page_title: Papilio demoleus
section_title: Parasitism and predation
hierarchical_section_title: Papilio demoleus / Lifecycle / Parasitism and predation
caption_attribution_description: English: Braconid parasitoid wasp Apanteles sp. cocoons &amp; Lime Butterfly 'Papilio demoleus caterpillar at Ananthagiri Hills, in Rangareddy district of Andhra Pradesh, India. The holes trough which the wasp larve left the caterpillar are clearly visible. The white cocoons of the wasp contain their pupae.
context_page_description: Papilio demoleus is a common and widespread swallowtail butterfly. The butterfly is also known as the lime butterfly, lemon butterfly, lime swallowtail, and chequered swallowtail. These common names refer to their host plants, which are usually citrus species such as the cultivated lime. Unlike most swallowtail butterflies, it does not have a prominent tail. The butterfly is a pest and invasive species, found from Asia to Australia. The butterfly has spread to Hispaniola island in the Western Hemisphere, and to Mahé, Seychelles.
context_section_description: Despite their two-stage camouflage scheme, some caterpillars of P. demoleus are found by parasitic wasps, which lay dozens of eggs in them. The parasitic wasp larvae eat the caterpillar from the inside. Initially, the vital organs are avoided, but by the time the caterpillar is ready to pupate, even the vital organs are consumed. Shortly before, or soon after the caterpillar pupates, the parasitoids emerge from their host, thus killing it.
  In Saudi Arabia, the highest mortality rate was found to be in larvae and pupae in cultivated populations due to a bacterium of the genus Bacillus. In addition, eggs and larvae were heavily preyed upon by two unidentified species of spiders which were abundant on citrus trees.
  In China, species of fungi in the genus Ophiocordyceps are known to parasitize many kinds of caterpillars, including P. demoleus. The spores were spread out on the parents, and infect the young caterpillar, then when the caterpillars become pupae, they will fail to develop into adults; instead, the fungi kill and eat the caterpillar flesh from within, and grow a spore bud out of the dead caterpillar corpse. The fungi known as dōng chóng xià cǎo are thought to have medicinal properties in China, and are known in English as caterpillar fungus.
  In India, these braconid wasp parasitoids are known to parasitize P. demoleus larvae:
  Apanteles species including Apanteles papilionis
  Habrobracon hebetor
  In Thailand, a number of organisms have been recorded attacking immature stages of P. demoleus:
  Egg parasites –
  Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)
  Tetrastichus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)
  Larval stage –
  Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera: Tachinidae) (parasite)
  Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff) (Pentatomidae predator
  Other natural enemies of larvae included reduviid bugs; birds; spiders; sphecid wasps; and chameleons.
  Pupal parasites –
  Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae)
  Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)
  Ophiocordyceps
  In Jamaica, an encyrtid egg parasitoid and a chalcidoid parasitoid have been reported.
caption: Cocoons of a parasitoid wasp (Apanteles species), next to a perforated P. demoleus caterpillar
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