page_title: Women in ancient and imperial China
section_title: Ming dynasty
hierarchical_section_title: Women in ancient and imperial China / Imperial China / Ming dynasty
caption_attribution_description: 貞節牌坊（冰清玉潔）
context_page_description: Women in ancient and imperial China were restricted from participating in various realms of social life, through social stipulations that they remain indoors, whilst outside business should be conducted by men. The strict division of the sexes, apparent in the policy that "men plow, women weave", partitioned male and female histories as early as the Zhou dynasty, with the Rites of Zhou even stipulating that women be educated specifically in "women's rites". Though limited by policies that prevented them from owning property, taking examinations, or holding office, their restriction to a distinctive women's world prompted the development of female-specific occupations, exclusive literary circles, whilst also investing certain women with certain types of political influence inaccessible to men. Women had greater freedom during the Tang dynasty, however, the status of women declined from the Song dynasty onward with the rise of neo-Confucianism.
  The study of women's history in the context of imperial China has been pursued for many years. The societal status of both women and men in ancient China was closely related to the Chinese kinship system.
context_section_description: During the Ming dynasty, chaste widows were elevated to the role of cultural heroes.  Widow chastity became increasingly common, and chastity also became associated with suicide, with suicide by widows increasing dramatically during the Ming era.  "Chaste widow" (Chinese: 節妇; pinyin: jiéfù) were commemorated by the construction of memorial chastity arches (Chinese: 貞節牌坊; pinyin: zhēnjiépáifāng) and shrines, and honoured with commemorative writings. The Ming authority began to reward widow chastity, and widows who remarried would have their dowry and their husbands' property forfeited. Such changes in marriage and property laws to discourage remarriage started during the Yuan dynasty, which made widow chastity increasingly popular. The state also awarded 'testimonial of merit' (Chinese: 旌表; pinyin: jīngbiǎo) to chaste widow, giving approval of local chastity cults whereby commemorative arches and shrines were erected to honour the women by members of their families or communities.  In the late 16th century, such awards were also extended to women who died resisting rape. Women who died or committed suicide to protect their honour were referred to as "fierce women" (烈女, liènǚ, but note that this is distinct from the homophone term "exemplary women" 列女, liènǚ), with the word "fierce" (烈) carrying connotation of martyrdom.
  In contrast to "chaste women" of the Ming period were the "licentious women" (Chinese: 淫妇; pinyin: yínfù). Ming popular literature of the time produced numerous stories about such wanton women, the most notorious being the fictional Pan Jinlian from the novel Jin Ping Mei.
  An unusual feature of the Ming dynasty imperial marriages was the stipulation by its founder Hongwu Emperor that all the consorts of the Ming court should come from low-ranking families. The result of this policy is that palace women of the Ming era were less powerful compared to those of other dynasties.
caption: A chastity memorial arch
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