cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Geisha
Makeup
The application of makeup is hard to perfect and is a time consuming process. Makeup is applied before dressing to avoid dirtying the kimono. First, a wax or oil substance, called bintsuke-abura, is applied to the skin. Next, white powder is mixed with water into a paste and applied with a bamboo brush. The white makeup covers the face, neck, and chest, with two or three unwhitened areas (forming a "W" or "V" shape) left on the nape, to accentuate this traditionally erotic area, and a line of bare skin around the hairline, which creates the illusion of a mask. . After the foundation layer is applied, a sponge is patted all over the face, throat, chest and the nape and neck to remove excess moisture and to blend the foundation. Next the eyes and eyebrows are drawn in. Traditionally charcoal was used, but today modern cosmetics are used. The eyebrows and edges of the eyes are coloured black; a maiko also applies red around her eyes.
The lips are filled in using a small brush. The colour comes in a small stick, which is melted in water. Crystallized sugar is then added to give the lips lustre.
For the first three years, a maiko wears this heavy makeup almost constantly. During her initiation the maiko is helped with her makeup by either her "older sister" (an experienced geisha who is her mentor) or the "mother" of her geisha house. After this she applies the makeup herself.
After a geisha has been working for three years, she changes her make-up to a more subdued style. The reason for this is that she has now become mature, and the simpler style shows her own natural beauty. For formal occasions the mature geisha will still apply white make-up. For geisha over thirty, the heavy white make-up is only worn during special dances which require her to wear make-up for her part.
Dress
Geisha always wear kimono. Apprentice geisha wear highly colourful kimono with extravagant obi. Older geisha wear more subdued patterns and styles. A geisha is never to be seen in the same kimono more than once whilst entertaining.
The colour, pattern, and style of kimono is also dependent on the season and the event the geisha is attending. In winter, geisha can be seen wearing a three-quarter length "overcoat" lined with hand painted silk over their kimono. Lined kimono are worn during colder seasons, and unlined kimono during the summer. A kimono can take from 2-3 years to complete, due to painting and embroidering.
Geisha wear a flat-soled sandal, zori, outdoors, and wear only tabi (white split-toed socks) indoors. In inclement weather geisha wear raised wooden clogs, called geta. Maiko wear a special black lacquered wooden clog, okobo.
Hairstyles
The hairstyles of geisha have varied through history. In the past, it has been common for women to wear their hair down in some periods, but up in others. During the 17th century, women began putting all their hair up again, and it is during this time that the traditional shimada hairstyle, a type of traditional chignon worn by most established geisha, developed.
Harjasari, Bogor Selatan, Bogor
Harjasari nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Bogor Selatan, Kota Bogor, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Awoni Lauso, Idanogawo, Nias
Awoni Lauso nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Idanogawo, Kabupatén Nias, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
2015 BQ4
Ari 2015 BQ4 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.889, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 19.1. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�335321.
Geisha
Hairstyles
These hairstyles are decorated with elaborate haircombs and hairpins (kanzashi). In the seventeenth century and after the Meiji Restoration period, hair-combs were large and conspicuous, generally more ornate for higher-class women. Following the Meiji Restoration and into the modern era, smaller and less conspicuous hair-combs became more popular.
2015 BQ4
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Geisha
Hairstyles
Geisha were trained to sleep with their necks on small supports (takamakura), instead of pillows, so they could keep their hairstyle perfect. To reinforce this habit, their mentors would pour rice around the base of the support. If the geisha's head rolled off the support while they slept, rice would stick to their hair and face.
Many modern geisha use wigs in their professional lives. They must be regularly tended by highly skilled artisans. Traditional hairstyling is a dying art.
Geisha in popular culture
The growing interest in geisha and their exotic appearance have spawned various popular culture phenomena both in Japan and in the West, most recently so-called "geisha-inspired" make-up lines promoted in the West after the popularity of the novel and film Memoirs of a Geisha.
The video game character Setsuka from Soul Calibur III is likened by fans of the game as an almagation of a Geisha and a Queen of Hearts. -->
Batam TV
Batam TV nyaéta stasion TV lokal di Indonésia.
Kubu, Peusangan Siblah Krueng, Bireuen
Kubu nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Peusangan Siblah Krueng, Kabupatén Bireuen, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
Suka Makmur, Semadam, Aceh Tenggara
Suka Makmur nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Semadam, Kabupatén Aceh Tenggara, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
(503880) 2000 YJ29
Ari 2000 YJ29 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.832, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 17.9. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�217983.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Sumber Kidul, Babakan, Cirebon
Sumber Kidul nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Babakan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
SMAN 1 Ciasem
SMAN 1 Ciasem nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Subang. Alamat lengkepna di Jl. Margasari 2 Sukamandi Ciasem, Kalurahan/Désa Sukamandijaya Kacamatan Ciasem, Kabupatén Subang, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20216945.
Bangbung
Bangbung nyaéta salah sahiji jinis kumbang nu dicirikeun ku ayana tanduk dina sirahna. Tanduk ieu katingal jelas dina bangbung jalu. dipakébonan kalapa, insekta ieu dipikanyaho salaku hama, lantaran osok nyerep cairan jeung ngagulung jaringan daun ngora.
Bangbung kolot gedéna bisa nepika 5 cm. Warna awakna coklat kolot nepika hideung. Larva bangbung warnana bodas kotor mibanda sirah coklat semu beureum. Lila pupana dibéakeun dina cacaka nu dijieun tina taneuh, cabang atawa dangdaunnan.
Bangbung mangrupa kumbang pangrusak tutuwuhan, biasa napel dina pucuk daun, nyerep cairan tutuwuhan, ngaruksak jarigan daun nu masih kénéh ngora, jeung ngahakan jeroan batang nu buruk.
1088
Taun ka-1088 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
2015 HL10
Ari 2015 HL10 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.284, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 23.3. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 339547.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Lumban Silintong, Balige, Toba Samosir
Lumban Silintong nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Balige, Kabupatén Toba Samosir, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Karangklesem, Kutasari, Purbalingga
Karangklesem nyaéta salasahiji désa di Kacamatan Kutasari, Purbalingga, Propinsi Jawa Tengah, Indonésia.
Mean
Dina statistik, méan (rata-rata) mibanda dua harti:
Sampel méan biasa dipaké keur estimator ti central tendency saperti populasi méan. Sanajan kitu, éstimator séjén ogé dipaké. Contona, median éstimator nu leuwih robust keur central tendency tinimbang sampel méan.
Keur nilai-réal variabel acak X, méan nyaéta nilai ekspektasi X. Lamun ekspektsi euweuh, variabel random teu mibanda méan.
Méan mangrupa nilai unik ngeunaan jumlah kuadrat deviasi nu minimum. Lamun ngitung jumlah kuadrat deviasi tina ukuran central tendency séjén, bakal leuwih gedé tinimbang keur méan. Ieu nerangkeun kunaon simpangan baku sarta méan ilahar dipaké babarengan dina laporan statistik.
Nilai méan tina fungsi, f(x), dina interval, a<x<b, bisa diitung (ngagunakeun prosés limit dina definisi susunan data) saperti:
Catetan, teu sakabéh probability distribution mibanda méan atawa varian - keur conto tempo sebaran Cauchy.
Di handap mangrupa kasimpulan tina sababaraha metoa keur ngitung méan tina susunan wilangan n.Tempo table of mathematical symbols keur nerangkeun simbol nu dipaké.
Aritmetik Mean
The arithmetic mean is the "standard" average, often simply called the "mean". It is used for many purposes but also often abused by incorrectly using it to describe skewed distributions, with highly misléading results. The classic example is average income - using the arithmetic méan makes it appéar to be much higher than is in fact the case. Consider the scores {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 9}. The arithmetic méan is 3.16, but five out of six scores are below this!
Liam Gallagher
Liam Gallagher anu boga ngaran lengkep William Johm Paul Gallagher nyaéta musisi jeung penulis lagu asal Inggris. Adi teges ti Noel Gallagher ieu lahir di Burnage, Manchester, Inggris tanggal 21 Séptémber 1972. Liam nyaéta salah sahiji personil Oasis anu jadi ujung tumbak éta grup msuik, Liam ogé kasohor ku cara nyanyina anu has. Liam nyaéta anak katilu ti pasangan Thomas jeung Peggy Gallagher. Nalika umur 15 taun, Liam dikaluarkeun ti Sakola alatan gelut jeung babaturanna, malah mah Liam sok maok sapédah ti toko, tapi nalika rumaja, Liam mulai asup ka dunya musik.
Mean
Geometrik Mean
The geometric mean is an average which is useful for sets of numbers which are interpreted according to their product and not their sum (as is the case with the arithmetic méan). For example rates of growth.
Liam Gallagher
Liam mimitina jadi personil nyaéta nalika babaturan sakolana, Paul McGuigan ngajakan manéhna pikeun jadi vokalis di grupna, The Rain, tapi ieu grup musik teu pati loba nu mikaresep. Terus Liam ngajakan Noel pikeun jadi gitaris di ieu grup, sabada Noel asup ieu grup musik ngaranna diganti jadi Oasis. Oasis bubar di taun 2009 sabab Noel geus teu bisa gawé bareng deui jeung Liam lantaran égo Liam anu kalaleuwihi, sabada bubar, Liam ngabentuk grup musik anyar anu dingaranan Beady Eye. Salian jadi musisi, Liam ogé ngabentuk rumah produksi nu dingaranan In 1 Production.
Mean
Harmonik Mean
The harmonic mean is an average which is useful for sets of numbers which are defined in relation to some unit, for example speed (distance per unit of time).
Generalized Mean
The generalized mean is an abstraction of the Arithmetic, Géometric and Harmonic Méans.
By choosing the appropriate value for the paraméter m we can get the arithmetic méan (m = 1), the géometric méan (m -> 0) or the harmonic méan (m = -1)
and again a suitable choice of an invertible f(x) will give the arithmetic méan with f(x)=x, the géometric méan with f(x)=log(x), and the harmonic méan with f(x)=1/x.
Weighted Mean
The weighted mean is used, if one wants to combine average values from samples of the same population with different sample sizes:
The weights w_i represent the bounds of the partial sample. In other applications they represent a méasure for the reliability of the influence upon the méan by respective values.
Truncated mean
Sometimes a set of numbers (the data) might be contaminated by inaccurate outliers, i.e. values which are much too low or much too high. In this case one can use a truncated mean. It involves discarding given parts of the data at the top or the bottom end, typically an equal amount at éach end, and then taking the arithmetic méan of the remaining data. The number of values removed is indicated as a percentage of total number of values.
Interquartile mean
The interquartile mean is a specific example of a truncated méan. It is simply the arithmetic méan after removing the lowest and the highest quarter of values. assuming the values have been ordered.
2016 HN2
Ari 2016 HN2 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.532, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 23.5. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�382820.
Teupin Raya, Peusangan Siblah Krueng, Bireuen
Teupin Raya nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Peusangan Siblah Krueng, Kabupatén Bireuen, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
SMKS Yastrif 1 Parungpanjang
SMKS Yastrif 1 Parungpanjang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Bogor. Alamat lengkepna di Jl. Mohamad Toha No. 45, Kalurahan/Désa Cibunar Kacamatan Parung Panjang, Kabupatén Bogor, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20232503.
Lutung Mentawai
Lutung Mentawai (Presbytis potenziani) atawa sok disebut ogé Joja nyaéta spésiés primata anu kagolong kana kulawarga Cercopithecidae, sarta sub kulawarga Colobinaé. Lutung Mentawai mangrupa sato éndemik anu aya di Pulo Mentawai, Indonésia. Tempat cicing alamina aya di leuweung tropos garing atawa di leuweung subtropis. Hanjakal, ieu sato téh kaacam musnah ku sabab leuweung, tempat cicingna diraruksak ku jalma anu teu tanggung jawab. Sajaba ti disebut Lutung Mentawai atawa Joja, ngaran séjén tina sato ieu nyaéta Mentawai Leaf Monkey, Golden-bellied Mentawai Island Langur, atawa Long-tailed Langur. Lutung Mentawai bakal loba kapanggih di Pagai Utara, Pagai Selatan, sarta di Pulo Siberut. Lutung Mentawai dibagi jadi 2 sub spésiés nyaéta Presbytis potenziani potenziani anu sumebar di Pulo Sipora, Pulo Pagai Utara jeung Pagai Selatan sarta Presbytis potenziani siberut anu sumebar di Pulo Siberut.
Sistem Kawin
Sok sanajan Lutung Mentawai téh kagolong kana sasatoan anu ngadahar bungbuahan, sisikian jeung kekembangan, anu biasana ngabogaan sipat poligami, tapi Lutung Mentawai anu kagolong kana Prebytis ieu ngabogaan sistem kawin monogami. Hal ieu jadi kajadian anu ngirut sarta jarang kapanggih dina monyét anu kagolong kana kulawarga ieu.
Kaunikan Lutung Mentawai
Lutung Mentawai kagolong kana spésiés primata anu boga rupa pangalusna. Tonggongna hideung meles sarta hérang, beuteungna coklat kolot, sabudeureun beungeutna warna bodas, sarta beuheung jeung buntutna panjang hideung meles siga sutra. Maranéhna kagolong kana sasatoan diurnal, anu gerakanna lolobana ujlang-ajleng jeung gugulantungan. Kaunikan séjén tina Lutung Mentawai nyaéta bisa ngaluarkeun sora saméméh meleték panon poé sarta kajadian ieu téh tanda tritorial kakawasaanna. Lutung Mentawai kagolong kana dalapan jenis lutung di Indonésia anu pangéndahna. Kahirupan sosialna beda jeung primata séjénna, jalu jeung bikangna ngabogaan sora kalayan prilaku primitif.
Populasi
Populasi Lutung Mentawai kiwari éstuning matak prihatin sarta kaancam bakal musnah. Dina jangka waktu 40 taun ieu, populasina terus nyirorot nepi ka 50 persénna, akibat tina ruksakna leuwueng tempat cicing ieu sato. Sajaba ti ruksakna tempat cicing asli Lutung Mentawai, utamana di Pulo Siberut, musanahna ieu sato ogé dipangaruhan ku nu moro sacara ilégal, ahirna kaayaan jumlah ieu sato téh kacida matak prihatinna. Baheula nu moro téh ukur ngagunakeun panah, kitu ogé pikeun ngabasmi hama, sedengkeun kiwari mah, moro téh ngagunakeun bedil angin jeung moro sato-sato primata anu geus langka. Joja jadi salah sahiji spésiés prioritas anu bakal di konsérvasi dina taun 2008-2018, anu geus dipunlikasikeun ku Kementrian Kehutanan Republik Indonesia dina siaran pers nomor S.22/II/PIK-1/2008 (Kementerian Kehutanan Republik Indonesia,2008).
2005 XL4
Ari 2005 XL4 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.567, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 22.8. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO98018.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Blok Sawah, Kota Sigli, Pidie
Blok Sawah nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Kota Sigli, Kabupatén Pidie, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
Blok Sawah, Kota Sigli, Pidie
(424969) 2009 BT5
Ari 2009 BT5 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.129, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 20.6. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 323043.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Muhammad
Muhammad (Aksara Arab: محمد, nu dialihaksarakeun dina aksara Latin jadi Mohammad, Mohammed, Muhammed, Muhamad, atawa Mahomet, Aksara Sunda: ᮙᮥᮠᮙ᮪ᮙᮓ᮪) dianggap ku umat  Islam salaku rosul/utusan Gusti nu pangangeusan/ahir. Numutkeun babad salira (biografi) nu disebut siroh (basa Arab), anjeunna dibabarkeun tina tanggal 20 April 570 di Mekah, pupus di Madinah 8 Juni 632, nu duanana aya di wewengkon kalér Arab. Umat Islam percaya yén pancén Muhammad nyaéta pikeun nyampurnakeun agama tauhid (monotéisme), nyaéta Islam, nu geus diajarkeun/didugikeun ku para nabi saméméhna, sarta yakin yén Islam geus aya saméméh anjeunna. Nalika disebutkeun ngaran anjeunna, umat Islam biasa nuturkeun ku kalimah sallallahu `alayhi wa s-salām (saw., "mugia Gusti Alloh maparinkeun kasalametan ka anjeunna").
Ringkesan
Muhammad waktu keur ngora kungsi jadi sudagar nu ngumbara ka mana-mana. Dina taun 610, dina yuswa 40, anjeunna narima wahyu, nu ku anjeunna digambarkeun yén anjeunna kadatangan Malaikat Jibril, nu ngadugikeun paréntah Pangéran sangkan ngapalkeun sarta ngadugikeun ayat-ayat nu salajengna dikumpulkeun salaku Qur'an. Anjeunna salajengna ngalegaan udaganana, da'wah ngeunaan katauhidan jeung Poé Balitungan pikeun jalma nu sok nyieun dosa sarta sok nyembah-nyembah berhala — kawas séké sélér jeung tatanggana di Mekah. Anjeunna teu nolak sagemblengna ajaran Yahudi jeung Kristen, atawa agama monotéis séjén nu dipikawanoh di Arab; anjeunna mung pikeun ngalengkepan sarta nyampurnakeun ajaranana. Dina taun 622 anjeunna ngungsi, bareng jeung warga séjénna nu geus ariman, ninggalkeun Mekah nuju ka Madinah, tempat nu salajengna anjeunna ngadegkeun pamaréntahan masarakat Islam. Perang antara Mekah jeung madinah sababaraha kali lumangsung, nu pamustunganana pasukan Islam bisa balik deui nalukkeun Mekah. Pasukan Islam ieu salajengna bajoang nalukkeun kaom pagan séjénna di Tatar Arab. Nalika Muhammad pupus, anjeunna tos hasil ngahijikeun Tatar Arab sarta ngintunkeun sababaraha ékspédisi ka wewengkon kalér, ka Suriah jeung Paléstina.
Dina kapamingpinan satutasna Muhammad, kakawasaan Islam geus nepi ka Paléstina, Siria, Mésopotamia, Pérsia, Mesir, Afrika Kalér, jeung Spanyol. Panalukan salajengna, kontak dagang antara Muslim jeung non-Muslim, sarta kagiatan da'wah geus hasil nyebarkeun Islam ka sakuliah dunya.
Kumaha bisa nyaho ngeunaan Muhammad?
Sumber-sumber rujukan nu bisa ngémbarkeun ngeunaan Muhammad nyaéta Qur'an, babad salira siroh, jeung kumpulan hadith. Najan lain mangrupa babad salira Muhammad, Qur'an méré sababaraha émbaran ngeunaan kahirupanana. Babad salira nu munggaran nyaéta karya Ibnu Ishaq (pupus 768), diédit ku Ibnu Hisham (pupus 833); jeung karya al-Waqidi (pupus 822). Ibnu Ishaq nulis babad salira Muhammad kira 120 - 130 taun sapupusna Muhammad. Sumber katilu, kumpulan hadits, saperti Qur'an, lain samata-mata biografi. Hadits nyaéta kumpulan sasanggeman sarta laku lampah Muhammad sarta para sahabatna.
Sababaraha sarjana sképtik (Goldziher, Schacht, Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, Rippin, Berg, jeung nu lianna) ngarasa mangmang kana kabisapercayaan sumber-sumber di luhur, utamana kumpulan hadits. Nu jadi alesan nyaéta nalika tradisi lisan ieu dikumpulkeun, masarakat Muslim geus bengkah jadi sababaraha madhab pamikiran. Unggal kelompok jeung madhab boga séwang-séwangan nu eusina mindeng patukang tonggong. Pikeun para sarjana Muslim, hal ieu nimbulkeun tangtangan pikeun nalungtik bebeneran kalawan leuwih anteb maké cara-cara modérn.
Loba sarjana Muslim jeung non-Muslim nu sapuk kana ayana (loba) tradisi nu teu oténtik/asli ngeunaan kahirupan Muhammad dina kumpulan haditsna (Malah, kabiasaan/tradisi ieu lolobana dicaritakeun ku otoritas Muslim nu dianggap lemah; ngan saeutik kumpulan hadits nu dianggap sahih, atawa bisa dipercaya; pikeun leuwih lengkep, buka élmu hadits).
Tapi, kaasup pikeun nu sképtik, ringkesan kasajarahan jeung babad salira nu dituliskeun di luhur bisa ditarima.
Silsilah Muhammad
Numutkeun tradisi, Muhammad nyusud silsilahna nepi ka Adnan, nu dipercaya ku urang Arab kalér salaku karuhunna. Kasebutkeun yén Adnan téh turunan Ismail putra Ibrahim, najan silsilah pastina mah teu jéntré. Silsilah Rosululloh dugi ka Adnan nyaéta:
Muhammad bin Abdulloh bin Abdul Mutolib (Shaiba) bin Hashim (Amr) bin Abdul Manaf (al-Mughira) bin Qusai (Zaid) bin Kilab bin Murra bin Ka`b bin Lu'ay bin Ghalib bin Fahr (Quraish) bin Malik bin an-Nadr (Qais) bin Kinana bin Khuzaimah bin Mudrikah (Amir) bin Ilyas bin Mudar bin Nizar bin Ma`ad bin Adnan. (bin = "putra" dina basa Arab; ngaran séjén jalma nu dua ngaranna disebut dina kurung.)
Keur budak
Muhammad lahir ti kulawarga aya nu matuh di Arab kalér nu disebut Mekah. Dumasar itungan, anjeunna kira-kira lahir 20 April 570; nu dumasar tradisi katelah Taun Gajah. Ramana, Abdulloh, pupus saméméh anjeunna babar antukna Muhammad dirorok ku akina ti bapa Abdul Mutolib, pamingpin bangsa Quraisy. Luyu jeung kabiasaan urang Mekah, ibuna ngirim anjeunna ka pilemburan sangkan disusuan sarta dirorok ku urang Baduy. Hawa pilemburan leuwih bérésih batan di Mekah, jeung karasa yén dina iklim kieu, urang kota baris mibanda awal nu leuwih kokoh dina kahirupanna. Dina yuswa genep taun Muhammad dikantun pupus ku ibuna, Aminah, sarta akina, Abdul Mutolib, dina yuswa dalapan taun. Salajengna Muhammad dirawatan ku pamanna Abu Tolib, pamingpin anyar bani Hasyim bangsa Quraisy, nu pangkuatna di Mekah.
Salaku rumaja Muhammad mimiti marengan pamanna dagang ngumbara ka Suriah, antukna anjeunna boga pangaweruh lega ngeunaan sabudeureunana.
Manjing sawawa
Catetan siroh nunjukkeun yén Khodijah jeung Muhammad gaduh lima putra, hiji lalaki jeung opat awéwé. Sababaraha ahli sajarah ngabantah yén sababaraha anak awéwéna sabenerna ti salaki nu kadua, sedengkeun ahli séjénna keukeuh yén sadayana putra Muhammad. Lima putra éta babar sateuacanna Muhammad mimiti da'wah Islam. Putrana Qasim pupus dina yuswa dua taun. Muhammad dilandih Abul Qasim, nu hartina bapana Qasim. Putra nu opat nyaéta Zainab, Ruqayah, Ummu Kulsum, jeung Fatimah.
Mitembeyan da'wah
Muhammad mindeng niiskeun pikir di hiji guha deukeut Mekah. Kira taun 610, nalika niis, Muhammad kadatangan Malaikat Jibril sarta ngadangukeun sasanggemanana nu hartina "Baca, kalawan asma Alloh, Gusti nu Maha Nyipta. Nu nyiptakeun manusa tina saguruntul getih. Baca, kalawan asma Gusti nu Maha Ngawulang. Nu ngawulangkeun élmu migunakeun kalam; Nu ngajarkeun ka manusa sagala rupa nu teu dipikanyaho." (Tingal surat Al-Alaq pikeun lengkepna.)
Pangalaman munggaran jeung Jibril ieu matak ngaganggu kana pipikiran Muhammad, tapi Khodijah istrina ngayakinkeun jeung percaya yén ieu pangalaman téh bener; salajengna Khadijah jadi nu munggaran iman ka Muhammad. Khodijah salajengna dituturkeun ku adi sabrayna Muhammad nu kakara sapuluh taun Ali bin Abi Tolib sarta sobatna Abu Bakar.
Dugi ka pupusna, Muhammad sering nampi wahyu, najan antara nu munggaran jeung nu kadua aya jarak wanci nu lila. Nalika mangsa nunggu nu matak melang ieu, anjeunna nampa surat ad-Dhuha, nu eusina ngalelerkeun nu nuju marojéngja.
Kira taun 613, Muhammad mitembeyan da'wah di tempat umum. Mimiti mah lolobana teu miroséa, malah ngahinakeun anjeunna. Tapi salajengna, jul-jol hiji-hiji ngagabung jeung para sahabatna.
Dimusuhan
Ngalobaanana umat Muhammad, nimbulkeun mumusuhan pikeun sawatara pamingpin lokal. Kawaluyaan aranjeunna gumantung ka Ka'bah, tempat jarah pamujaan. Mun aranjeunna mariceunan pamujaan-pamujaan éta, sakumaha nu diajarkeun ku Muhammad, bakal ngabalukarkeun leungitna nu jararah, dadagangan moal ramé, moal aya kabeungharan. Suku Muhammad nyalira, kaom Quraisy, pangrugina, sabab maranéhna pisan nu jadi pangawal Ka'bah. Muhammad jeung kaomna dihukuman, sababaraha di antarana aya nu diusir ka Habasyah Afrika sarta dugi ka ngababakan di tempat éta.
Sababaraha surat jeung bagian surat disebutkeun turun dina mangsa ieu sarta ngagambarkeun kaayaan ieu: tempo misalna al-Masadd, al-Humazah, sabagian surat Maryam jeung al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, jeung 'Abasa. It was during this period that the episode known as The Satanic Verses may have happened. It is said that Muhammad was briefly tempted to relax his condemnation of Meccan polytheism and buy péace with his neighbors, but repented and recanted his words (see the article on The Satanic Verses). The incident is reported in only a few sources, and many Muslims do not accept it as fact.
Taun 619, Khodijah istri Muhammad sarta pamanna Abu Tolib pupus; katelah salaku "taun tunggara." Bani Hashim nolak jadi panyalindungan Muhammad (sabab pamanna nu jadi pamingpin bani Hashim pupus), antukna loba muslim nu ngarandapan siksaan jeung kalaparan.
Kira taun 620, anjeunna ngumumkeun yén anjeunna ngalaman Isro jeung Mi'roj - further alienating his enemies.
Hijrah
Taun 622, nyanghareupan kasusah jeung ancaman pati, Muhammad bareng jeung para sahabatna di Mekah hijrah ka Madinah, di mana anjeunna loba nampi nu arasup Islam. Ku jalan megatkeun kasukuanana Muhammad nunjukkeun yén beungkeut kasukuan jeung kulawarga bisa kalindih ku beungkeutan Islam, hiji pamanggih révolusionér pikeun masarakat Arab. Hijrah atawa migrasi ieu nandakeun munggaran kala/kalénder Islam.
Masarakat Madinah miharep Muhammad bisa ngahijikeun kotana nu kabagi ku kelompok-kelompok, nu salajengna Muhammad ngabéwarakeun Piagem Madinah (antara 622-623), nu jadi dadasar sangkan kelompok-kelompok nu béda bisa hirup kumbuh babarengan. Tradisi toléransi awal ieu mangrupa salah sahiji sabab kuatna kakawasaan Muslim salajengna.
Perang
Hubungan antara Mekah jeung Madinah cepet pisan jadi goréng silih musuhan (tempo surat al-Baqarah). Urang Mekah nyita sagala titinggalan Muslim nu ditinggalkeun di Mekah. Di Madinah, Muhammad nawis perjangjian nyatru jeung silih tulungan jeung suku-suku tatangga.
Bulan Maret 624, Muhammad mingpin 300 perjurit pikeun nyerang rombongan dagang Mekah. Urang Mekah hasil ngagagalkeun serbuan ieu sarta males ngirim pasukan leutik ka Madinah.
Tanggal 15 Maret 624 di deukeut lelewek Badar, pasukan Mekah jeung MUslim bantrok. Najan 300 ngalawan 800 dina perangna, pasukan Muslim meunang, nelasan sahanteuna 45 sarta nahan 70 urang Mekah; ti pihak Muslim ukur 14 urang nu palastra.
Kapamingpinan Muhammad beuki kuat
Pikeun kelompok Muslim, meunangna di Badar jadi bukti nu nguatkeun karosulan Muhammad. Following this victory, after minor skirmishes, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa. Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted and Muhammad became de facto ruler of the city.
Perang diteruskeun
Taun 625, pamingpin Mekah Abu Sufyan nyerbu Madinah kalawan kakuatan 3.000 perjurit. Perangna lumangsung 23 Maret di Uhud, hasilna imbang. Pihak Mekah ngaku meunang, tapi leungiteun loba teuing soldadu pikeun ngadesek pasukan Muslim nepi ka Madinah.
Bulan April 627 Abu Sufyan mingpin deui pasukan nu leuwih kuat ka Madinah. Anjeunna dibantuan ku simpatisan urang Madinah, suku Yahudi Banu Qurayza. Muhammad ngalawan ku ngali lombang sabudeureun Madinah antukna salamet. This was the Battle of the Trench.
Satutasna perang, sadaya lalaki sawawa Banu Qurayza jeung saurang awéwé dipancung dumasar paréntah Saad bin Muadh, pamingpin nu dipilih ku Banu Qurayza. Sésa Banu Qurayza dijadikeun budak atawa tebusan, sedengkeun sadaya harta titinggalna dibagikeun di antara Muslim.
Satutasna perang ieu, pasukan Muslim bisa, maké cara panalukan atawa arasup Islam, ngalegaan pangaruhna ka kota-kota jeung suku tatangga.
Nalukkeun Mekah
Taun 628, posisi Muslim geus cukup kuat antukna Muhammad wani balik ka Mekah, munjungan kalawan daméy. Bulan Maret 628 anjeunna siap-siap deui ka Mekah, dibarengan ku 1,600 urang. Sanggeus badami, hiji perjangjian dijieun di Hudaibiyah. Muhammad teu diwidian neruskeun jarahna ka Mekah taun éta. Taun payunna pihak Muslim diidinan jarah ka Mekah.
Alatan perjangjian dirumpak, perang lumangsung deui. taun 630, Muhammad nyerbu Mekah kalawan pasukan loba pisan, cenah nepi ka 10,000 perjurit. Nyanghareupan balai nu teu bisa dilawan, urang Mekah nyerah tanpa perang. Ku kituna Muhammad ngajangjikeun pangampunan sacara umum (aya sababaraha urang sacara husus anu henteu). Urang Mekah lolobana asup Islam, sedengkeun sesembahan-sesembahan sabudeureun Ka'bah diancurkeun. Ku ayana ieu, jarah nu biasa lumangsung robah jadi jarah Muslim.
Ngahijikeun Tatar Arab
Saatosna wangsul ka Mekah, Muhammad ngéléhkeun satru suku-suku nu ngamusuhan di Hunayn, antukna Muslim jadi kakuatan nu onjoy di Tatar Arab, katambah ku gancangna suku-suku jeung séjén nu ngagabung ka Muhammad.
Muhammad salaku soldadu
Salami hirup 63 taun, Muhammad kungsi jadi sudagar, lajeng ahli da'wah. Anjeunna ngangkat pedang dina mangsa ahir hirupna. Anjeunna jadi soldadu ukur sapuluh taun.
Loba kritik ditujukeun ka Muhammad alatan nyerang rombongan dagang jeung panalukan. Kritik nyebutkeun yén perangna jauh mela-melu ti mélaan manéh, tapi komentator Muslim ngajawab yén perang-perangna ukur pikeun mélaan masarakat Muslim ngalawan urang Mekah, kalawan tetep ngajaga kamanusaan nalika perang. Pikeun salawa salajengna, tempo Muhammad salaku soldadu.
Kahirupan kulawarga Muhammad
Khadijah istri munggaran Muhammad sarta ibu pikeun opat putra nu nyésa Fatimah. Istri-istri anjeunna salajengna di antarana mangrupa randa nu dikantun maot dipangperangan. Nu sanésna mangrupa putra sahabat-sahabat sarta pamingpin suku. salah sahiji pertikahan nu ahir ngahasilkeun saurang putra, mung lajeng pupus dina yuswa sapuluh sasih.
Pagar Puding Lamo, Serai Serumpun, Tebo
Pagar Puding Lamo nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Serai Serumpun, Kabupatén Tebo, Propinsi Jambi, Indonésia.
Muhammad
Kahirupan kulawarga Muhammad
Nikahna ka Aisyah sering dikritik kiwari dumasar sumber tradisional nu nyebutkeun yén Aisyah ditikah nalika yuswa salapan taun (tempo Aisyah pikeun sawala ngeunaan hal ieu). Kritik ogé natanyakeun nikahna ka randa putra kukutna, Zaynab binti Jahsh, sarta dirumpakna paréntah Qur'an nikah ka leuwih ti opat istri. Pikeun émbaran leuwih lengkep ngeunaan kahirupan kulawarga Muhammad, katut kritikna, tingal pertikahan Muhammad.
Pupusna Muhammad
Sapanjang hirupna, Muhammad mung sakali ngalaman kabancén, nyaéta méméh pupusna (sigana malaria). Anjeunna pupus dinten Minggu, kira pasosoré 8 Juni 632, di Kota Madinah, dina yuswa 63 taun.
Numutkeun kaom Si'ah, Muhammad kungsi ngémbarkeun minantuna (adi sabrayna), Ali, salaku panerusna dina pidato umum di Ghadir Khom. Tapi Abu Bakar jeung Umar bisa nyiasatan antukna Abu Bakar jadi khalifah.
Ku geus ngahijina Tatar Arab, salajengna pasukan Islam bisa nalukkeun sarta ngahijikeun Timur Tengah dina hiji kapamingpinan.
Turunan Muhammad
Turunan Muhammad nu panjang yuswa mung Fatimah sarta paraputrana (aya ogé nu nyebatkeun yén putuna ti Zainab, Ammah atanapi Umamah, ogé panjang yuswa).
Kaom Si'ah percaya yén carogé Fatimah, Ali, sarta paraputrana mangrupa pamingpin nu bener pikeun umat Islam. Najan kaom Sunni teu percaya hal ieu, turunan Muhammad tetep dipihormat.
Turunan Muhammad katelah dina sababaraha landihan, kayaning sayyid, syed سيد, jeung syarif شريف (jamak: ِأشراف Asyrof). Loba pamingpin jeung inohong di nagara-nagara Muslim, baheula atawa kiwari, ngaku turunan anjeunna, kayaning wangsa Fatimid di Afrika Kalér, Idrisi, kulawarga karajaan Yordania jeung Maroko kiwari, sarta Agha Khan, Imam kaom Ismaili. Aya ogé sakumpulan masarakat di nagara-nagara Muslim nu ngakukeun nu sarupa kieu.
Pentingna sajarah Muhammad
Sateuacan pupusna taun 632, Muhammad tos ngadegkeun Islam salaku kakuatan sosial jeung pulitik nu geus ngahijikeun ampir sakuliah Tatar Arab. Sababaraha puluh taun saatosna, panerusna geus hasil ngahijikeun sakuliah Tatar Arab, sarta nalukkeun Iran, Iraq, Mesir, Paléstina, Suriah, Arménia, jeung lolobana Afrika Kalér. Taun 750, Afrika Kalér geus sagemblengna dina kakawasaan Muslim, kitu ogé Spanyol kidul jeung Asia Tengah (kaasup Sind, di Lembah Indus). Dina abad kasapuluh, dipingpin ku Ghaznavid, Islam geus ngalegaan nepi ka wewengkon Hindu di wétaneun Indus, wewengkon India kalér kiwari. Salajengna, Islam sumebar kalawan daméy nepi ka sakuliah Afrika jeung Asia Tenggara. Islam kiwari diagem ku leuwih ti samilyar urang di sakuliah dunya, sarta jadi ageman kadua pangbadagna.
Tumbu kaluar
Biografi non-madhab:
Biografi Sunni:
Biografi Si'ah:
Jihat kritik:
Rupa-rupa:
(138859) 2000 WN63
Ari (138859) 2000 WN63 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.532, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 19.0. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�401201.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
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Park Min-young
Park Min-young nyaéta saurang aktris asal Koréa Kidul. Ngaranna mimiti nanjak sanggeus ngabéntangan drama Sunkyunkwan Scandal taun 2010 jeung City Hunter taun 2011. Park Min-young ngamimitian karirna ku ngabéntangan iklan SC Telecom ta4n 2005. Selang sataun Min-young ngabéntangan hiji sitkom Unstoppable High Kick! taun 2006.
Helmy Yahya
Helmy Yahya lahir di Palémbang, Sumatera Selatan, 6 Maret 1963, Helmy nyaéta presenter, nu nulis sarta créator quiz sarta program télévisi. Lalaki anu kungsi nempuh atikan di STAN ieu meunang landian minangka raja Kuis Indonésia, sanggeus seniorna Ani Sumadi. Tantowi Yahya nyaéta lanceuk kandung ti Helmy Yahya anu ogé mangrupa presenter sarta produser nu kaceluk di Indonésia. Alatan loba ngaluarkeun kuis-kuis kréatif rarancangna sorangan sarta kuis adaptasi ti kuiz luar nagari.
Sawatara kuis anu jadi karyana di antawisna, Pesona Nada (TVRI), Kuis Berpacu Dalam Melodi (TVRI, 1989-1998), Kuis Aksara Bermakna (TVRI, 1989-1996), Kuis Siapa Dia (TVRI, 1992-1998), Kuis Tak Tik Boom (RCTI, 1992), Kuis Aksara Bermakna (ANTV, 1997), Kuis Joshua (Indosiar, 1999-2001), Kuis Siapa Berani (Indosiar, 2000 - 2005), sarta nu lianna. Sajaba ti éta sawatara réality show sarta acara-acara live télévisi ogé jadi hasil karyana. Di antawis program nu kasebut nyaéta, Asli Apa Palsu (Asal) (SCTV), Mimpi Kali Yee…, (SCTV), Menembus Batas (ANTV), Playboy Kabel (SCTV), Uang Kaget (RCTI, 2004 - 2006), Tolooong (SCTV), Penghuni Terakhir (ANTV), Bedah Rumah (RCTI), Nikah Gratis, (RCTI), Asal Plesetan (ANTV), sarta nu lianna. samentara patali kahirupan pribadina, Helmy nyaéta anak bungsu ti opat barayana, nyaéta Wardia Yahya (56), Alimin Yahya (52), Dalilah Yahya (47) sarta presenter Tantowi Yahya (42).
Helmi nyaéta salaki ti Harfansi Yahya, sarta miboga tilu urang anak, Rendy Faraitody Yahya (16), Amerigo Salim Yahya (10), Saskia Rachelly Yahya (6).
Helmy anu kungsi ngahontal Panasonic Award, presenter kuis panghadéna éta, arék pisah jeung pamajikanana. Tapi alatan tinimbang ti kulawarga sarta barudakna, pipirakan éta gagal lumangsung. Dina sasih Méi 2009, Helmy ngagugat cerai pamajikanana alatan pamajikanana selingkuh, dina kaping 21 Méi 2009, Helmy mergokan pamajikanana, keur jeung saurang lalaki. Tungtungna, Helmy mutuskeun pikeun ngadukeun pamajikanana sarta ngagugat cerai pamajikanana anu geus méré 4 urang anak.
Kaping 6 Juni 2009, Helmy resmi cerai jeung Aci, sarta Helmy meunang hak asuh kaopat anakna, sedengkeun patali jeung perkara perselingkuhan anu disangka dipigawé ku Aci, tungtungna Helmy henteu manjangkeun masalah ieu. Manéhna nyabut laporanana dina pertengahan Juni 2009. 11 Juni 2009, Helmy ngawinkeun putra kahijina, Rendy Faraithody Yahya. Dina acara kawinan budakna, urut pamajikanana teu datang dina acara.
Néangan rezeki di dunya hiburan, tétéla dituturkeun ku anakna. Tody, salah sahiji anak Helmy nu milih nuturkeun bapana kalayan nyieun band, AOP, anu ogé diorbitkaeun ku Helmy.
Tétéla jadi duda henteu perlu dirasakeun lila-lila ku Helmy, alatan di taun 2010, benerna dina kaping 15 Januari, manéhna ngalamar kabogohna, anu urut mahasiswina, Febriyani Sofyan.
Ostéoporosis
Ostéoporosis téh kasakit tulang mangrupa turunna dénsitas mineral tulang (bone mineral density, BMD), karuksakan mikroarsitéktur tulang, sarta robahna kandungan protéin non-kolagén. Tulang ostéoporotik luhur résiko rengatna. Ku WHO, ostéoporosis wanoja dihartikeun dénsitas mineral tulang 2,5 handapeun massa tulang puncak (rata-rata jalma walagri umur 20 taun nu sarua kelaminna) nu diukur ku absorpsimétri sinar-X énérgi ganda (DXA, Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry). Najan cara natambakeunana geus beuki maju (misalna maké bifosfonat), tetep waé mending disingkahan. ku sabab masalah hormonal, istri balangantrang leuwih loba katarajang ostéoporosis batan lalaki, komo mun ditambahan ku ngaroko. Asupan ubar kasakit kronis ogé kadang sok nambahan résiko katarajang ostéoporosis.
Patogenesis
Anu jadi kasang tukang ostéoporosis téh taya lian ti teu saimbangna antara formasi jeung résorpsi tulang.
Normalna
Kalawan maneuh, matriks tulang salawasna ngalaman rémodéling: formasi dijalankeun ku sél ostéoblast, sedengkeun résorpsi ku ostéoklast. Dua hal ieu dipangaruhan pisan ku faktor hormonal jeung nutrisi.
Sangkan bisa tumuwuh normal, tulang butuh kalsium jeung vitamin D. Hormon paratiroid ngatur komposisi mineral jero tulang. Hormon glukokortikoid ngaronjatkeun kagiatan ostéoklast, antukna tulang ngalaman résorpsi. Kalsitonin, éstrogén, jeung téstostéron ngaronjatkeun kagiatan ostéoblast, antukna tulang tumuwuh. <!-- Trabecular bone is the sponge-like bone in the center of long bones and vertebrae. Cortical bone is the hard outer shell of bones. Because osteoblasts and osteoclasts inhabit the surface of bones, trabecular bone is more active, more subject to bone turnover, to remodeling.
Pathologically
Long before any overt fractures occur, the small spicules of trabecular bone break and are reformed in the process known as remodeling. It is an accumulation of fractures in trabecular bone that are incompletely repaired that leads to the manifestation of osteoporosis. Common osteoporotic fracture sites, the wrist, the hip and the spine, have a relatively high trabecular bone to cortical bone ratio. These areas rely on trabecular bone for strength, and therefore the intense remodeling causes these areas to degenerate most when the remodeling isn't balanced.
Kudi
Kudi nyaéta sarupaning parang fungsional anu bagian puhuna ngajendol siga beuteung bucitreuk, tapi aya ogé anu mangrupa pakarang pusaka kawas kujang, boga tilu mata.
Ostéoporosis
Pathologically
Low peak bone mass is important in the development of osteoporosis. Bone mass peaks in both men and women between the ages of 25 and 35, thereafter diminishing.
Risk factors
The mechanisms influencing the formation of the disease are complex. Most cases do not result from inadequate calcium intake, but include other factors affecting bone matrix formation and reabsorption.
Potentially modifiable
Tobacco smoking inhibits the activity of osteoblasts.
Medication
For medication potentially causing osteoporosis, the positive effects of them needs to be compared with the degenerative effects on bone.
Diseases and disorders
There are many disorders associated with osteoporosis:
Those who suffer certain auto-immune and inflammatory disorders are likely to have a higher level of cytokines in the body. The overabundance of these proteins increases the body's inflammatory response which may upset the balance of osteoblast and osteoclast activity.
Epidemiology
It is estimated that 1 in 3 women and 1 in 12 men over the age of 50 worldwide have osteoporosis. It is responsible for millions of fractures annually, mostly involving the lumbar vertebrae, hip, and wrist. Fragility fractures of ribs are also common in men.
Hip fractures
Hip fractures are responsible for the most serious consequences of osteoporosis. In the United States, osteoporosis causes a predisposition to more than 250,000 hip fractures yearly. It is estimated that a 50-year-old white woman has a 17.5% lifetime risk of fracture of the proximal femur. The incidence of hip fractures increases each decade from the sixth through the ninth for both women and men for all populations. The highest incidence is found among those men and women ages 80 or older.
First vertebral fractures
An estimated 700,000 women have a first vertebral fracture each year. The lifetime risk of a clinically detected symptomatic vertebral fracture is about 15% in a 50-year-old white woman. However, because symptoms are often overlooked or thought to be a normal part of getting older, it is believed that only about one-third of vertebral compression fractures are actually diagnosed.
Distal radius fractures
Distal radius fractures, usually of the Colles type, are the third most common type of osteoporotic fractures. In the United States, the total annual number of Colles' fractures is about 250,000. The lifetime risk of sustaining a Colles' fracture is about 16% for white women. By the time women reach age 70, about 20% have had at least one wrist fracture.
Diagnosis
The composition of bones can be investigated by Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. The rate of bone turnover, on the other hand, can be measured with urine NTx, a byproduct of bone cartilage breakdown. Urine NTx greater than 40 may indicate osteoporosis.
Today, many cases of osteoporosis in developed countries are diagnosed before symptoms develop. This is due to widespread screening for osteoporosis using the DXA scan. With treatment, bone mineral density increases, and fracture risk decreases.
In the absence of treatment, overt osteoporosis is heralded by a fracture. Some fractures, like vertebral compression fractures or sacral insufficiency fractures, may not be apparent at first, appearing to patient and physician as a very bad back ache or completely without symptoms. Hip fractures and wrist fractures are more obvious.
Definition
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, formerly DEXA) is considered the gold standard for diagnosis of osteoporosis. Diagnosis is made when the bone mineral density is less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young adult reference population. This is translated as a T-score. The World Health Organization has established diagnostic guidelines as T-score -1.0 or greater is "normal", T-score between -1.0 and -2.5 is "low bone mass" (or "osteopenia") and -2.5 or below as osteoporosis.
When there has also been a low trauma or osteoporotic fracture, defined as one that occurs as a result of a fall from a standing height, the term "severe or established" osteoporosis is used. This is very important, because a person who has already had a fracture is at least 4 times as likely to have another fracture as another person, independent of other health measures.
Osteoporosis can further be separated into primary and secondary osteoporosis. Primary osteoporosis is the form seen in older persons in which bone loss is accelerated over that predicted for age and sex. Secondary osteoporosis, in contrast, results from a variety of identifiable conditions.
In order to differentiate between primary and secondary osteoporosis, blood tests and X-rays are usually done to rule out cancer with metastasis to the bone, multiple myeloma, Cushing's disease and other causes mentioned above.
Screening
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends that all women 65 years of age or older should be screened with bone densitometry. The Task Force recommends screening women 60 to 64 years of age who are at increased risk. The best risk factor for indicating increased risk is lower body weight (weight < 70 kg).
Regarding the screening of men, a cost-analysis study suggests that screening may be "cost-effective for men with a self-reported prior fracture beginning at age 65 years and for men 80 years and older with no prior fracture".
Medication
Bisphosphonate is the main drug for treatment. However, newer drugs are also developed, such as teriparatide and strontium ranelate.
Bisphosphonate
In osteoporosis, bisphosphonate drugs are prescribed. The most often prescribed bisphosphonates are presently sodium alendronate (Fosamax) 10 mg a day or 70 mg once a week, risedronate (Actonel) 5 mg a day or 35 mg once a week or and ibandronate (Boniva once a month).
Teriparatide
Recently, teriparatide (Forteo, recombinant parathyroid hormone 1-34) has been shown to be effective in osteoporosis. It is used mostly for patients with established osteoporosis (who have already fractured), have particularly low BMD or several risk factors for fracture or cannot tolerate the oral bisphosphonates. It is given as a daily injection with the use of a pen-type injection device. Teriparatide is only licensed for treatment if bisphosphonates have failed or are contraindicated (however, this differs by country and is not required by the FDA in the USA. However, patients with previous radiation therapy, or Paget's disease, or young patients should avoid this medication).