cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
South Africa
Ŵanthu
Charu cha South Africa chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 60 miliyoni (kwambira mu 2021) ndipo ŵali na mitheto yakupambanapambana, viyowoyero, na visopa. Kafukufuku waumaliro uyu wakacitika mu 2011, ndipo pa caka cilicose ŵanthu ŵakweruzgika. Ku South Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 5 miliyoni awo ŵiza kwambura kuzomerezgeka, kusazgapo ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Mu Meyi 2008, pakachitika viwawa vinandi vyakwimikana na ŵalendo.
Wupu wa Statistics South Africa ukupempha ŵanthu kuti ŵajilongore ŵekha mu vigaŵa vinkhondi. Pa kalembera wa 2011, ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakaŵa: Ŵachikuda ŵa ku Africa 79.2%, Ŵachizungu 8.9%, Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake 8.9%, Ŵachindi panji Ŵaciindiya 2.5%, na Ŵanyake/Ŵambura Kuzunulika 0.5%.
Chisopo
Ŵasilamu ŵa ku South Africa ŵali na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana na ŵa ku India. Ŵasambiri ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵali kung'anamukira ku cisopa ca Ciarabu na Cizungu, kweniso awo ŵali kufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵali kutorana nawo. Ŵasilamu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakuyowoya kuti cisopa cawo ndico cikukura mwaluŵiro comene mu caru ici.
Sayansi na tekinoloji
Mark Shuttleworth ndiyo wakambiska kampani yinyake yakuvikilira Intaneti yakuchemeka Thawte, iyo pamanyuma yikagulika na Verisign. Boma likukhumba kuti vinthu visinthenge mu vyaru ivyo vikuthemba chomene pa vinthu vya tekinoloje.
Nyengo ya apartheid
Kufika mu 2020, macenjezgo ghanandi ghafumiskika kuti South Africa yili pafupi kunjira ku boma lakupeleŵera na ndarama za boma zambura kukhazikika, unandi wa ŵambura nchito, unandi wa milandu, vimbundi, mabungwe gha boma agho ghakutondeka na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikutondeka. Mu 2022, wupu wa World Economic Forum ukati charu cha South Africa chili pangozi yakuparanyika ndipo ukati pali vinthu vikuruvikuru vinkhondi ivyo vingatimbanizga charu ichi. Mulara wa vya ndalama wa ku South Africa, Dondo Mogajane, wakati, "SA yikulongora vimanyikwiro vya boma ilo likutondeka". Jay Naidoo, uyo wakaŵa nduna, wakayowoya kuti caru ca South Africa cili mu suzgo yikuru ndipo cikulongora kuti nchakutondeka, cifukwa ca unandi wa ŵanthu ŵambura nchito ndiposo cifukwa cakuti ŵawukirano ŵanandi ŵazamusanga nchito yayi. Dawie Roodt, mulembi mukuru wa vyachuma wa Efficient Group wakati caru cili mu suzgo yikuru, "Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵaŵa ŵakavu comene kwa vyaka 10. Iyo wakati wakwenjerwa comene cifukwa cakuti "ŵanthu 32 miliyoni ŵakusanga ndalama ku boma. Boma lingakwaniska yayi kuchita nthena". Neal Froneman, mulara wa kampani ya Sibanye-Stillwater, wakati upusikizgi uli kuthera, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti para ŵagura vinthu, ŵakuchita 'vyakupusikizgira nga ni vigeŵenga.' "Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ndiwo ŵapangiska suzgo ili ndipo ŵakucita kalikose yayi. Boma lingatondeka kulimbana nalo cifukwa likususkana na maghanoghano ghawo". Pulofesa Eddy Maloka, wa pa Institute of Risk Management, wakati: "Chipani cha ANC chatipa suzgo likuru. Ŵazgora suzgo lawo kuŵa lithu. Maboma gha mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu charu ichi ghawa. Tikulaŵiska umo mizi yikubwangasukira". Pulofesa David Himbara wakati: "Charu cha South Africa chili na boma la chipani chimoza. Mu Meyi 2023, Chairman wa Sygnia, Magda Wierzycka, adati "machenjezo oti South Africa ikhale boma lolephera akuchedwa kwenikweni ′′ tili kale kumeneko".
Sayansi na tekinoloji
Ku South Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakumanya vya nyenyezi. Mu tawuni iyi muli Southern African Large Telescope, telescope yikuru comene ya ku Southern Hemisphere. Pa nyengo yasono, caru ca South Africa cikuzenga Karoo Array Telescope, iyo njakovwira pakuzenga pulogiramu yakuchemeka Square Kilometre Array.
Viyowoyelo
{{legend|#ffed6f|Tsonga (4.5%)}}
{{legend|#80b1d3|Zulu (22.7%)}}
Vinthu vyakupambanapambana
Mu vyaka 40 ivyo vyajumpha, caru ca South Africa caleka malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi comene, kukura kwa vinthu, na kudumulika kwa makuni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Charu ichi chili na chiŵerengero cha 4.94/10 pa charu chose pa vyaru 172. Charu cha South Africa nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikusuzgika comene na vinyama vya mitundu yinyake, ndipo vyamoyo vinandi (nga ni viyuni vya black wattle, Port Jackson willow, Hakea, Lantana na Jacaranda) vikupweteka comene vyamoyo vya mu caru ici kweniso maji agho ghalipo. Nkhorongo yakwamba iyo yikasangika na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe, ŵakayigwiliskira nchito m'paka pakakhala tuvigaŵa tuchoko waka. Pa nyengo yasono, makuni ghanyake gha ku South Africa nga ni yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), na black ironwood (Olea capensis) ghakuvikilirika na boma. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti mu 2014, ŵanthu ŵakakoma viyuni 1,215 mu charu ichi. Pakuti mu South Africa muli vyakumera vinandi (vinandi mwa vyakumera ivi vikusangika ku Karoo), ntheura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupenja vyakumera.
Chitauni
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Aristotle
Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa ŵa ku Greece
Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene sukulu iyi. Ŵasambiri ŵa Aristotle ŵakaŵa Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius wa ku Phalerum, Eudemos wa ku Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason wa ku Phocis, Nicomachus, na Theophrastus. Ivyo Aristotle wakachita vikulongora kuti Alexander Mukuru wakatora ŵanthu ŵanandi pa ulendo wake. Kweniso msambizgi wake wakamuphalira vya mitheto ya ku Peresiya. Nangauli wakaleka kuchindika Aristotle apo wakendanga, kweni wakati wawona kuti vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikaŵa vyautesi, wakachita chitima.
South Africa
Viyowoyelo
{{legend|#fdb462|Pedi (9.1%)}}
Energy crisis
Mu 2007, Eskom yikamba kuzenga magesi gha "Kusile" na "Medupi", magesi ghaŵiri ghakuru agha ndigho ghazamuŵa ghakurughakuru pa charu chose. Kweni ma power station agha ghakafika yayi pa nyengo yawo, ndipo hafu pera ya ma unit 6 agho ghamalizgika kugwiriska ntchito chifukwa cha kucedwa kwa nyengo yitali kweniso ndalama zinandi izo zikugwirapo nchito izo zikukwana R300 billion ($16 billion) pa ma power station ghaŵiri agha.
Aristotle
Kuŵa na Nkhongono
Nangauli pajumpha vyaka vyakujumpha 2,300 kufuma apo Aristotle wakafwira, kweni wachali munthu uyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu. Iyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi, ndipo wakambiska vinandi. Munthu munyake wavinjeru zina lake Bryan Magee wakati: "Palije munthu uyo wakumanya vinandi nga ni iyo". Padera pa vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita, ndiyo wakambiska fundo zaunenesko, wakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vyamoyo, kweniso wakawovwira chomene ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyanga vya sayansi. Taneli Kukkonen, uyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti The Classical Tradition, wakati ivyo wakachita pakwambiska masayansi ghaŵiri ni vyapadera chomene, ndipo wakakhwaska "vigaŵa vyose vya umanyi", kusazgapo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western vya makhaliro na ndyali, vya cisopa, kuyowoya, na kusanda mabuku. Kukkonen wakati chifukwa cha fundo iyi, munthu waliyose uyo wakusanda vinthu mazuŵa ghano "waŵenge na maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Jonathan Barnes wakalemba kuti: "Para munthu wangalongosora umo Aristotle wakajipulikiranga pamanyuma pa nyifwa, wangaŵa nga wakulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe".
South Africa
Nyengo ya apartheid
Mu 1990, boma la National Party likamba kumazga sankho apo likawuskapo dango lakukanizga ANC na mawupu ghanyake. Likamufumiska Nelson Mandela mu jere pamanyuma pa vilimika 27 ivyo wakakhala mu jele cifukwa ca kunanga vinthu. Pamanyuma pake, ŵakadumbiskana. Mu 1992, boma likapokera wovwiri wa ŵanthu ŵazungu pa referendum, ndipo likalutilira kudumbiskana kuti ŵamazge nkhaza za katangale. Mu 1994, ku South Africa kukaŵa mavoti ghakwamba, ndipo ANC ndiyo yikawina. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, boma ili ndakukhora. Charu ichi chikaŵaso mu wupu wa Commonwealth ndipo chikaŵa mu wupu wa Southern African Development Community.
Vinthu vyakupambanapambana
Mu chipalamba ichi muli vinyama vinandi chomene nga ni nkhalamu, nyalubwe wa ku Africa, cheetah wa ku South Africa, southern white rhinos, blue wildebeest, kudus, impalas, hyena, hippopotamus na giraffe wa ku South Africa. Chigaŵa chikuru cha Bushveld chili kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi, kusazgapo Kruger National Park na Sabi Sand Game Reserve. Ku South Africa kuli vyamoyo vinandi ivyo vikukhala ku malo agha.
Kujilamulila
Ŵazungu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakasuskanga boma la Britain ndipo ŵakakhumbanga chomene kuti charu chawo chiŵe na wanangwa. Mu nyengo iyo charu cha Netherlands na Britain vikalamuliranga charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵakasankhananga yayi chifukwa cha mitundu yawo, kweni ŵakaŵikapo malango ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora mu charu ichi.
Vinthu vyakupambanapambana
Kuzakafika mu 1945, ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga mitundu yakujumpha 4,900 ya tusomba (kusazgapo tusomba uto tukupangiska nthura). Mu 2006, ku South Africa kukaŵa vyakumera vyakukwana mitundu 200,000, kweni vikayananga yayi na vyakumera vinyake. Usange ndimo viliri nadi, mbwenu hona wa ku South Africa ni mucoko comene kuluska vyakumera. Mu vyaru vinyake vikuruvikuru vya ku South Africa, viyuni vinandi vikupambana chomene na vyakumera. Ndondomeko ya vyamoyo na ivyo vikuchitika mu charu ichi vikulongosorapo yayi za bowa (kusazgapo bowa uyo wakupangiska nthura).
Kuwusa kwa ŵa Dutch
Mu 1652, pakati pajumpha vilimika 150 kufuma apo ŵakasangira nthowa ya ku Cape, Jan van Riebeeck wakambiska malo ghakusungirako vyakurya ku Cape of Good Hope, uko kukazgoka Cape Town. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga pa cirwa ici awo ŵakacemekanga kuti vrijlieden. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakizaso na ŵazga ŵanandi kufuma ku Indonesia, Madagascar, na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe mtundu uphya wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, awo ŵanandi ŵakamba kuyowoya Ciholandi na Ŵakhristu.
Vinthu vyakupambanapambana
Ku South Africa kuli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana vinandi, ndipo kuli vyakumera vyakujumpha 22,000. Malo agho ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi ni malo ghakuliskako vyakumera, comenecomene ku Highveld, uko kuli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana, makuni ghapasi, na makuni gha acacia. Vyakumera vikusangika viŵi yayi kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi cifukwa ca vula yichoko. Mu Namaqualand muli vyakumera vinandi ivyo vikusunga maji nga ni aloyi na euphorbia. Ndipo kuyana na wupu wa World Wildlife Fund, ku South Africa kuli vyakumera vinandi. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, vyakumera na minga vikukura chomene. Mu chigaŵa ichi, kufupi na kumpoto kwa Kruger National Park, muli makuni ghanandi gha baobab.
Chuma
Makampani gha vyakurya gha ku South Africa ghakupanga pafupifupi 10% ya ntchito za boma, ndipo ni vichoko chomene pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa. Cifukwa cakuti malo agha ngakomira comene, 13.5% pera ndigho ghakugwilira nchito pakupanda vyakurya, ndipo 3% pera ndigho ghakugwirapo nchito.
Chuma cha Afilika
Wupu wa vyachuma wa vigaŵa
Mu m'ma 1960, Kwame Nkrumah, wa ku Ghana, wakawovwira kuti vyaru vya mu Africa viŵe na umoza pa nkhani za ndyali na vya cuma. Kufuma nyengo yira, vilato na mawupu ghakupambanapambana vyaŵa vinandi. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵayezgayezga comene kuti ŵafike pa umoza mu vyaru ivi. Mu 2012, malonda gha vyaru vya mu Africa ghakaŵa waka 11 peresenti ya malonda ghose gha mu Africa. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliskana mu vyaru vya mu Africa vikufuma ku South Africa, ndipo vinandi ivyo vikufuma mu vyaru ivi vikuluta ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa.
South Africa
Kufukura vinthu vyakale
Ku South Africa kuli malo ghanyake ghakale comene pa caru capasi agho ŵanthu ŵakusangako visomba. Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga viswaswa vinandi mu mphanji zinandi mu chigaŵa cha Gauteng. Malo agha ghali kulembeka pa UNESCO World Heritage Site, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuti ni "malo agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga". Vinthu ivi ni Sterkfontein, malo agho ghali na visomba vinandi chomene vya ŵanthu, kweniso Swartkrans, Gondolin Cave, Kromdraai, Cooper's Cave, na Malapa. Mu 1924, Raymond Dart wakamanya kuti munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakamusanga ku Africa ni mwana wa Taung (uyo ŵakamusanga kufupi na Taung). Viwangwa vinyake vya ŵanthu vikusangika ku Makapansgat mu chigaŵa cha Limpopo; Cornelia na Florisbad mu chigaŵa cha Free State; Border Cave mu chigaŵa cha KwaZulu-Natal; Klasies River Caves mu chigaŵa cha Eastern Cape; na Pinnacle Point, Elandsfontein na Die Kelders Cave mu chigaŵa cha Western Cape.
Kugawikana kwa boma
Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 52, ndipo vili na matawuni 8. Ŵana ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵali kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 205. Ŵalara ŵa boma, awo ŵakulongozga misumba yikuruyikuru, ŵakucita milimo ya boma la cigaŵa na la cigaŵa.
Kuwusa na Ulendo Ukuru wa Britain
Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakafumako ku Cape Colony uko ŵakalongozgekanga na Britain. Ŵakasamukira ku vigaŵa vya Natal, Free State, na Transvaal. Ŵa Boer ŵakambiska vyaru vya Boer: South African Republic, Natalia Republic, na Orange Free State.
Kufufuza kwa ku Portugal
Mu 1487, munthu munyake wa ku Portugal, zina lake Bartolomeu Dias, ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kufika ku Africa. Pa Disembala 4, wakakhira pa nyanja ya Walfisch Bay (iyo sono ni Walvis Bay mu Namibia). Malo agha ghakaŵa kumwera kwa malo ghakutali comene agho wakadangirapo, Diogo Cão wa ku Portugal, wakafikako mu 1485. Dias wakalutilira kwenda mumphepete mwa nyanja kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pamanyuma pa Janyuwale 8, 1488, wakaleka kwenda mumphepete mwa nyanja chifukwa cha chimphepo, ndipo wakafuma mu nyanja na kujumpha ku Africa. Mu Meyi 1488, wakafika pa mtunda utali comene uwo ukaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, m'paka ku Rio do Infante. Wakati wawerako wakawona congo ico wakacicema kuti Cabo das Tormentas. Themba John II likathya malo agha kuti Cabo da Boa Esperança, panji Cape of Good Hope, cifukwa ghakaŵa na vinthu vinandi vya ku East Indies. Ivyo Dias wakacita vikulongosoreka mu buku la Luís de Camões lakuti Os Lusíadas.
Maseŵera
Mu 2004, gulu la ŵakuseŵera la Roland Schoeman, Lyndon Ferns, Darian Townsend na Ryk Neethling ŵakatora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki mu Athens, ndipo nyengo yimoza ŵakathereska mbiri ya caru mu maseŵero gha 4×100 Freestyle Relay. Penny Heyns wakathereska golide pa maseŵero gha ku Atlanta mu 1996, ndipo sonosono apa, Tatjana Schoenmaker na Lara van Niekerk ŵakathereska malekodi gha caru cose na kuthereska golide pa maseŵero gha ku Atlanta. Mu 2012, Oscar Pistorius wakaŵa wakwamba kuchimbira pa maseŵero gha ku London. Mu gofu, Gary Player wakuwoneka kuti njumoza wa ŵakuseŵera gofu ŵakuluska wose, pakuti ndiyo wakatora mphaka ya Career Grand Slam. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵathereska maseŵero ghakurughakuru ni Bobby Locke, Ernie Els, Retief Goosen, Tim Clark, Trevor Immelman, Louis Oosthuizen na Charl Schwartzel.
Ŵanthu
Ku South Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuchimbilira ku caru cinyake. Lipoti linyake la wupu wa U.S. Komiti ya Ŵakuchimbira kwawo na Ŵakufuma mu Vyaru Vinyake yikati mu 2007, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa 144,700. Ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Zimbabwe (ŵanthu 48,400), DRC (ŵanthu 24,800), na Somalia (ŵanthu 12,900) ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 10,000 awo ŵakacimbira na kupenja ciphokwero. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, Cape Town, na Port Elizabeth.
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Nyengo
Malo ghakuzizima chomene mu charu cha South Africa ni Buffelsfontein ku Eastern Cape, uko kukazizima chomene mu 2013. Virwa vya Prince Edward vili na mphepo zakuzizima comene, kweni ku Buffelsfontein kuzizima comene. Mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu cha South Africa ndimo muli kutentha chomene: mu 1948 mu chigaŵa cha Northern Cape cha Kalahari kufupi na Upington mukaŵa kutentha kwa 51.7 °C (125.06 °F).
Kugawikana kwa boma
Chigaŵa chilichose cha vigaŵa ivi chili na wupu wa malango uwo ukuŵa na nyumba yimoza, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakusankhika mu vigaŵa vyose vyaka 5. Wupu wakulongozga ndiwo ukusankha nduna yikuru kuŵa mulongozgi wa boma, ndipo nduna yikuru yikwimika wupu wa Executive Council kuŵa nduna yikuru ya boma. Maufumu gha vigaŵa ghakukhala waka pa nkhani izo zili kulembeka mu dango; nkhani izi ni za umoyo, masambiro, nyumba za ŵanthu wose, na mendero.
Kujilamulila
Mu 1931, wupu uwu ukaŵa wakujiyimira wekha pakuyana na ufumu wa United Kingdom. Mu vyaru vinyake vitatu vya mu Africa, Liberia, Ethiopia, na Egypt, vikaŵa vyambura mazaza. Mu 1934, chipani cha South African Party na National Party vikasazgikana na kupanga chipani cha United Party. Mu 1939, chipani ichi chikagaŵikana chifukwa cha umo wupu uwu ukanjilira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose.
Aristotle
Umoyo
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalembanga kale vikulongora waka ivyo vikachitika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakukolerana pa fundo zichoko waka.
South Africa
Viyowoyelo
{{legend|#ccebc5|Venda (2.4%)}}
Airports
Malo ghanayi ghakurughakuru gha ndege mu South Africa ni: O.R. Tambo International Airport mu Johannesburg, Cape Town International Airport, King Shaka International Airport mu Durban na Chief Dawid Stuurman International Airport mu Port Elizabeth.
Makhalilo gha charu
Chigaŵa chakumwera na kumwera kwa mapiri (pa mtunda wa mamita 1,100 na 1,800) na chigaŵa cha pasi (pa mtunda wa mamita 700 na 800) chikuchemeka Great Karoo. Kumpoto kwa charu ichi, chipalamba cha Great Karoo chikunjira mu chipalamba icho chikuchemeka Bushmanland. Chigaŵa chapakati cha kumafumiro gha dazi na cha pachanya nkhanira cha chigaŵa ichi chikuchemeka Highveld. Malo agha ghali na maji ghanandi, ndipo ni malo ghakurughakuru chomene mu charu ichi. Kumpoto kwa Highveld, kufuma pa 25° 30' S latitude, chigaŵa ichi chikukhilira ku Bushveld, ndipo paumaliro chikuchemeka Limpopo River lowlands panji Lowveld.
Charu cha South Africa chili kumwera chomene kwa Africa, ndipo chili na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya South Atlantic na Indian Ocean. Charu cha South Africa chili na malo ghakukwana 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi). Kwambura kupenda virwa vya Prince Edward, caru ici cili pakati pa latitude 22° na 35° S, na longitude 16° na 33° E. Charu cha South Africa chili na chigaŵa chikuru icho chili pa mtunda wa pakati pa mamita 1,000 na 2,100. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi ndipo chili na mapiri ghanandi chomene. Malo agha ghali kuzingilizgika na mapiri ghakuru agho ghakumwera na ghapacanya nkhanira ghakucemeka Drakensberg. Mafadi mu Drakensberg pa mamita 3,450 (11,320 ft) ndiyo yili pachanya chomene. Mphepete mwa chigaŵa cha KwaZulu-Natal na Lesotho pali chigaŵa cha Great Escarpment icho chili pachanya pa mamita 3,000.
Masambilo
Mu 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba chikaŵa 88.7%. Ku South Africa kuli masukulu gha vigaŵa vitatu. Ŵasambiri ŵakusambira kwa vyaka 12, kwambira mu kilasi 1 m'paka 12. Ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa gredi R ŵakwamba kusambira pambere ŵandafike ku pulayimale. Sukulu za pulayimale zikuchitika kwa vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri. Masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakutora vilimika vinkhondi. Para munthu wakwaniska kilasi la nambara 12, wakuŵa na chiyezgelero cha National Senior Certificate. Masukulu ghapacanya pa boma ghakupambana mu mitundu yitatu: masukulu ghapacanya ghacilengiwa, agho ghakupeleka masambiro gha ku yunivesite; masukulu gha sayansi (agho kale ghakacemekanga technikon), agho ghakupeleka masambiro gha ku nchito; na masukulu ghapachanya, agho ghakupeleka masambiro gha mitundu yose yiŵiri. Ku South Africa kuli maunivesite 23 gha boma: 11 ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu wose, 6 gha sayansi, na 6 ghakupambanapambana.
Viyowoyelo
[[File:South Africa 2011 dominant language map (hex cells).svg|right|thumb|Map showing the dominant South African languages by area
Makhalilo gha charu
Chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja icho chili kusi kwa Great Escarpment, icho chikwenda mu nthowa ya mawoko kufuma kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi, chili na chigaŵa cha Limpopo Lowveld, icho chikunjira mu Mpumalanga Lowveld, kusi kwa Mpumalanga Drakensberg (chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Great Escarpment). Malo agha ngakotcha comene, ngakomira, ndipo ghakulimika comene yayi kuluska malo gha Highveld agho ghali pacanya pa mapiri. Kruger National Park, iyo yili mu vigaŵa vya Limpopo na Mpumalanga kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa South Africa, yili na malo ghakukwana 19,633 square kilometres (7,580 sq mi).
Ŵasilikari na ŵamazaza
Charu cha South Africa ndicho pera mu Africa icho chili kupanga makora vilwero vya nyukiliya. Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuleka na kumazga mapulogiramu ghake gha nyukiliya (panyuma pa Ukraine) ndipo chikalemba phangano la kuleka kusazgirako vilwero vya nyukiliya mu 1991. Mu ma 1970, caru ca South Africa cikamba kupanga vilwero vya nyukiliya. Ku South Africa ŵakayowoya kuti kukachitika kuyezga nyukiliya mu 1979, kweni boma likakana. De Klerk wakati charu cha South Africa "chindachitepo kuyezga nyukiliya mwakubisilizga". Pakati pa 1980 na 1990, ŵakazenga mabomba ghankhondi na limoza, kweni ghose ghakaleka kugwira ntchito mu 1991. Mu 2017, charu cha South Africa chikasaina phangano la UN lakukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya.
Nyengo ya Apartheid
Mu 1948, chipani cha National Party chikamba kuwusa. Likakhozga comene kusankhana mitundu uko kukamba mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵa Dutch na British. Pakugwiliskira nchito dango la ku Canada lakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵa ku India, boma la ŵanthu ŵa ku Canada likagaŵa ŵanthu wose mu mitundu yitatu (Ŵachizungu, Ŵachikuda, Ŵaindiya, na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana) ndipo waliyose wakaŵa na wanangwa wake. Ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa ŵachoko (pasi pa 20%) ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mitundu yinyake. Ndondomeko iyi yikamanyikwa kuti apartheid. Nangauli ŵazungu ŵakaŵa na umoyo uwemi comene mu vyaru vyose vya mu Africa, nga umo vikaŵira mu vyaru vya ku Western, kweni ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakaŵa na umoyo uheni comene pa vigaŵa vyose, kusazgapo ndalama, masambiro, nyumba, na umoyo. Chikalata cha wanangwa wa ŵanthu, icho chikalembeka mu 1955 na wupu wa Congress Alliance, chikati ŵanthu ŵaleke kusankhana mitundu.
Edesi (HIV/AIDS)
Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2008, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵali na HIV. Pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, 13.6% ŵali na HIV, apo pa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, 0.3% pera ndiwo ŵali na HIV. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakufwa cifukwa ca matenda gha AIDS ŵakuŵa na ndalama zinandi. Ku South Africa kuli ŵana ŵalanda 1,200,000.
Nkhondo za ma Boer
Kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku South Africa. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo izo zikacitika, ŵalimi ŵa mafuko gha Boer ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakachimbilira ku misumba kufuma ku vigaŵa vya Transvaal na Orange Free State kuti ŵakasange vyakukhumbikwa.
Njanji
Njanji za ku South Africa ni zinandi comene mu Africa ndipo ni zinandi comene pa vyaru vyose. Kweni katundu, ŵanthu na malo ghakunjilira mu ngalaŵa vikusuzga comene. Mafuta na njere vikwendeskeka chomene pa mizere iyi, njanji ya chalo ichi yikendeskanga katundu pafupifupi matani 230 miliyoni mu chaka cha 2017 kweni ichi chakhira kufika matani 179 miliyoni mu chaka cha 2021.
Chuma cha Afilika
Ulimi
Ŵanthu ŵakuti ivyo vyaru vya ku Africa vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi uku ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakufwa na njara, vikucitika cifukwa ca ndyali za vyaru vyakutukuka. Vyaru ivi vikuvikilira vyakurya vyawo na msonkho ukuru wa vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake ndipo vikupeleka wovwiri ku ŵalimi ŵawo. Vinthu vikulongora kuti wovwiri wa vyakurya ku vyaru vyakupambanapambana ukukhwaska chomene ŵalimi ŵa vyaru vyakutukuka. Vyakovwira pa vyakurya vingawovwira kuti mitengo yichepeko kuti ŵanthu ŵasangepo chandulo, kweni vikovwiraso kuti ŵalimi ŵa mu vyaru vyakukhuŵara awo ŵakutondeka kusanga vyakurya vyakwenelera, ŵasuzgikenge chomene pa charu chose. IFPRI yikati mu 2003, vyaru ivyo vikusuzgika chifukwa cha wovwiri uwu vikumalira ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 24 pa vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ici cikupangiska kuti mtengo wa vyakurya ivi ukhizgikenge comene pa caru cose mpaka ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵaleke kuphalizgana na vyakurya vinyake.
South Africa
Makhalilo gha charu
Mphepete mwa nyanja, kumwera na kumwera kwa mphepete kwa Great Escarpment, kuli mapiri ghanandi gha Cape Fold Mountains agho ghakwenda lumoza na mumphepete mwa nyanja. (Mapiri agha ghali pa mapu, kumalyero. Wonani umo mapiri agha ghakambira kumpoto kwa Great Escarpment.) Charu icho chili pakati pa mapiri gha Outeniqua na Langeberg kumwera na Swartberg kumpoto chikuchemeka Little Karoo, ndipo chili na makuni ghakupambanapambana ghakuyana waka na gha Great Karoo. Malo gha Little Karoo ngakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kulima viyuni vyakuchemeka ostrich. Chigaŵa chakumpoto kwa Swartberg m'paka ku Great Escarpment ndicho chili ku chigaŵa cha Great Karoo, icho nyengo yake na vyakumera vyake vikupambana yayi na vya ku Karoo. Mphepete mwa nyanja pakati pa mapiri gha Outeniqua na Langeberg muli vula zinandi izo zikulokwa chaka chose. Cikaŵa cakumanyikwa cifukwa ca nkhorongo zinandi izo zili mu caru ca South Africa.
Maseŵera
Ku South Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuseŵera rugby, kusazgapo Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, Bryan Habana, Eben Etzebeth, Cheslin Kolbe na Siya Kolisi. Charu cha South Africa chili kuwina nkhonya ya Rugby World Cup katatu, ndipo chili pamoza na charu cha New Zealand pa kuwina nkhonya zinandi chomene. Mu 1995, charu cha South Africa ndicho chikapokera chiphalizgano chakwamba cha Rugby World Cup. Ŵakawina chiphalizgano ichi mu 2007 na mu 2019. Chalo ichi chikapokeleraso nkhonya ya chalo cha Africa mu chaka cha 1996. Mu chaka cha 2022, timu ya ŵanakazi nayo yikathereska chiphalizgano cha Africa Cup of Nations cha ŵanakazi, pakuthereska Morocco 2-1 pa chiphalizgano chaumaliro. Charu ichi chikapokeleraso maseŵera gha Cricket World Cup mu 2003, World Twenty20 Championship mu 2007. Timu ya ku South Africa yakuchemeka Proteas nayo yikaluska West Indies pa chiphalizgano cha 1998 ICC KnockOut Trophy. Mpikisano wa ICC Women's T20 World Cup wa 2023 ukachitikira ku South Africa ndipo gulu la ŵanakazi likaŵa laciŵiri. Gulu la South Africa la ŵanthu ŵachibulumutira likathereskaso chiphalizgano chakwamba cha Cricket World Cup mu 1998.
Kuwusa kwa ŵa Dutch
Ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakati ŵafika kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵakamba kurwa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa awo ŵakendanga kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Vrijburg awo ŵakaŵa ŵalimi ŵakujiyimira paŵekha pa mphaka ŵakamanyikwanga kuti mba Boer, ndipo ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga umoyo wa kusama ŵakachemekanga kuti trekboers. Ŵa Boer ŵakambiska magulu gha ŵasilikari, ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa Khoisan kuti ŵathereske Ŵachixhosa. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikamba kurwa nkhondo, kweni vikatondeka kumazga nkhondo.
Ŵasilikari na ŵamazaza
Gulu la SANDF kanandi likugwira ntchito pakukoma vigeŵenga ndipo para ŵapolisi ŵa South African Police Service (SAPS) ŵaleka kuwoneseska kuti vinthu vili makora. Mu nyengo ya vivulupi vya ku South Africa mu chaka cha 2021, chiwawa chankhongono chomene ku South Africa kufuma apo apartheid yikamalira, ŵasilikari 25,000, ma helikopita gha ŵasilikari ghakujumpha 12 na magalimoto ghakuŵa na vilwero vikapelekeka ku vigaŵa vya KwaZulu-Natal na Gauteng kuti ŵawovwire ŵapolisi ŵa ku South Africa kumazga vivulupi na kupoka vinthu. Ichi chikaŵa chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru chomene ivyo ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi ŵakachitanga kufuma mu 1994, ndipo chikaŵa chikuru chomene kufuma apo apartheid yikamalira. Charu cha South Africa chili na maofesi gha ŵasilikari ghanandi agho ghali palipose mu charu ichi.
Kuŵika malango na kuswa malango
Boma la South Africa ndilo likulongozga ŵapolisi. Wupu wa SAPS ndiwo ukupenjerezga milandu na kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu caru cose. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku South Africa ŵali na maofesi gha ŵapolisi ghakujumpha 1,154 mu charu chose. Mu chaka cha 2023, gulu la Special Task Force (SAPS) likaŵa na malo gha nambara 9 pa mpikisano wa SWAT wa pa caru cose kufuma pa magulu 55 gha ŵapolisi kufuma mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana.
Energy crisis
Chifukwa cha upusikizgi na upusikizgi wa Eskom, kampani iyi yili na ngongoli ya R392 billion ($22 billion) ndipo yikutondeka kukwaniska ivyo boma la South Africa likukhumba. Chifukwa cha ivi, Eskom wakambiska ndondomeko ya kulekeska magesi ku magesi ghanyake mu nyengo zakupambanapambana. Ku South Africa, para magetsi ghamara, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi kuti ŵaleke kunanga makina ghose. Para ŵanthu ŵafumamo mu mawoko gha mawoko, pa charu chose ŵakuleka kwendeska mawoko. Kafukufuku wa Eskom wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutondeka kugwiliskira ntchito makora magesi. Mu chaka cha 2023, ŵasilikari ŵa South Africa ŵakatumika kuti ŵavikilire magesi gha Eskom ku vigeŵenga.
Aristotle
Ndyali
Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga pa nkhani ya ndyali ni vyakupambana chomene na ivyo Aristotle wakagomezganga. Nangauli wakamanyanga kuti maufumu ghakurughakuru ghakaŵako, kweni Aristotle wakati msumba (polis) ndiwo ukaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali. Cilato ca msumba uwu nchakuti uleke kuŵa na vinthu vyambura urunji panji kuti ukhazikike pa vya cuma pera yayi, kweni kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi na kucita vinthu viwemi. Fundo iyi yikupambana na fundo za mazuŵa ghano, izo zikwamba na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakuchita phangano la umoyo wawo wose..
South Africa
Magesi
Kampani iyi ndiyo yikupanga magesi ghanandi chomene mu Africa, ndipo yili pakati pa makampani 7 ghakwamba pa charu chose. Ndico cikuru comene pa vyamalonda vya boma mu South Africa. Eskom wakupangiska magesi pafupifupi 95% mu South Africa ndipo wakwendeskanga magesi ghanandi, kusazgapo Koeberg Nuclear Power Station mu Cape Town, ghekha ghakukhazikiska magesi gha nyukiliya mu Africa, Kendal Power Station, ghakukhazikiska magesi ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu chose, kweniso Duvha Power Station agho ghakaŵa magesi ghakwamba pa charu chose kugwiliskirika ntchito na pulse jet fabric filter plants. Mu 2001, Eskom wakacemeka kampani yiweme ya magesi pa caru cose.
Boma
Para maungano ghaparamende ghajumpha, wupu wa National Assembly ukusankha yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵali mu wupu uwu kuŵa pulezidenti. Palije pulezidenti uyo wangaŵa pa udindo nyengo zinandi kuluska ziŵiri. Pulezidenti wakusora wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na nduna izo zikuyimira dipatimenti yinyake. Nyumba ya Malango yingawuskapo purezidenti na nduna za boma mwa kuleka kugomezga. Pa chisankho chaposachedwapa, chomwe chinachitika pa 8 May 2019, ANC inapeza 58% ya mavoti ndi mipando 230, pamene chipani chachikulu chotsutsa, Democratic Alliance, chinalandira 21% ya mavoti ndi mipando 84. Gulu la Economic Freedom Fighters, ilo likakhazikiskika na Julius Malema, uyo wakaŵa purezidenti wa ANC Youth League ndipo pamasinda wakafumiskika mu ANC, likapokera mavoti 11% na vithuzithuzi 44. Kufuma apo muwuso wa apartheid ukamalira, ANC ndiyo yikulongozga mu South Africa.
Vinthu vyakupambanapambana
Pa Juni 4, 1994, charu cha South Africa chikalembapo chikalata pa Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, ndipo chikaŵa chigaŵa cha chikalata ichi pa Novembala 2, 1995. Kufuma apo, wupu uwu ukalemba pulani ya vyakucita na ndondomeko ya vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana iyo yikapokera pa ungano uwu pa Juni 7, 2006. Pa vyaru 17 ivyo vili na vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana, charu ichi chili pa nambara 6. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyalo vinandi vya ku South Africa vyamba kulondezga vyalo vinyake kuti viwovwire ŵanthu kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na umoyo uwemi.
Nyengo ya apartheid
Mu 1974, Mangosuthu Buthelezi na Harry Schwarz ŵakalemba chikalata chakuchemeka Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith. Paumaliro, F.W. de Klerk wakamba kudumbiskana na Nelson Mandela mu 1993 kuti ŵasinthe ndondomeko na boma.
Kuwusa na Ulendo Ukuru wa Britain
Britain yikakora msumba wa Cape Town pakati pa 1795 na 1803 kuti uleke kuwusika na boma la France ilo likagalukira vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu 1803, msumba uwu ukaweleraso ku mazaza gha Ŵachidachi. Nkhondo za Napoleon zikati zamara, charu ichi chikapelekeka ku Britain ndipo chikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakaluta ku South Africa mu 1818 ndipo ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵaphya awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵambe kugwira ntchito mu charu ichi.
Nyengo ya apartheid
Ku South Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵambura nchito. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵali kukwera m'paka kufika mu magulu ghapakati panji ghapachanya, kweni unandi wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵalije nchito ukakwera comene pakati pa 1994 na 2003. Ukavu pakati pa ŵazungu, uwo ukaŵa ucoko, ukakura. Boma likayezgayezga kuti liŵe na ndyali na ndarama kuti ŵanthu ŵasange ndalama zinandi kweniso kuti vinthu vyende makora. Ndondomeko ya United Nations Human Development Index yikakwera m'paka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1990 ndipo yikakhira kufuma mu 1995 m'paka 2005 pambere yindafike pa m'paka mu 2013. Kuchepa kwa chiwerengerochi kwachitika chifukwa cha mliri wa HIV/AIDS wa ku South Africa, uwo ukapangiska kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ku South Africa ukhale wa vyaka 62, mu 1992 kufika pa vyaka 53 mu 2005, kweniso chifukwa chakuti boma likutondeka kuchitapo kanthu pa suzgo ili.
Chisopo
Matchalitchi agho ghakafuma ku Africa ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene pa visopa vyose vya Cikhristu. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵali mu cisopa cilicose yayi ŵakalondezganga cisopa ca ku Africa. Ku South Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 200,000 awo ŵakuchizga ŵalwari, ndipo ŵanthu 60 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuluta ku ŵanthu aŵa. Ŵakuchizga aŵa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vigomezgo vya ŵasekuru na kugomezga kuti vyamoyo vya mu malo agha ni vyamzimu kweniso ni vyakuti vingovwira ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali na visambizgo vya cisopa ivyo vikusazgapo visambizgo vya Cikhristu na vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha.
Aristotle
Kuwona vinthu mwakwenelera
Nga ni msambizgi wake Plato, Aristotle nayo wakasambizganga vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Fundo ya Aristotle yikulongora kuti vinthu vya pa charu chose (katholou) vili mu vinthu vyapadera (kath' hekaston), vinthu ivyo vili mu charu, apo Plato wakati vinthu vya pa charu chose ni vinthu ivyo vikuyana waka. Kwa Aristotle, "kawonekero" kakaŵa waka ka vinthu ivyo vikuchitika, kweni "kaŵa ka vinthu" mu chinthu chinyake.
Ŵasayansi Ŵakale
Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵasayansi nga ni William Harvey wa ku England na Galileo Galilei wa ku Italy, ŵakasuska fundo za Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakaghanaghananga nga ni Galen. Harvey wakalongosora umo ndopa zikwendera, ndipo wakalongora kuti mtima ni mphepo yayi, kweni ni mphepo. Galileo wakagwiliskira nchito fundo zakukayikiska kuti wasuske fundo za Aristotle, wakati mathupi ghose ghakuwa mwaluŵiro lumoza, kwali ghaŵe na uzito wuli.
Mbili
History (derived ) ni kusambira na kulemba vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nyengo iyo vinthu vikacitikiranga pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulemba Baibolo yikucemeka kuti nyengo ya kutayikapo. Mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka, ivyo ŵakasanga, ivyo ŵakuwunjika, ivyo ŵakuchita, na umo ŵakuviyowoyera. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakukhumba kumanya ivyo vikachitika kumasinda, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mabuku, mabuku, vinthu vyakuzengeka, na vinthu vinyake. Mbiri njambura kukwana ndipo yichali na vyakusisi.
Mbiri ni sayansi iyo yikugwiliskira nchito nkhani kuti yilongosore, kusanda, kufumba, na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kweniso kuti yamanye umo vikacitikira. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakudumbiskana nkhani iyo yikulongosora makora ivyo vikachitika kweniso chifukwa icho vikachitikira. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakususkana na umo mdauko uliri, kweniso kuti ngwakuzirwa pa nkhani ya masuzgo gha mazuŵa ghano.
Nkhani izo zikukolerana na mitheto yinyake, kweni zikukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya (nga ni nkhani izo zikuyowoya vya Themba Arthur), kanandi zikulongosoreka kuti ni nthano. Mbiri yikupambana na vidokoni pakuti yikukhozgeka na ukaboni. Ndipouli, mitheto yakale yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵapulikiskenge makora nkhani za mu Baibolo izo zasintha mu vyaka vinandi ndipo zikulutilira kusintha mazuŵa ghano. Kafukufuku wamakono wa mbiriyakale ndiwakutali, ndipo amaphatikizapo kuphunzira madera enaake ndi kuphunzira zinthu zina zapadera kapena zowunikira za kafukufuku wakale. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko mu masukulu gha pulayimale na sekondare.
Methods
Nthowa ya mdauko yikusazgapo nthowa na fundo izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusanda nkhani na vinthu vinyake.
Political
Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting.
Methods
Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakwamba kupenjerezga nkhani mu mabuku gha mdauko. Kanandi ŵakughanaghana fundo yinyake ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ivyo ŵasanga. John H. Arnold wakayowoya kuti mdauko ni fundo iyo yikovwira kuti vinthu visinthe. Makampani gha vinthu vya digito, nga ni Google, ghapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pa nkhani ya umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera Intaneti.
Herodotus wa ku Halicarnassus (484 B.C.E. 425 B.C.E.) wakumanyikwa kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko". Ndipouli, Thucydides (c. 460 B.C.E. 400 B.C.E.) ndiyo wakambiska nkhani za mdauko mu buku lake la History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides wakawonanga kuti mdauko ukufuma ku ivyo ŵanthu ŵasankha na kuchita, ndipo wakawonanga kuti pali chifukwa na umaliro wake m'malo mwa Chiuta (nangauli Herodotus nayo wakagomezganga fundo iyi yayi). Thucydides wakalongosora umo vinthu vikachitikiranga mu nyengo iyo vikachitikiranga. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵa ku Greece nawo ŵakawonanga kuti mdauko ukucitika nyengo zose.
Marxian theory
Fundo ya Marx yakuti vinthu vyakuthupi ni vyakuzirwa yikulongora kuti vinthu vikwenda makora pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Pa vyose, Marx na Engels ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakamanya vigaŵa vinkhondi ivyo vinthu vikaŵa makora mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga chomene nkhani za Marx, kweni kufuma waka apo boma la Communist likamalira mu 1991, Mikhail Krom wakati nkhani izi zili kuchepa chomene..
Kuyowoya
Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakovwira chomene pa kusanda malo na vinthu ivyo vili kusungika. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakusanga vikusangika bweka yayi, ndipo nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba zikovwira chomene pa ivyo ŵasanga. Nthowa izo ŵasayansi ŵakusangira vinthu vyakale ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zikuyana yayi na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu vyakale. "Vinthu vyakale vyakumasinda" ni munthavi unyake wa vinthu vyakale uwo kanandi ukususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mazuŵa ghano. Mwachiyelezgero, Mark Leone, uyo wakafukura na kung'anamulira vinthu mu msumba wa Annapolis, ku Maryland, U.S.A., wakayezga kupulikiska mphindano iyo yilipo pakati pa malemba agho ghakuyowoya vya "ufulu" na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵazga kweniso kuti vinthu vikaŵa vyambura kuyana.
Prehistoric periodization
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of tools and theories. In archeology, the usual method for periodization of the distant prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with subdivisions that are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology. This narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning.
World
The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
Diplomatic
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars. More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies". She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it.
Herodotus, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., wakuchemeka "wiske wa mdauko" (pakuti ndiyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kumanya mdauko) nangauli ŵanthu ŵakumususka kuti ni "wiske wa utesi". Iyo pamoza na Thucydides, uyo wakaŵako mu nyengo yake, ndiwo ŵakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale. Ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuŵazga mabuku ghawo m'paka sono, ndipo mphambano pakati pa Herodotus na Thucydides, awo ŵakalembanga vya mitheto. Ku East Asia, mabuku gha boma ghakuchemeka Spring and Autumn Annals, ghakalembeka mu 722 B.C.E., nangauli ni mabuku gha mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. pera agho ghachalipo.
Kuyowoya
Vyose ivyo vikucitika ivyo vikukumbukika na kusungika mu nthowa yinyake, ni mbiri. Ntchito ya nkhani za m'mbiri njakuti tisange ivyo vingatovwira kuti tisange nkhani zaunenesko. Chifukwa chake, malamulo a mbiriyakale ya wolemba mbiri ndi chifukwa chozungulira mbiriyakale wamba poletsa kugwiritsa ntchito malemba ena ndi zikalata (mwa kunyenga zonena zawo kuti zikuyimira "zakale zenizeni"). Ntchito yinyake ya munthu wakusanda mdauko ni kugwiliskira ntchito makora na mwamahara vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka kale. Para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakukumbuka panji kulongosora vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika kale, ŵakuŵa chete.
Periods
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians. The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.
Bias in school teaching
It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.
Kuyowoya
Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakulemba vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kwali ŵakulemba panji kuphalirako ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakuyezga kusanga mazgoro gha mafumbo agha. Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni vikhwangwani, malemba, na vithuzithuzi. Kanandi, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakumanya vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ivyo vili kulembeka, ivyo vikuyowoyeka, na ivyo vili kusungika. Kweni kulemba ndiko kukupatura mdauko ku ivyo vikaŵako pambere ivi vindacitike.
Scholarship vs teaching
In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.
Bias in school teaching
In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."
Prehistoric periodization
Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.
Kulemba mbiri
Mu Baibolo ili, mazgu agha ghakung'anamura vinandi. Chakwamba, likung'anamura umo mbiri yikapangikira: umo nthowa na vyakuchita vikasinthira (kufuma pa nkhani zakudumura za umoyo wa munthu kuya pa nkhani zakudumura). Chachiŵiri, lingang'anamura ivyo vyalembeka: mabuku ghakulongosora mdauko (kuyelezgera kuti, "mdauko wa m'ma 1960" kung'anamura "Mdauko wa m'ma 1960"). Chachitatu, lingang'anamura chifukwa icho ŵanthu ŵakupangira mdauko. Pakuwona umo vinthu vikaŵira kumanyuma, fundo yachitatu iyi yikukolerana na fundo ziŵiri zakwambilira, chifukwa kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chomene vya nkhani, umo ŵanthu ŵakulongosolera vinthu, umo charu chikuwonekera, umo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni, panji umo ŵakulongosolera vinthu. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakufumbaso usange tingasambizga mdauko nga ni nkhani yimoza yakukolerana panji nkhani zinandi zakupambanapambana.
Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:
Methods
Augustine wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira. Mu nyengo za ku Middle Ages na Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakasambiranga vya mdauko kufuma ku vinthu vyakupatulika. Cha m'ma 1800, nkhwantha ya vya mdauko ya ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, yikiza na vinjeru vya ŵanthu mu nkhani ya mdauko.
Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.
People's
A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.
Religious
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy. This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.