Effect of Sodium Glucose Co-transporter 2 Inhibitor on Inflammatory Cytokine in Type 2 Diabetes

* Single-center, prospective, active-controlled, open, randomized, 2 arm parallel, interventional, exploratory pilot
* Type 2 diabetic patients with high cardiovascular risks who have inadequate glycaemic control with metformin-based oral hypoglycemic agents will be prescribed glimepiride (comparison group) or empagliflozin (study group) for 60 days (plus or minus 32 days) as add-on therapy
* Changes in IL-1beta secretion, serum beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration, and NLRP3 inflammasome activity from baseline to final timepoint will be assessed.

First among cardiovascular (CV) end point trials of glucose-lowering agents, the EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial-using 10 or 25 mg/day SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin against placebo in 7,020 patients with T2DM who were at increased CV risk-reported a 14% reduction in major CV events and marked relative risk reductions in CV mortality (38%), hospitalization for heart failure (35%), and death from any cause (32%) over a median time period of 2.6 years. Though these results have raised the possibility that mechanisms other than those observed in the trial-modest improvement in glycemic control, small decrease in body weight, and persistent reductions in blood pressure and uric acid level-may be at play, it's not clearly known yet.

The inflammatory nature of atherosclerosis is well established. We hypothesized that empagliflozin might have an inhibitory effect on inflammasome activity in macrophages, thus contribute to cardioprotective effects in diabetes.

* Single-center, prospective, active-controlled, open, randomized, 2 arm parallel, interventional, exploratory pilot
* Type 2 diabetic patients with high cardiovascular risks who have inadequate glycaemic control with metformin-based oral hypoglycemic agents will be prescribed glimepiride (comparison group) or empagliflozin (study group) for 60 days (plus or minus 32 days) as add-on therapy
* Changes in IL-1beta secretion, serum beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration, and NLRP3 inflammasome activity from baseline to final timepoint will be assessed
* Healthy volunteers : effect of 3 day-ketogenic diet on changes in cytokines, metabolites (IL-1beta, beta-hydroxybutyrate , etc) and inflammasome activity in macrophages

Eligibility Criteria:
Inclusion Criteria:

* Age ≥19 years
* inadequate glycaemic control : HbA1c ≥6.5% or fasting glucose \>120 mg/dl or random glucose \>180 mg/dl
* High risk of cardiovascular events defined as the presence of ≥1 of the following:

  1. History of myocardial infarction
  2. Evidence of multi-vessel coronary artery disease
  3. Evidence of single-vessel coronary artery disease with a positive non-invasive stress test for ischemia or history of hospitalization for unstable angina
  4. History of stroke
  5. Evidence of occlusive peripheral artery disease
  6. Evidence of carotid atherosclerosis
  7. Metabolic syndrome
* Healthy volunteers

Exclusion Criteria:

* Type 1 diabetes
* Organ transplantation
* Pregnant women
* eGFR \<45
* Cortisol or growth hormone deficiency, pituitary diseases
* Gastric surgery
* Hematologic disorders
* Active cancers