cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Garuda Indonesia
Sajarah
In 2005, Garuda Indonésia carried 8,679,443 passengers, with a load factor of 68.73%.
Tujuan
Garuda Indonésia is a full-service airline, in contrast with the 'no frills' low-cost carrier. The class configuration is divided into first (on Boeing 747-400s), business, and economy class.
It currently operates flights to a total of 45 destinations (21 domestic, 24 international) throughout East and South East Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and the Middle East. Garuda Indonesia also offers flights to 13 other international destinations through code-share agreements with China Airlines, China Southern Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Korean Air, Gulf Air, Qatar Airways, Silkair, Vietnam Airlines, and Philippine Airlines. Taking these routes into account, Garuda Indonesia's route map extends to Western Europe.
A 24-hour call center is available for local customer access. The e-tickets system (paperless or electronic ticket) has been introduced on all domestic flights and flights to Singapore originating in Jakarta. This system computerizes ticketing method, in which a traditional paper ticket is no longer required.
Frequent flyer program
In 2005, Garuda Indonésia relaunched its frequent flyer program called Garuda Frequent Flyer (GFF) with a new look, new benefits, and new services. The new program allows members to éarn miles on domestic and international flights and has four tiers of membership covering Blue, Silver, Gold, and Platinum benefit levels. New services for GFF members include a new website at http://gff.garuda-indonesia.com, including an on-line miléage calculator for éarning and redemption, on-line miléage balance, on-line personal profile management, and downloadable forms.
Nomor penerbangan
The flight numbers of Garuda Indonésia are classified as follows:
Armada
The Garuda Indonésia fleet includes the following aircraft (March 2007) :
Previously operated:
Kacilakaan jeung kajadian
Saatos kacilakaan nu pertama di 1950, Garuda Indonésia tos ngalami 14 kacilakaan fatal sareng 1 pembajakan.
Walanda
Walanda sakapeung disebut minangka Holland. Istilah ieu henteu bener, alatan minangka propinsi Holland Kalér sarta Holland Kidul anu perenahna di bagian kulon ieu saukur dua ti dua belas propinsi anu aya di Walanda.
Ceremé
Ceremé atawa caremay nyaéta ngaran sarupaning tatangkalan anu rasa buahna haseum. Buah anu haseum ieu dipikawanoh ogé kalawan ngaran-ngaran séjén kawas ceremoi (Acéh), chermai (Malaysia), karmay (Ilokano, Filipina), mayom (Thailand) sarta nu séjén-séjén. Dina basa Inggris ieu tangkal dingaranan Otaheite gooseberry, Malay gooseberry jeung sawatara sebutan anu séjén. Ngaran ilmiahna nyaéta Phyllanthus acidus.
Walanda
Walanda mangrupa salah sahiji nagara anu pangmundelna di dunya sarta lolobana taneuhna aya di handapeun beungeut sagara. Walanda ogé kaceluk kalayan galengan cai (dijk), kincir angin, kelom kai, kembang tulip, sarta sipat kabuka (liberal) masarakatna. Sipat kasebut jadi hal anu kaceluk sacara internasional. Walanda ogé jadi tempat kalungguhan Mahkamah Internasional. Amsterdam mangrupa puseur dayeuh Walanda, sarta Den Haag puseur administrasi sarta panyicingan Ratu Walanda. <!-- The Netherlands is a densely populated and geographically low-lying country and is popularly known for its windmills, cheese, clogs (wooden shoes), dikes, tulips, bicycles and social tolerance. Its policies are liberal toward drugs, prostitution, same-sex marriage, abortion and euthanasia.
The Netherlands has an international outlook, and is among others member of the European Union, NATO, OECD and signed the Kyoto protocol. The country is host to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Court and the European Union's criminal intelligence agency (Europol) at The Hague. It is also one of the Benelux nations along with Belgium and Luxembourg.
Sajarah
Under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and king of Spain, the region was part of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some land of France and Germany. 1568 saw the start of the Eighty Years' War between the provinces and Spain. In 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces declared itself independent from Spain, and they formed the Union of Utrecht, which is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. Philip II, the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go that easily and war continued until 1648 when Spain finally recognized Dutch independence.
Républik
After gaining formal independence from the Spanish Empire under King Philip IV of Spain, the Dutch grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers of the 17th century during the period of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. In the so-called Dutch Golden Age, colonies and trading posts were established all over the globe. (See Dutch colonial empire)
Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe it featured the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as such less benign phenomena as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and according to Murray Sayle, the world's first bear raider - Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount.
Karajaan
After briefly being incorporated in the First French Empire under Napoleon, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815, consisting of the present day Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. In addition, the king of the Netherlands became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Belgium rebelled and gained independence in 1830, while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890 as a result of ascendancy laws which prevented Queen Wilhelmina from becoming Grand Duchess.
The Netherlands possessed several colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and Suriname (the latter was traded with the British for New Amsterdam, now known as New York). These 'colonies' were first administered by the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, both collective private enterprises. Three centuries later these companies got into financial trouble and the territories in which they operated were taken over by the Dutch government (in 1815 and 1791 respectively). Only then did they become official colonies.
During the 19th century, the Netherlands was slow to industrialise compared to neighbouring countries, mainly due to its unique infrastructure of waterways and reliance on wind power.
Perang Dunya I & II
The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I and intended to do so in World War II. However, Nazi Jérmanb invaded the Netherlands in 1940 in the Western European campaign of the Second World War. The country was quickly overrun and surrendered on May 14 after the bombing of Rotterdam, although a French force held the province of Zeeland for a short time after Dutch surrender.
During the occupation over 100,000 Dutch Jews were murdered in the Holocaust along with significant numbers of Dutch Roma (Gypsies). Some Dutch e.g. members of Henneicke Column collaborated with Nazi occupiers in hunting down and arresting hiding Jews. Between 8,000 and 9,000 of Dutch Jews were rounded up in this manner and consequently deported to German extermination camps and murdered.
Dutch civilians were often treated brutally. Dutch workers were conscripted for labour in German factories, civilians were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food for German soldiers in the Netherlands and for shipment to Germany. The Allied 21st Army Group was given the task to conduct military operations to liberate The Netherlands after the breakout from Normandy. British, Canadian, Polish and American soldiers fought on Dutch soil beginning in September 1944. A first thrust, Market Garden north from France to Arnhem, failed. Canadian units fighting to liberate the Sheldt estuary fought their way into Holland and liberated most of the countryside, but not the urban areas of Rotterdam and Amsterdam. German forces held out until the German surrender of May 8, 1945. German forces killed Dutch civilians in Amsterdam on the last day of the war. The disrupted transportation system, caused by German destruction of dikes to slow allied advances, and German confiscation of much food and livestock made the winter of 1944-1945 one in which malnutrition and starvation were rife among the Dutch population. The country suffered a similar "severe winter" in 1945-46 because of abnormal cold and the slow reconstruction.
After the war, the Dutch economy prospered by leaving behind an era of neutrality and gaining closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands became a member of the Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) cooperation. Furthermore, the Netherlands was among the twelve founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and among the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve into the European Union.
Naming conventions
Various terms have been used in English to refer to the Netherlands and its inhabitants.
To add yet another layer of confusion, the word Dutch formerly meant 'from the people' (Diets), the same as German (Deutsch) in English usage, since in the early Middle Ages there was no real distinction between the Dutch and the Germans. This should be borne in mind when reading very old literature, and also accounts for the name Pennsylvania Dutch, whose ancestral origins lie in Southern Germany and not the Netherlands. The term 'Low Countries' is sometimes used to refer to the Netherlands, but historically it refers (as does the word Netherlands) to a bigger region in western Europe, including Belgium, Luxembourg, and a part of France, all being part of the original Netherlands. It is simply the English usage for the old Dutch name Nederlanden (now Nederland). In the early Middle Ages it was considered part of the German geographical area (this is why the German Deutsch was used by the English to describe the Netherlands, becoming the English word Dutch), known as Low Germany because of its low topography, and this simply became Low Countries as the identity of the Netherlands as a separate national entity developed.
Instead of the word Dutch the word Netherlands can be used as an adjective (e.g. the Netherlands government). Alternatively, the terms Netherlandish and Netherlandic are both used sometimes.
Pulitik
The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815 and a parliamentary democracy since 1848; before that it had been a republic from 1581 to 1806 and a kingdom between 1806 and 1810 (it was part of France between 1810 and 1813). The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterized by a common strife for broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole.
The head of state is the monarch, at present Queen Beatrix. Constitutionally the monarch still has considerable powers, but in practice it has become a ceremonial function. The monarch can exert most influence during the formation of a new cabinet, where he/she serves as neutral arbiter between the political parties.
In practice the executive power is formed by Dutch cabinet. Because of the multi-party system no party has ever held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, therefore cabinets have to be formed. The cabinet consists of around thirteen ministers of which between one and three ministers without portfolio, and as many state secretaries. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who is conventionally the leader of the largest party in the coalition. He is a primus inter pares.
The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States-General which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the Second Chamber, the Lower House are elected in direct elections, which are held every four years or after a cabinet crisis. The provincial assemblies are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the First Chamber, the Upper House, which has less legislative powers, as it can merely reject laws, not propose or amend them.
Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with government the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.
While historically the Dutch foreign policy was characterized by neutrality, since the Second World War the Netherlands became a member of a large number of international organisations. Most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies on international trade.
The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism and Judaism were tolerated. In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarization, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance is linked to the Dutch policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, same-sex marriage and euthanasia, which are among the most liberal in the world.
Since suffrage became universal in 1919 the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest family were the Christian democrats currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), second were the social democrats, of which the Labour Party (PvdA) is currently the largest party and third were the liberals of which the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative. These cooperated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian democrats had always been partner: so either a centre left coalition of the Christian democrats and social democrats or a centre right coalition of Christian democrats and liberals. In the 1970s the party system became more volatile: the Christian democratic parties lost seats, while new parties, like the radical democrat and progressive liberal D66, became successful.
In the 1994 election the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66 and PvdA. In 2002 elections this cabinet lost its majority, due to the rise of LPF, a new political party around the flamboyant populist Pim Fortuyn, who was shot to death a week before the elections took place. The elections also saw increased support for the CDA. A short lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD and LPF, led by the leader of the Christian democrats, Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections in which the LPF lost almost all its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, the VVD and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious program of reforming the welfare state, the health care system and immigration policies.
In June 2006 the cabinet fell, as D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against minister of immigration and integration Rita Verdonk in the aftermath of the upheaval about the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali instigated by the Dutch immigration minister Verdonk. A care taker cabinet was formed by CDA and VVD, and the general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections the Christian Democratic Appeal remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet started two days after the elections. Initial investigations toward a CDA-SP-PvdA coalition failed, after which negotiations between the CDA, PvdA and ChristianUnion started.
The results of the elections were:
Administrative divisions
The Netherlands is divided into twelve administrative regions, called provinces, each under a Governor, who is called Commissaris der Koningin (Commissioner of the Queen), except for the province Limburg where the commissioner is called Gouverneur (Governor) which underlines the more "non-Dutch" mentality.
All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), 458 in total (1 January 2006).
Ceremé
Gambaran
Tangkal leutik kalayan jangkungna nepi ka 9 m, boga dahan nu pondok sarta renggang.
Walanda
Below sea level
About half of its surface area is less than 1 metre (3.3 ft) above sea level, and much of it is actually below sea level.--><!-- An extensive range of dykes and dunes protects these areas from flooding. Numerous massive pumping stations keep the ground water level in check. The highest point, the Vaalserberg, in the south-eastern most point of the country, is 322.7 metres (1,053 ft) above sea level. The Vaalserberg is a foothill of the Ardennes mountains. A substantial part of the Netherlands, for example, all of the province of Flevoland (contains the largest man-made island in the world) and large parts of Holland, have been reclaimed from the sea. These areas are known as polders. This not only explains why The Netherlands is called "A land won from the sea" but has also led to the famous Dutch saying "God created the world, but the Dutch created the Netherlands".
Ceremé
Mangpaat
Buah ceremé mindeng didahar atah dicampur gula, uyah atawa dirujak. Ceremé ogé mindeng dijieun manisan, dikulub atawa dijieun inuman panyeger. Daun ngorana dipaké lalab.
Walanda
Banjir
In years past, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of human intervention and natural disasters. Most notable in terms of land loss are the 1134 storm, which created the archipelago of Zeeland in the south west, and the 1287 storm, which killed 50,000 people and created the Zuiderzee (now dammed in and renamed the IJsselmeer — see below) in the northwest, giving Amsterdam direct access to the sea. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 square kilometres (28 sq mi) Biesbosch tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The most recent parts of Zeeland were flooded during the North Sea Flood of 1953 and 1,836 people were killed, after which the Delta Plan was executed.
The disasters were partially man-made; the people drained relatively high lying swampland for use as farmland. This drainage caused the fertile peat to compress and the ground level to drop, locking the land users in a vicious circle whereby they would lower the water level to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to compress even more. The vicious circle is unsolvable and remains to this day. Up until the 19th century peat was dug up, dried, and used for fuel, further adding to the problem.
To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called "waterschappen" (English "water bodies") or "hoogheemraadschappen" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods. (The water bodies are still around today performing the same function.) As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. In the 13th century, windmills came into use to pump water out of the areas by now below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders. In 1932, the Afsluitdijk (English "Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) off from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 1,650 square kilometres (637 sq mi) were reclaimed from the sea.
Delta Works
After the 1953 disaster, the Delta project, a vast construction effort designed to end the threat from the sea once and for all, was launched in 1958 and largely completed in 2002. The official goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in the Zeeland to once per 10,000 years. (For the rest of the country, the protection-level is once per 4,000 years.) This was achieved by raising 3,000 kilometres (1,864 mi) of outer sea-dikes and 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) of inner, canal, and river dikes to "delta" height, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is one of the largest construction efforts in human history and is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.
Ceremé
Mangpaat
Kuluban akar ceremé dipaké pikeun ngurangan kasakit bengék sarta ngubaran panyakit kulit. Bahan panyamak ogé dihasilkeun tina kulit akarna.
Tangkal ceremé mindeng dipelak minangka pangiuhan atawa hiasan pakarangan jeung taman. Tangkal ieu bisa tumuwuh di wewengkon tropis sarta subtropis, mikaresep tempat anu beueus nepi ka luhurna kira 1.000 m luhur beungeut laut. Ceremé bisa dibudidayakeun ngaliwatan melak siki atawa cara sték.
Sumebarna
Ceremé dianggab asalna ti Madagaskar. Kiwari ceremé geus sumebar ka réa wewengkon tropis kawas di Asia Tenggara (Viétnam kidul, Laos, Indonésia sarta Malaysia bagian kalér), kapuloan-kapuloan Mauritius, Reunion sarta Rodrigues di Samudra India, sarta di Guam, Hawaii jeung sawatara kapuloan séjén di Samudra Pasifik.
Dina taun 1793, pepelakan ieu dibawa ka Jamaika ti Timor; sarta saprak harita sumebar ka sakumna kapuloan Karibia, dituluykeun saterusna ka Amérika Tengah sarta Kidul.
Tangkal nu sadulur
Ceremé dulur deukeut tangkal malaka (Phyllanthus emblica) sarta meniran (P. niruri); duanana nyaéta tutuwuhan anu dijieun ubar.
Walanda
Delta Works
Because of the high cost of maintaining the polders some have argued that maybe some of the deepest polders should be given up. Additionally, the Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climatic change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but also erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.
Rivers
The country is divided into two main parts by three rivers Rhine (Rijn), Waal, and Meuse (Maas). These rivers not only function as a natural barrier, but also as a cultural divide, as is evident in the different dialects spoken north and south of these "Large Rivers" (de Grote Rivieren) and the (former) religious dominance of Catholics in the south and Calvinists in the north. The south-western part of the Netherlands is actually one river delta of these rivers and two arms of the Scheldt (Westerschelde & Oosterschelde).
The predominant wind direction in the Netherlands is south-west, which causes a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters.
Economy
The Netherlands has a prosperous and open economy in which the government has reduced its role since the 1980s. Industrial activity is predominantly in food-processing (for example Unilever and Heineken), chemicals (for example DSM), petroleum refining (for example Royal Dutch Shell), and electrical machinery (for example Philips). Slochteren has one of the largest natural gas fields in the world, which has so far (2006) resulted in a total revenue of €159 billion since the mid 1970s. With just over half of the reserves used up and an expected continued rise in oil prices, the revenues over the next few decades are expected to be at least that much.
Third in worldwide agricultural exports
As a founding member of the Euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the Guilder, on January 1, 1999, along with the other adopters of the single European currency. Actual Euro coins and banknotes followed on January 1, 2002. In the first years of the third millennium, economic and employment growth came to a standstill, which the government tried to resolve by reducing expenses.
16th largest economy
At this moment the Netherlands is the 16th largest economy of the world, and 10th on the list of GDP (nominal) per capita. (see: List of countries by GDP (nominal), and List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita)Between 1998 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably in 2001-05 as part of the global economic slowdown, but the first quarter of 2006 showed promising growth of 2.6%. Inflation is 1.3% and is expected to stay low at around 1.5% in the coming years. The CBS however has claimed the inflation is at 0.9%, the lowest since 1989. According to the definition used by the Dutch Statistics Agency CBS, unemployment is at 5.5% of the labour force By Eurostat standards however, unemployment in the Netherlands is at only 3.8% - the lowest rate of all European Union member states (figures: June 2006). The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326.
Demographics
The population of the Netherlands is physically the tallest in the world, with an average height of 1.83 m (6 ft) for adult males and 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in) for adult females. The reasons for the increase in height are uncertain (CBS 2006).
Variety
According to CBS Statline, the official statistics bureau of the Netherlands, the ethnic origins of the citizens are very diverse. The vast majority of the population however still remains Dutch. They were: 80.8% Dutch, 2.4% German, 2.4% Indonesian (Indo-European, Indo-Dutch, Moluccan), 2.2% Turks, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 1.5% Indian, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 6.0% other. However, this does not include the whole Kingdom of the Netherlands (such as the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, which have a non-Dutch majority community), and only includes the population in the Netherlands itself. The Netherlands also has a resident population of some 200,000 people of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent (Indonesia being a former colony of the Netherlands).
Major cities
There are no cities with a population over 1 million in the Netherlands, but the four cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht can in many ways be regarded as a single 'big city' conurbation, the Randstad ('rim or edge city') with about 7 million inhabitants and an agricultural 'green heart' (het Groene Hart). The unity of this conurbation can be illustrated by the current idea effort to create a circular train system connecting the four cities.
The 5 largest cities are, in order of descending population:
Only Eindhoven is not located in the Randstad.
Languages
The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by a large majority of the inhabitants, the exception being some groups of immigrants.
There is a tradition of learning foreign languages in the Netherlands: about 85% of the total population has basic knowledge of English, 55–60% of German and 25% of French. Courses in Spanish, Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Latin are offered in schools as well.
Culture
The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. The 17th century, when the Dutch republic was prosperous, was the age of the "Dutch Masters" such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondriaan. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphics artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Han van Meegeren was an infamous Dutch art forger.
The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus of Rotterdam and Spinoza, and all of Descartes' major work was done there. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan and invented the pendulum clock.
In the Dutch Golden Age, literature flowered as well, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the bad treatment of the natives in Dutch colonies. Important 20th century authors include Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard van het Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's Diary of a Young Girl was published after she died in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.
Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China.
Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, and Delftware pottery are among the items associated with the Netherlands.
Miscellaneous topics
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Sadéwa
Sadéwa atawa Sahadéwa (basa Sansakerta: सहदेव, sahadéva), nyaéta saurang protagonis dina wiracarita Mahabarata. Manéhna nyaéta salah saurang Pandawa, ngan béda jeung Yudistira, Bima, sarta Arjuna manéhna mah nyaéta anakna Déwi Madrim, adina Déwi Kunti. Manéhna nyaéta baraya kembarna Nakula.
Sadéwa pinter dina élmu astronomi beunang bingbingan resi Drona. Sajaba ti eta, manéhna ogé réa pangartina dina hal ngangon sapi. Ku alatan éta manéhna bisa nyamur jadi pangangon waktu di nagri Wirata anu dicaritakeun dina Wirataparwa. Salila nyamur di Karajaan Matsya anu dipingpin ku Raja Wirata, Sadéwa tanggung jawab ngarawat sapi sarta sumpah baris maéhan Raja Gandara, Sangkuni, anu geus ngakaya Sadéwa jeung kulawarga Pandawa séjénna sapanjang hirup. Manéhna hasil nyumponan sumpahna pikeun maéhan Sangkuni dua poé saacan perang Baratayuda lekasan.
Kapribadian
Di antara lima Pandawa, Sadéwa anu paling ngora. Cacak kitu, manéhna dianggap salaku nu paling wijaksana di antara maranéhanana. Yudistira malah nyarita yén manéhna leuwih bijak batan Brihaspati, guru para déwa.
Sadéwa nyaéta saurang ahli béntang anu hébat sarta dianggap nyaho kajadian anu baris lumangsung dina Mahabarata tapi manéhna disupata yén lamun manéhna ngabébérkeun naon anu dipikanyahona, sirahna baris beulah. Mangka ti éta, manéhna condong cicingeun dibandingkeun jeung barayana anu séjén.
Jiga Nakula (lanceukna), Sadéwa ogé satria ahli pedang anu hebét. Manéhna ogé ngadahup ka puteri Jarasanda, Raja di Magada.
Turunan
Sakumna Pandawa babarengan ngadahup ka Drupadi, sarta Dropadi méré saurang anak ka masing-masing Pandawa. Tina hasil hubunganana jeung Drupadi, Sadéwa mibanda anak nu ngaranna Srutakama.
Sajaba ti éta, Sadewa mibanda anak nu ngaranna Suhotra ti pamajikan nu lian nyaéta Wijaya.
1906
Taun ka-1906 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
1905
Taun ka-1905 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
560-an SM
560-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 569 SM nepi ka taun 560 SM.
Nakula
Nakula (basa Sansakerta: नकुल, Nakula), nyaéta saurang inohong protagonis dina wiracarita Mahabarata. Manéhna téh anakna Déwi Madrim, lanceuk ipar Déwi Kunti. Manéhna sakembaran jeung Sadéwa.
Nurutkeun buku Mahabarata, Nakula kacida kasépna sarta pohara éndah mameunteuna. Nurutkeun Drupadi, Nakula mangrupa salaki anu pangkasépna di dunya. Tapi, sipat goréng Nakula nyaéta sok agul ku kakasépna. Hal éta dicaritakeun ku Yudistira dina buku Prastanikaparwa.
Harti ngaran
Sacara harfiah, kecap nakula dina basa Sansakerta ngarujuk kana rupa Ichneumon, sarupaning beurit atawa sato pangeureut ti Mesir. Nakula ogé bisa boga harti "cerpelai", atawa bisa ogé "beurit benggala".
Nakula dina Mahabarata
Nurutkeun Mahabarata, sakembar Nakula jeung Sadéwa mibanda pangabisa istiméwa dina ngarawat kuda jeung sapi. Nakula digambarkeun salaku jelema anu pohara ngahibur haté. Manéhna ogé tarapti dina ngajalankeun pancénna sarta sok niténan kabangor lanceukna, Bima. Nakula ogé mibanda kamahéran dina maénkeun pakarang pedang.
Sabot para Pandawa kudu ngajalanan mangsa nyamur di Karajaan Wirata, Nakula nyamur jadi juru rawat kuda kalawan ngaran samaran "Grantika". Nakula milu perang di Kurusétra, sarta meunangkeun perang rongkah kasebut.
Nakula dina pawayangan Sunda jeung Jawa
Nakula dina padalangan Sunda jeung Jawa disebut ogé Pinten (ngaran tutuwuhan anu daunna bisa dipaké ubar). Manéhna mangrupa anak kaopat Prabu Pandu Déwanata, raja nagara Astinapura ti Déwi Madrim, puteri Prabu Mandrapati jeung Déwi Téjawati, ti nagara Mandaraka. Manéhna lahir kembar jeung adina, Sadéwa. Nakula ogé boga tilu baraya sabapa, nyaéta Yudistira, Bima sarta Arjuna
Nakula mahér numpak kuda sarta pinter ngagunakeun pakarang panah jeung lembing. Nakula moal bisa poho ngeunaan sagala hal anu dipikanyaho ku manéhna alatan boga Aji Pranawajati paméré Ditya Sapujagad, sénapati nagara Amertani.
Nakula miboga watek jujur, satia, taat, welas asih, nyaho ngabales budi sarta bisa nyimpen rusiah. Manéhna dumuk di kasatriaan Sawojajar, wewengkon nagara Amarta. Nakula miboga dua urang pamajikan nyaéta:
Sanggeus réngsé perang Baratayuda, Nakula diangkat jadi raja nagara Mandaraka luyu jeung amanat Prabu Salya lanceuk indungna, Déwi Madrim.
Gelombang pamawa
Gelombang pamawa (Basa Indonésia: gelombang pembawa, carrier wave, draaggolf) nyaéta wangun gelombang (biasana sinusoida) anu dimodifikasi (ditumpangan sinyal informasi) pikeun ngawakilan informasi anu dianteurkeun. Gelombang pamawa ieu biasana miboga frékuénsi anu jauh leuwih luhur (gancang) batan sinyal anu ngandung informasina.
Pikeun pengiriman isarat sora (voice), aya dua wanda modulasi anu ilhar dipaké nyaéta modulasi frékuénsi atawa Frequency Modulation (FM) sarta modulasi amplitudo atawa amplitude modulation (AM). Sora dina FM atawa AM dikirimkeun kalayan bantuan gelombang pamawa. Pangiriman isarat gambar (image) ngagunakeun modulasi Vestigial-sideband modulation (VSB) anu mangrupa varian ti Single-sideband modulation (SSB). Modulasi SSB réa dipaké dina komunkasi handy talky.
Sanggeus gelombang pamawa dimodulasi (ditumpangan) ku isarat, mangka baris lumangsung dibangkitkeeun frékuénsi harmonik (harmonic frequency) anu lega. Harti lega di dieu nyaéta réa. Dina modulasi VSB sarta modulasi SSB, lolobana frékuénsi gelombang pamawa ditambah frékuénsi harmonikna sarta disaring atawa ditapis pikeun ngahémat rubakpita (bandwidth).
Frékuénsi hiji setasiun radio, contona radio SUARA METRO Jakarta nu boga frékuénsi 107,8 MHz, sabenerna mah mangrupa frékuénsi ti gelombang pamawa anu dipaké. Gelombang pamawa ieu henteu meunang sambarangan, tapi kudu meunang idin ti regulator télékomunikasi di Indonésia, dina ha lieu Direktorat Jenderal Pos dan Telekomunikasi.
Sawatara padika komunikasi radio panganyarna henteu deui ngagunakeun gelombang pamawa nu katara, contona dina padika spektrum sumebar (spread spectrum) sarta pita ultra-rubak (ultra wide band) jeung COFDM. Anu pamungkas ieu dipaké pikeun pangiriman siaran televisi HDTV.
Tumbu kaluar
Carrier Wave ti Texas University
1904
Taun ka-1904 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Universitas Indonésia
Universitas Indonésia atawa mindeng disingkat UI nyaéta salah sahiji paguron luhur nagri di Indonésia anu mangrupa universitas pangkolotna di Indonésia, sarta resmi diadegkeun dina taun 1946 kalawan ngaran "Universiteit van Indonesië".
Dina tanggal 26 Désémber 2000, pamaréntah Républik Indonésia ngesahkeun status otonomi UI dumasar kana PP No. 152. Kiwari, UI keur aya dina mangsa transisi nuju ka universitas nagri anu otonom.
Universitas Indonésia dipingpin ku saurang Réktor. Réktor UI saprak 17 Méi 2013 nyaéta Prof. Dr. Ir. Muhammad Anis, M. Met..
Jaman Pendudukan Belanda (1849-1946)
Pamaréntah Kolonial Belanda dina taun 1849 ngawangun hiji sakola luhur élmu kasehatan. Dina Januari 1851 éta sakola sacara resmi dingaranan Dokter-Djawa School. Sakola luhur ieu ngahususkeun diri dina élmu kadokteran, benerna atikan tanagi mantri. Sanggeus kungsi ngalaman parobahan ngaran di ahir abad ka-19, tepatna dina taun 1898, ngaran institusi Dokter-Djawa School robah jadi School tot Opleiding van Indische Artsen (School of Medicine for Indigenous Doctors) atawa dipikawanoh ogé minangka STOVIA. Salila 75 taun, STOVIA boga pungsi minangka tempat atikan anu nyongcolang pikeun calon dokter di Indonesia, saacan ditutup dina 1927. Nanging kitu, hiji Sakola Kedokteran saterusna diwangun sareng kalawan opat sakola luhur sanes di sababaraha dayeuh di Jawa. Sakola luhur kasebat nyaeta Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng (Fakultas Teknik) anu tangtung di Bandung dina 1920, Recht Hoogeschool (Fakultas Hukum) di Batavia dina 1924, Faculteit der Letteren en Wijsbegeerte (Fakultas Sastra sarta Kamanusaan) di Batavia dina 1940, sarta sataun saterusna diwangun Faculteit van Landbouwweteschap (Fakultas Tatanen) di Bogor. Lima sakola luhur kasebat mangrupa pilar dina nyiptakeun the Nood-universiteit (Universitas Darurat), anu diwangun dina warsih 1946.
Sajarah Universitas Indonésia bisa disusud saprak taun 1851. Mangsa harita, pamaréntah kolonial Walanda ngadegkeun hiji sakola anu boga tujuan pikeun ngahasilkeun asisten dokter tambahan. Murid di sakola ieu meunangkeun palatihan kadokteran salila dua taun. Lulusanana dibéré sértipikat pikeun ngalakonan perawatan tingkat dasar sarta meunangkeun gelar Dokter Jawa (Javanese Doctor), boga gelar kitu alatan dokter ieu ngan dibéré idin pikeun muka prakték di wewengkon Hindia Walanda, utamana di pulo Jawa. Dina taun 1864, program atikan kasebut ditambah waktuna jadi tilu taun, sarta dina taun 1875 jadi 7 taun. Gelar anu dibikeun ogé robah jadi Dokter Médis (Medical Doctor)
Dina taun 1898, pamaréntah kolonial ngadegkeun sakola anyar pikeun ngalatih tanaga médis, nyaéta STOVIA (School tot Opleiding von Indische Artsen). Atikan di STOVIA lumangsung salila 9 taun: 3 taun satingkat SMP, tilu taun satingkat SMA, sarta tilu taun séjénna satingkat Diploma. Réa lulusan STOVIA anu saterusna boga andil penting dina pergerakan kamerdikaan Indonésia.
Dina taun 1924 pamaréntah kolonial ngadegkeun RHS (Rechts Hogeschool) anu boga tujuan pikeun nyumponan tanaga administrasi sipil tingkat rendahan. RHS ieu pisan anu jadi cikal-bakal Fakultas Hukum UI. Dina taun 1927 pamaréntahan kolonial ngarobah status sarta ngaran STOVIA jadi GHS (Geneeskundige Hogeschool). Gedong atikan sarta palatihan kadokteran anu dipaké GHS jadi gedong Fakultas Kedokteran UI ayeuna. Réa alumni GHS anu saterusna boga andil gedé dina ngadegkeun Universitas Indonésia.
Jaman Kamerdikaan (1947-1960an)
Sanggeus kamerdikaan Indonésia dideklarasikan dina tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, Badan Pendidikan Tinggi Indonésia (BPTRI) diadegkeun di Jakarta. BPTRI ngabogaan tilu fakultas, nyaéta Kadokteran jeung Farmasi, Sastra, sarta Hukum. Dina taun anu sarua, institusi ieu hasil ngaluluskeun 90 jelema salaku dokter. Sabot soldadu kolonial Walanda ngawasa Jakarta dina tungtung taun 1945, BPTRI dipindahkan ka Klatén, Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, sarta Malang. Dina tanggal 21 Juni 1946 NICA ngadegkeun hiji Nood Universiteit atawa Universitas Samentara di Jakarta. Dina tanggal 21 Maret 1947, ngaran Nood Universiteit diganti jadi Universiteit van Indonesie (UVI). Ahirna, sanggeus Jakarta hasil direbut deui, pamaréntah mulangkeun BPTRI ka Jakarta sarta ngagabungkeunana jeung Universiteit van Indonesie, sarta dibéré ngaran anyar Universiteit Indonésia (UI).
UI sacara resmi mitembeyan kagiatanana dina ping 2 Pebruari 1950 kalawan présidén (ayeuna disebut réktor) kahijina nyaéta Ir. R.P Soerachman Tjokroadisoerio. Kantor Présidén Universiteit Indonésia awal mulana dumuk di Jakarta, persisina di gedong Fakultas Kedokteran di Jl. Salemba Raya no. 6, satuluyna dipindahkeun ka salah sahiji wangunan urut pabrik madat di Jl. Samlemba Raya no. 4, Jakarta. Tanggal 2 Pebruari 1950 saterusna dijadikeun poé kalahiran Universitas Indonésia.
Mimitina, UI ngabogaan 9 fakultas sarta 3 lembaga anu sumebar di lima dayeuh, nyaéta Fakulteit Kedokteran, Fakulteit Ilmu Hukum dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Masyarakat, sarta Fakulteit Sastra dan Filsafat di Jakarta; Fakulteit Ilmu Alam dan Ilmu Pasti, Fakulteit Ilmu Pengetahuan téhnik, jeung Lembaga Pendidikan Guru Menggambar di Bandung; Fakulteit Pertanian jeung Fakulteit Kedokteran Hewan di Bogor; Fakulteit Ekonomi di Makassar; Fakulteit Kedokteran jeung Lembaga Kedokteran Gigi di Surabaya.
Dina taun 1955, Undang-undang No. 10 ngeunaan pengobahan kecap universiteit, universitet, jeung universitit disahkeun, ku kituna saprak harita Universiteit Indonésia sacara resmi dirobah ngaranna jadi Universitas Indonésia.
Lambat laun fakultas-fakultas anu aya di daérah misahkeun diri nyieun lambaga atikan anu mandiri. Dina tanggal 2 Maret 1959 Fakultas téhnik jeung Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam di Bandung kabentuk sarta mekar jadi Institut Teknologi Bandung. Satuluyna dina tanggal 1 Séptémber 1963 Fakultas Pertanian sarta Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan UI misahkeun diri ogé jadi Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) anu kiwari jadi paguron luhur widang tatanén nu kasohor dina dunya internasional. Fakultas di Surabaya jadi Universitas Airlangga sarta nu di Makassar jadi Universitas Hasanuddin. Dina taun 1964 Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan jadi Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan (IKIP) Jakarta sarta kiwari robah jadi Universitas Negeri Jakarta.
Sabot Orde Baru dimimitian dina taun 1966, pamaréntah nunjuk sawatara guru besar UI pikeun nyicingan kalungguhan menteri kalayan tujuan pikeun nyéhatkeun deui kaayaan ékonomi nasional. Saprak harita, UI sacara konstan geus méré kontribusi nu nyata dina usaha-usaha pamaréntah pikeun ngahontal kamakmuran nasional.
Jaman Modern (1970an-ayeuna)
Saacan kampus Universitas Indonésia di Dépok diwangun dina 1987, Universitas Indonesia ngabogaan tilu lokasi kampus nyaéta di Salémba, Pegangsaan Timur sarta Rawamangun. Sanggeus kampus anyar didirikeun di lahan salega 320 hektar di Dépok, kampus Rawamangun anu ngawengku sababaraha fakultas dipindah, samentara kampus Salemba dipertahankan kénéh jang Fakultas Kedokteran, Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi sarta Program Pascasarjana. Henteu lila sanggeus warsih 2000, Universitas Indonésia robah kaayaan hiji ti sababaraha universitas anu boga status Badan Hukum Milik Nagara di Indonésia. Parobahan status ieu ngabantun parobahan anu signipikan jang Universitas Indonesia jadi boga otonomi anu leuwih gedé dina pengembangan akademis sarta pengelolaan pinansial.
Dina tanggal 26 Désémber 2000 ngaliwatan Aturan Pamaréntah RI Nomer 152 taun 2000, UI ditetepkeun salaku paguron luhur nagri mandiri nu boga status Badan Hukum Milik Negara (BHMN). Dina status kasebut, UI wajib leuwih ngahareupkeun unjuk gawé dina ngokolakeun hiji universitas publik kalawan prinsip-prinsip éfisiensi, éféktivitas, akuntabilitas, sarta transparansi. Dina éra réformasi, pamaréntah meunteun Universitas Indonésia atos ngabogaan pangabisa pengelolaan anu mahi keur meunang kamandirian, otonomi, sarta tanggel walon anu langkung ageung dina berperan minangka kakiatan moral anu ngarojong pangwangunan nasional. Dumasar perkawis kasebat mangka pamarentah medar PP No.152/2000 anu netepkeun Universitas Indonésia minangka Badan Hukum Milik Nagara (BHMN). Dina mangsa palaksanaan Universitas Indonésia minangka BHMN, pamaréntah kaluron sababaraha kawijakan peryogi sepertos UU No.20/2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional sarta PP No.19/2005 Standar Nasional Pendidikan anu jero sababaraha aspek tétéla tacan sapinuhna ngarojong kelancaran penyelenggaraan Universitas Indonésia minangka BHMN.
Dina sapuluh warsih pamungkas, dinamika hal mekar internal sarta éksternal anu melingkupi Universitas Indonésia karasaeun pisan pangaruhna ka pasang surut kaayaan Universitas Indonésia. di antarana nyaéta, disahkeun na ku pamaréntah UU No.12/2012 ngeunaan Pendidikan Tinggi anu saterusna barobah kaayaan naungan kanggo status hukum UI. Nurutkeun UU kasebat, Perguruan Tinggi BHMN sarta Pendidikan Tingg BHMN anu geus robah kaayaan ku Perguruan Tinggi anu diayakeun ku Pamarentah kalawan pola pengelolaan finansial Badan Layanan Umum, ditetepkeun minangka Perguruan Tinggi Badan Hukum (PTN-BH). Pelaksaaan UU kasebat, hususna pasal 66 ayat (2), nganteurkeun ka ditetepkeun na ku pamaréntah PP No.68/2013 ngeunaan Statuta Universitas Indonésia (Statuta UI).
Universitas Indonésia diwangun ti 13 Fakultas, Program Pascasarjana sarta Program Vokasi. Katilu welas fakultas kasebat nyaeta Fakultas Kedokteran, Kedokteran Gigi, Ilmu Keperawatan, Farmasi, Matématika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Teknik, Psikologi, Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Hukum, Ekonomi, Keséhatan Masyarakat, Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya, Ilmu Komputer. Program Studi anu aya di UI ayeuna berjumlah 291 program studi, kalawan jumlah mahasiswa saloba 47.166 jalmi sarta 309 jalmi mahasiswa sejen anu dina program kasebat boga gelar atawa non-gelar.
Salémba
Kampus Salémba perenahna di wewengkon Salémba, Jakarta Pusat Péta Kampus Salémba bisa ditempo di dieu .. Fakultas anu aya di kampus ieu téh Fakultas Kadokteran, Kadokteran Huntu, sarta sawatara program pascasarjana, program Éksténsi sarta Magister Manajemén Fakultas Ékonomi, sarta laboratorium Fakultas Téknik.
Dépok
Kampus Depok, perenahna di Dépok, Jawa Kulon Péta Kampus Dépok bisa ditempo di dieu ., diwangun dina pertengahan taun 1980-an pikeun nampung modérnisasi universitas. Ayeuna, Kampus Dépok mangrupa kampus utama Universitas Indonésia. lolobana fakultas di UI (MIPA, Téknik, Psikologi, Hukum, Ékonomi, Élmu Sosial sarta Élmu Pulitik, Élmu Komputer, Kaséhatan Masarakat, Élmu Kaperawatan) aya di dieu. Kampus Dépok diliwatan ku rél karéta Jakarta-Bogor ku kituna mahasiswa meunangkeun kamudah dina hal angkutan.
Pabukon Pusat Universitas ogé perenahna di dieu. Sajaba ti éta aya ogé sagala rupa fasilitas séjén kawas Puseur Administrasi Universitas, Puseur Kagiatan Mahasiswa, gimnasium, stadion, lapang hoki, pamondokan (Wisma Makara), agén perjalanan Makara Tour & Travel, sarta asrama.
Lambang
Lambang Universitas Indonésia diwangun ku dua unsur, nyaéta tangkal jeung rangrang, sarta makara. Ideu dasar wangun lambang Universitas Indonésia nyaéta kala-makara. Kala nyaéta kakuatan ti luhur (Panonpoé), samentara makara nyaéta kakuatan ti handap (Bumi). Dua kakuatan éta saterusna digalokeun sarta distilir ku Sumaxtono nu ngaran aslina nyaéta Sumartono, mahasiswa Angkatan 1951 Seni Rupa Fakulteit téhnik Universiteit Indonésia, jadi makara anu ngalambangkeun Universitas Indonésia anu élmu sarta karyana sumebar ka sagala juru. Harti lambang Universitas Indonésia nyaéta kieu:
Rarancang desain katut hartina dipintonkeun ku Sumaxtono ka Srihadi (mahasiswa Seni Rupa FT-UI, Bandung Angkatan 1952) dina taun 1952. Tapi, henteu dipikanyaho iraha sarta saha anu ngesahkeun lambang UI kasebut.
570-an SM
570-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 579 SM nepi ka taun 570 SM.