager (RMI). The LIBS instrument provides atomic emission spectra of targets (up to seven meters standoff distance) by focusing a pulsed 1067 nm laser, with a 350-550 µm diameter spot size, creating a plasma from the ablated surface  (Maurice et al. , 2012; Wiens et al. , 2012). Together with color images from the Mastcam imaging suite  (Malin et al. , 2010)  and Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI;  Edgett et al. , 2012) , the RMI allows for visual identification of features and the geologic context for each observed point (Le  Mouélic et al. , 2015). Sampling frequency is dependent on the rover's resources and its topographic accessibility to the sampling area.
Figures  6  and 7  show that with increase in frequency and relative abundance of B, the abundance of Li in the veins decreases. This relationship could partially be a result of preferential separation of B from Li during precipitation of borates based on the power law fitted to data in Figure  7. In the case of a brine, with increasing dehydration, Li remains in the brine as other salts precipitate out due to the conservative nature of Li  (Risacher and Fritz. , 2009; Hamzaoui et al. , 2003). In Gale crater, progressive dehydration of the groundwater would cause B to precipitate as a borate, leaving Li in the brine. The remnant Li-rich brine may have moved down gradient from the borate-bearing veins along VRR (refer to elevations in Figures  6  and 7 ), producing the observed spatial and stratal separation of the elements.
the spectral range covered by this instrument. Because of this, Ca-sulfates are identified by the presence of strong enrichments of Ca (e. g. , > 20 wt. % CaO) along with the identification of a S peak. The calibration for B is described by Gasda et al. , (2017)  with a limit of detection (LOD) of ~100 ppm. The calibration for Li is provided using a univariate model with an LOD of 5 ppm and root mean square error (RMSE) of 5 ppm(Payré   et al. , 2017). The data used for plotting the Li concentrations can be found in the PDS Geosciences Node Data and Services repository (https://pds-geosciences. wustl. edu/missions/msl/chemcam. htm) and the corrected Li concentrations can be found in a Zenodo data repository (Das, 2020:  http://doi. org/10. 5281/zenodo. 3877377).
Acknowledgments, Samples, and Data This work was supported in Canada by  McGill University , the  NSERC Discovery program , and the  Canadian Space Agency's support for Mars Science Laboratory Participating Scientists. Rover exploration, including ChemCam operations and this specific work, was supported in the US by the  NASA   Mars Exploration Program. ChemCam operations and science in France was supported by  CNRS. D. Das  thanks  Dylan Paddock  for help with data processing code. J. Frydenvang  acknowledges the  Carlsberg Foundation. The authors thank S. McLennan,  K. Benison , and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments on the manuscript. There are no real or perceived financial conflicts of interests for any author. There are also no other affiliations for any author that may be perceived as having a conflict of interest with respect to the results of this paper.
II. EXPERIMENTAL The compound [Cu(pz) 2 (2-HOpy) 2 ](PF 6 ) 2 was synthesized using conventional solution chemistry techniques, described in detail in the Supplemental Material (SM)  [49]. Slow evaporation of methanol solutions of the product, [Cu(pz) 2 (2-HOpy) 2 ](PF 6 ) 2 , (pz = pyrazine, 2-HOpy = 2-pyridone) produces thin, rectangular, green plates, typically 3 to 5 mm on a side and about 1 mm thick. The crystals extinguish well under polarized light and are dichroic. X-ray data were obtained on an Agilent Technologies Gemini Eos CCX-ray diffractometer using Cu-Kα radiation (λ = 1. 5418 Å) with ω scans using CrysAlisPro software  [50]  refined cell parameters and SCALE3 AB-SPACK  [51]  scaling algorithm defined absorption corrections. Data were collected at 120 K. SHELXS97  [52]  was used to solve the structures, which were refined via least-squares analysis using SHELXL-2016  [53].
All nonhydrogen atoms were refined anisotropically. Hydrogen atoms bonded to nitrogen atoms were located in the difference Fourier maps and their positions refined with fixed isotropic thermal parameters. The remaining hydrogen atoms were geometrically located and refined using a riding model with fixed isotropic thermal parameters. The structure has been deposited with the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre (CCDC) (1553982). A Bruker D8 powder x-ray diffractometer was used to confirm the purity and phase of powdered samples prior to magnetic measurements. Measurements of magnetic bulk properties between 1. 8 and 310 K were carried out using a Quantum Design MPMS-XL SQUID magnetometer with a 5 T magnet, as well as a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) Quantum Design PPMS with a 14 T magnet.
Corrections were made to the data for the background signal of the sample holder, as well as diamagnetic contributions. Studies below 2 K were performed employing a 3 He cooling stage. The high-field magnetization of CuPOF single crystals in pulsed fields up to 35 T and at temperatures of 0. 37 and 1. 4 K were performed at the Dresden High Magnetic Field Laboratory (HLD) at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. Additional measurements of a polycrystalline sample in DC fields up to 35 T were done using a vibrating sample magnetometer at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) in Tallahassee, as well as in pulsed fields up to 25 T at the NHMFL facility in Los Alamos. The results are fully consistent with the data from the HLD and can be found in the SM. Room-temperature electron spin resonance (ESR) studies were performed on polycrystalline material and single crystals of CuPOF, using a commercially available X-Band Bruker ESR spectrometer operating at 9.
Heat-capacity measurements between 1. 8 and 300 K were performed using a Quantum Design PPMS system. Further, a 3 He insert was used to record the heat capacity at temperatures down to 0. 4 K. Powdered samples with masses of 1. 065(5) mg and 1. 832(5) mg, for measurements at 4 He and 3 He temperatures, respectively, were pressed into pellets and attached to the sample platforms using Apiezon N grease. The addenda was determined from measurements with an empty sample holder, and subtracted from the data to obtain the heat capacity of the sample. Zero-field muon-spin relaxation (µ + SR) measurements on a polycrystalline sample were carried out using the EMU spectrometer at the ISIS facility at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. The sample was mounted on an Ag backing plate and covered with a 12.
17. The average g-factor has been determined at room temperature using ESR, and found to be g = 2. 15. The existence of two distinct pyrazine molecules in the unit cell allows for the possibility of a rectangular magnetic lattice in which the exchange strengths (J and αJ, 0 ≤ α ≤ 1) along the a and b axes are different. This possibility has been tested by comparing the susceptibility data to the susceptibilities of rectangular 2D QHAF  [57, 58]  for various values of J and α. The square lattice (α =1) case gives by far the best fit and it is possible to rule out any rectangular contribution with α < 0. 96. The low-temperature static susceptibility of a single crystal of CuPOF at 0. 1 T is shown in the inset of Fig. 3. The out-of-plane DC susceptibility (H c) has a minimum at 1. 86(5) K, whereas for a field applied in the ab plane (H ⊥ c), the DC susceptibility steadily decreases to the lowest measured temperature.
Analogously to the modeling of the DC susceptibility, the integrated ESR intensity was modeled, varying only the Curie constant, with fixed exchange coupling of J/k B = 6. 80(5) K and a paramagnetic impurity percentage of 1. 1(1)% (black dash-dotted line in Fig. 2 ). High-frequency ESR spectroscopy at 1. 5 K in the frequency range between 52 and 500 GHz revealed a single resonance mode with a linear frequency-field dependence (Fig. S9  in the SM), yielding g c = 2. 29  (1). Specific Heat. The specific heat was measured between 0. 4 and 300 K. The data increase smoothly from about 0. 2 Jmol -1 K -1 at 1 K, approaching 640 Jmol -1 K -1 at 300 K. No sharp anomalies, corresponding to structural changes or ordering transitions, were observed in this range (Fig. S10  in the SM). The data between 1 and 9 K are shown in Fig.
The crystals extinguish between crossed polarizers when the growth edges are parallel to the axes of polarization. Total product (0. 504 g, 0. 716 mmol) for a yield of 28. 6%. The infrared spectrum by the attenuated total reflection (IR (ATR)) and In order to obtain the absolute values of the magnetization recorded in the pulsed-field experiments, the data were directly compared with the magnetization recorded for a CuPOF single crystal at 4 K for H c (at 2 K for H ⊥ c) and up to 14 T, using a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) in a superconducting magnet and 4 He cryostat. These results are presented in Fig. S3. Additional measurements of the magnetization of a polycrystalline sample in DC fields up to 35 T were done using a VSM magnetometer at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory in Tallahassee, as well as in pulsed fields up to 25 T at the NHMFL facility in Los Alamos.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Christoph Klausnitzer  from the  Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of Solids  is acknowledged for his strong technical support, and in memory of his lifetime achievements. We thank  Paul Gape  for experimental assistance with the muon experiment and for discussion of the data analysis. We acknowledge the support of  HLD  at  HZDR , member of the  European Magnetic Field Laboratory (EMFL). We acknowledge the support from the  Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)  through  SFB 1143  and the  Würzburg-Dresden Cluster of Excellence on Complexity and Topology in Quantum Matter -ct. qmat ( EXC 2147 , project No. 390858490 ). Work at the  National High Magnetic Field Laboratory  is supported by  NSF  Cooperative Agreements No. DMR-1157490  and No. DMR-1644779 , the  State of Florida , the  US DOE , and the  DOE Basic Energy Science Field Work Project Science in 100 T.
The formation of such exomoons is of great importance as they could influence conditions for habitability, or for maintaining life over long periods of time at the surface of Earth-like exoplanets, for example by limiting the variations of the orientation of the planet's rotation axis and thus preventing frequent changes of its climate. This article summarizes our current knowledge concerning the origin of Phobos and Deimos, acquired from observational data as well as theoretical work. It describes why early observations led to the idea that the two satellites were captured asteroids and why the difficulties in reconciling the current orbits of Phobos and Deimos with those of captured bodies calls for an alternative theory. A detailed description of a giant-impact scenario is then given, in which moons similar to Phobos and Deimos can be formed in orbits similar to those observed today.
It is difficult to find a mechanism by which the moons formed at the Roche limit could have migrated far from Mars and then stayed in orbit for a long time, in particular for Deimos which orbits at a distance of nearly seven RM (see table 1, Rosenblatt & Charnoz, 2012, see also Section: 'Evolution of the accretion disk'). Another possibility is that the disk resulted from a giant impact, similar to that which led to the formation of the Earth's Moon. This was first proposed by  Craddock (1994)  but was disregarded by the scientific community until new data about Phobos' interior by Mars Express implying a significant amount of porosity and favoring a formation in an accretion disk (e. g. Andert et al. , 2010; Rosenblatt, 2011)  revived this scenario. A reapprasial of Phobos' origin from the data of the OMEGA spectrometer onboard Mars Express also favored such a scenario  (Bibring, 2010 ).
Macromolecular crystallography (MX) is the dominant means of determining the three-dimensional structures of biological macromolecules. Over the last few decades, most MX data have been collected at synchrotron beamlines using a large number of different detectors produced by various manufacturers and taking advantage of various protocols and goniometries. These data came in their own formats: sometimes proprietary, sometimes open. The associated metadata rarely reached the degree of completeness required for data management according to Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability and Reusability (FAIR) principles. Efforts to reuse old data by other investigators or even by the original investigators some time later were often frustrated. In the culmination of an effort dating back more than two decades, a large portion of the research community concerned with high data-rate macromolecular crystallography (HDRMX) has now agreed to an updated specification of data and metadata for diffraction images produced at synchrotron light sources and X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs).
This 'Gold Standard' will facilitate the processing of data sets independent of the facility at which they were collected and enable data archiving according to FAIR principles, with a particular focus on interoperability and reusability. This agreed standard builds on the NeXus/ HDF5 NXmx application definition and the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) imgCIF/CBF dictionary, and it is compatible with major dataprocessing programs and pipelines. Just as with the IUCr CBF/imgCIF standard from which it arose and to which it is tied, the NeXus/HDF5 NXmx Gold Standard application definition is intended to be applicable to all detectors used for crystallography, and all hardware and software developers in the field are encouraged to adopt and contribute to the standard.
It was clear that users would benefit from the development of a method that would provide the efficiency of film and the accuracy and automaticity of diffractometry. The "best of both worlds" would thus be a method of electronic detection that combined the advantage of both. techniques. (Howard, 1996). By the mid-1990s such area detectors had become well established in MX, but there was a lack of agreement on a common format for the data and supporting metadata. In 1995, Andrew Hammersley proposed a 'Crystallographic Binary Format' which, after considerable discussion and revision, was adopted by the IUCr in 2005  (Bernstein, 2005; Bernstein & Hammersley, 2005; Ellis & Bernstein, 2005). The resulting 'imgCIF/CBF' format, metadata and supporting software was adopted by Dectris for the then-new PILATUS detector in 2007  (Powell et al.
The concepts necessary to sharing data effectively, Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability and Reusability (FAIR), have long been recognized and were formalized as 'The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship'  (Wilkinson et al. , 2016) , and are now widely accepted. Both CBF for the PILATUS and NXmx for the EIGER have worked well within the context of data collection at specific beamlines at various facilities but, with the passage of time, variations in the choices of mandatory metadata have created difficulties in processing data collected at a given facility with software in use for data collected at other institutions, and this has required software developers to accommodate significant variations in data formats to process such data. This has been an ongoing and increasing problem since 2007, especially with respect to interoperability and reusability.
This problem has been recognized by a large portion of the research community concerned with high data-rate macromolecular crystallography (HDRMX). As noted by  Kroon-Batenburg & Helliwell (2014) , there have been many different approaches to defining the necessary metadata for processing crystallographic data, ranging from minimal 'miniCBFs' which can document many simple single-axis data sets to very complete and complex 'full CBFs' that document all aspects of the data collection including all settings of all positioning axes and all characteristics of the beam. The 'full CBF'  (Bernstein & Hammersley, 2005)  is an IUCr Crystallographic Information File (CIF) format file  (Hall et al. , 1991)  with the ability to support binary image files and is an extension to the Protein Data Bank mmCIF format  (Westbrook & Fitzgerald, 2003).
CIF, in turn, is an IUCrauthorized STAR (Self-Defining Text Archive and Retrieval) format for crystallography, and the Crystallographic Information Framework (also abbreviated CIF) is a system of exchange protocols based on data dictionaries and relational databases which is widely used in the field of crystallography. mmCIF with PDBx extensions became a master format for the PDB in 2013 and is now the only permitted format for PDB deposition  (Adams et al. , 2019). For many years there had been resistance to recording more metadata than seemed to be needed at the time of initial data collection. Attitudes have changed as smaller, more intense beams, large numbers of small samples, much higher data rates and multimodal experiments have made the delays caused by special cases and the need to manually search for extra metadata from multiple sources unacceptable.
, 2017). We call this new specification the 'Gold Standard'  (Bernstein et al. , 2020). The agreed specification builds on the NeXus/ HDF5 NXmx application definition (in the NeXus User Manual and Reference Documentation; http://download. nexusformat. org/ doc/html/classes/applications/NXmx. html#nxmx) and the IUCr CIF imgCIF/CBF dictionary used for the 'full CBF' (on the IUCr Image CIF dictionary web page https://www. iucr. org/ resources/cif/dictionaries/cif_img). Many of the fields of the Gold Standard are explicitly 'required' in all valid data sets. In order to maximize the range of use cases, other fields that are only 'recommended' or 'optional' are also specified. The specification in this paper is just given in NeXus/HDF5, but translation back to 'full CBF' is feasible when needed to run with older software not yet adapted to NeXus/HDF5.
Even when a Gold Standard data set is written as a NeXus/HDF5 file, any or all of the CIF data needed for eventual PDB deposition may be added into the NeXus/HDF5 file using the NeXus NXpdb base class when it is available or has been calculated. This standard is focused on raw diffraction images rather than the structure factors, since in modern MX data collection, diffraction images are the primary raw data and structure factors are derived data. Structure factors are very important, and even if they are derived data they should of course be recorded, not least because since 2008 they have been mandatory for PDB depositions using the appropriate mmCIF definitions  (Jiang et al. , 1999). If structure factors are available, they should be added to Gold Standard files for storage, archiving and deposition.
MX and its history of sharing, openness and standards There is a natural tension between the desire for a scientist to work on their own data and the value to the field as a whole in sharing as much data as possible. Macromolecular crystallography has been sharing data on atomic coordinates in standardized formats since the establishment of the Protein Data Bank in 1971  (Bernstein et al. , 1977). For macromolecules, the PDB coordinate format became the de facto standard for MX. Starting in 1990, the small-molecule crystallography community began a rapid transition to standardized formats for coordinate data using the Crystallographic Information File (CIF) format  (Hall et al. , 1991). The MX community began a discussion of a macromolecular CIF (mmCIF) for coordinate data in 1993  (Fitzgerald et al.
Description of the Gold Standard and compliance with software Whether we are dealing with CBF files or NeXus/HDF5 files, the information in a Gold Standard data set is the same: one or more diffraction-image data arrays of pixels along with sufficient metadata to allow software to determine exactly where in the laboratory coordinate system each pixel was located and when the intensity recorded in that pixel was recorded, so that the software can locate spots, index them and integrate them. For example, the conversion of pixel positions relative to the detector to reciprocal-space positions requires knowledge of the pixel size, the detector distance, the detector orientation, the wavelength and the beam center. In the past some of the metadata needed for this process might have been recorded in the same set of files as the image-data arrays and some of the necessary metadata might have been recorded elsewhere, for example in a laboratory notebook or in some separate electronic laboratory notebook.