dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
The Validation Ground-Based Data The ground-based data used in this study for validation include aerosol optical depth (AOD), absorbing aerosol optical depth (AAOD) and fine aerosol optical depth (AOD f ) from three AERONET stations (Beijing (BJ), Xianghe (XH) and Xinglong (XL)) during January 2012. AERONET is a ground observation network comprised of a group of groundbased remote-sensing aerosol sites established by NASA to detect the global atmospheric aerosol (http://aeronet. gsfc. nasa. gov (accessed on 25 December 2020))  [34]. The direct Sun AOD and extended retrieved aerosol properties of level 1. 5 data cloud screened and level 2. 0 passed additional quality control, including quality checks, stability criterion check and standard deviation check were used for validation purposes  [35, 36].
If there were no level 2. 0 data available, the level 1. 5 data were used. The uncertainty of AOD in the visible and near-infrared bands is ~0. 01  [37]. The direct Sun AOD observations are conducted every 15 min according to the AERONET operational protocol. The angular sky radiance scanning, which is collected less frequently (~once per hour) and only at low sun elevation angles, is used to derive aerosol microphysical and absorption characteristics, including AAOD  [35]. Thus, the number of derived AOD substantially exceeds that of AAOD. In addition to AERONET data, the ambient relative humidity (RH), temperature, wind direction and wind speed, which were collected by the automatic meteorological stations (NO. 54398 Beijing (40. 08 • N 116. 37 • E)) of the China Meteorological Administration (CMA) were used in order to analyze the ground surface observations.
GRASP/Component Retrieval GRASP (Generalized Retrieval of Aerosol and Surface Properties) is a highly rigorous and versatile aerosol and surface reflectance retrieval algorithm which is available at (https://www. grasp-open. com (accessed on 1 July 2020))  [21, 25]. The algorithm can equally be applied (with minimal changes) to inverting observations from different satellite sensors and ground-based instruments  [47] [48] [49] [50]. A full description of the main "Forward Model" and "Numerical Retrieval" algorithm modules is provided by Dubovik et al. [51]. The schematic flowchart of the GRASP retrieval algorithm is shown in Figure  2. The aerosol properties in the forward model of GRASP rely on a spheroid kernel data base for the calculation of single scattering properties  [50]. The multiple scattering effects are accounted for using the successive order of scattering (SOS) radiative transfer approach  [52].
The inversion is designed as statistically fitting using the multi-term least square method (LSM)  [53]. Recently a module for aerosol component retrieval was incorporated into the GRASP algorithm, called the GRASP/Components algorithm, in order to directly infer information about aerosol components from measured radiances together with size distribution that allows for retrieving also all optical properties such as aerosol optical depth in fine and coarse mode, single scattering albedo, etc. [26, 27]. The main specifics of GRASP/Components relate to the modeling of aerosol optical properties. As shown in Figure  2  the aerosol is modeled as an internal mixture of several aerosol components with known spectral dependencies of the CRI of the aerosol components that are fixed a priori. Correspondingly, the aerosol optical properties are driven by size distribution and CRI that is computed using Maxwell-Garnett mixing rules from the volume fractions of the components.
As shown in Figure  2 , the volume fractions of the components are included in the state vector of retrieved unknowns. Maxwell-Garnett effective medium approximation should be used for the case of insoluble impurities suspended in solution, which can be modeled as insoluble inclusions embedded within a matrix  [54]. Thus, the algorithm derives the volume fractions of these components that drive spectral dependence of the complex refractive index, which are used together with size distribution to calculate the mass column concentrations of each aerosol component and total aerosols. Figure  2  illustrates the main logic of the GRASP/Components algorithm iterative solution. The forward model module simulates satellite observation and measurement based on state vector that includes parameters describing the particles size distribution, aerosol vertical profile, fractions of aerosol components and surface reflectance as the following.
Temporal Variations of Aerosol Properties in Beijing Region This section discusses aerosol components results for the BJ region shown in Figure  1 , which is a part of Beijing. Based on the results presented above, we analyzed the evolution of the aerosol size distribution and aerosol component combination during January 2012. For a comprehensive analysis we utilized meteorological data of PM 2. 5 data in Beijing. The daily distribution of the available ground-based meteorological and PM 2. 5 data is shown in Figure  11. For comparison of aerosol component values retrieved from satellites, we have chosen the closest measurements within 10 min before and after satellite overpass time. It is worth noting that there was a high air pollution event according to PM 2. 5 on 15-18 January 2012. According to the China's Environmental Policy, it is a serious pollution (haze case) when the concentration of PM 2.
Moreover, the analyzed satellite observations demonstrate the evident impact of meteorological changes on the variation in aerosol components during air pollution. However, satellite observations were missing on the 19th and 20th due to cloudy conditions and a two-day revisit period of the satellite. Indeed, satellites can get continuous data for a large area, but the revisit time of the satellites is limited (e. g. , it is once in 2 days for PARASOL). In addition, the presence of clouds greatly reduces the availability of effective data. In this study, cloudy pixel percentage is about 30% over NCP in January 2012. At the same time, in other studies, the cloud is also an important influence on the amount of effective data. Figure  13  presents comparisons of fine mode aerosol component mass concentrations retrieved from satellite and from surface measurements of PM 2.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to the entire GRASP-OPEN (https://www. grasp-open. com/,(accessed on 4 July 2021)) team for the algorithm development. We would also like to express our thankfulness to CNES and ICARE data distribution center for POLDER/PARASOL data. We are grateful to Beijing, Xianghe, Xinglong AERONET sites for ground-based data and to the  US Embassy of Beijing  for providing PM 2. 5 observation data (https://china. usembassy-china. org. cn/,(accessed on 4 July 2021)) and meteorological stations of  China Meteorological Administration (CMA).
Funding: This work was supported by the  National Outstanding Youth Foundation of China  (Grant No. 41925019 ). This work was also supported by the  National Key B&R Program of China  (Grant No. 2016YFE0201400 ). This work was also supported by the  Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China  (Grant NO. 418QN302 ). The GRASP/components algorithm was supported by the  CaPPA project (Chemical and Physical Properties of the Atmosphere) , funded by the  French National Research Agency  through the  Programmed'Investissement d'Avenir under contract  " ANR-11-LABX-0005-01 " and by the  Regional Council Nord Pas de Calais-Picardie  and the  European Funds for Regional Economic Development.
Mindfulness-based programs (MBPs)   are increasingly utilized to improve mental health. Interest in the putative effects of MBPs on cognitive function is also growing. This is the first meta-analysis of objective cognitive outcomes across multiple domains from randomized MBP studies of adults. Seven databases were systematically searched to January 2020. Fifty-six unique studies (n = 2,931) were included, of which 45 (n = 2,238) were synthesized using robust variance estimation metaanalysis. Meta-regression and subgroup analyses evaluated moderators. Pooling data across cognitive domains, the summary effect size for all studies favored MBPs over comparators and was small in magnitude (g = 0. 15; [0. 05, 0. 24]). Across subgroup analyses of individual cognitive domains/subdomains, MBPs outperformed comparators for executive function (g = 0.
Search Strategy The electronic databases AMED, CINAHL Plus, Embase, Medline, PsycBOOKS, PsycINFO, Scopus and Web of Science were systematically searched. Additionally, grey literature searches were conducted with ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, ClinicalTrials. gov and Google Scholar  (Haddaway et al. , 2015). Lastly, references from other reviews were hand-screened by two experts from the mindfulness research field (DV, SWL). Briefly, search strings combined the stem 'mindful*' with interventional terms adapted from other reviews  (Bhome et al. , 2018; Smart et al. , 2017; Verbeek et al. , 2005) , and cognitive domain terms derived from a handbook of neuropsychological assessment  (Lezak, 2012). The initial search was conducted on December 2nd, 2018 and updated on January 23rd, 2020.
, 2010). The robust variance estimation metaanalysis was conducted with the 'robumeta' package in R version 3. 6. 0, with small-sample corrections enabled  (Fisher & Tipton, 2017). As per the default option for the robumeta package, rho (presumed correlation amongst different outcomes within studies) was set to 0. 8, and sensitivity analyses varied rho from 0-1 to determine the effect these values could have on Tau 2. Significant results were defined as those having a p-value < 0. 05. Notably, p-values for robust variance estimation meta-analytic estimates are unreliable where the model degrees of freedom < 4  (Fisher & Tipton, 2017). We highlight where this is the case and do not report these p-values. For the primary meta-analysis, data from all studies and all cognitive domains were pooled.
Study Selection The literature search across seven databases yielded a total of 35,101 title-abstracts through January 2020. After deduplication, 16,919 title-abstracts remained. Each title-abstract was screened by TW and one other reviewer (EP, ML, AC or MS), with 184 title-abstracts subsequently included for full-text review. Each full-text was screened by TW and one other reviewer (ML, AC or MS). During the full-text retrieval and data extraction process, another 125 titles were excluded (see Fig. 1  for PRISMA flowchart), with a final total of 59 articles being included.
Participant Characteristics The mean age of included participants ranged from 19 to 82 years (median 41 years). Forty studies (71%) were of adults (< 60 years), while sixteen studies (29%) recruited older adults (≥ 60 years). The overall proportion of female participants was 67%. Twenty-two studies (39%) reported sample ethnicity data. Across these studies, 71% of participants were white, 15% were Asian, and 9% were black (the ethnicity of the remaining 5% was not reported or coded as 'Other'). Thirty-four studies (61%) provided some data on the educational attainment of participants. Considering only the 16 (29%) studies which reported education in years, participants' mean education ranged from four to 17 years (median 15 years). We pooled available age, sex, education, and ethnicity data for the MBP and main comparator arms separately (see supplementary Table  S2 ).
Intervention Characteristics Ten studies (18%) used unmodified MBSR, while three (5%) used unmodified MBCT. Thirty studies (54%) featured modified MBPs. Typical modifications included reducing Modified MBP; 3 Generic MBP; *Included in the final meta-analysis; # For the meta-analyzed studies, we only list the domains contributing data to quantitative syntheses; £ For this study, data were available for the subsample of participants with individual age ≥ 18 years (some participants were younger), these data alone were included in the review; € For this study, outcomes were reported (i) following three months of weekly sessions, and (ii) after a further six months of monthly sessions. In order to maintain comparability with other MBPs, we only included data from the first timepoint; # Here we list the main comparator included in analyses, additional inactive comparators were included in some subgroup analyses the number of sessions or omitting the retreat day; reducing the duration of sessions to facilitate the participation of attentionally-impaired individuals; adapting the psychoeducational content for non-stressed/non-depressed samples; and the omission of the mindful movement practice for persons with reduced mobility.
g. amount of time accrued in mindfulness teaching or practice) and qualitative (e. g. certification status) information about the MBP facilitators' credentials. Broadly, thirty-three studies (59%) described the facilitator as being a mindfulness teacher/instructor (k = 22 (39%) explicitly stating that the facilitator had completed MBP teacher training). The remaining nine studies (16%) simply described the facilitator as being a clinician, a mindfulness practitioner, or an individual with limited mindfulness teaching experience. Twenty-five studies (45%) reported adherence data for the MBP. Across these studies, the mean proportion of sessions attended ranged between 39 and 100% (median 87%). Some studies, however, excluded dropouts from the reported adherence data. If dropouts were accounted for, adherence would be expected to decrease.
Home practice adherence data were available for 16 studies (29%). Eleven studies (20%) reported home practice data as the mean reported duration of practice; these figures ranged from 36 to 100% (median 82%) of the amount assigned in the MBP. Five studies (9%) reported home practice data as the mean percentage of assigned home sessions completed; these ranged from 57 to 100% (median 84%). Forty-eight studies (86%) included a single comparator group, while eight studies (14%) included more than one comparator. Of the latter, five studies (9%) included one active and one inactive comparator. In the main analyses, the MBP was compared against the active comparator intervention for these studies, while both comparisons were included in subgroup analyses presenting data separately for active and inactive comparators.
Quantitative Synthesis of Results Forty-six studies (82%) reported cognitive outcome data amenable to meta-analysis (or the authors provided these on request). The remaining ten studies (18%) were excluded from meta-analyses for the following reasons: only reporting non-summary scores for laboratory tests (k = 7; 13%); not reporting sufficient data to calculate effect sizes (k = 2; 4%); or not reporting cognitive test data (k = 1; 2%). No included study reported data for the language or reasoning cognitive Fig. 2  Cochrane Risk of Bias Graph. The risk of bias graph presents ratings for all 56 studies included in the systematic review domains. Available effect sizes (n; %) thus measured executive function (63; 35%), attention (53; 29%), declarative memory (49; 27%), cognitive aging (7; 4%), construction (5; 3%), or visual perception (3; 2%).
Meta-regression Univariable meta-regressions evaluated the following candidate moderators in the final meta-analytic dataset: type of comparator; age group; clinical status; type of MBP; number of formal mindfulness practices included; whether a retreat was included; number of MBP sessions; frequency of MBP sessions; and duration of MBP sessions. Each moderator was first individually meta-regressed on effect size, and none were significant (all ps > 0. 08). Whilst no moderators were significant, those effecting the greatest reduction in the I 2 statistic (relative to the final meta-analysis) were type of comparator (I 2 reduced by 4. 0 percentage points); MBP session duration (I 2 reduced by 3. 7 percentage points); and MBP session frequency (I 2 reduced by 1. 8 percentage points). All moderators were then simultaneously included in a meta-regression, and none emerged as significant (all ps > 0.
Cognitive Domains and Subdomains Outcomes were subdivided according to the cognitive domain they primarily represented. MBPs significantly outperformed comparators for executive function (k = 29; Executive function, attention and declarative memory were further divided into subdomains; these were also evaluated separately (see Table  2 ). The only subdomain for which MBPs significantly outperformed comparators was for the working memory subdomain of executive function  (k = 13; g = 0. 23; [0. 11, 0. 36] ). Six studies reported data from the Attention Network Test. In contrast to the variability of measures included in other analyses, these data provided the opportunity to examine effects on a single measure. MBPs did not outperform comparators for any of the network scores (i. e. alerting, orienting and executive; see supplementary Table  S6 ).
Discussion We identified 56 randomized MBP studies which measured objective cognition, of which approximately 30% comprised older adult samples (≥ 60 years), and 70% adult samples (< 60 years). Around forty percent of studies recruited participants from clinical populations, primarily comprising individuals with neurocognitive, psychiatric, or neurological disorders; the remaining 60% included non-clinical samples. About a quarter of studies used unmodified MBSR/ MBCT, half featured modified MBPs, and the remainder used generic MBPs. The split between actively-and inactively-controlled designs was approximately equal. Forty-five studies were included in the final meta-analysis. The summary effect (pooling data across cognitive domains) significantly favored MBPs over comparators and was small in magnitude (g = 0.
Older Adults Whilst earlier reviews summarized MBP effects on cognition in older adults  (Berk et al. , 2017; Fountain-Zaragoza & Prakash, 2017; Hazlett-Stevens et al. , 2019) , none were explicitly systematic (though see  Gard et al. (2014)  for a systematic review of mindfulness meditation). The reviews found mixed evidence for cognitive effects in elders, and concurred that additional high-quality studies were needed to support a more confident conclusion. The literature has since grown, with this synthesis being the first to systematically review and meta-analyze data from MBP studies of older adults (here a subgroup analysis). Across 15 studies of older adults (≥ 60 years; n = 860), the pooled effect across cognitive domains favored MBPs over control conditions  (g = 0. 21; [0. 04, 0.
Strengths of the Review This evidence synthesis has a number of clear strengths. Previous reviews did not search the literature systematically, or combined data from both longitudinal and crosssectional studies  (Berk et al. , 2017; Chiesa et al. , 2011; Fountain-Zaragoza & Prakash, 2017). In contrast, we conducted a systematic literature search; solely included randomized studies; and performed screening, bias rating, and data extraction in duplicate. Moreover, we only included objective behavioral assessments of cognition, thereby circumventing problems associated with self-report measures  (Van Dam et al. , 2018). Perhaps most significantly, to our knowledge this is the first meta-analysis of general cognitive outcomes (i. e. spanning multiple domains) from randomized MBP studies. The rapidly-expanding MBP literature constitutes a mosaic of significant and non-significant effects across various cognitive domains, the complexity of which prevents interested readers from gaining an intuitive sense of the aggregate effects.
Limitations of the Review In spite of the clear strengths, limitations remain. Perhaps the most general limitation relates to the variability amongst study populations, MBPs, comparators and outcomes. In particular, the studies comprising the current 'clinical' dataset recruited from a range of populations, including individuals with neurocognitive, psychiatric or neurological disorders. Moreover, we were unable to evaluate the potentially moderating effects of some MBP characteristics (e. g. the amount of teaching of mindfulness theory, the amount of 'informal' home mindfulness practice assigned or completed). These characteristics varied between studies and may contribute to unexplained variability in some statistical models. Half of the studies were actively-controlled, with these featuring a variety of comparator interventions, controlling for different aspects of MBPs.
Considering a general implication, we echo  Van Dam et al. (2018)  in encouraging methodological improvements in MBP research. Investigators are encouraged to compare MBPs to active comparators (either alone or in addition to inactive comparators, which may help to parse out practice effects). The increased use of active comparators will better enable specific and non-specific intervention effects to be disentangled. We recommend that studies be preregistered; that strict randomization procedures are implemented and reported; and that data are analyzed using intention-totreat. We also encourage greater adoption of standardized cognitive measures -particularly those pertaining to executive function and working memory (e. g. the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery, NIH EXAMINER). This promises to improve the validity, reliability and comparability of studies  (Vago et al.
Conclusion This is the first systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate objective, cross-domain cognitive outcomes reported by randomized MBP studies. In the primary analysis (pooling data across domains) we identified a small but significant effect on cognitive function. Specific effects were observed for executive function and for working memory (here conceptualized as a subdomain of executive function), but not other individual domains. Small, significant effects were observed for studies of non-clinical, as well as older adult (≥ 60 years) samples, but not for studies of clinical, or adult (< 60 years) samples. In addition, we found that MBPs outperformed inactive, but not active comparators. MBPs place strong emphasis on strengthening mental skills, and this review suggests that this translates to improved performance on objective cognition.
Shift in the excitatory and inhibitory balance In models of stroke or TBI, many studies have initially observed hypoactivity in the injured cortex followed by late hyperactivity. Hyperactivity has also been observed in the contralateral cortex and hippocampus in the days following injury. This change has been observed in models of TBI and stroke and has been linked to a decrease in inhibition by interneurons, which appears to be a common feature of the injured brain across models, since it has also been observed in animal models of experimental autoimmune encephalitis  (Ellwardt et al. , 2018). We also reviewed data showing reorganization of the sensory map assessed with functional imaging after stroke or TBI, which suggests that these changes in excitability might be compensatory mechanisms.
To date (December 2020), there are only 175 macromolecular structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank that have been determined using neutron diffraction data. Glycoside hydrolases  (Niimura et al. , 1997; Wan et al. , 2015) , lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase  (Bacik et al. , 2017; O'Dell et al. , 2017) , and xylose isomerase  (Langan et al. , 2014)  are carbohydrate-processing enzymes that have been extensively studied by neutron diffraction. On the other hand, only two lectins (sugar-binding proteins) have been studied using neutron crystallography, namely concanavalin A  (Blakeley et al. , 2004; Gerlits et al. , 2017; Habash et al. , 1997 Habash et al. , , 2000;; Kalb et al. , 2000)  and galectin-3C  (Manzoni et al. , 2016 (Manzoni et al. , , 2018)). Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins having no enzymatic activity.