dataesr/scientific-paragraphs-categorization huggingface dataset:
Leaf Traits and Their Extraction from Images In order to calculate leaf morphometric parameters of individual fossils, the leaf outlines were digitised in QGIS (1. 8 -2. 8), a free and open source geographic information system (GIS) (http:/ /www. qgis. org/en/site/). For this purpose, the images of fossil leaves were georeferenced to the uppermost part of the leaf petiole if present in the fossil. Thus, for all leaf images, this spot represents the GIS-internal "origin" as this is a homotopic landmark in angiosperm leaves. Both quantitative and qualitative leaf traits are considered in MOR-PHYLL. Quantitative traits represent continuous data which are mostly based on measurements of morphometric parameters from the GIS shape files. Leaf mass per area (LM A ) is a special case, since it does not represent a morphometric parameter.
Quantitative Traits Leaf outline. After georeferencing leaf images, the leaf outlines were digitised by hand in order to generate shapefiles. Owing to the fact that many fossil leaves are fragmented and thus some parts of the laminae are missing, two versions of outlines were generated for each leaf: (1) a minimum outline representing unequivocally parts of the fragmented lamina (frag) and (  2 ) a maximum outline representing the complete replenished lamina (repl), based on a subjective interpretation of the lamina shape of the respective specimen (Figure  2 ). Spatial Structured Query Language (SQL) served to calculate quantitative leaf morphometric parameters such as leaf area or outline length. For this purpose, the shapefiles of leaf outlines were imported to an object-relational PostgreSQL-database (9.
1. 16) with PostGIS (2. 0. 4) extension adding support for spatial queries to be run in SQL. A set of quantitative morphometric parameters is then extracted from replenished leaf outlines. In order to provide information on the amount of lamina reconstruction for each specimen, the area index (IA) is also included in the database. The area index is calculated as the ratio of lamina area of fragmented and replenished leaf outlines. It is, therefore, a measure for the proportion of the pre-served parts of the lamina with respect to the reconstructed lamina. For example, a value of 0. 9 means that 90% of the original lamina is preserved while 10% of the lamina area is reconstructed. Lamina area and perimeter. Lamina area (A) and perimeter (P) are calculated directly from the x/ycoordinates of the leaf lamina outlines.
Qualitative Leaf Traits In addition to quantitative morphometric parameters, qualitative traits of leaf shape and venation were determined for each specimen including lobation, leaf margin type, primary and secondary vein framework, and leaf size class as determined following the Manual of Leaf Architecture  (Ellis et al. , 2009)   (Table 2 ). These leaf traits are recorded at the highest hierarchical level character states. For example, untoothed/toothed represents the highest hierarchical level for leaf margin type, while dentate/serrate/crenate is the next lower hierarchical level for toothed leaf margins. Lower hierarchical levels will be subsequently added to the database. Additionally, the presence/ absence of the petiole was recorded for each leaf.
DATA ACCESS AND QUERY All data of MORPHYLL are stored and managed by a PostgreSQL-server hosted at the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart (SMNS). Five different data types are stored in the database (Table  2 ): (1) collection metadata of the specimen, such as accession number, (  2 ) taxonomic data, if available, (3) qualitative data, (4) quantitative data and (  5 ) the geometric data in the form of extracted shapefiles. In addition, leaf images from all specimens are also stored in MORPYHLL. All data types including geometries of shapefiles are provided by the PostgreSQL-server for clients such as QGIS or the statistic software TABLE 2. List of parameters stored in MORPHYLL. Parameters marked with an asterisk are included in the query mask (partially upon registration). Morphological traits used as defined by  Ellis et al.
(2009). Parameter without an asterisk can be obtained directly from the curator (see main text). environment R (R Development Core Team, 2015) by defined database interfaces. Leaf images as well as the shapefiles of leaf outlines or leaf venation can immediately be visualised and edited in GIS. For statistical analyses, user-defined data subsets can easily be retrieved from an R-environment by using SQL-queries. The data portal of the MORPHYLL-project is available for the public at http://www. morphyll. naturkundemuseum-bw. de (Appendix 1). The website offers a brief overview of the database content, incorporated fossil leaf collections and methods. A summary of the database content is given at the MORPHYLL-data portal in the menu "Database-Synopsis". The synopsis shows a compilation of stored data with regard to fossil locality names, the number of fossil specimen, stratigraphic position and institutions hosting the collections.
The search form of the MOR-PHYLL data portal (menu: "Database-Query") allows combining queries for all kinds of metadata, taxonomic data, qualitative and quantitative data. All searchable parameters are summarized in Table  2. The results are compiled according to the query in a generated table. The summary table of queries provides the collection metadata of the fossil specimen, qualitative and quantitative data depending on selection made in the query form. Currently, metadata and taxonomic data are available for the public whereas qualitative, quantitative and spatial data are restricted to registered users. To register and to get full access to the complete set of data including morphometry and high resolution images, please contact the curator of fossil plants at SMNS (anita. rothnebelsick@smnsbw.
Data Content At present, the database contains about 6000 fossil specimens from 24 localities from five countries (Table  1 , Figure  1 ). Since, in the case of compound leaves, each leaflet is treated as an individual entry, the number of records provided after a query does not necessarily reflect the real number of fossil specimens in the collection. The stratigraphic interval covered by the database encompasses nearly the complete Paleogene ranging from middle Paleocene (Selandian) up to the lowermost Miocene (Aquitanian). Currently, however, the lower and middle Eocene material is quite limited with respect to number of sites (Geiseltal area) and taxa. It is hoped to fill this gap in the database soon. Furthermore, it is planned to expand the database to include Miocene and Pliocene material.
For various sites, the material is distributed across different museums, such as the fossil floras of Gelinden (Selandian) and Sézanne (Thanetian) which are housed in the museums of Brussels, Paris and Vienna (Table  1 ). The database allows for statistical analysis of qualitative and quantitative leaf traits, as well as of their combinations. All data types provided by the database MORPHYLL can be transferred to higher level geoscientific data portals, e. g. , GeoCASe (Geosciences Collection Access Service). The database MORPHYLL offers the possibility of retrieval of fossil leaf traits in combination with traditional collection metadata such as taxonomic, stratigraphic or geographic data. This allows a specific search for fossil leaf traits and, therefore, ecomorphological aspects independent of taxonomic determination.
From the point of taxonomic determination, approximately 67% (about 3800 specimens) of leaves in the database have taxonomic affiliations. The proportion of identified specimens in the database decreases further since the collection of Geiseltal (1100 specimens) stored at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin thus far comprises only a single taxon, namely Polyspora hallensis (Theaceae). This demonstrates that the potential information provided by leaf assemblages may decrease when only taxonomically well-classified collections are taken into consideration. Leaf traits as compiled in the database offer access to morphometric information independent of taxonomic status of the leaves. In the following sections, some general analyses of trait variation through time (Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene) will be shown to give a first impression of the current analytic potential of the database.
Rauenberg and P. neptuni were selected, as a comparatively large number of LM A data of well-classified specimens of P. neptuni were present. Using available routines in the open source software R, version 3. 1. 2. (www. rproject. org/), random samples (specimens) were drawn from these LM A data sets without replacement. After each sampling cycle, the mean value of LM A was calculated. The random sampling was finished when the results started to converge. Three independent rounds were performed for each data set. The results are shown in Figure  5. In the case of Platanus neptuni, and thus for a single taxon, 1 2 3 4 FIGURE 5. Random sampling analysis for LM A , for evaluation of the number of data required to arrive at a statistically stable signal. (1) Three independent rounds (blue, green and red) of drawing 15 random samples from specimens of one taxon (Platanus neptuni), site Rauenberg (Oligocene).
CONCLUSIONS The database MORPHYLL allows for query and statistical analyses of various morphometric traits. Besides the potential to compare fossil leaf assemblages based on their trait combinations, the database can also be used for species-specific analyses. Due to the varying ecological background of the considered sites, studies concerning the effects of, among others, habitat types are also possible. Currently, the database includes Paleogene leaf assemblages, but will be expanded to increase the number of specimens and sites, as well as to extend the stratigraphic range covered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project was supported by the  German Research Foundation (DFG)  by a grant to A. R. -N. and J. K. -E. ( RO 3250/21-1 ) (Program " Scientific Library Services and Information Systems (LIS) "), and partially by the  Volkswagen Foundation  to a grant to A. R. -N. , J. K. -E. , L. K. , C. N. and  J. K. (Program"Research in Museums). ( Program "Research in Museums "). Furthermore, within this study, data collection at the  Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Paris  in 2014 was supported by  SYNTHESYS  ( FR-TAF-3414 ), by a grant to C. T. We thank  M. Kamenz ,  J. Wypich  ( SMNS, Stuttgart, Germany ),  C. Puffert ,  C. Hiller  ( MfN, Berlin, Germany ) and  M. Wettlaufer  ( GDKE, Mainz, Germany ) for administrative and technical support, and B. Mohr and  S. Schultka  ( MfN, Berlin, Germany ) for allowing their collection to be included in MOR-PHYLL.
PALAIOS, 25: 234-238. https://doi. org/10. 2110/palo. 2009. p09-129rThiébaut, M. 2002. A foliar morphometric determination of very fragmentary Salix remains from a late Miocene locality, Sé, western  Hungary. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology , 121: 77-90. https://doi. org/10. 1016/S0034-6667(02 ) 00074 -XTraiser, C. ,  Roth-Nebelsick , A. , Lange, J. , and  Kovar-Eder , J. 2015. MORPYHLL -database for acquisition of ecophysiologically relevant morphometric data of fossil leaves. Version 1. 0;  State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart. https://doi. org/10. 17616/R3PQ07Walther, H. and Kvaček, Z. 2007. Early Oligocene flora of Seifhennersdorf (Saxony). Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae, Series B Historia Naturalis 63 : 85-174. Wappler, T. , Currano, E. D. , Wilf, P. , Rust,  J. , and Labandeira, C.
It is on these premises that we set up OMERE, a long-term agro-hydrological observatory, situated in the hilly areas of the Mediterranean region, in 2002  (Voltz and Albergel, 2002). The name OMERE is an acronym for Mediterranean Observatory of Rural Environment and Water (Observatoire Méditerranéen de l'Environnement Rural et de l'Eau, in French). It was part of an initiative of the French Ministry of Research that launched a call for funding Environmental Research Observatories (French acronym ORE, for Observatoire de Recherche en Environnement) to provide high-quality observational data for studying the functioning of continental systems and their long-term dynamics. The observatory OMERE filled the lack of long-term environmental observatories in the Mediterranean region. To illustrate this point, one can note that at the landscape or regional scales, only five Mediterranean agricultural observatories are registered on the Long-Term Ecosystem Research sites map (https://data.
They benefit from large, long-term monitoring datasets and detailed processes analysis, prone to facilitate model design, calibration, and validation. Moreover, basic knowledge and multi-decadal time series observations sustain applied research, dedicated to diagnostic tools for agro-environmental engineering of cultivated landscapes. Motivation of OMERE goes largely beyond its strict scientific interests. Equipped sites offer very good support for educational purposes and capacity building. Each year, many students and professionals in hydrology, agronomy, soil sciences, and related topics visit the sites, become familiar with monitoring techniques, observed processes, and farming systems, or have tutorials in the field. Moreover, since OMERE is binational, it enhances cooperation between the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean Sea and helps to build some pieces of common culture and understanding, which is valuable in the present times.
Meteorological Data Eleven daily-read cumulative rain gauges and four automatic tipping-bucket rain gauges were installed to monitor rainfall intensity and its spatial pattern. Automatic rain gauges provide instantaneous data. Quality control is performed by comparing A weather station records the following atmospheric parameters at each site: air temperature and humidity, wind speed and direction at 2 m above ground level, and global radiation at 1 m above ground level. In addition, free water evaporation is measured on a daily basis on the Tunisian test site, with a sunken Colorado 1-m 2 evaporation pan.
Surface Water Water levels in the hydrographic network are measured with hydrometric stations. The stations are placed strategically to obtain water flow data for studying the scale effects from field to   2 ). The different surface colors indicate the subcatchments delineated from hydrometric stations. In the Roujan catchment, the drainage system contains mainly anthropogenic ditches, fed by surface runoff. In the Kamech catchment, the drainage system contains mainly a natural wadi network. VZJ | Advancing Critical Zone Science p. 7 of 18 catchment scales, as well as to understand the impacts of the landscape and soil structures on water flow, such as gullies in Kamech and ditches in Roujan. In total, a network of hydrometric stations (five in Kamech and seven in Roujan) equipped with flumes were installed.
Land Surface Fluxes Eddy covariance techniques are routinely used to measure fluxes between surface and atmosphere, mainly the latent heat flux or ET. Similar flux towers were installed near the centers of the Roujan and Kamech catchments in 2005 and 2010, respectively. Both towers are equipped with fast response (20 Hz) sensors, a three-dimensional sonic anemometer and an open-path H 2 O/CO 2 analyzer. They differ by the height of the sensors, which are 6. 2 and 9. 6 m above ground level for Roujan and Kamech, respectively, leading to a smaller average footprint (12 ha) in Roujan than in Kamech (19 ha). The sensible and latent heat fluxes are routinely calculated hourly, quality checked using standard tests, and then aggregated at a daily time step after the gap-filling of missing or rejected data to obtain continuous chronicles of ET.
Spectral surface wave analysis and high-resolution classical ERT in wet and dry conditions were combined to map the bedrock depth of the Roujan catchment. The map was built from eight transects across the catchment and 81 drill holes, to calibrate geophysical measurements  (Coulouma et al. , 2012). The observatory databases were also used to compare three conventional geophysical approaches-dry ERT, diachronic ERT, and SASW-for mapping bedrock depth  (Coulouma et al. , 2013).
Data Management and Policy The long-term observations acquired in OMERE are all preprocessed and implemented in a dedicated PostgreSQL database called HYSAE, an acronym standing for HYdrologie Spatialisée-Agrosystème-Environnement (spatial hydrologyagrosystems-environment). The OMERE observatory has set up a quality assurance procedure based on the drafting of protocols that trace the data and their preprocessing from field acquisition to storage in the HYSAE database and backup on a remote datacenter. The applied preprocessing information is also stored in the database and can be retrieved with the dataset. The HYSAE database is coupled to a spatial data infrastructure, based on the GeOrchestra OpenSource solution, which mobilizes Geoserver for the management of Web Map/Web Feature Service flows and Geonetwork VZJ | Advancing Critical Zone Science p.
10 of 18 for the metadata catalog. The OMERE spatial data infrastructure enables easy rendering and user-friendly cartographic querying of data, accessible via the internet (http://www. obs-omere. org/). Specific developments have also been made for the online visualization of time series. The observatory's long-term monitoring has been specially set up for and dedicated to online data access. Basic monitoring data are accessible without any embargo time, whereas additional data, including data acquired within a specific research project (e. g. , a third-party-funded Ph. D. study), are accessible after a maximum embargo time of 5 yr. Some sensitive personal data (e. g. , pesticides) or data acquired by third parties are not disseminated, in compliance with the information technology and freedom regulations that guarantee the confidentiality of personal data.
cumulated rainfall since application, observed for 7 yr in Roujan (adapted from  Louchart and Voltz, 2007). VZJ | Advancing Critical Zone Science p. 11 of 18 hydrological cycle. The relief and cropping patterns of the farmed land in the hilly areas of the OMERE catchments led us to examine the effects of slope and canopy geometry on the estimation and modeling of land ET. Indeed, concerning sloping conditions, a major knowledge gap is the influence of topography on the structure of turbulence within the boundary layer  (Raupach and Finnigan, 1997). Few data exist in farmed hilly areas, although they are common in many parts of the world. In this respect, we collected eddy covariance measurements across a typical slope of the Kamech catchment and found that airflow inclination was strongly influenced by the combined effects of wind direction, topography, and vegetation height.
The OMERE database has been extensively used for calibrating and validating the models. Multiscale calibration procedures were specifically developed for taking advantage of the OMERE nested monitoring system  (Hallema et al. , 2013 , Gumiere et al. , 2014). Moreover, to support the development of these models, a comprehensive software platform, OpenFLUID, was set up for helping modelers to build spatially distributed landscape models  (Fabre et al. , 2010). Several applications of these models have already been used. Most of them first intended to analyze the impact of landscape organization, namely, the distribution of agricultural field management and land infrastructures, on soil and water resources. Second, the applications were intended to derive the optimal design of land management for improving ecosystem services.
The data collected in the Roujan catchment helped to recognize the issue and to guide the farmers in modifying their weeding practices. This illustrated the potential role of an environmental long-term observatory in anticipating new environmental and social issues. Second, long-term monitoring is not self-evident at first sight, neither for those who manage observatories, nor for funding agencies or for the scientific community. This became evident only with time. When the OMERE catchments were initiated, they were thought to last only a few years, until a good picture of the impacts of land-use changes on hydrological flows could be obtained. Progressively, several reasons motivated researchers to maintain and to expand the observation facility for longer terms. The first reason was the inherent temporal variability of processes that required long-term observation to identify either slow-rate processes or scarce events with strong impacts.
In this respect, fitting and testing models with an extensive database helps not only to improve models but also to extract general information from the database, such as the values of physically based model parameters. This will then support simulation in different locations and/or time periods, provided that the acting processes remain similar. As an example, due to the OMERE database, the MHYDAS-Pesticides model was thoroughly fitted and could be applied successfully on other vineyard catchments to compare the impact of soil treatment scenarios  (Biarnès et al. , 2017). Similarly, the adaptation of the Hydrus-1D model to row vineyards (two-dimensional) was first tested using the OMERE database before being applied to vineyards located in the surrounding region  (Galleguillos et al. , 2017).
Acknowledgments The OMERE observatory is supported by the  Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA, France) , the  Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD, France) , the  Institut National du Génie Rural, des Eaux et des Forêts  ( IN-RGREF, Tunisia ), the  Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie (INAT, Tunisia) , and the  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS, France). We thank the past and present directors of these organizations and institutions. The OMERE observatory belongs to the  French network of critical zone observatories OZCAR-RI , which is supported by the  French Ministry of Education and Research , through the  Allenvi Alliance ; it was also supported by the  Equipex CRITEX. We would like to acknowledge the present and past contract employees, masters and Ph.
Under the hypothesis of Proposition 2, the traveling front moves from the left to the right with constant positive speed, c, showing the diffusion of cooperators. See  [30]  for more detailed explanations about traveling wave fronts. The previous results have been proved analytically for infinite spatial domains since on finite domains the notion of traveling wave has no meaning. However, if the domain is finite but large enough, the solution of the partial differential reaction-diffusion Equation  (12)  qualitatively follows for some time the profile of a traveling wave. In the appendix we present and discuss a Matlab simulation to analyze how the spatial diffusion process will happen on a finite one dimensional domain and how the invasion fronts resemble to the profile of a traveling wave.
This study examines one of the limitations of CALPHAD databases when applied to high entropy alloys and complex concentrated alloys. We estimate the level of the thermodynamic description, which is still sufficient to correctly predict thermodynamic properties of quaternary alloy systems, by comparing the results of CALPHAD calculations where quaternary phase space is extrapolated from binary descriptions to those resulting from complete binary and ternary interaction descriptions. Our analysis has shown that the thermodynamic properties of a quaternary alloy can be correctly predicted by direct extrapolation from the respective fully assessed binary systems (i. e. , without ternary descriptions) only when (i) the binary miscibility gaps are not present, (ii) binary intermetallic phases are not present or present in a few quantities (i.