Mechanisms of Post-Bariatric Hypoglycemia

Post-bariatric hypoglycemia (PBH) is an increasingly recognized syndrome that is incompletely understood.

The purpose of this study is to increase our level of understanding by investigating mechanisms contributing to this condition.

Participation in this study will take place over four visits, which will include the following:

* Wearing of a continuous glucose monitoring device;
* Providing a stool sample (collected at home);
* Measuring glucose and hormone levels in response to a meal;
* Measuring glucose and hormone levels in response to an injection of glucagon;
* Measuring hormone levels while glucose levels are gradually lowered, and during a controlled period of a low glucose level (hypoglycemic clamp).

Investigators will test the hypothesis that counterregulatory hormone responses are impaired in individuals with PBH, and that differences in the intestinal bacteria (microbiome) may contribute to this condition.

Bariatric surgery is increasingly recognized as a potent tool for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D), yielding not only weight loss but also rapid improvements in glycemia allowing discontinuation of diabetes-related medication within days after surgery. However, along with this metabolic success comes an increased incidence of severe hypoglycemia (termed post-bariatric hypoglycemia; PBH) for a subset of individuals.

The goal of these studies is to identify physiological and molecular mechanisms that underlie PBH, to determine whether these changes also contribute to surgery-induced improvements in glucose regulation (homeostasis), and to define potential new therapeutic interventions for PBH.

Participation in this study will take place over four visits, which will include the following:

* Detailed history, physical exam, and laboratory testing to determine study eligibility
* Assessment of glucose patterns using a masked continuous glucose monitor;
* Analysis of a stool sample (collected at home);
* Measuring glucose and hormone levels in response to a meal;
* Measuring glucose and hormone levels in response to an injection of glucagon;
* Measuring hormone levels while glucose levels are gradually lowered, and during a controlled period of a low glucose level (hypoglycemic clamp).

Investigators will test the hypothesis that counterregulatory hormone responses are impaired in individuals with PBH, and that differences in the intestinal bacteria (microbiome) and hormones produced in response to a meal may contribute to this condition.

Eligibility Criteria:
Inclusion Criteria:

1. For PBH group only: Males or females diagnosed with ongoing post-bariatric hypoglycemia with prior episodes of neuroglycopenia, unresponsive to dietary intervention (low glycemic index, controlled carbohydrate portions) and trial of acarbose therapy at the maximally tolerated dose.
2. For post-RYGB group without PBH: Males or females with history of RYGB and no history of symptomatic hypoglycemia.
3. For non-surgical controls only: Males or females with no history of upper gastrointestinal surgery and no history of hypoglycemia or diabetes.
4. Age 18-70 years of age, inclusive, at screening.
5. Willingness to provide informed consent and follow all study procedures, including attending all scheduled visits.

Exclusion Criteria:

1. Documented hypoglycemia occurring in the fasting state (\> 12 hours fast);
2. Chronic kidney disease stage 4 or 5 (including end-stage renal disease);
3. Hepatic disease, including serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) or aspartate aminotransferase (AST) greater than or equal to 3 times the upper limit of normal; hepatic synthetic insufficiency as defined as serum albumin \< 3.0 g/dL; or serum bilirubin \> 2.0;
4. Congestive heart failure, New York Heart Association class II, III or IV;
5. History of myocardial infarction, unstable angina or revascularization within the past 6 months or 2 or more risk factors for coronary artery disease including diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension, uncontrolled hyperlipidemia, and active tobacco use.
6. History of syncope (unrelated to hypoglycemia) or diagnosed cardiac arrhythmia
7. Concurrent administration of β-blocker therapy;
8. History of a cerebrovascular accident;
9. Seizure disorder (other than with suspect or documented hypoglycemia);
10. Active treatment with any diabetes medications except for acarbose;
11. Active malignancy, except basal cell or squamous cell skin cancers;
12. Personal or family history of pheochromocytoma or disorder with increased risk of pheochromocytoma (MEN 2, neurofibromatosis, or Von Hippel-Lindau disease);
13. Known insulinoma;
14. Major surgical operation within 30 days prior to screening;
15. Hematocrit \< 33% (women) or \<36% (men);
16. Bleeding disorder, treatment with warfarin, or platelet count \<50,000;
17. Blood donation (1 pint of whole blood) within the past 2 months;
18. Active alcohol abuse or substance abuse;
19. Current administration of oral or parenteral corticosteroids;
20. Pregnancy and/ or Lactation: For women of childbearing potential: there is a requirement for a negative urine pregnancy test and for agreement to use contraception during the study and for at least 1 month after participating in the study. Acceptable contraception includes birth control pill / patch / vaginal ring, Depo-Provera, Norplant, an intrauterine device, the double barrier method (the woman uses a diaphragm and spermicide and the man uses a condom), or abstinence.
21. Use of an investigational drug within 30 days prior to screening.

There will be no involvement of special vulnerable populations such as fetuses, neonates, pregnant women, children, prisoners, institutionalized or incarcerated individuals, or others who may be considered vulnerable populations.