page_title: Korean mixed script
section_title: Adaptation of hanja to Korean
hierarchical_section_title: Korean mixed script / Development / Adaptation of hanja to Korean
caption_attribution_description: English: Jikji or "Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters", published in 1377, Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the earliest known book printed with movable metal type. 한국어: 백운화상초록불조직지심체요절(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體要節, 간단히 불조직지심체요절, 직지심체요절, 직지)은 백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의 요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한 내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸 불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로 이루어져 있다. 원나라에서 받아온 불조직지심체요절의 내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하 2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전 세계에 남아 있는 금속 활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서 가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년 9월 4일 《승정원일기》와 함께 유네스코 세계기록유산에 등재되었다. 현존하는 것은 하권 1책 뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드 프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가 프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재 프랑스 국립도서관에 소장되어 있다. 이는 독일 구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년 이상 앞서 편찬되었다.
context_page_description: Korean mixed script, known in Korean as hanja honyong, Hanja-seokkeosseugi, 'Chinese character mixed usage,' or gukhanmun honyong, 'national Sino-Korean mixed usage,' is a form of writing the Korean language that uses a mixture of the Korean alphabet or hangul and hanja, the Korean name for Chinese characters. The distribution on how to write words usually follows that all native Korean words, including grammatical endings, particles and honorific markers are generally written in hangul and never in hanja. Sino-Korean vocabulary or hanja-eo, either words borrowed from Chinese or created from Sino-Korean roots, were generally always written in hanja although very rare or complex characters were often substituted with hangul. Although the Korean alphabet was introduced and taught to people beginning in 1446, most literature until the early twentieth century was written in literary Chinese known as hanmun.
context_section_description: The Chinese language, however, was quite different from the Korean language, consisting of terse, often monosyllabic words with a strictly analytic, SVO structure in stark contrast to the generally polysyllabic, very synthetic, SOV structure, with various grammatical endings that encoded person, levels of politeness and case.  Despite the adoption of literary Chinese as the written language, Chinese never replaced Korean as the spoken language, even amongst the scholars that had immersed themselves into its study. 
  The first attempts to make literary Chinese texts more accessible to Korean readers were hanmun passages written in Korean word order.  This would later develop into the gugyeol (구결; 口訣) or 'separated phrases,' system.  Chinese texts were broken into meaningful blocks, and in the spaces were inserted hanja used to represent the sound of native Korean grammatical endings.  As literary Chinese was very terse, leaving much to be understood from context, insertion of occasional verbs and grammatical markers helped to clarify the meaning.  For instance, the hanja '爲' was used for its native Korean gloss whereas '尼' was used for its Sino-Korean pronunciation, and combined into '爲尼' and read hani (하니), 'to do (and so).'  Special symbols were sometimes used to aid in the reordering of words in approximation of Korean grammar.  It was similar to the kanbun (漢文) system developed in Japan to render Chinese texts.  The system was not a translation of Chinese into Korean, but an attempt to make Korean speakers knowledgeable in hanja overcome the difficulties in interpreting Chinese texts.  Although it was developed by scholars of the early Goryeo Kingdom (918 - 1392), gugyeol was of particular importance during the Joseon period, extending into the first decade of the twentieth century, since all civil servants were required to be able to read, translate and interpret Confucian texts and commentaries. 
  The first attempt at transcribing Korean in hanja was the idu (이두; 吏讀), or 'official reading,' system that began to appear after 500 AD.  In this system, the hanja were chosen for their equivalent native Korean gloss.  For example, the hanja '不冬' signifies 'no winter' or 'not winter' and has the formal Sino-Korean pronunciation of (부동) budong, similar to Mandarin bù dōng.  Instead, it was read as andeul (안들) which is the Middle Korean pronunciation of the characters' native gloss and is ancestor to modern anneunda (않는다), 'do not' or 'does not.'  The various idu conventions were developed in the Goryeo period but was particularly associated with the jung-in (중인; 中人), the upper middle class of the early Joseon period.       
  A subset of idu was known as hyangchal (향찰; 鄕札), 'village notes,' and was a form of idu particularly associated with the hyangga (향가; 鄕歌) the old poetry compilations and some new creations preserved in the first half of the Goryeo period when its popularity began to wane.  In the hyangchal or 'village letters' system, there was free choice in how a particular hanja was used.  For example, to indicate the topic of Princess Shenhua, the half-sister of Emperor Jiajing of the Ming Dynasty was recorded as '善化公主主隱' in hyangchal and was read as (선화공주님은), seonhwa gongju-nim-eun where '善化公主' is read in Sino-Korean, as it is a Chinese name and the Sino-Korean term for 'princess' was already adopted as a loan word.  The hanja '主隱,' however, were read according to their native pronunciation but was not used for its literal meaning signifying 'the prince steals' but the native postpositions (님) nim, the honorific marker used after professions and titles, and eun, the topic marker.  In mixed script, this would be rendered as '善化公主님은.'  The idu and its hyangchal variant were similar to the Japanese man'yogana (万葉仮名) system that would develop much later in Japan.  Idu and its hyangchal variant were mostly replaced by mixed-script writing with hangul although idu was not officially discontinued until 1894 when reforms abolished its usage in administrative records of civil servants.  Even with idu, most literature and offic
caption: The Korean Baegun Hwasang Chorok Buljo Jikji Simche Yojeol (백운화상초록불조직지심체요절; 白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體要節) or roughly 'Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests' Zen Teachings' is the oldest example of a book printed with moveable type and was printed in Korea in 1377, but is written in literary Chinese.
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