cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Machjar Angga Koesoemadinata
Ki Pembayun
Peupeuriheun gamelan Ki Pembayun téh hésé  dimaénkeunana ku lantaran mangrupi hal anu teu umum sareng meryogikeun  waktos nu lami kanggo latihanana, nanging kanggo bahan kajian mah ku ayana ieu gamelan téh penting pisan. Na da teu sakedik para panalungtik ti nagara lain nu kagum ku munculna ieu gamelan téh. Nurutkeun ahli etnomusikologi Andrew Weintraub (2001), munculna gamelan sorog nu ayeuna ayeuna mekar, pada dasarna mah mangrupikeun pangaruh ti gamelan Ki Pembayun. Mung waé hanjakal pisan gamelan Ki Pembayun téh saterasna mah leungit raib. Hiji-hijina patilasan anu ayeuna aya kénéh téh tiasa jantén mung potrét sareng gentra ieu gamelan anu masih tiasa kajeprét sareng direkam ku  Dr. Margaret Kartomi,  profesor musik di Monash University, Australia.
Panghargaan
Di antawis panghargaan-panghargaan anu ditampi ajeunna téh mangrupi penghargaan pang luhurna di bidang budaya; nyaéta  Piagam Anugrah Seni, minangka ahli sareng  pangweku  téori Karawitan Sunda ti Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan  (17 Agustus  1969), panghargaan  pencipta lagu rampak sekar Ibu Dewi Sartika (4 Desember 1975), sinareng panghargaan ti Ikatan Seniman Sunda (9 Mei 1959).
Nangela, Tegal Buleud, Sukabumi
Nangela nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Tegal Buleud, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
463 SM
463 SM nyaéta taun ka-463 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Hapung Torop, Sosa, Padang Lawas
Hapung Torop nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Sosa, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
464 SM
464 SM nyaéta taun ka-464 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Handio, Sosa, Padang Lawas
Handio nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Sosa, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Rambay, Tegal Buleud, Sukabumi
Rambay nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Tegal Buleud, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Sumberjaya, Tegal Buleud, Sukabumi
Sumberjaya nyaéta salasahiji désa di kacamatan Tegal Buleud, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Caringin Nunggal, Waluran, Sukabumi
Caringin Nunggal nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Waluran, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Laktosa
Laktosa nyaéta gula nu aya dina susu (ku kituna katelah gula susu), kadarna 2–8% (dumasar beurat), béda-béda di unggal sato. Ngaran sistematisna β-D-galaktopiranosil-(1↔4)β-D-glukopiranosa. Laktosa bisa diékstrak tina dadih.
Kelarutan
Kelarutanana dina cai 18.9049 g (25 °C), 25.1484 g (40 °C), jeung 37.2149 g (60 °C) per 100 g larutan. Kelarutanana dina étanol 0.0111 g (40 °C) jeung (0.0270 g (60 °C) per 100 g larutan.
Katabolismeu laktosa
Awak jalma-jalma turunan Éropa, Timur Tengah, India, jeung sawaréh Afrika Wétan biasana masih ngahasilkeun laktaseu nepi ka sawawa, ku kituna tara aya masalah nalika maranéhna nginum susu sapi, embé, jeung domba atawa katuangan turunanana. Jalma nu intoléran kana laktosa teu bisa loba teuing ngonsumsi laktosa, sabab awakna teu bisa nyerna laktosa. Balukarna bisa jadi mules, muncrut, jeung gangguan beuteung lianna.
466 SM
466 SM nyaéta taun ka-466 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Gunung Tua, Sosa, Padang Lawas
Gunung Tua nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Sosa, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
468 SM
468 SM nyaéta taun ka-468 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Tanjung Barani, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Tanjung Barani nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
467 SM
467 SM nyaéta taun ka-467 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Pakistan Wétan
Pakistan Wétan (পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan; nyaéta nagara propinsi di Républik Islam Pakistan nu aya di wewengkon Benggala di beulah kalér-wétan Anakbuana India saprak taun 1955 nepi ka taun 1971, sanggeus rancangan Hiji Unit nu nyieun dasar ayana Pakistan Wétan
Sukamukti, Waluran, Sukabumi
Sukamukti nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Waluran, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
469 SM
469 SM nyaéta taun ka-469 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Pagaran Tayas, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Pagaran Tayas nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Waluran, Waluran, Sukabumi
Waluran nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Waluran, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Dédén
Dédén atawa Deden téh nyaéta hiji ngaran nu ilahar dipaké keur ngaranan urang Sunda lalaki.
Asal kecap
Ngaran Dédén atawa Deden dipaké keur ngalandikeun budak turunan ménak atawa jalma nu dipihormat
Dimimitian tina kecap “ra” anu hartina pohara atawa punjul sarta kecap “hadian” anu hartina "manusa nu boga haté mulya", karuhun urang Sunda jeung urang Jawa nyieun gelaran “rahadian” pikeun ménak. Satuluyna, sawatara generasi saterusna, kecap “rahadian” karasa panjang teuing diucapkeunana antukna disingket jadi rahadén. Generasi satuluyna masih ngarasakeun yén kecap rahadén ogé panjang teuing, ku kituna dirobah ucapanana jadi “radén”. Kecap “radén” loba kapanggih di kapuloan anu ayeuna jadi Indonésia, kaasup di pulo Jawa bagian kulon.
Stasion Meguro
Stasion Meguro (目黒駅) nyaéta stasion kareta di ward Shinagawa Tokyo deukeut jeung wates ward Meguro. Stasion kiduleun Meguro Dori (Jalan Meguro).
Manggis, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Manggis nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Stasion Meguro
Jalur Yamanote di handap taneuh keur sababaraha kilo kiduleun stasion.
Jalur-jalur
Meguro dilayanan ku sababraha jalur:
Tanjung Baru, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Tanjung Baru nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Néndén
Néndén atawa Nenden téh nyaéta hiji ngaran nu ilahar dipaké keur ngaranan urang Sunda awéwé.
Asal kecap
Dimimitian tina kecap “ra” anu hartina pohara atawa punjul sarta kecap “hadian” anu hartina "manusa nu boga haté mulya", karuhun urang Sunda jeung urang Jawa nyieun gelaran “rahadian” pikeun ménak. Satuluyna, sawatara generasi saterusna, kecap “rahadian” karasa panjang teuing diucapkeunana antukna disingket jadi rahadén. Generasi satuluyna masih ngarasakeun yén kecap rahadén ogé panjang teuing, ku kituna dirobah ucapanana jadi “radén”. Kecap “radén” loba kapanggih di kapuloan anu ayeuna jadi Indonésia, kaasup di pulo Jawa bagian kulon.
Masarakat di bagian kulon pulo Jawa ti mangsa bihari mindeng nyingket sebutan “radén” jadi “adén” pikeun ménak lalaki ngora sarta “ndén” pikeun ménak awéwé ngora. Satuluyna kecap-kecap ieu leuwih jembar pamakéanan; sebutan “adén” sarta “ndén” dipaké ogé pikeun anggota masarakat séjénna, biasana pikeun kulawarga anu dipihormat atawa beunghar.
Di Jawa Kulon, sebutan “ndén” mindeng dipanjangkeun jadi néndén sarta dijadikeun ngaran awéwé.
Tegalbuleud, Tegal Buleud, Sukabumi
Tegalbuleud nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Tegal Buleud, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Botung, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Botung nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Hatongga, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Hatongga nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Bojongkerta, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Bojongkerta nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
471 SM
471 SM nyaéta taun ka-471 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
470 SM
470 SM nyaéta taun ka-470 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Lini Pasundan 2009
Lini Pasundan 2009 nyaéta lini téktonik anu kajadian dina tanggal 2 Séptémber 2009 dina pukul 14.55 WIB kalayan puseur lini di 142 km beulah kulon kidul Tasikmalaya, Jawa Kulon anu kakuatanana 7,3 SR. Lini téktonik kasebut lumangsung alatan lémpéng Indo-australia nabrak lémpéng Eurasia. Lini anu ngoyagkeun ogé dirasakeun nepi ka pulo Bali.
Korban
Puluhan urang tiwas sarta ratusan urang séjénna ngalaman tatu-tatu, dilantarankeun ieu lini.
Karuksakan
Puluhan rébu wangunan imah atawa gedong pakantoran di Bandung, Cianjur, Garut, sarta Sukabumi ruksak.
472 SM
472 SM nyaéta taun ka-472 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Bantarkalong, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Bantarkalong nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Soekarno-Hatta
Soekarno-Hatta bisa ngarah ka:
Sirnajaya, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Sirnajaya nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Bandar Udara Internasional Soekarno–Hatta
Bandara Internasional Soekarno-Hatta atawa Soekarno-Hatta International Airport nyaéta bandara internasional utama nu ngalayanan ibu kota Indonésia, Jakarta jeung sabudeureunnana. Bandara nu dioperasikeun ku PT Angkasa Pura II ieu miboga kode IATA CGK jeung kode ICAO WIII.
Data Lapangan Terbang
2 landas pacu
Runway 1: Héading 07R/25L, 3.660m (12,007 ft), ILS
Runway 2: Héading 07L/25R, 3.600m (11,811 ft), ILS
Terminal jeung Maskapai Penerbangan
Bandara Internasional Soekarno-Hatta miboga 3 terminal. Terminal 1 ngaladenan sakabéh penerbangan domestik kajaba penerbangan domestik nu dioperasikeun ku Garuda Indonesia jeung Merpati Nusantara Airways. Terminal 2 ngaladenan sabagian penerbangan domestik nu dioperasikeun ku Garuda Indonesia jeung Merpati Nusantara Airways sarta sakabéh penerbangan internasional. Terminal 3 mangrupa terminal husus nu dipaké keur haji jeung ngiangkeun TKI. Terminal 1 jeung 2 disusun dina wangun liniér atawa semicircular.
Girijaya, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Girijaya nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Bandar Udara Internasional Soekarno–Hatta
Terminal 1
Terminal ieu miboga 3 sub-terminal, nyaéta sub-terminal A, B, dan C.
Terminal 2
Terminal 2 miboga 3 sub-terminal, nyaéta sub-terminal D keur sakabéh penerbangan internasional nu dioperasikeun ku maskapai penerbangan asing, sub-terminal E keur sakabéh penerbangan internasional nu dioperasikan ku maskapai pernerbangan lokal, jeung sub-terminal F keur sakabéh penerbangan domestik nu dioperasikeun ku Sriwijaya Air jeung Nam Air.
Neneng
Nénéng atawa Neneng téh nyaéta hiji ngaran nu ilahar dipaké keur ngaranan urang Sunda awéwé.
Asal kecap
Masarakat di bagian kulon pulo Jawa ti mangsa bihari mindeng nyingket sebutan “radén” jadi “adén” pikeun ménak lalaki ngora sarta “ndén” pikeun ménak awéwé ngora. Satuluyna kecap-kecap ieu leuwih jembar pamakéanan; sebutan “adén” sarta “ndén” dipaké ogé pikeun anggota masarakat séjénna, biasana pikeun kulawarga anu dipihormat atawa beunghar.
Di Jawa Kulon, sebutan “ndén” mindeng ogé dijadikeun ngaran awéwé nyaéta Néndén.
Kecap “ndén” ogé ngalaman parobahan pengucapan jadi “enén”. Leuwih laér, kecap “enén” robah pengucapan jadi “enéng” atawa “néng”. “Enéng” malah mindeng dipaké jadi ngaran awéwé kalayan variasi séjénna nyaéta “Nénéng”.
Ubrug, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Ubrug nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Muara Malinto Lama, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Muara Malinto Lama nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
474 SM
474 SM nyaéta taun ka-474 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Pamisahan India
Pamisahan India (Hindi-Urdu हिन्दुस्तान का बटवारा (Devanagari)  (Nastaliq) ) nyaéta pamisahan tina India Britania nu didasarkeun kana démografi agama. Pamisahan ieu ngarah kana dijieuna nagara daulat Dominion Pakistan (nu engkéna peupeus kana Républik Islam Pakistan jeung Républik Rahayat Bangladés) jeung Uni India. Undang-Undang Kamerdikaan India 1947 nangtukeun 15 Agustus 1947 salaku kaping awal pamisahan ieu. Tatapi, Pakistan geus aya sapoé saméméhna, 14 Agustus.
Pamisahan ieu ngawengku ogé pamisahan Propinsi Benggala kana Benggala Wétan, nu jadi bagian tina Dominion Pakistan (saprak 1956: Pakistan Wétan), sarta Benggala Kulon, nu jadi bagian tina India. Pamisahan lianna saperti Propinsi Punjab dibagi kana Punjab Kulon (jagana Punjab Pakistan jeung Daézrah Husus Ibu Kota Islamabad) sarta Punjab Wétan (jagana Punjab India, ogé Haryana jeung Himachal Pradesh). Pasatujuan kana pamisahan ieu ngawengku ogé babagian asét-asét pamaréntahan India, saperti Angkatan Darat Indian Britania, Angkatan Laut Karajaan India, perkarétaapian India, badan kauangan, sarta lembaga administratif séjénna.
Pagaran Manggis, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Pagaran Manggis nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Pamisahan India
Bacaan salajengna
Visaria, Pravin M. 1969. "Migration Between India and Pakistan, 1951–61" Demography, 6(3):323–334.
Huta Nopan, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Huta Nopan nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Enéng
Enéng atawa Eneng téh nyaéta hiji ngaran nu ilahar dipaké keur ngaranan urang Sunda awéwé.
Asal kecap
Dimimitian tina kecap “ra” anu hartina pohara atawa punjul sarta kecap “hadian” anu hartina "manusa nu boga haté mulya", karuhun urang Sunda jeung urang Jawa nyieun gelaran “rahadian” pikeun ménak. Satuluyna, sawatara generasi saterusna, kecap “rahadian” karasa panjang teuing diucapkeunana antukna disingket jadi rahadén. Generasi satuluyna masih ngarasakeun yén kecap rahadén ogé panjang teuing, ku kituna dirobah ucapanana jadi “radén”. Kecap “radén” loba kapanggih di kapuloan anu ayeuna jadi Indonésia, kaasup di pulo Jawa bagian kulon.
473 SM
473 SM nyaéta taun ka-473 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Siadam, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Siadam nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Enéng
Asal kecap
Masarakat di bagian kulon pulo Jawa ti mangsa bihari mindeng nyingket sebutan “radén” jadi “adén” pikeun ménak lalaki ngora sarta “ndén” pikeun ménak awéwé ngora. Satuluyna kecap-kecap ieu leuwih jembar pamakéanan; sebutan “adén” sarta “ndén” dipaké ogé pikeun anggota masarakat séjénna, biasana pikeun kulawarga anu dipihormat atawa beunghar.
Di Jawa Kulon, sebutan “ndén” mindeng ogé dijadikeun ngaran awéwé nyaéta Néndén.
Kecap “ndén” ogé ngalaman parobahan pengucapan jadi “enén”. Leuwih laér, kecap “enén” robah pengucapan jadi “enéng”.
Tandolan, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Tandolan nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Hégarmanah, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Hégarmanah nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Warungkiara, Warung Kiara, Sukabumi
Warungkiara nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Warung Kiara, Kabupatén Sukabumi, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Pakistan Kulon
Pakistan Kulon (Basa Urdu: مغر بى پاکستان Məghrābī Pākistān; umumna disebut Pakistan ) mibandaan jaman baheulana Pakistan modéren basa nagara éta ngadeg tina rancangan Hiji-unit salaku nagara ékslave.
Tangga Batu, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Tangga Batu nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Munisipalitas Kristinehamn
Munisipalitas Kristinehamn nyaéta salah sahiji munisipalitas di Swédia nu aya di Counti Värmland, di beulah kulon tengah Swédia. Ibukotana di kota Kristinehamn, pangeusina 18,000 urang, luhur kotana 67 méter. Kota nu leuwih leutikna nyaéta Björneborg, Bäckhammar, Nybble jeung Ölme.
Géografi
Kristinehamn aya di sabudeureun situ Vänern. Persisna, Kristinehamn aya di hiji tempat di mana walunganVarnan jeung walungan Löt ngamuara kana situ.
Kristinehamn mibanda palabuan nu jadi puseur angkutan karéta api jeung mobil.
Kota nu deukeuteunnana nyaéta Karlskoga jeung Karlstad nu aya di tengah-tengah Oslo, Stockholm jeung Göteborg kalayan jarak 250 km ka masing-masingna.
Sajarah
Kristinehamn meunang Royal Charter munggaran taun 1582 tapi leupas deui taun 1584, sarta meunang deui taun 1642, tur ngaganti ngaranna pikeun panghormatan raja Ratu Christina ti Swédia. Satuluyna kota ieu jadi salah sahiji kota bersejarah di Swédia. Kalengkepan kota dirancang maké bojort, nu mangrupa kapal Walanda nu digunakeun dina abad ka-17.
Kaayaan kota
Kristinehamn dieusian ku pangeusi asli urang Swédia, katambahan ku pendatang ti Turki, India, Muangthai, Cina, Koréa jeung lian-lianna. Dina usum tiis (salju) ti Désember nepikeun ka Maret, Kristinehamn kacida sepina. Hawana bisa nepikeun ka -20-an darajat Célsius. Ti usum semi, komo panas mah, mulai loba pangeusi nu pasuliwer di sabudeureun kota.
Wangunan-wangunan di Kristinehamn saperti ilaharna wangunan di Swédia, loba nu dijieun tina kayu. Wangunannana ararantik, has wangunan Éropa.
Transportasi
Di Kristinehamn, lolobana pangeusina miboga mobil sorangan. Pikeun transportasi umum, aya beus nu ngurilingan kota (Swebus). Beus ogé mangrupa transportasi umum pikeun ka kota sabudeureunnana saperti Karlstad, Karlskoga, jeung lianna. Pikeun jarak jauh saperti ka Stockholm (250 km), bisa ngagunakeun karéta api.
Hutabaru, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Hutabaru nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
475 SM
475 SM nyaéta taun ka-475 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Bandéra Bangladés
Rincian resmi
Numutkeun rincian ti pamaréntah Bangladés, :
477 SM
477 SM nyaéta taun ka-477 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
476 SM
476 SM nyaéta taun ka-476 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Lambang Bangladés
Lambang nasional Bangladés mimiti dipaké sakeudeung sanggeus kamerdikaan dina taun 1971.
478 SM
478 SM nyaéta taun ka-478 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Pagaran Dolok Pinarik, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Pagaran Dolok Pinarik nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
TV kabel
It should be noted that while the acronym CATV is often used to méan "Cable TV" or "Community Access Television," it originally stood for Community Antenna Television. This comes from cable television's origins in 1948, when the first cable systems were started. Television signals could only be received by homes that were in the "line-of-sight" of the originating broadcast antenna, and péople in mountainous aréas could not receive the signal. Large antennas were constructed in these aréas, and cable was run from the antenna to homes so they could receive programming, making these large antennas "community antennas."
It is most commonplace in North America, Europe, Australia and East Asia, though it is present in many other countries, mainly in South America and the Middle East. Cable TV has had little success in Africa, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated aréas, and although so-called "wireless cable" or microwave-based systems are used, "direct-to-home" satellite television is far more popular, especially in South Africa.
Téhnologi
Technically, CATV involves distributing a number of television channels collected at a central location (called a headend) to subscribers within a community by méans of a branched network of optical fibers and/or coaxial cables and broadband amplifiers. Since the éarly 1990s, the most common architecture is the Hybrid fiber coaxial network.
As in the case of radio broadcasting, the use of different frequencies allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for éach. A Set-top box or the tuner of the TV, VCR or radio selects one channel from this mixed signal.
The same program is often simultanéously broadcast by radio and distributed by cable, usually at different frequencies. Other programs may be distributed by cable only; rules restricting content (e.g. regarding nudity and pornography) are often more relaxed for cable than for over-the-air TV.
Cable television is normally regarded as a natural monopoly, and most aréas are served by a single provider, though Australia is characterized by extensive duplication.
Australia
Cable television services have been available in Australia since 1991 or 1992, with Galaxy TV being the first, it became insolvent in 1997, due to decréasing popularity with the launching of Foxtel and Austar in May of 1995, two cable services that offered more variety than Galaxy TV. In éarly 1997, Galaxy TV was declared insolvent, largely because of Foxtel and Austars popularity. Foxtel immediately commenced in supplying programming to Galaxy's subscribers on an interim basis. In 1999 Foxtel was able to significantly boost its customer base by acquiring Galaxy TV's subscribers from the Australis Media liquidator and commenced offering its services on a satellite television platform. There are currently two major and four minor cable television providers in Australia - Foxtel and Optus TV. Minor providers include Austar, TransACT, Bright Telecommunications and Neighbourhood Cable, which only operate in limited aréas.
Like the United Kingdom, cable is a minority méans of receiving access to subscription television in Australia. Satellite distribution is more common.
Due to its history, financial backing and market dominance, most local versions of channels are either owned directly by Foxtel and Austar or through related companies.
In terms of coverage, Foxtel's cable network covers parts of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Perth. Optus's network covers small parts of Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane, though its restrictive subscription rules méans that many péople living in apartments or confined living aréas may be unable to be connected.
Austar is available by satellite in most of regional and rural Australia, but does have a small cable network in the city of Darwin. TransACT is only available in the city of Canberra, where a custom cable network was developed. A similar situation exists in Perth where a small aréa is covered by Bright Telecommunications as well in parts of Geelong, Ballarat and Mildura that are réached by Neighbourhood Cable.
Hong Kong
Only one traditional cable provider operates in Hong Kong, i-Cable Communications Limited (branded as "CableTV"). Another three operators offers pay-TV via DSL, they are Now Broadband TV (PCCW), HKBN Digital TV and TVB PayVision.
Many in Hong Kong instéad watch subscription TV using satellite systems like STAR TV.
Méksiko
Over the past few yéars, many US networks have started to develop content for the Latin American market, such as CNN en Español, MTV, Cartoon Network, Disney Channel, and others. The country also has a DTH service called SKY (Televisa & News Corp. owned). Recently DirecTV merged with Sky. The dominant company nowadays is Megacable and Grupo HEVI.
Selandia Anyar
TelstraClear operate a cable television network in Wellington, Kapiti and Christchurch. Customers can subscribe to plans incorporating between 25 and 95 channels. Most content is offered on behalf of Sky Network Television however some channels such as TBN, Discovery Travel and Adventure and Deutsche welle are broadcast exclusively through TelstraCléar.
Afrika Kidul
South African Broadcasting Co-operation (SABC) and e-TV are the only broadcasters in the country with the SABC being the State-Owned and major broadcastor. The SABC has three channels which focuses on its diverse cultures, languages and heritages. These channels are called SABC 1, 2, and 3. On the other hand, e-TV has only one channel and struggles to broadcast all the programmes.
Singapura
StarHub Cable Vision is the sole cable television operator in Singapore, where private ownership of satellite dishes is banned. StarHub Cable Vision was formed as a result of a merger between StarHub and Singapore Cable Vision on 15 May 2002. The latter first began broadcasting as a terrestrial pay-television operator in 1992 as the first cable network was not completed until 1995. Around 15% of households and offices in Singapore are connected to the StarHub network.
479 SM
479 SM nyaéta taun ka-479 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
TV kabel
United Kingdom
In the UK Cable Television had its origins in 1938, when the first Community Antenna TV systems were set up in towns including Bristol and Hull, for homes which couldn't receive transmissions over the air; however these signals were on the 405-line system. In the 1960s Rediffusion Vision was set up to provide cable television in the newer 625-line and PAL formats.
In the éarly 1980s Rediffusion Vision supplemented its service with other channels including The Music Box, Mirrorvision, Lifesyle Screensport, Sky Channel and TEN. The service was renamed to Rediffusion Cablevision.
In the United Kingdom, the current generation of cable television began in the late 1980s with the issue of franchises to many local operators. These small operations proved uneconomic and there has been a continuing process of consolidation and re-financing.
By 2000 the two principal cable operators were NTL and Telewest. NTL's cable service was originally known as CableTel and grew rapidly through the acquisition of, among others, ComTel (which itself had bought Telecential), Comcast, Diamond Cable and finally, in 1999, the residential and small business operations of Cable & Wireless. Telewest acquired local cable operators including Eurobell (Plymouth and Essex) Cable London (North franchise) Birmigham cable and large franchsies in the North éast and North West of England. The original Telewest cable-co was créated after mergers of United Artists and General Cable in the mid 90's. In 2005 it was announced that NTL and Telewest would merge, after a period of co-operation in the preceding few yéars. This merger was completed on 3 March 2006 with the company being named ntl Incorporated. For the time being the two brand names and services are still being marketed separately. However, following NTL's aqusition of Virgin Mobile, the NTL and Telewest services will be rebranded Virgin Media in the first quarter of 2007 créating a single cable operator covering more than 95% of the UK cable market.
Cable TV faces intense competition from BSkyB's Sky Digital satellite television service. Most channels are carried on both platforms. However, cable often lacks "interactive" féatures (e.g. text services, and extra vidéo-screens), especially on BSkyB owned channels, and the satellite platform lacks services requiring high degrees of two-way communication, such as true video on demand.
However, subscription-funded digital terrestrial television proved less of a competitive thréat. The first system, ITV Digital, went into liquidation in 2002. Top Up TV later replaced it, however this service is shrinking as the DVB-T multiplex owners are finding FTA broadcasting more profitable.
Another potential source of competition in the future will be TV over broadband. This was initially launched, using ADSL, in London, where it is provided by HomeChoice. An IPTV service was also provided in Hull by Kingston Communications, but this céased operations in April 2006. As the speed and availability of broadband connections incréase, more TV content can be delivered using protocols such as IPTV.
Amérika Sarikat
lolobana panongton televisi di Amérika meunang sinyalna tina CATV.
Éropa
According to the Européan Audiovisual Observatory, there were 58 million cable households in the Européan Union as of 31 December 2004, i.e. a rate of penetration of 32 % of the television households. 5.7 millions were connected to digital networks.
Swiss
In Switzerland, virtually all households have cable TV. Ironically, despite this good coverage, Switzerland has only a few public TV stations (two éach for the German, French and Italian-spéaking parts of the country); additionally, there is now only one upstart commercial network with coverage comparable to these state-run channels. To watch news or political information, Swiss channels are preferred, but in the entertainment sector (féature movies, comedies, talk shows), private TV stations from Germany, France and Italy are dominant.
Layanan dumasar-kabel lianna
Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This léaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as broadband internet and cable telephony.
Broadband internet is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog modem to provide for the upstréam connection. This limited the upstréam speed to 31.2k and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for gréater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive.
11 Nopémber
11 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-315 dina sataun (ka-316 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 50 poé.
TV kabel
Layanan dumasar-kabel lianna
In North America and Europe many cable operators have alréady introduced cable telephone service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop (replacing the analog last mile, or POTS) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the PSTN. The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for néarly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems to be the most promising and able to work with the Quality of Service demands of traditional analog POTS service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable TV, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a VoIP network providing chéap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. Note that in many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on IP traffic or the Internet.
Beginning in 2004 in the United States, the traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies incréasingly compete in providing voice, vidéo and data services to residences. The combination of TV, telephony and Internet access is commonly called triple play regardless of whether CATV or telcos offer it.
11 Nopémber
Nu pupus
683 – Yazid I, khalifah dinasti Umayyah (l. 647)
1028 – Konstantin VIII, Kaésar Byzantium (l. 960)
2004 – Yassér Arafat, présidén Otoritas Nasional Paléstina (. 1929)
Tanjung Botung Pinarik, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Tanjung Botung Pinarik nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Aek Sorik, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Aek Sorik nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Pinarik, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Pinarik nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Muara Malinto Baru, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Muara Malinto Baru nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Rombayan, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Rombayan nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
481 SM
481 SM nyaéta taun ka-481 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
483 SM
483 SM nyaéta taun ka-483 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Papaso, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Papaso nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
14 Nopémber
14 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-318 dina sataun (ka-319 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 47 poé.
484 SM
484 SM nyaéta taun ka-484 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Jam
Jam (basa Hormat: Tabuh) nyaéta hijian waktu. Lila 1 jam nyaéta 1/24 (hiji per duapuluh opat) poé. Jam bisa dibagi jadi hijian waktu anu leuwih leutik deui.
Hiji jam diwangun ku:
Gerak lempeng
Gerak lempeng nyaéta gerak hiji barang anu jalurna (liliwatanana) mangrupa garis lempeng. Gerak ieu ogé disebut translasi beraturan (merenah).
Papasingan
Gerak lempeng bisa digolongkeun kana gerak lempeng laju tetep sarta gerak lempeng robah laju anu dibédakeun ku aya sarta henteuna akselerasi.
Gerak lempeng laju tetep
di mana:
Gerak lempeng laju robah
Gerak lempeng laju robah nyaéta gerak lempeng hiji obyék, di mana lajuna robah kapirig waktu alatan ayana akselerasi anu tetep. Alatan ayana akselerasi, rumus jarak anu ditempuh henteu deui liniér tapi kwadratik.
di mana:
Tempo ogé
Translation (geometry)
12 Nopémber
12 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-316 dina sataun (ka-317 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 49 poé.
Nu pupus
2018 – Stan Lee, pangarang buku komik Amérika (l. 1922)
Sibodak Papaso, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Sibodak Papaso nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
486 SM
486 SM nyaéta taun ka-486 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
485 SM
485 SM nyaéta taun ka-485 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Salambue, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Salambue nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Muara Tige, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Muara Tige nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Menit
Menit nyaéta hiji hijian waktu. Samenit nyaéta 1/60 (sapergeneppuluh) jam. Samenit diwangun ku 60 detik. Menit lain hijian dina sistem internasional (SI), tapi tetep bisa dipaké babarengan jeung hijian SI.
Gunung Inten, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Gunung Inten nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
482 SM
482 SM nyaéta taun ka-482 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Amar Shonar Bangla
Amar Shonar Bangla (আমার সোনার বাংলা, "Bangla Emas Kuring") nyaéta hiji lagu taun 1905 nu ditulis jeung dikarang ku bujangga Benggala, Rabindranath Tagore (panagagem tiori India ngahiji), 10 baris kahijina dipaké saprak 1972 salaku lagu kabangsaan Bangladés.
13 Nopémber
13 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-317 dina sataun (ka-318 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 48 poé.
487 SM
487 SM nyaéta taun ka-487 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Gerak ragrag bébas
Gerak ragrag bébas nyaéta salah sahiji wangun gerak lempeng dina hiji diménsi anu ngan dipangaruhan ku ayana gaya gravitasi. Variasi ti gerak ieu téh gerak ragrag diakselerasi jeung gerak pélor.
Rumus umum
Sacara umum gerak anu ngan dipangaruhan ku gaya gravitasi mibanda wangun:
di mana:
Tapi husus pikeun gerak ragrag bébas diperlukeun sarat tambahan nyaéta:
ku kituna rumusan di luhur jadi
Analogi gerak ragrag bébas
Lamun gerak ragrag bébas nyaéta gerak anu ngan dipangaruhan ku gaya gravitasi, mangka aya gerak séjén anu rumusna mirupa gerak ragrag bébas, contona gerak balukar gaya listrik.
Ku ngamangpaatkeun dua gerak ieu urang bisa ngalakukeun percobaan Millikan pikeun ngukur muatan éléktron kalawan ngagunakeun satétés minyak.
Gunung Manaon, Batang Lubu Sutam, Padang Lawas
Gunung Manaon nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Puteran
Puteran atawa rotasi nyaéta muterna barang dina hiji sumbu anu tetep, contona muterna gasing jeung muterna bumi dina sumbuna. Pikeun bumi, puteran ieu lumangsung dina garis/poros/sumbu kalér-kidul (garis ajeg sarta saeutik doyong ka katuhu). Jadi garis kalér-kidul bumi henteu pahapt-hapit jeung sumbu puteran bumi, kawas anu katémbong dina globe (bal dunya) anu dipaké dina pangajaran élmu bumi/géografi. Laju puteran ieu diukur ku lobana puteran pér hijian waktu. Contona bumi urang ngalakonan 1 puteran pér 24 jam. Pikeun puteran mesin anu muter leuwih gancang ti puteran bumi, urang maké hijian rotasi pér menit (rpm).
Alatan gerak rotasi ieu, mangka barang baris ngalaman gaya séntrifugal, nyaéta wanda gaya dina élmu fisika anu ngabalukarkeun barang kapangpéngkeun ka luar. Hal ieu baris karasa dina waktu urang naék mobil anu ngaliwatan tikungan muter. Dina waktu mobil ieu usik muter kalawan laju nu rada luhur, mangka panumpang dina mobil baris ngarasa kapangpéngkeun ka gigir / sabeulah (ka sisi luar bunderan éta) alatan ayana gaya séntrifugal.
Kitin
Kitin (C8H13O5N)n nyaéta polimér N-asetilglukosamina, hiji turunan glukosa. Ieu biopolimér téh loba dikandung dina pinding sél fungi, éksoskeleton artropoda (sabangsaning keuyeup jeung hurang) jeung serangga (sireum, nyiruan, jeung kukupu, dina radula moluska. Kitin ogé gedé mangpaatnadina widang médis jeung industri. Kitin téh zat biologis nu sarupa jeung polisakarida selulosa jeung protéin keratin. Najan keratin kaasup protéin, lain karbohidrat kawas kitin, ieu dua biomolekul téh mibanda fungsi struktural anu sarupa.
Pasipatan jeung fungsi biologis
Polisakarida kitin dijieun tina unit-unit N-asetilglukosamina (N-asetil-D-glukos-2-amina). Ieu unit ngabentuk beungkeut kovalén β-1,4 (sarupa jeung beungkeut antargugus glukosa nungabentuk selulosa). Kitin bisa digambarkeun salaku selulosa nu hiji gugus hidroksil dina unggal monomérna diganti ku gugus asetil amina. ku sabab di antara polimér-polimérna anu padeukeut bisa ngabentuk beungkeut hidrogén, matriks polimér kitin bisa jadi kuat. <!--In its unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, resilient and quite tough. In arthropods, however, it is often modified, becoming embedded in a hardened proteinaceous matrix, which forms much of the exoskeleton. In its pure form it is leathery, but when encrusted in calcium carbonate it becomes much harder. The difference between the unmodified and modified forms can be seen by comparing the body wall of a caterpillar (unmodified) to a beetle (modified).
Chitin
Chitin is one of many naturally occurring polymers. It is one of the most abundant natural materials in the world. Over time it is bio-degradable in the natural environment. Its breakdown may be catalyzed by enzymes called chitinases, secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, and produced by some plants. Some of these microorganisms have receptors to simple sugars from the decomposition of chitin. If chitin is detected, they then produce enzymes to digest it by cleaving the glycosidic bonds in order to convert it to simple sugars and ammonia.
Chemically, chitin is closely related to chitosan (a more water-soluble derivative of chitin). It is also closely related to cellulose in that it is a long unbranched chain of glucose derivatives. Both materials contribute structure and strength, protecting the organism.
Fossil record
Chitin first appeared in the exoskeletons of Cambrian arthropods, e.g. trilobites. The oldest preserved chitin dates to the Oligocene, about. -->
Perang Kamerdikaan Bangladés
Perang Kamerdikaan Bangladés (মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) nyaéta konflik pakarang dina kira-kira 9 sasih, antawis Pakistan Wétan sareng India ngalawan Pakistan Kulon. Perang ieu ngawitan dina 26 Maret 1971 antara Nagara Pakistan jeung Pakistan Wétan, India milu saprak 3 Désémber 1971. Konfil réngsé dina 16 Désémber 1971, ngahasilkeun misahna Pakistan Wétan, nu jadi nagara merdika Bangladés.
488 SM
488 SM nyaéta taun ka-488 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
489 SM
489 SM nyaéta taun ka-489 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Cibulan
Cibulan nyaéta salah sahiji obyek wisata di Kabupatén Kuningan, ayana di Désa Manis Kidul, Jalaksana.
Batang Bulu Baru, Barumun Selatan, Padang Lawas
Batang Bulu Baru nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Barumun Selatan, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Batang Bulu Lama, Barumun Selatan, Padang Lawas
Batang Bulu Lama nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Barumun Selatan, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Pagur Satio, Barumun Selatan, Padang Lawas
Pagur Satio nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Barumun Selatan, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
491 SM
491 SM nyaéta taun ka-491 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Gunung Intan, Barumun Selatan, Padang Lawas
Gunung Intan nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Barumun Selatan, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
490 SM
490 SM nyaéta taun ka-490 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
16 Nopémber
16 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-320 dina sataun (ka-321 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 45 poé.
492 SM
492 SM nyaéta taun ka-492 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Tanjung Purba Tua, Barumun Selatan, Padang Lawas
Tanjung Purba Tua nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Barumun Selatan, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
494 SM
494 SM nyaéta taun ka-494 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
Sayur Mahincat, Barumun Selatan, Padang Lawas
Sayur Mahincat nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Barumun Selatan, Kabupatén Padang Lawas, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
15 Nopémber
15 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-319 dina sataun (ka-320 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 46 poé.
Nu pupus
1630 – Johannes Kepler, astronom Jérman (l. 1571)
495 SM
495 SM nyaéta taun ka-495 Saméméh Maséhi dina Kalénder Gregorian.
15 Nopémber
Nu pupus
1949 – Narayan Apte, nu maténi Mahatma Gandhi (l. 1911)
1949 – Nathuram Godse, nu maténi Mahatma Gandhi (l. 1910)
17 Nopémber
17 Nopémber nyaéta poé ka-321 dina sataun (ka-322 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 44 poé.
Kelenjar éndokrin
Kelenjar éndokrin nyaéta kelenjar-kelenjar dina sistim éndokrin nu ngaluarkeun hormon langsung kana saluran getih. Kelenjar éndokrin nu utama di antarana baé pituitary gland, pangkréas, ovarium, téstis, kelenjar tiroid, jeung kelenjar adrénal. Organ lian anu teu pati dipikawanoh aktivitas éndokrinna misalna baé usus, nu ngahasilkeun hormon grélin.
Kimia
Tina jihat kimia, hormon lolobana kaasup golongan stéroid atawa diwangun ku asam amino. Hormon mangaruhan kagiatan sél ku cara ngarojong atawa ngahambat prosés sélulér sél tujul/targétna. Minangka jawabanana, sél bisa ngalaman parobahan perméabilitas mémbran, sintésis énzim, aktivasi atawa inhibisi, sékrési, aktivasi gén, jeung mitosis. <!-- Second-messenger mechanisms employing intracellular messengers and transduced by G proteins are a common means by which amino acid–based hormones interact with their target cells. In the cyclic AMP system, the hormone binds to a plasma membrane receptor that couples to a G protein. When the G protein is activated it, in turn, couples to adenylate cyclase, which catalyzes the synthesis of cyclic AMP from ATP. Cyclic AMP initiates reactions that activate protein kinases and other enzymes, leading to cellular response. The PIP-calcium signal mechanism, involving phosphatidyl inositol, is another important second-messenger system. Other second messengers are cyclic GMP and calcium.
Steroid hormones (and thyroid hormone) enter their target cells and effect responses by activating DNA, which initiates messenger RNA formation leading to protein synthesis.
Target Cell Specificity
The ability of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors, within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind.
Hormone receptors are dynamic structures. Changes in number and sensitivity of hormone receptors may occur in response to high or low levels of stimulating hormones.
Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between secretion and degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products are excreted in urine and feces.
Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to hormone.
Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells
Permissiveness is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another hormone.
Synergism occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are amplified.
Control of Hormone Release
Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is important in regulating hormone levels in the blood.
The nervous system, acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override or modulate hormonal effects.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion (anterior pituitary) and a neural portion (posterior pituitary), which is an extension of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary and synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary of storage and later release.
Somatotropic hormone or Growth hormone (GH) is an anabolic hormone that stimulates growth of all body tissues but especially skeletal muscle and bone. It may act directly, or indirectly via insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). GH mobilizes fats, stimulates protein synthesis, and inhibits glucose uptake and metabolism. Secretion is regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH), or somatostatin. Hypersecretion causes gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults; hyposecretion in children causes pituitary dwarfism.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes normal development and activity of the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates its release; negative feedback of thyroid hormone inhibits it.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids. ACTH release is triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and inhibited by rising glucocorticoid levels.