cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Ramat lancah
How spiders make webs
After the radials are complete the spider will fortify the center of the web with about five circular threads. Then a spiral of non-sticky, evenly spaced, circular threads are made for the spider to easily move around its own web during construction. The spider then, beginning from the outside in, will methodically create the adhesive spiral threads. It will utilize the initial radiating lines as well as the non-sticky spirals as guide lines. The spaces between each spiral will be directly proportional to the distance from the tip of its back legs to its spinners. This is one way the spider will use its own body as a measuring/spacing device. While the sticky spirals are formed the non-adhesive spirals are removed as there is no need for them anymore.
Malaysia Airlines
Malaysia Airlines (Disingket: MAS ; basa Malayu: Penerbangan Malaysia) nyaéta parusahaan penerbangan nasional Malaysia, nu ngalayanan tujuan internasional jeung domestik. MAS mangrupa salah sahiji tina opat parusahaan penerbangan nu meunang bentang-5 ti Skytrax.
Ramat lancah
How spiders make webs
After the spider has completed its web it will chew off the initial three center spiral threads then sit and wait. If the web is broken without any structural damage during the construction the spider does not make any initial attempts to rectify the problem.
Malaysia Airlines
Sajarah
Artikel utama: Sajarah Malaysia Airlines
Ramat lancah
How spiders make webs
Webs allow a spider to catch prey without having to expend energy by running it down. Thus it is an efficient method of gathering food. However, constructing the web is in itself an energetically costly process due to the large amount of protein required, in the form of silk. In addition, after a time the silk will lose its stickiness and thus become inefficient at capturing prey. It is not uncommon for spiders to eat their own web daily to recoup some of the energy used in spinning. The silk proteins are thus 'recycled'.
Malaysia Airlines
Info pausahaan
Malaysia Airlines is listed on the stock exchange of Bursa Malaysia under the name Malaysian Airline System Berhad. Its parent company is Penerbangan Malaysia Berhad. The airline has suffered high losses over the yéars as a result of fuel price incréases and poor management. The Government of Malaysia overhauled the operations of the airline and Idris Jala was appointed as the new Céo in 1 December 2005. Under his léadership, Malaysia Airlines unveiled its Business Turnaround Plan (BTP) in February 2006 which highlighted low yield, an inefficient network and low productivity (overstaffing). The airline héadquarters building in downtown Kuala Lumpur has been sold. The new corporate héadquarters is now at Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport in Subang.
Ramat lancah
How spiders make webs
The tensile strength of spider silk is greater than the same weight of steel and has much greater elasticity. Its microstructure is under investigation for potential applications in industry, including bullet-proof vests, and artificial tendons. Researchers have used genetically modified mammals to produce the proteins needed to make this material.
Uses
The spider, after spinning its web, will then wait on, or near, the web for a prey animal to become trapped. The spider senses the impact and struggle of a prey animal by vibrations transmitted along the web lines.
Malaysia Airlines
Struktur grup
Malaysia Airlines has over 20 subsidiaries and associates including:
1983
Taun ka-1983 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Malaysia Airlines
FireFly
MAS announced the formation of a new airline Firefly to be managed by Flyfirefly Sdn. Bhd. The airline will fly two daily services out of Penang International Airport to Kota Bahru, Langkawi, Kuantan and Kuala Terengganu, plus daily services to Phuket and Koh Samui in southern Thailand. It is expected to begin its first service on late April, 2007 with fares as low as RM9 operating with two Fokker 50 aircraft.
Destinations
Under the Business Turnaround Plan (BTP), Malaysia Airlines began restructuring. The plan is based on the hub-and-spoke approach and the new Domestic Rationalism Policy announced by the Government. This resulted in Malaysia Airlines’ domestic routes being restructured from 118 to 22 routes and international routes from 114 to 90.
The domestic restructuring plan began in August 2006, whilst the restructuring of the international sector is being implemented in phases. Phase one - rerouted flights via KL International Airport as the primary hub and phase two, which required routes to be axed after exhaustive route profitability are completed.
Sigulanggulang, Siantar Utara, Pematangsiantar
Sigulanggulang nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Utara, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Malaysia Airlines
Destinations
The plan is not just to reduce the airline flights but also to improve connectivity and frequency on targeted routes. Previously, Malaysia Airlines only operated 2 daily waves of flight arrivals and departures, but from August 2006, the airline operated 4 waves of flight per day. The airline also launched its new flight schedules effective August 2006 to ensure better connectivity.
Sigulanggulang, Siantar Utara, Pematangsiantar
Sigulanggulang, Siantar Utara, Pematangsiantar
Kersagalih, Jatiwaras, Tasikmalaya
Kersagalih nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Jatiwaras, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Malaysia Airlines
Codeshare Partners
Flights operated by partner airlines on behalf of Malaysia Airlines
Flights operated by Malaysia Airlines on behalf of partner airlines
Joint operations between Malaysia Airlines and partner airlines
Nomer penerbangan
Malaysia Airlines flight numbers are allocated according to géographical regions. In general, even-numbéréd flight numbers are outbound from Malaysia.
Ramat lancah
Uses
Spiders do not usually adhere to their own webs. However, they are not immune to their own glue. Some of the strands of the web are sticky, and others are not. For example, if a spider has chosen to wait along the outer edges of its web, it may spin a non-sticky prey or signal line to the web hub to monitor web movement. Spiders have to be careful to only climb on the non-sticky strands of their webs.
Bane, Siantar Utara, Pematangsiantar
Bane nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Utara, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Malaysia Airlines
Current Fleet
The airline flies Boeing 747-400, Boeing 777-200 and Airbus A330 aircraft mainly for medium to long haul international routes, while the Boeing 737-400 is often used for shorter international and domestic flights departed from KL International Airport, Kota Kinabalu International Airport, Penang International Airport and Kuching International Airport. The Malaysia Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft:
40-an SM
40-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 49 SM nepi ka taun 40 SM.
Malaysia Airlines
Future Fleet
In 2003, Malaysia Airlines' parent company Penerbangan Malaysia Berhad (PMB) signed a déal for 6 Airbus A380-800 aircraft. The first A380-800 was to be delivered in éarly 2007 under a léase déal from its parent company Penerbangan Malaysia Berhad (PMB). However, in October 2006, Airbus parent company éaDS said that the A380 will be delayed for another yéar.
Ramat lancah
Uses
A spider positioned in the middle of the web makes for a highly visible prey for birds and other predators, even without web decorations. Many day-hunting orb-web spinners reduce this risk by hiding at the edge of the web with one foot on a signal line from the hub, or by appearing to be inedible or unappetizing.
50-an SM
50-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 59 SM nepi ka taun 50 SM.
Ramat lancah
Uses
Some species of spiders do not use webs for capturing prey directly, instead pouncing from concealment (e.g. Trapdoor spiders) or running them down in open chase (e.g. Wolf spiders). The Net-casting spider balances the two methods of running and web-spinning in its feeding habits. This spider weaves a small net which it attaches to its front legs. It then lurks in wait for potential prey and, when such prey arrives, lunges forward to wrap its victim in the net, bite and paralyze it. Hence, this spider expends less energy catching prey than a primitive hunter such as the Wolf spider. It also avoids the energy loss of weaving a large orb-web.
Malaysia Airlines
In-flight Entertainment
Select is the in-flight entertainment system of Malaysia Airlines. Passengers can choose over 500 hours of audio and vidéo programming. With 200 music CDs and 40 movies on-demand available, passengers can start, stop, forward and rewind their selected programme at will. A touch screen personal TV is available for First Class passengers and Golden Club Class (Business Class) on board Boeing 747-400 and Boeing 777-200 aircraft.
Ramat lancah
Uses
Some spiders manage to use the 'signaling snare' technique of a web without spinning a web at all. Several types of water-dwelling spiders will rest their feet on the water's surface in much the same manner as an orb-web user. When an insect falls onto the water and is ensnared by surface tension, the spider can detect the vibrations and run out to capture the prey.
Malaysia Airlines
Loyalty Programmes
Main Article: Enrich Loyalty Programme
Ramat lancah
Communal spider webs
Occasionally, a group of spiders may build webs together in the same area. One such web reported in 2007 at Lake Tawakoni State Park in Texas measured 200 yards (180 m) across. Entomologists believe it may be the result of social cobweb spiders or of spiders building webs to spread out from one another. There is no consensus on how common this occurrence is.
Malaysia Airlines
Awards
Main Article: Malaysia Airlines: Awards
Ramat lancah
Outside influences on spider web weaving
Administering certain drugs to spiders has an effect on the structure of the webs they build. It has been proposed by some that this could be used as a method of documenting and measuring the toxicity or the effects on motor co-ordination of various substances.
Malaysia Airlines
Awards
Malaysia Airlines has won numerous awards from international organizations, such as Skytrax.
Néglasari, Jatiwaras, Tasikmalaya
Néglasari nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Jatiwaras, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Malaysia Airlines
Incidents & Accidents
Malaysia Airlines is accredited by IATA with the IOSA (IATA Operations Safety Audit).
Ramat lancah
Outside influences on spider web weaving
It has also been observed that being in Earth's orbit has an effect on the structure of spider webs in space.
-->
Mandalamekar, Jatiwaras, Tasikmalaya
Mandalamekar nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Jatiwaras, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
1982
Taun ka-1982 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Apache HTTP Server
Server HTTP Apache atawa Server Ramat/WWW Apache nyaéta server ramat anu bisa dijalankeun dina réa sistem operasi (Unix, BSD, Linux, Microsoft Windows sarta Novell Netware sarta platform séjénna) anu kapaké pikeun ngaladénan sarta mungsikeun loka ramat. Protokol anu dipaké pikeun ngaladénan fasilitas ramat/www ieu nyaéta ngagunakeun HTTP.
Apache mibanda fitur-fitur canggih kawas talatah kasalahan anu bisa dikonfigur, autentikasi basis basis data sarta séjén-séjéna. Apache ogé dirojong ku sajumlah antarbeunget pamaké basis grafik (GUI) antukna ngoprasikeun server jadi gampang.
Apache mangrupa sofwer sumber bebas nu dikembangkan ku komunitas bébas anu diwangun ti pengembang-pengembang nu ditangtayungan ku Apache Software Foundation.
Sajarah
Asal muasalna ngaran Apache nyaéta nalika hiji server web populer anu dikembangkan dina mimiti 1995 anu ngaranna NCSA HTTPD 1.3 mibanda sajumlah parobahan badag tina kode asalna (patch). Saking lobana patch dina sofwer kasebut ku kituna disebut hiji server anu mibanda réa patch ("a patchy" server). Tapi dina kaca NLD loka ramat resmina, disebutkeun yén "Apache" dipilih pikeun ngahormatan suku asli Indian Amérika Apache (Indé), anu dipikawanoh alatan kaahlian sarta strategi perangna. Vérsi 2 ti Apache ditulis ti mimiti tanpa ngandung kode asal ti NCSA.
Pamakéan
Apache nyaéta komponén server ramat ti paket sofwer LAMP (Linux, Apache, Mysql, PHP/Perl/basa pamrograman Python).
Kompetitor
Nurutkeun statistik ti Netcraft, Apache mangrupa server ramat anu pangréana dipaké di dunya per 2005. Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) mangrupa kompetitor utama Apache, dituturkeun ku Sun Java Ramat Server ti Sun Microsystem.
Papayan, Jatiwaras, Tasikmalaya
Papayan nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Jatiwaras, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Karo, Siantar Selatan, Pematangsiantar
Karo nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Selatan, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Toba, Siantar Selatan, Pematangsiantar
Toba nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Selatan, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Oto Iskandar di Nata
Raden Oto Iskandar di Nata nyaéta pajuang kamerdikaan nu gumelar di Bojongsoang, Dayeuhkolot, Bandung, 31 Maret 1897 – pupus di Mauk, Tangerang, Banten dina yuswa 48 taun. Teureuh ménak putra wangsawan ieu téh kasohor lébér wawanénna. Teuneung ludeung dina nyanghareupan rarupa prakara, pangpangna pikeun ngabéla nasib rahayat. Oto mingpin Pagoejoeban Pasoendan saprak taun1929 nika 1942. Organisasi ieu usik dina widang atikan (ngadegkeun loba sakola), budaya, ékonomi (Bank tur koperasi) sertos hukum. taun1931 nika 1941 dios jadi anggahota Volksraad, nu jadi pibakal ti Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat di mangsa payun.
Lalakon
Kahirupan sapopoé Oto Iskandar di Nata téh éstuning basajan. Teu sombong, nyaah kanu leutik, hormat ka sasama. Tuladeun pikeun jalma-jalma séjénna. Arang langka kiwari manggihan jalma kawas anjeunna. Tapi lamun geus ngabéla bebeneran, merjuangkeun masarakat umu, éstu matak gimir nu ngayonan.
Oto kungsi sakola di HIS ogé namatkeun sakola Guru di Bandung. Ilaharna budak séjén, Oto ogé kawentar budak bangor, tapi cerdas, sakolana teu kungsi ngendog, peunteunna aralus jeung jadi idola batur-baturna. Saenggeus gedé, Oto jadi guru ogé aktif dina pergerakan kabangsaan, ancrub ka dunya pulitik, di antarana Boedi Oetomo cabang Pekalongan, basa ditempatkeun jadi guru di Pekalongan taun 1924. Putra-putrina aya sabelas, opat urang lalaki jeung tujuh urang awéwé, éta sabada nikah ka Ibu Sukriah taun 1923.
Jaman Panjajahan
Pangpangna basa jadi anggahota Volksraad (Déwan Rahayat). Di Volksraad anjeunna minangka anggahota wawakil ti Paguyuban Pasundan. Oto kawentar jadi anggahota anu pangwanina dina ngabéla hak-hak rahayat. Kiritikan jeung satratéhi pulitikna diperhitungkeun pisan ku Pamaréntah Walanda. Sakur caritaan Oto jadi bahan pikiraneun Pamaréntah Walanda. Hiji waktu dina sidang Volksraad, Oto nyarita kalawan perténgtang, teuneung ludeung, taya kakeueung, taya karingrang. Nepi ka pingpinan sidang katut anggahota wawakil bangsa Walanda mangsa harita nakol-nakolkeun palu kana méja sidang sangkan Oto eureun nyaritana. Tangtu waé sagala ucap-ucapan Oto ngeunaan bajuang pikeun kamerdekaan téh ngabalukarkeun Tuan ketua Volksraad ambek, nepika nakolan méja sidang. Unggal Oto pidato dina sidang Volksraad, urang Walanda mah padagimir, sabab eusi pidatona peureus. Nepika anggahota wawakil Walanda mah méh kabéh meungpeukan ceuli ku dua dampal leungeunna. Tangtu waé sikep urang Walanda anu saperti kitu téh matak tugenah ka anggahota Volksraad wawakil bangsa Indonésia. Sanajan urang Walanda henteu merhatikeun pidatona tinimbang eureun mah kalahka beuki sumanget pidatona. Ngajejeléh ka pamingpin pamaréntah Walanda. Nya dina taun 1935 Oto dicabut kaanggahotaan Volksraad na. Jaman panjajahan Jepang, Oto diangkat minangka anggahota Jawa Hokokai. Harita jabung jeung Jepang téh ngan saukur siasat. Nepika Jepang dina mangsa harita ngawidian ngadegkeun Pembéla Tanah Air (Péta). Oto téh minangka jalma harita nu mimiti ngedalkeun jeung nyetuskeun istilah Indonésia Merdéka, nu katutuluyna mah dirobih jadi Merdéka hungkul. Harita kecap “Merdéka!” téh minangka ébréhan rahayat Indonésia anu miharep kamerdékaan ogé siap bajuang pikeun kamerdékaan.
Bajuang Kamerdékaan
taun1945 manéhna jadi anggota BPUPKI (Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Kamerdikaan Indonésia) sarta diuk dina PPKI (Panitia Persiapan Kamerdikaan Indonésia). Oto Iskandar di Nata milu ngararancang UUD 1945. Dina sidang PPKI tanggal 19 Agustus 1945, Oto mengusulkan sangkan Sukarno dipilih minangka Présidén sarta Hatta minangka Wawakil Présidén. Anggota sidang nyatujuan usul kasebut sacara aklamasi. Sanggeus Indonésia merdika, Oto diangkat jadi Menteri Nagara anu ngurus masalah kaamanan.
Pungkasan hirupna
Saprak Oto diangkat jadi Menteri pisan manéhna leungit dina ahir taun1945. Bisa disebutkeun Oto Iskandar di Nata nyaéta "jelema leungit" nu munggaran dina sajarah Républik Indonésia. Kakara 14 taunsaterusna (1959), kaungkab yén manéhna dipaéhan ku hiji pulisi nu ngaranna Mujitaba. Kajadian éta dilakukeun di basisir Mauk, Tangerang. Nu maéhan dihukum 15 taun panjara. Tapi di jero pangadilan henteu kaungkab saha anu ngajurung Mujitaba.
Jujuluk Si Jalak Harupat
Lalaki langit lalanang jagat ceuk babasaan téa mah pipanteseun nyebut ka dirina téh. Malah dina masa bajuang harita, Oto meunang jujuluk si Jalak Harupat. Kiwari éta jujuluk téh dipaké ngaran stadion mén bal Kabupatén Bandung. Sugan waé ku dipakéna éta ngaran, atlit anu tendang makalangan di éta stadion, pangpangna atlit Jawa Kulon téh lébér wawanén jeung gesit dina nyanghareupan lawan-lawanna, teu ngéplék jawér miyuni hayam kabiri, tapi jagjag waringkas tur sportif.
Gegetuk
Gegetuk mangrupa salah sahiji kadaharan nu ilahar di tatar Sunda, tapi asalna mah ti wewengkon Jawa Tengah. Gegetuk nyaéta kadaharan nu dijieunna tina sampeu jeung gula kawung nu biasana dipidangkeun maké parudan kalapa. Biasana gegetuk loba kapanggih di pasar, aya ogé nu ngajualna maké gorobag surung.
Gegetuk miboga loba nutrisi nu alus keur awak urang, salah sahijina karbohidrat jeung serat nu luhur. Kadaharan nu miboga serat luhur mangpaat pisan pikeun kaséhatan, kayaning nurunkeun tekanan darah, nurunkun kadar kolesterol jeung ngalancarnakeun saluran cerna.
Gegetuk lindri
Dijieun tina sampeu nu geus digiling lemes jeung gula bodas atawa bisa ogé ku gula kawung, dibéré pawarna dahareun jeung vanili, tuluy dikeureutan leutik-leutik.
Gegetuk goréng
Gegetuk goréng mangrupa kadaharan has ti Sokoraja nu rasana amis jeung gurih. Kadaharan ieu kapanggihna teu dihaja, dina taunn 1918 ku Sanpirngad, tukang sangu nu sok nguriling di daérah Sokaraja, anjeunna ngajualan gegetuk tapi teu pjiayu, tuluy dicobaan digoréng nu ahirna loba nu kairut ku rasana.
Bahan
Bahan-bahan:
Pangawur
Pangawur: - kalapa parud - uyah bubuk - daun pandan
Cara nyieunna
Cara nyieuna: - Sampeu diseupan nepi ka asak, jeung hipu. Tuluy diangkat tina seupanan, gula kawung dikerud supaya gampil nyampur. Seupan sampeu nu masih kénéh panas dibebek, atanapi digiling npi ka lemes. Waktu ngabebek/ngagiling sampeu jeung gula kawung dicampurkeun babarengan, dipurulukan uyah saeutik, tuluy campurkeun nepi ka rata. Abuskeun kana loyang nu geus diamparan daun cau atawa plastik, tuluy diteueulkeun nepi ka padet. Antep nepi ka tiis, geus tiis, tuluy dipotong-potong dikeureutan. Kalapa parud diuyahan tuluy diseupan dibsrengkeun jeung daun pandan.
Midangkeun: Gegetuk nu geus tiis, dikeureutan, teras dipurulukan ku kalapa parud meunang nyeupan. Gegetuk siap dipidangkeun.
60-an SM
60-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 69 SM nepi ka taun 60 SM.
1981
Taun ka-1981 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
1980
Taun ka-1980 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Sukakerta, Jatiwaras, Tasikmalaya
Sukakerta nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Jatiwaras, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Martimbang, Siantar Selatan, Pematangsiantar
Martimbang nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Selatan, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Simalungun, Siantar Selatan, Pematangsiantar
Simalungun nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Selatan, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1979
Taun ka-1979 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
70-an SM
70-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 79 SM nepi ka taun 70 SM.
Buniasih, Kadipatén, Tasikmalaya
Buniasih nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Kadipatén, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Dirgahayu, Kadipatén, Tasikmalaya
Dirgahayu nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Kadipatén, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Kadipatén, Kadipatén, Tasikmalaya
Kadipatén nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Kadipatén, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
90-an SM
90-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 99 SM nepi ka taun 90 SM.
Kristen, Siantar Selatan, Pematangsiantar
Kristen nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Selatan, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1978
Taun ka-1978 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
1977
Taun ka-1977 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
80-an SM
80-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 89 SM nepi ka taun 80 SM.
Cibahayu, Kadipatén, Tasikmalaya
Cibahayu nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Kadipatén, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Mekarsari, Kadipatén, Tasikmalaya
Mekarsari nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Kadipatén, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Sukaraja, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Sukaraja nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1975
Taun ka-1975 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Kemang
Kemang nyaéta tangkal buah sarupaning manggah kalayan kaambeuna seungit pisan nojos kana irung sarta rasa anu haseum amis.
Gambaran botanis
Tangkal sarta buah kemang dina dasarna mibanda ciri-ciri nu sarupa kalawan binjai, jeung sawatara béda.
Kemang ogé dijadikeun ngaran patempatan di sabagian Jawa Kulon jeung Jakarta.
Mangpaat sarta sumebarna
Kemang utamana dipelak pikeun dipetik buahna, anu ilahar didahar sanggeus buah éta asak atawa dijadikeun campuran és. Buah kemang ogé ilahar dijadikeun sari buah. Buah kemang anu ngora dipikaresep pikeun bahan rujak. Kitu ogé sikina, anu dina kaayaan atah disiksik sarta didahar sanggeus dibumbuan sarta ditambah kecap. Daun kemang anu masih ngora (pucuk) dipaké pikeun lalab sarta mindeng disuguhkeun di rumah-makan Sunda.
Kemang sumebar sacara alami di Sumatra, Kalimantan sarta Malaysia; sarta réa dibudidayakan di Jawa bagian kulon, utamana deukeut Bogor. Tumbuhan ieu utamana sumebar di padataran nu handap di; handapeun 400 m ti beungeut laut (tbl), arang nepi ka 800 m tbl. Jinis ieu tahan ku ci leuncang, sarta remen ogé kapanggih deukeut sisi walungan.
1976
Taun ka-1976 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Abimanyu
Abimanyu (basa Sansakerta: अभिमन्यु, abhiman'yu); Angkawijaya nyaéta salah saurang inohong dina wiracarita Mahabarata. Manéhna nyaéta anak Arjuna ti salah saurang pamajikanana anu ngaranna Subadra. Ditetepkeun yén Abimanyu nu baris neruskeun tahta Yudistira. Dina wiracarita Mahabarata, manéhna dianggap saurang pahlawan anu ngarandapan nasib tragis. Manéhna gugur dina perang rongkah di Kurusétra minangka satria pangngorana ti pihak Pandawa, alatan umurna karék genep belas taun. Abimanyu ngadahup jeung Utari, puteri Raja Wirata sarta mibanda saurang anak nu dingaranan Parikesit, anu lahir sanggeus manéhna gugur.
Harti ngaran
Abimanyu diwangun ku dua kecap dina basa Sansakerta, nyaéta abhi (wani) jeung man'yu (tabéat). Dina basa Sansakerta, kecap Abhiman'yu sacara harfiah boga harti "manéhna anu ngabogaan sipat teu sieun" atawa "anu boga sipat kepahlawanan".
Kalahiran, atikan, sarta perang
Waktu tacan lahir, mangsa dina jero pianakan indungna, Abimanyu diajar cara asup kana formasi perang nu hésé ditembus nu ngaranna Cakrawyuha ti Kresna. Mahabarata ngécéskeun yén dina jero pianakan indungna, Abimanyu nguping paguneman Kresna anu keur gunem catur ngeunaan formasi kasebut jeung Subadra, indungna. Kresna nyaritakeun ngeunaan cara asup kana Cakrawyuha. Lantara saterusna Subadra kasaréan mangka Abimanyu orok henteu mibanda kasempetan pikeun nganyahokeun kumaha cara ngaloloskeun diri tina éta formasi.
Abimanyu méakkeun waktu leutikna di Dwaraka, dayeuh tempat dumuk indungna. Manéhna dilatih ku bapana, Arjuna sarta diasuh jeung dibimbing ku Kresna. Arjuna ngadahupkeun Abimanyu jeung Utari, puteri Raja Wirata, pikeun ngaraketkeun hubungan antara Pandawa jeung kulawarga Raja Wirata, waktu perang Baratayuda anu bakal datang. Pandawa nyamur pikeun ngaréngsékeun mangsa pangbuanganana tanpa dipikanyaho di karajaan bogana Raja Wirata nyaéta Karajaan Matsya.
Abimanyu mangrupa satria anu gagah pinuh wawanén sarta gangas. Alatan dianggap sarimbag jeung pangabisa bapana, Abimanyu sanggup ngalawan satria-satria kahot kawas Drona, Karna, Duryodana jeung Dursasana. Manéhna dipuji alatan wawanénna sarta mibanda rasa satia anu luhur ka bapana, uwa jeung pamanna, sarta sagala kahayang maranéhanana.
Pati Abimanyu
Dina poé katilu belas Baratayuda, pihak Kurawa nangtang Pandawa pikeun megatkeun formasi perang nu ningker nguriling nu dipikawanoh sabagé Cakrawyuha. Para Pandawa nampa tangtangan kasebut alatan Kresna jeung Arjuna nyaho kumaha cara megatkeun sagala rupa formasi.
Tapi, dina poé éta, Kresna jeung Arjuna riweuh tarung jeung laskar Samsaptaka. Ku alatan Pandawa geus nampa tangtangan kasebut, maranéhanana henteu mibanda pilihan kacuali mecakan pikeun ngagunakeun Abimanyu anu masih ngora, anu mibanda pangaweruh ngeunaan kumaha cara megatkeun formasi Cakrawyuha tapi henteu nyaho kumaha cara kaluar ti jerona. Pikeun ngayakinkeun yén Abimanyu moal katangkep dina formasi kasebut, Pandawa sadulur nyindekkeun yén maranéhanana jeung wadyabalad maranéhanana baris megatkeun formasi éta babarengan jeung Abimanyu sarta mantuan sang nonoman kaluar tina formasi kasebut.
Dina poé penting éta, Abimanyu ngagunakeun kapinterna pikeun nembus formasi kasebut. Pandawa sadulur jeung wadyabalad mecakan pikeun milu asup kana jero formasi kasebut, tapi maranéhanana dihadang ku Jayadrata, Raja Karajaan Sindu, anu meunang kasinugrahan sanggup nahan para Pandawa kajaba Arjuna, tapi ngan pikeun sapoé. Abimanyu ditinggalkeun sorangan pikeun nakis serangan pasukan Kurawa.
Abimanyu maéhan sawatara satria anu ngadeukeutan kalawan gangas, kaasup anak Duryodana, nyaéta Laksmana. Sanggeus nyaksian anak kanyahna palastra ku Abimanyu, Duryodana kacida ambek sarta ngajurung sakabéh pasukan Kurawa pikeun narajang Abimanyu. Alatan gagal ngancurkeun baju beusi Abimanyu, ku nasehat Drona, Karna ngancurkeun gondewa Abimanyu ti tukang. Saterusna karétana diancurkeun, kusir sarta kudana ditelasan pati, sarta kabéh pakarangna dipiceun. Anakna Dursasana mecakan pikeun tarung jeung Abimanyu maké leungeun kosong. Tapi tanpa negakkeun aturan perang, pihak Kurawa narajang Abimanyu babarengan. Abimanyu sanggup nahan serangan nepi ka pedangnya pites sarta kikiping karéta nu jadi panyalindunganana ancur. Teu sabaraha lila, Abimanyu ditelasan ku anakna Dursasana ku cara ngancurkeun sirahna maké gada.
Arjuna ngabales dendam
Warta perlayana Abimanyu ngajadikeun Arjuna pohara hanjelu sarta nyeri haté. Manéhna sadar, yén lamun Jayadrata henteu ngahalangan para Pandawa pikeun asup kana formasi Cakrawyuha, Abimanyu tangtu meunang bantuan. Manéhna saterusna sumpah baris maéhan Jayadrata dina poé isukna saméméh panonpoé surup. Nanggepan hal éta, pihak Kurawa nempatkeun Jayadrata jauh ti Arjuna. Rébuan prajurit sarta satria ngalingkung sarta nangtayungan Jayadrata. Arjuna usaha ngadongkang Jayadrata, tapi rébuan prajurit Kurawa ngahalangan. Nepi ka panonpoé ampir surup, Jayadrata jauh kénéh tina hontalan Arjuna. Nempo hal ieu, Kresna ngagunakeun kapinterna. Manéhna nyieun samagaha panonpoé, ku kituna kaayaan jadi poék jiga panonpoé geus surup. Pihak Kurawa atawa Pandawa mikir yén poé geus peuting, sarta luyu aturan, maranéhanana ngeureunkeun peperangan sarta balik ka kubu séwang-séwangan. Ku kituna, pihak Kurawa henteu neruskeun tarung sarta Jayadrata henteu dileupaskeun tina panangtayungan maranéhanana. Waktu karéta Arjuna deukeut jeung karéta Jayadrata, panonpoé mecenghul deui sarta Kresna ngajurung Arjuna sangkan ngagunakeun kasempetan kasebut pikeun maéhan Jayadrata. Arjuna gangkat gondewana sarta ngabelesatkeun panah, megatkeun beuheung Jayadrata. Pas dina waktu kasebut, poé geus soré, panonpoé geus surup sarta Arjuna hasil ngaréngsékeun sumpahna pikeun maéhan Jayadrata.
Ambalika
Dina wiracarita Mahabarata, Ambalika (basa Sansakerta: अम्बालिका) mangrupa puteri Raja Kasi nu jadi pamajikan Wicitrawirya, Raja Astinapura.
Babarengan jeung barayana, nyaéta Amba sarta Ambika, manéhna diboyong ku Bisma ka Astinapura lantara ieu satria hasil meunangkeun sayémbara nu diayakeun ku Raja Kasi (Bisma nangtang para raja sarta pangeran anu ngariung tuluy nalukkeun maranéhanana.) Bisma mikeun para putri ka Satyawati, indung téréna, pikeun dikawinkeun ka Wicitrawirya. Tapi Wicitrawirya mangkat dina umur nu ngora saméméh méré turunan ka Ambalika.
Sanggeus Wicitrawirya mangkat, Satyawati, minang saraya ka Resi Abiyasa, anakna ti Resi Parasara, pikeun neruskeun garis turunan Dinasti Kuru. Luyu jeung paménta Satyawati, Sang Resi ngadatangan randa Wicitrawirya pikeun dibéré turunan. Ambalika dititah ku Satyawati pikeun terus ngabeuntakeun panonna sangkan ulah ngababarkeun anakna nu bakal lahir lolong kawas anu geus karandapan ku Ambika (Ambika ngalahirkeun anak nu lolong nu dingaranan Dréstarastra). Alatan taat kana paréntah mitohana, manéhna terus ngabeuntakeun panonna tapi manéhna jadi sepa sanggeus nempo rupa Sang Resi anu pikasieuneun. Mangka manéhna ngalahirkeun anak anu sepa (katarajang kasakit anemia) nu dingaranan Pandu, bapana para Pandawa.
Ambalika hirup sawatara lila di Astinapura nepi ka manéhna mibanda incu, nyaéta para Pandawa jeung Kurawa. Mangsa Pandu geus mangkat, rarasaan Ambalika kapeupeuh. Ku bongbolongan ti Satyawati, Ambalika ninggalkeun kahirupan dunnya sarta indit ka leuweung. Babarengan jeung Satyawati sarta Ambika, maranéhanana ninggalkeun para penerus Dinasti Kuru di Astinapura.
Satelit Komunikasi
Satelit komunikasi nyaéta hiji satelit jieunan anu ditempatkeun di jomantara pikeun tujuan telekomunikasi. Satelit komunikasi modéren ngagunakeun orbit geosynchronous, orbit Molniya atawa orbit Bumi handap.
Pikeun jaringan télékomunikasi tetep (henteu usik), satelit komunikasi jadi téknologi alternatif pikeun kabel komunikasi tambaga jeung sarabut optik. Satelit komunikasi ogé dipaké pikeun aplikasi mobil (usik) kawas komunikasi ka kapal laut jeung kapal terbang, di mana aplikasi téknologi séjén saperti kabel tambaga henteu praktis atawa mustahil.
Aek Nauli, Siantar Selatan, Pematangsiantar
Aek Nauli nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Selatan, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1973
Taun ka-1973 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Baringin Pancur Nauli, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Baringin Pancur Nauli nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1972
1972 nyaéta taun ka-1972 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Karangjaya, Karang Jaya, Tasikmalaya
Karangjaya nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karang Jaya, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Citalahab, Karang Jaya, Tasikmalaya
Citalahab nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karang Jaya, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Klampis, Bangkalan
Kacamatan Klampis nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di kabupatén Bangkalan, Madura, provinsi Jawa Wétan, Indonesia.
Parhorasan Nauli, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Parhorasan Nauli nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1974
Taun ka-1974 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
1970
Taun ka-1970 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Pardamean, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Pardaméan nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Sukamaju, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Sukamaju nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Mekar Nauli, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Mekar Nauli nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
110-an SM
110-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 119 SM nepi ka taun 110 SM.
120-an SM
120-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 129 SM nepi ka taun 120 SM.
1971
Taun ka-1971 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Sirnajaya, Karang Jaya, Tasikmalaya
Sirnajaya nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karang Jaya, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Cibatu, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cibatu nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
1968
Taun ka-1968 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Ciawi, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Ciawi nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Sumber Jaya, Siantar Martoba, Pematangsiantar
Sumber Jaya nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Martoba, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Dahlia
30 jenis, 20.000 varietas
1969
Taun ka-1969 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Dahlia
Dahlia nyaéta pepelakan anu beutian sarta sipatna taunan (perenial), kembangan dina usum panas nepi ka usum gugur. Dahlia nyaéta kembang nasional nagara Méksiko anu ogé mangrupa nagara asalna ieu kembang.
Dina taun 1872, nagri Walanda nampa sakotak beuti dahlia anu dikirim ti Méksiko. Tina sakotak beuti kembang Dahlia tétéla ngan hiji beuti anu hasil kembangan tapi ngahasilkeun kembang nu éndah sarta boga warna beureum kalawan daun kembang anu seukeut. Ahli pepelakan hasil ngabudidayakeun dahlia anu saterusna dingaranan Dahlia juarezii. Dahlia juarezii mangrupa karuhun sakabéh kembang dahlia hibrida anu aya kiwari.
Tangkal dahlia nyaéta kadaharan larva sawatara spesies Lepidoptera (wanda kukupu).
Kembang dahlia dingaranan pikeun ngahormat ahli botani bangsa Swédia ti abad ka-18 anu ngaranna Anders Dahl.
Dahlia ogé mangrupa kembang resmi dayeuh Seattle, nagara bagian Washington, Amérika Sarikat.
Mangpaat
Kembang dahlia anu dipikawanoh ku urang ayeuna diwangun ku ratusan kultivar. lolobana variétas tangkal dahlia ngahasilkeun kembang anu warnana caang sarta matak hélok, ku kituna dahlia mangrupa komoditas penting pikeun industri kembang.
E1
E1 atawa sirkuit E-1 (basa Inggris: E-carrier) nyaéta ngaran format pangiriman (transmisi) digital nu maké 30 kanal sora digital nu lajuna 2,048 mégabit pér detik. E1 mangrupa standar anu dipaké di Éropah jeung Indonésia. Standar E1 ieu satara jeung standar T1 anu dipaké di Amérika, nu ngagunakeun 24 kanal sora digital kalawan laju 1,554 mégabit pér detik.
Saluran atawa jalur (kanal) ieu ngawangun saluran telepon husus sarta dipaké munggaran pikeun sambungan trunk antara sentral-séntral telepon, tapi ayeuna geus réa diséwakeun ku pausahaan telekomunikasi pikeun jalur komunikasi data.
Sukamakmur, Siantar Marihat, Pematangsiantar
Sukamakmur nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Marihat, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
1967
Taun ka-1967 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
1965
Taun ka-1965 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
1966
Taun ka-1966 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
150-an SM
150-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 159 SM nepi ka taun 150 SM.
Cikapinis, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cikapinis nyaéta salasahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Naga Pita, Siantar Martoba, Pematangsiantar
Naga Pita nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Martoba, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Cibatuireng, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cibatuireng nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
160-an SM
160-an SM nyaéta dékade atawa dasawara Saméméh Maséhi dina kalénder Gregorian nu dimimitian ti taun 169 SM nepi ka taun 160 SM.
Duplex
Duplex nyaéta hiji istilah dina widang telekomunikasi anu ngarujuk kana komunikasi dua arah. Aya dua padika duplexing, nyaéta
Full-duplex
Dina komunikasi full-duplex, dua pihak anu silih komunikasi baris ngirimkeun informasi sarta nampa informasi dina waktu anu sarua, sarta umumna merlukeun dua jalur (kanal) komunikasi.
Pondok Sayur, Siantar Martoba, Pematangsiantar
Pondok Sayur nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Martoba, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Duplex
Full-duplex
Komunikasi full-duplex ogé bisa dihontal ku ngagunakeun téknik multiplexing, di mana sinyal anu ngarambat dina arah anu béda baris disimpen dina slot waktu (time slot) anu béda. Kakurang téknik ieu téh nyaéta téknik ieu ngurangan laju transmisi anu bisa nepi ka satengahna.
Cintawangi, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cintawangi nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Duplex
Half-duplex
Tempo ogé Simplex.
Alexander Graham Bell
Alexander Graham Bell (Edinburgh, 3 Maret 1847–Nova Scotia, 2 Agustus 1922) nyaéta élmuwan, panimu, sarta nu ngadegkeun pausahaan telepon Bell. Sajaba karyana dina téknologi telekomunikasi, manéhna ogé méré sumbangan penting kana kamajuan dina téknologi aviasi sarta hidrofoil.
Bell umumna dipikawanoh salaku panimu telepon, sanajan Kongrés AS dina bulan Juni 2002 netepkeun yén Antonio Meucci anu manggihan telepon téh.
Cidadap, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cidadap nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Arosbaya, Bangkalan
Kacamatan Arosbaya iku salah siji kacamatan ing kabupatén Bangkalan, Madura, provinsi Jawa Wétan, Indonésia.
Désa-Désa
Désa-désa di kacamatan ieu :
Cikupa, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cikupa nyaéta salasahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Tanjung Tongah, Siantar Martoba, Pematangsiantar
Tanjung Tongah nyaéta salah sahiji Kalurahan di kacamatan Siantar Martoba, Kota Pematangsiantar, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Alpuket
Alpuket (Persea americana) (tina basa Nahuatl āhuacatl) nyaéta tutuwuhan pituin Méksiko jeung Amérika Tengah, kaasup kana tutuwuhan kembangan kulawarga Lauraceae. Ieu buah boga ajén ékonomi anu gedé, antukna loba dipelak di sakuliah dunya, utamana di wewengkon tropis. Daging buahna beyé, héjo semu konéng, loba ngandung lemak nu utamana lemak teu jenuh. Lian ti lemak, ieu buah ogé euyeub serat, vitamin, jeung kalium.
Étimologi
Kecap "alpuket" asalna tina kecap "avocado", nu béh dituna tina basa Nahuatl āhuacatl ("siki kanjut", dumasar kana bentuk buahna). Baheula, alpuket katelah salaku afrodisiak, antukna tara didahar ku jalma anu can kawin atawa anu satia ka pamajikan. Ku bangsa Azték, ieu buah disebut "buah kasuburan". Di sababaraha nagara Amérika Kidul, kayaning Argéntina, Bolivia, Chilé, Péru, jeung Uruguay, ieu buah kawentar dina ngaran Quechuana, palta. Di nagara-nagara nu maké basa Spanyol, ieu buah disebut aguacate, sedengkeun ku urang Portugis disebutna abacate. <!--
Cultivation
The tree grows to 20 metres (65 ft), with alternately arranged leaves 12–25 centimetres long. The flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5–10 millimetres wide. The pear-shaped fruit is 7–20 centimetres long, weighs between 100 and 1000 grams, and has a large central seed, 5–6.4 centimeters long. It is considered by many to be a drupe, but is botanically classified as a berry.
The subtropical species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. In particular, the West Indian race requires humidity and a tropical climate which is important in flowering. When even a mild frost occurs, some fruit may drop from the tree, reducing the yield, although the Hass cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to −1°C. The trees also need well aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when the irrigation water is highly saline. These soil and climate conditions are provided only in a few areas of the world, particularly in southern Spain, the Levant, South Africa, Peru, parts of central and northern Chile, Vietnam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, the Philippines, Malaysia, Central America, and Mexico, the center of origin and diversity of this species. Each region has different types of cultivars. Mexico is the largest producer of the Hass variety, with over 1 million tonnes produced annually.
Harvest and post-harvest
An average avocado tree produces about 120 avocados annually. Commercial orchards produce an average of 7 tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare. Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only in subtropical or tropical climates.
The avocado is a climacteric fruit (the banana is another), which means that it matures on the tree but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 38 to 42°F (3.3 to 5.6°C) until they reach their final destination. Avocado must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground, and depending on the amount of oil they contain, their taste and texture may vary greatly. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick Hass-variety avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in a few days at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Premium supermarkets sell pre-ripened avocados treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten the ripening process. In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop; if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, however, it will fall to the ground.
Breeding
The species is only partially able to self-pollinate, because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated via grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.
The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. There are two flowering types, "A" and "B". "A" cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. "B" varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
Certain cultivars, such as the Hass, have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. This heavy crop depletes stored carbohydrates, resulting in a reduced yield the following season, and thus the alternate bearing pattern becomes established.
Propagation and rootstocks
While an avocado propagated by seed can bear fruit, it takes roughly 4–6 years to do so, and the offspring is unlikely to resemble the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Thus, commercial orchards are planted using grafted trees and rootstocks. Rootstocks are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) and also layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing the young plants in a greenhouse, they are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar will then grow for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks have been selected for specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease caused by phytophthora (root rot).
Diseases
Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting and discoloration.
Cikukulu, Karangnunggal, Tasikmalaya
Cikukulu nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangnunggal, Kabupatén Tasikmalaya, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Alpuket
Cultivation in California
The avocado was introduced from Mexico to the U.S. state of California in the 19th century, and has become an extremely successful cash crop. Ninety-five percent of United States avocado production is located in southern California, with 60% in San Diego County. Approximately 59,000 acres (approximately 24,000 hectares) of avocados are grown in California. Fallbrook, California, claims the title of "Avocado Capital of the World", and both Fallbrook and Carpinteria, California host annual avocado festivals.
Hass cultivar
While dozens of cultivars are grown in California, the Hass avocado (commonly misspelled "Haas") is the most common. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for the majority of cultivated avocados in California. All Hass avocado trees are genic copies of a single "mother tree" that was raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass. According to Hass' family, Hass bought the seed from A.R. Rideout of Whittier, California, in 1926 and repeatedly attempted to graft productive branches onto pre-existing trees. Ultimately this succeeded in producing the Hass avocado, though the source tree of the graft is uncertain. Hass propagated the productive graft in his front yard in La Habra Heights, California, and patented the tree in 1935. All Hass avocados can be traced back to grafts made from the original, successful graft tree. The "mother tree" died of root rot and was cut down in September, 2002; its former location is indicated with a commemorative plaque.
Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include Bacon, Fuerte, Gwen, Pinkerton, Reed and Zutano. The fruit of the cultivar Florida, grown mostly outside California, is larger and rounder, with a smooth, medium-green skin, and a less-fatty, firmer and fibrous flesh. These are occasionally marketed as low-calorie avocados.