cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Oksigén
Karakteristik
Alotrop oksigén anu umum di Marcapada nyaéta dioksigén, O2, molekul diatomik anu dibeungkeut dina konfigurasi éléktron oksigén triplét. Ieu beungkeut ordeuna dua, jauh leuwih pajeulit tina gambaran beungkeut ganda anu basajan. Oksigén triplét téh minangka kaayaan dasar molekul oksigén. Konfigurasi éléktron ieu molekul mibanda dua éléktron nyorangan nu nempatan dua orbital molekul. Ieu orbital kaasupkeun antibonding, antukna beungkeut oksigén diatomik leuwwih lemah batan beungkeut nitrogén diatomik nu orbital molekul beungkeutanana kaeusi. Najan éléktron nyorangan ilaharna pakait jeung réaktivitas anu luhur, oksigén triplét mah rélatif (sarta untungna téh) teu réaktif dibanding jeung lolobana radikal.
Oksigén nunggal, ngaran nu dibikeun ka sababraha spésiés oksigén nu sakabéh spin éléktronna papacangan sarta boga énérgi leuwih luhur, leuwih réaktif ka molekul organik biasa. Di alam, oksigén nunggal biasana dibentuk tina cai dina fotosintésis ngagunakeun énérgi cahya panonpoé. Ieu molekul ogé dihasilkeun ku sistem imun salaku sumber oksigén aktif. Karoténoid dina organismeu fotosintétik jeung sasatoan boga peran utama pikeun nyerep énérgi ti oksigén nunggal nu dikonvérsi kana kaayaan dasar anu tanpa éksitasi, antukna henteu nyilakakeun jaringan.
Sajarah
Oksigén munggaran disabit-sabit ku Michał Sędziwój, alkémis jeung filsuf Polandia ahir abad ka-16. Anjeunna nyebut gas anu kaluar tina niter haneut salaku "the elixir of life". Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, jeung Pierre Bayen geus bisa ngahasilkeun oksigén dina percobaanana abad ka-17, tapi ku saurang ogé teu dianggap unsur.
Hiji percobaan nu dipingpin ku Joseph Priestley, pendéta Inggris (1 Agustus 1774), mokuskeun cahya panonpoé kana oksida raksa (HgO) dina tabung gelas ngahasilkeun gas anu ku anjeunna dingaranan dephlogisticated air (baca téori flogiston). Anjeunna awas yén ku ayana éta gas, hurungna lilin jadi leuwih, sedengkeun beurit bisa leuwih aktif sarta hirup leuwih lana mun nyeuseup ieu gas. Sanggeus diseuseup ku sorangan, anjeunna nulis "Karasana kana bayah mah teu pati béda jeung udara biasa, tapi kana engapan jadi leuwih hampang."
Kimiawan Prancis, Antoine Lavoisier, ngakukeun yén manéhna sacara mandiri manggihan zat anyar. Tapi kanyataanana, manéhna kungsi didongéngan ku Priestley ngeunaan hasil percobaanana. Pon kitu ogé Scheele kungsi medar papanggihanana ka Lavoisier dina surat 30 Séptémber 1774.
Ku Lavoisier, ieu unsur anyar téh dingaranan oxygéne, tina akar basa Yunani nu hartina "nu ngabentuk asam". Ieu téh dumasar kana anggapan—nu tétéla salah—yén sakabéh asam ngandung oksigén. Najan dicawad ku para élmuwan Inggris, oxygen diasupkeun kana basa Inggris. Hal ieu di antarana alatan ayana sajak nu muji-muji ieu gas nu judulna "Oxygen" dina buku populér The Botanic Garden (1791) karya Erasmus Darwin, akina Charles Darwin.
Kondénsasi oksigén munggaran dicobaan taun 1883 ku Zygmunt Wróblewski jeung Karol Olszewski, dua profésor ti Universitas Jagiellonian.
Fotosintésis jeung réspirasi
Di alam, oksigén bébas dihasilkeun tina fotolisis cai dina fotosintésis. Ganggang héjo jeung sianobaktéri di lingkungan laut ngahasilkeun kira 70% oksigén bébas anu dihasilkeun ku Bumi.
(497094) 2004 AH
Ari 2004 AH mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.424, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 19.3. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 114708.
Oksigén
Fotosintésis jeung réspirasi
Réaksi lengkep anu dibasajankeun pikeun fotosintésis nyaéta
Molekul dioksigén téh ésénsil pikeun réspirasi sélulér pikeun sakabéh organismeu aérobik. Oksigén dipaké di mitokondria pikeun mantuna ngahasilkeun adénosin trifosfat (ATP) dina fosforilasi oksidatif. Réaksi pikeun réspirasi aérob sabalikna tina fotosintésis, nu mun dibasajankeun réaksina kieu:
Di vertebrata, ngalaman difusi nembus mémbran dina bayah nepi ka sél getih beureum. Hémoglobin meungkeut, antukna kelirna robah tina beureum kolot jadi burahay. Sato séjén ngagunakeun hémosianin (Moluska jeung sababaraha arthropoda) atawa héméritrin (lancah jeung hurang). Saléter getih bisa ngaleyurkeun 200 cc.
Spésiés oksigén réaktif, contona baé ion superoksida jeung hidrogén peroksida, mangrupa pasésaan tina pamakéan oksigén dina awak mahluk hirup. Sabalikna ti éta, sabagian sistem imun organismeu nu leuwih luhur justru ngahasilkeun péroksida, superoksida, jeung oksigén nunggal pikeun ngancurkeun kuman nu narajang. Spésiés oksigén réaktif ogé penting dina réspons hipersénsitif tutuwuhan nalika ngalawan serangan patogén.
Dina kaayaan reureuh, jalma sawawa nyeuseup 1,8 nepi ka 2,4 gram oksigén per menit. Jumlah-jamléh, mun lobana manusa dianggap 6,6 miliar, oksigén nu diseuseup per taunna téh beuratna nepi ka 6 miliar ton per taun. <!--
Build-up in the atmosphere
Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved. Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic era (between 2.5 and 1.6 billion years ago). At first, the oxygen combined with dissolved iron in the oceans to form banded iron formations. Free oxygen started to gas out of the oceans 2.7 billion years ago, reaching 10% of its present level around 1.7 billion years ago.
The presence of large amounts of dissolved and free oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere may have driven most of the anaerobic organisms then living to extinction during the oxygen catastrophe about 2.4 billion years ago. However, cellular respiration using O2 enables aerobic organisms to produce much more ATP than anaerobic organisms, helping the former to dominate Earth's biosphere. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration of allowed for the evolution of eukaryotic cells and ultimately complex multicellular organisms such as plants and animals.
Jumlah di alam
Oksigén mangrupa komponén tunggal panglobana di atmosfir Bumi (20.947% dumasar eusi). Proporsi ieu ngajadikeun oksigén élémén anu kadua paling loba sanggeus nitrogén (78.17%). Nu leuwih luhur permukaan, tingkat oksigén bakal beuki ipis saeutik demi saeutik nepi ka luar angkasa di mana euweuh oksigén bebas.
Sanyawaan
Alatan éléktronégativitasna, oksigén ngabentuk beungkeut kimia jeung sakabéh unsur dina prosés oksidasi, iwal sababaraha gas milya jeung flor. Lian ti éta, logam mulya (misalna baé emas jeung platina) teu bisa langsung ngagabung jeung oksigén. Sanyawa kawas emas oksida ukur bisa dihasilkeun ngaliwatan prosés anu teu langsung.
Sanyawaan oksigén anu paling umum nyaéta cai. Nu séjénna, di antarana baé silika (dina keusik, gelas, batu, jsb.) jeung sanyawaan karbon, kayaning karbon dioksida (CO2), alkohol (R-OH), karbonil (R-CO-H atawa R-CO-R), jeung asam karboksilat (R-COOH). Radikal anu dioksigénan samodél klorat (ClO3−), perklorat (ClO4−), kromat (CrO42−), dikromat (Cr2O72−), permanganat (MnO4−), jeung nitrat (NO3−) mangrupa agén pangoksidasi. Fosfor penting pisan sacara biologis dina bentuk ion fosfat (PO43−). Logam-logam bisa ngabeungkeut atom oksigén, contona beusi dina beusi (III) oksida (Fe2O3) anu ilahar disebut tai hiang. Ozon (O3) dibentuk tina prosés éléktrostatik anu aya oksigénna.
Oksigén Terlarut
Oksigén Terlarut (dissolved oxygen) nyaéta gas oksigén (O2) anu terlarut dina cai. Oksigén terlarut diperyogikeun ku lauk sareng makhluk hirup lainna pikeun ngahirup udara. Oksigén terlarut ogé diperyogikeun ku bakteri dekomposer pikeun ngarusak (dekomposisi) sareng ngaburaikeun materi organik janten non-organik. Nilai oksigén terlarut biasana diékspresikeun ku ppm (parts per million / bagian per juta) atawa mg/L. Satuan DO nyaeta mg/L.
Salaku contoh, ngarah lauk tiasa hirup sareng berkembang, nilai oksigén terlarut standar umum na 5 mg/L. Balong lauk anu profésional nempatkeun aerator atawa pompa nu ngajaga nilai oksigen terlarut di balong dina jangkauan aman pikeun lauk. Alat pikeun ngukur oksigen terlarut ngaran na DO meter (dissolved oxygen meter). Harga DO meter gumantung spesifikasi na sarenga aplikasi na, aya nu mirah pikeun rumah tangga aya ogé nu rada awis pikeun industri.
Pemisahan Gas Oksigén
Pemisahan gas oksigén dari hawa bebas pikeun produksi oksigén murni nganggo produk nu disebat molecular sieve. Aya beberapa tipe molecular sieve anu aya di pasaran, nyaéta:
Molecular Sieve 13X HP 0,4-0,8 mm
Molecular Sieve 13X HP 1,6-2,5 mm
Molecular Sieve 13X APG 1,7-2,5 mm
Molecular Sieve 13X 1,7-2,5 mm
Molecular Sieve 13X 3-5 mm
Hiliganowo Salo'o, Teluk Dalam, Nias Kidul
Hiliganowo Salo'o nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Teluk Dalam, Kabupatén Nias Kidul, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Namo Pakam, Namorambe, Deli Serdang
Namo Pakam nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Namorambe, Kabupatén Deli Serdang, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
2014 UE192
Ari 2014 UE192 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.356, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 24.1. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 342302.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
2016 KE
Ari 2016 KE mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.429, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 19.4. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 381199.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
2017 FR90
Ari 2017 FR90 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.829, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 17.2. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�405698.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Cikidang, Lémbang, Bandung
Cikidang nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Lémbang, Kabupatén Bandung Kulon, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
Buket Hagu, Lhoksukon, Aceh Utara
Buket Hagu nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Lhoksukon, Kabupatén Aceh Utara, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
Seuneubok Cantek, Manyak Payed, Aceh Tamiang
Seuneubok Cantek nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Manyak Payed, Kabupatén Aceh Tamiang, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
Bako
Bako (Nicotiana spp., L.) nujul ka hiji genus tutuwuhan nu daunna rubak pituin Amérika Kalér jeung Kidul, atawa siksikan daunna nu geus digaringkeun. Daun bako sok diudud (baca udud bako) dina bentuk roko atawa bentuk séjénna. Bako ogé sok diseupah, atawa diseuseup tipungna.
Kecap basa Spanyol "tabaco" cenah asalna tina basa Arawakan atawa basa Taino ti Karibia, nu nujul ka gulungan daun bako (numutkeun Bartolome de Las Casas, 1552) atawa "tabago", sarupaning solobong nu bentukna "Y" pikeun nyeuseup haseup bako (numutkeun Oviedo), tapi "tabaco" (ogé It. "tobacco") ilahar dipaké pikeun nyebut tutuwuhan ubar taun 1410, nu asalna tina basa arab "tabaq", nu geus dipaké sahanteuna ti abad ka-9.
Bako ngandung alkaloid nikotin, neurotoksin kuat nu bisa maéhan serangga/gegeremet. Konsumsi bako, dina bentuk kumaha baé, bakal nyerep nikotina kana aliran getih, antukna lila-lila mah bisa ngabalukarkeun toléransi jeung kacanduan. Dosis létal nikotin sabenerna mah dikandung dina tilu watang roko (hiji satengah surutu), tapi da lolobana mah nikotin téh teu kaseuseup; kasus signifikan karacunan nikotin mah lolobana balukar tina nikotin dina inséktisida. Alkaloid aktif lianna nu aya dina bako nyaéta alkaloid harmala.
Sajarah
Urang Amérika geus maké bako saméméh bangsa Éropah nepi ka buana éta. Malah sumebarna bako ka sakuliah dunya téh dimimitian nalika bangsa Éropah nu datang ka Amérika balik deui ka Éropah bari mawa éta kabiasaan. <!--At extremely high doses, tobacco becomes hallucinogenic; accordingly, Native Americans generally did not use the drug recreationally. Rather, it was often consumed in extraordinarily high quantities and used as an entheogen; generally, this was done only by experienced shamans or medicine men. In addition to being smoked, uncured tobacco was often eaten, drunk as tobacco juice, or used in enemas. Early missionaries often reported on the state caused by tobacco, but as it spread into the west, it was no longer used in such large quantities or for entheogenic purposes. Religious use of tobacco is still common among many indigenous peoples, particularly those of South America.
With the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling the colonization of the future American South, long before the creation of the United States. The initial colonial expansion, fueled by the desire to increase tobacco production, was one cause of the first colonial conflicts with Native Americans and became a driving factor for the use of African slaves' labor.
In 1609, John Rolfe arrived at the Jamestown Settlement in Virginia. He is credited as the first man to successfully raise tobacco for commercial use at Jamestown. The tobacco raised in Virginia at that time, Nicotiana rustica, was not to the liking of the Europeans, but Rolfe had brought some seed for Nicotiana tabacum with him from Bermuda. Shortly after arriving, his first wife died, and he married Pocahontas, a daughter of Chief Powhatan. Although most of the settlers wouldn't touch the tobacco crop, Rolfe was able to make his fortune farming it for export at Varina Farms Plantation. When he left for England with Pocahontas, he was wealthy. When Rolfe returned to Jamestown following Pocahontas's death in England, he continued to improve the quality of tobacco. By 1620, 40,000 pounds of tobacco were shipped to England. By the time John Rolfe died in 1622, Jamestown was thriving as a producer of tobacco and Jamestown's population would top 4,000. Tobacco led to the importation of the colony's first black slaves as well as women from England in 1619.
The importation of tobacco into Europe was not without resistance and controversy, even in the 17th century. King James I of England (James VI of Scotland) wrote a famous polemic titled A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604 (published in 1672). In his essay, the king denounced tobacco use as "[a] custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomelesse." In that same year, an English statute was enacted that placed a heavy protective tariff on every pound of tobacco brought into England.
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, tobacco continued to be the "cash crop" of the Virginia Colony, along with The Carolinas. Large tobacco warehouses filled the areas near the wharfs of new thriving towns such as Richmond and Manchester at the fall line (head of navigation) on the James River, and Petersburg on the Appomattox River.
Until 1883, tobacco excise tax accounted for one third of internal revenue collected by the United States government.
SMA Terpadu Dampasan
SMA Terpadu Dampasan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Ciamis. Alamat lengkepna di Jl. Pasir Garu Dusun Tuban Rt.002/ Rw.006, Kalurahan/Désa Ratawangi Kacamatan Banjarsari, Kabupatén Ciamis, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69882355.
Bako
Sajarah
A historian of the American South in the late 1860s reported on typical usage in the region where it was grown: The chewing of tobacco was well-nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offence to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for cleanly living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante-room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven-tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped" in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets.
As a lucrative crop, tobacco has been the subject of a great deal of biological and genetic research. The economic impact of Tobacco Mosaic disease was the impetus that led to the isolation of Tobacco mosaic virus, the first virus to be identified; the fortunate coincidence that it is one of the simplest virii and can self-assemble from purified nucleic acid and protein led in turn to the rapid advancement of the field of virology. The 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Wendell Meredith Stanley for his 1935  work crystallizing the virus, and showing that it still remains active.
Sowing
Tobacco seeds are started very early in the year. The seeds are scattered onto the surface of the soil, as their germination is activated by light. In colonial Virginia, seedbeds were fertilized with wood ash or animal manure (frequently powdered horse manure). Seedbeds were then covered with branches to protect the young plants from frost damage. These plants were left to grow until around April.
432
Taun ka-432 Maséhi dina Kalénder Grégorian.
Bako
Sowing
In the nineteenth century, young plants came under increasing attack from the flea beetle (Epitrix cucumeris or Epitrix pubescens), causing destruction of half the United States tobacco crop in 1876. In the years afterward, many experiments were attempted and discussed to control the flea beetle. By 1880 it was discovered that replacing the branches with a frame covered by thin fabric would effectively protect plants from the beetle. This practice spread until it became ubiquitous in the 1890s.
Today, in the United States, unlike other countries, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite in order to partially starve the plant for nitrogen, which changes the taste. This (together with the use of licorice and other additives) accounts for the different flavor of American cigarettes from those available in other countries. There is, however, some suggestion that this may have adverse health effects attributable to the polonium content of apatite.
Transplanting
After the plants have reached a certain height, they are transplanted into fields. This was originally done by making a relatively large hole in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, then placing the small plant in the hole. Various mechanical tobacco planters were invented throughout the late 19th and early 20th century to automate this process, making a hole, fertilizing it, and guiding a plant into the hole with one motion.
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire nyaéta pilem kaopat dina séri Harry Potter anu diadaptasi tina panulis anu pangpayunna J.K Rowling. Diarahkeun ku Mike Newell sareng dileupaskeun di 18 Nopémber 2005. Tilu dinten saatos dileupaskeun, pilem éta ngagaduhan pendapatan reged tina 100 juta dolar AS, bagi hasil pangpentingna dina minggu pangsaéna diantara pilem Harry Potter anu sanés. Pilem ieu dicalonkeun pikeun Best Art Direction di Academy Award 2006.
Bako
Topping and suckering
Once the tobacco plants are growing well, they will begin to produce shoots from the joint of each leaf with the stalk. These secondary shoots — known as "suckers" — are undesirable as they divert energy that could be directed into the leaves. They are removed in a process known as "suckering" (sometimes spelled "succoring" in older writing). Generally this is done by hand several times during the season. Recently anti-suckering compounds have come into use.
At a certain stage of maturity, the plant will produce a flower cluster from its tip, as well as the tips of any suckers that remain on the plant. In order to divert more energy into the leaves, the plant is "topped" — the top is cut off.
Harvest
Tobacco is harvested in one of two ways. In the oldest method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a curved knife. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco may go through several "pullings" before the tobacco is entirely harvested, and the stalks may be turned into the soil. "Cropping" or "pulling" are terms for pulling leaves off tobacco. Leaves are cropped as they ripen, from the bottom of the stalk up. The first crop at the very bottom of the stalks are called "sand lugs", as they are often against the ground and are coated with dirt splashed up when it rains. Sand lugs weigh the most, and are most difficult to work with. Originally workers cropped the tobacco and placed it on mule-pulled sleds. Eventually tractors with wagons were used to transport leaves to the stringer, an apparatus which uses twine to sew leaves onto a stick.
Some farmers use "tobacco harvesters" - basically a trailer pulled behind a tractor. The harvester is a wheeled sled or trailer that has seats for the croppers to sit on and seats just in front of these for the "stringers" to sit on. The croppers pull the leaves off in handfuls, and pass these to the "stringer", who loops twine around the handfuls of tobacco and hangs them on a long wooden square pole. Traditionally, the croppers, down in the dark and wet, with their faces getting slapped by the huge tobacco leaves, were men, and the stringers seated on the higher elevated seats were women. The harvester has places for 4 teams of workers: 8 people cropping and stringing, plus a packer who takes the heavy strung poles of wet green tobacco from the stringers and packs them onto the pallet section of the harvester, plus a driver, making the total crew of each harvester 10 people. Interestingly, the outer seats are suspended from the harvester - slung out over to fit into the aisles of tobacco. As these seats are suspended it is important to balance the weight of the 2 outside teams (similar to a playground see-saw). Having too heavy or light a person in an unbalanced combination often results in the harvester tipping over especially when turning around at the end of a lane. Water tanks are a common feature on the harvester due to heat, and danger of de-hydration for the workers. Salt tablets sometimes get used as well.
Pests
Pests of tobacco include the moths Endoclita excrescens, Manduca sexta, and Manduca quinquemaculata. Other Lepidoptera whose larvae use tobacco as a food plant include Angle Shades, Cabbage Moth, Mouse Moth, Nutmeg Moth, Setaceous Hebrew Character and Turnip Moth. The dry tobacco leaves and cigarettes are sometimes used as food for the Cigarette Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne).
Curing
Cut plants or pulled leaves are immediately transferred to tobacco barns, where they will be cured. Curing methods varies with the type of tobacco grown, and tobacco barn design varies accordingly. Air-cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of weeks. Fire-cured tobacco is hung in large barns where smoldering fires of hardwoods are kept burning. Flue-cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called Oasts). These barns have flues which run from externally-fed fire boxes to the roof, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke. Traditional curing barns in the U.S. are falling into disuse, as the trend toward more efficient prefabricated metal "bulk bars", allows greater efficiency.
Unaged or low quality tobacco is often flavoured with these naturally occurring compounds. Tobacco flavoring is a significant part of a multi-million dollar industry.
The aging process continues for a period of months and often extends into the post-curing process.
Post-cure processing
After tobacco is cured, it is moved from the curing barn into a storage area for processing. If whole plants were cut, the leaves are removed from the tobacco stalks in a process called stripping. For both cut and pulled tobacco, the leaves are then sorted into different grades. In colonial times, the tobacco was then "prized" into hogsheads for transportation. In bright tobacco regions, prizing was replaced by stacking wrapped "hands" into loose piles to be sold at auction. Today, most cured tobacco is baled before sales under contract.
Aromatic Fire-cured
Aromatic Fire-cured smoking tobacco is a robust variety of tobacco used as a condimental for pipe blends. It is cured by smoking over gentle fires. In the United States, it is grown in the western part of Tennessee, Western Kentucky and in Virginia. Latakia is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria. Latakia has a pronounced flavor and a very distinctive aroma, and is used in the so-called Balkan and English-style pipe tobacco blends.
Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee is used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes and as a condiment leaf in pipe tobacco blends. It has a rich, slightly floral taste, and adds body and aroma to the blend.
Brightleaf tobacco
Prior to the American Civil War, the tobacco grown in the US was almost entirely fire-cured dark-leaf. This was planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was fire cured or air cured.
Sometime after the War of 1812, demand for a milder, lighter, more aromatic tobacco arose. Ohio and Maryland both innovated quite a bit with milder varieties of the tobacco plant. Farmers around the country experimented with different curing processes. But the breakthrough didn't come until 1854.
It had been noticed for centuries that sandy, highland soil produced thinner, weaker plants. Captain Abisha Slade, of Caswell County, North Carolina had a good deal of infertile, sandy soil, and planted the new "gold-leaf" varieties on it. Slade owned a slave, Stephen, who accidentally produced the first real bright tobacco. He used charcoal to restart a fire used to cure the crop. The surge of heat turned the leaves yellow. Using that discovery, Slade developed a system for producing bright tobacco, cultivating on poorer soils and using charcoal for heat-curing.
News spread through the area pretty quickly. The worthless sandy soil of the Appalachian piedmont was suddenly profitable, and people rapidly developed flue-curing techniques, a more efficient way of smoke-free curing. By the outbreak of the War, the town of Danville, Virginia actually had developed a bright-leaf market for the surrounding area in Caswell County, North Carolina and Pittsylvania County, Virginia.
Danville was also the main railway head for Confederate soldiers going to the front. These brought bright tobacco with them from Danville to the lines, traded it with each other and Union soldiers, and developed quite a taste for it. At the end of the war, the soldiers went home and suddenly there was a national market for the local crop. Caswell and Pittsylvania counties were the only two counties in the South that experienced an increase in total wealth after the war.
White burley
In 1864, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted Red Burley seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look. He transplanted them to the fields anyway, where they grew into mature plants but retained their light color. The cured leaves had an exceedingly fine texture and were exhibited as a curiosity at the market in Cincinnati. The following year he planted ten acres (40,000 m²) from seeds from those plants, which brought a premium at auction. The air-cured leaf was found to be mild tasting and more absorbent than any other variety. White Burley, as it was later called, became the main component in chewing tobacco, American blend pipe tobacco, and American-style cigarettes. The white part of the name is seldom used today, since red burley, a dark air-cured variety of the mid-1800s, no longer exists.
Shade tobacco
It is not well known that the northern US state of Connecticut is also one of the important tobacco-growing regions of the country. Long before Europeans arrived in the area, Native Americans harvested wild tobacco plants that grew along the banks of the Connecticut River. Today, the Connecticut River valley north of Hartford, Connecticut is known as Tobacco Valley, and the fields and drying sheds are visible to travelers on the road to and from Bradley Field, the major Connecticut airport. The tobacco grown here is known as shade tobacco, and is used as outer wrappers for some of the world's finest cigars.
Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The plant was outlawed in Connecticut in 1650, but in the 1800s as cigar smoking began to be popular, tobacco farming became a major industry, employing farmers, laborers, local youths, southern African Americans, and migrant workers.
Working conditions varied from pleasant summer work for students, to backbreaking exploitation of migrants. Each tobacco plant yields only 18 leaves useful as cigar wrappers, and each leaf requires a great deal of individual manual attention after harvesting, some of which must be carried out in the drying sheds, where the temperature exceeds 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
In 1921, Connecticut tobacco production peaked, at 31,000 acres (125 km²) under cultivation. The rise of cigarette smoking and the decline of cigar smoking has caused a corresponding decline in the demand for shade tobacco, reaching a minimum in 1992 of 2,000 acres (8 km²) under cultivation. Since then, however, cigar smoking has become more popular again, and in 1997 tobacco farming had risen to 4,000 acres (16 km²). The industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000.
Perique
Perhaps the most strongly-flavored of all tobaccos is the Perique, from Saint James Parish, Louisiana. When the Acadians made their way into this region in 1776, the Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes were cultivating a variety of tobacco with a distinctive flavor. A farmer called Pierre Chenet is credited with first turning this local tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation.
The tobacco plants are manually kept suckerless, and pruned to exactly 12 leaves, through their early growth. In late June, when the leaves are a dark, rich green and the plants are 24-30 inches (600 to 750 mm) tall, the whole plant is harvested in the late evening and hung to dry in a sideless curing barn. Once the leaves have partially dried, but while still supple (usually less than 2 weeks in the barn), any remaining dirt is removed and the leaves are moistened with water and stemmed by hand. The leaves are then rolled into "torquettes" of approximately 1 pound (450 g) and packed into hickory whiskey barrels. The tobacco is then kept under pressure using oak blocks and massive screw jacks, forcing nearly all the air out of the still-moist leaves. Approximately once a month, the pressure is released, and each of the torquettes is "worked" by hand to permit a little air back into the tobacco. After a year of this treatment, the Perique is ready for consumption, although it may be kept fresh under pressure for many years. Extended exposure to air degrades the particular character of the Perique. The finished tobacco is dark brown, nearly black, very moist with a fruity, slightly vinegary aroma.
Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, the Perique is used as a component of many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. Less than 16 acres (65,000 m²) of this crop remain in cultivation, most by a single farmer called Percy Martin, in Grande Pointe, Louisiana. For reasons unknown, the particular flavor and character of the Perique can only be acquired on a small triangle of Saint James Parish, less than 3 by 10 miles (5 by 16 km). Although at its peak, Saint James Parish was producing around 20 tons of the Perique a year, output is now merely a few barrelsful.
While traditionally a pipe tobacco (and still available from some specialist tobacconists), the Perique may now also be found in the Perique cigarettes of Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Co., in an approximately 1 part to 5 blend with lighter tobaccos. A similar tobacco, based on pressure-fermented Kentucky tobacco is available by the name Acadian Green River Perique.
Snuff
Snuff is a generic term for fine-ground smokeless tobacco products. Originally the term referred only to dry snuff, a fine tan dust popular mainly in the eighteenth century. This is often called "Scotch Snuff", a folk-etymology derivation of the scorching process used to dry the cured tobacco by the factory.
European (dry) snuff is intended to be sniffed up the nose. Snuff is not "snorted" due to the fact that snuff shouldn't get past the nose i.e.; into sinuses, throat or lungs. European snuff comes in several varieties: Plain, Toast (fine ground - very dry), "Medicated" (menthol, camphor, eucalyptus, etc.), Scented and Schmalzler (a German variety.) The major brand names of European snuff are: Bernards (Germany), Fribourg & Treyer (UK), Gawith (UK), Gawith Hoggarth (UK), Hedges (UK), Lotzbeck (Germany), McChrystal's (UK), Pöschl (Germany) and Wilsons of Sharrow (UK).
Snuff has even been found to be beneficial in some cases of hay fever due to the fact that the snuff may prevent allergens from getting to the mucus membrane within the nose.
American snuff is much stronger, and is intended to be dipped. It comes in two varieties -- "sweet" and "salty". Until the early 20th century, snuff dipping was popular in the United States among rural people, who would often use sweet barkless twigs to apply it to their gums. Popular brands are Tube Rose and Navy.
The second, and more popular in North America, variety of snuff is moist snuff, or dipping tobacco. This practice is known as "dipping." In the Southern states, taking a "dip" of moist snuff is called "putting a rub in," the moist snuff in the mouth is known as a "rub." This is occasionally referred to as "snoose" in New England and the Midwest and is derived from the Scandinavian word for snuff, "snus". Like the word, the origins of moist snuff are Scandinavian, and the oldest American brands indicate that by their names. American Moist snuff is made from dark fire-cured tobacco that is ground, sweetened, and aged by the factory. Prominent North American brands are Copenhagen, Skoal, Timber Wolf, Chisholm, Grizzly, and Kodiak. American moist snuff tends to be dipped.
Some modern smokeless tobacco brands, such as Kodiak, have an aggressive nicotine delivery. This is accomplished with a higher dose of nicotine than cigarettes, a high pH level (which helps nicotine enter the blood stream faster), and a high portion of unprotonated (free base) nicotine.
Chewing tobacco
Chewing is one of the oldest ways of consuming tobacco leaves. Native Americans in both North and South America chewed the leaves of the plant, frequently mixed with lime. Modern chewing tobacco is produced in three forms: twist, plug, and scrap. A few manufacturers in the United Kingdom produce particularly strong twist tobacco meant for use in smoking pipes rather than chewing. These twists are not mixed with lime although they may be flavored with whisky, rum, cherry or other flavors common to pipe tobacco.
Twist is the oldest form. One to three high-quality leaves are braided and twisted into a rope while green, and then are cured in the same manner as other tobacco. Originally devised by sailors due to fire hazards of smoking at sea; and until recently this was done by farmers for their personal consumption in addition to other tobacco intended for sale. Modern twist is occasionally lightly sweetened. It is still sold commercially, but rarely seen outside of Appalachia. Popular brands are Mammoth Cave, Moore's Red Leaf, and Cumberland Gap. Users cut a piece off the twist and chew it, expectorating.
Plug chewing tobacco is made by pressing together cured tobacco leaves in a sweet (often molasses-based) syrup. Originally this was done by hand, but since the second half of the 19th century leaves were pressed between large tin sheets. The resulting sheet of tobacco is cut into plugs. Like twist, consumers sometimes cut, but more often bite off a piece of the plug to chew. Major brands are Days O Work and Cannonball.
Scrap, or looseleaf chewing tobacco, was originally the excess of plug manufacturing. It is sweetened like plug tobacco, but sold loose in bags rather than a plug. Looseleaf is by far the most popular form of chewing tobacco. Popular brands are Red Man, Beechnut, Mail Pouch and Southern Pride. Looseleaf chewing tobacco can also be dipped.
During the peak of popularity of chewing tobacco in the Western United States in the late 19th century, spittoons were a common device for users to spit into.
(470004) 2006 MJ10
Ari 2006 MJ10 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.586, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 18.6. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�383035.
Bako
Snus
Since it is not smoked, snuff in general generates less of the nitrosamines and other carcinogens in the tar that forms from the partially anaerobic reactions in the smoldering smoked tobacco. The steam curing of snus rather than fire-curing or flue-curing of other smokeless tobaccos has been demonstrated to generate even fewer of such compounds than other varieties of snuff; 2.8 parts per mil for Ettan brand compared to as high as 127.9 parts per mil in American brands, according to a study by the State of Massachusetts Health Department. It is hypothesized that the widespread use of snus by Swedish men (estimated at 30% of Swedish men, possibly because it is much cheaper than cigarettes), displacing tobacco smoking and other varieties of snuff, is responsible for the incidence of tobacco-related mortality in men being significantly lower in Sweden than any other European country. In contrast, since women are much less likely to use snus, their rate of tobacco-related deaths in Sweden is similar to that in other European countries. Snus is clearly less harmful than other tobacco products; according to Kenneth Warner, director of the University of Michigan Tobacco Research Network, Public health researchers maintain that, nevertheless, even the low nitrosamine levels in snus cannot be completely risk free, but snus proponents maintain that inasmuch as snus is used as a substitute for smoking or a means to quit smoking, the net overall effect is positive, similar to the effect of nicotine patches, for instance. Snus is banned in the European Union countries outside of Sweden (regular snus, not portion, is allowed in Denmark and snus is also becoming a regular among Norwegians, as cigarettes are seen by Norwegian popular culture as untrendy and much more unhealthy than snus). Although this is officially for health reasons, it is widely regarded, in fact, as being for economic reasons, since other smokeless tobacco products (mainly from India) associated with much greater risk to health are sold too.
Although it lacks the carcinogenicity of high levels of nitrosamines, however, any harmful effects of nicotine will still be seen with snus usage. Current research concentrates on nicotine's effect on the circulatory system and on the pancreas.
(470004) 2006 MJ10
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Bako
Snus
On June 11, 2006, Reynolds Tobacco announced that it would be test marketing Camel brand snus in Portland, Oregon and Austin, Texas by the end of the month. The product would be manufactured in Sweden, in conjunction with British American Tobacco, manufacturers of BAT snus.
Gutka
Gutka is a tobacco product manufactured and used mainly in India. It contains sweeteners, food coloring and paan flavorings. It is used by constantly chewing without swallowing the juices and then spitting the juices out once the mouth is full of the liquid. This results in the walls of most public buildings to be covered in red stains called pichkari, especially in areas where males from lower income levels congregate.
Creamy snuff
Creamy snuff is a tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India, and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, Ganesh. According to the U.S NIH-sponsored 2002 Smokeless Tobacco Fact Sheet, it is marketed as a dentifrice. The same factsheet also mentions that it is "often used to clean teeth. The manufacturer recommends letting the paste linger in the mouth before rinsing."
Sinar Jaya, Air Hitam, Lampung Kulon
Sinar Jaya nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Air Hitam, Kabupatén Lampung Kulon, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
Bako
Cai Bako
Tobacco water is a traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening. Tobacco dust can be used similarly.
It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled the mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants, where it will prove deadly to insects.
Basque angulero fishermen kill immature eels (elvers) in an infusion of tobacco leaves before parboiling them in salty water for transportation to market as angulas, a seasonal delicacy.-->
Ganowo Saua, Teluk Dalam, Nias Kidul
Ganowo Saua nyaéta salah sahiji Désa di kacamatan Teluk Dalam, Kabupatén Nias Kidul, Propinsi Sumatra Kalér, Indonésia.
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askara
Fluor
Fluor nyaéta hiji unsur kimia dina tabél périodik anu miboga simbul F jeung nomor atom 9. Fluor mangrupa gas halogén racunan univalen, warnana konéng-héjo pias, jeung mangrupa unsur pangréaktifna sarta miboga éléktronégativitas pangluhurna. Fluor gampang ngawangun sanyawa jeung ampir sakabéh unsur séjénna, malah mah jeung gas mulya ogé siga kripton, xénon, sarta radon. Saking réaktifna, kaca, logam, cai, jeung zat lianna ogé bakal kabeuleum sarta hurung caang dina diréaksikeun jeung gas fluor. Dina larutan, fluor biasana kajadian minangka ion fluorida F-. Fluorida mangrupa sanyawa anu kajadian antara fluorida jeung unsur lian nu muatanna positif. Produksi fluor taunan dunya kurang leuwih 4 yuta ton. Panghasil fluorit utama dunya di antarana nyaéta Tiongkok, Méksiko jeung Éropah Kulon. Fluor kajadian sacara alami di kerak marcapada jeung bisa kapanggih dina batuan, batu bara, jeung taneuh liat. Fluor mangrupa unsur ka-13 pang-ngaleuyana di kerak marcapada ku konséntrasi 950 ppm. Taneuh ngandung kira-kira 330 ppm fluor. Sedengkeun taneuh anu kakontaminasi bisa ngandung fluor nepi ka 3500 ppm. Fluorida hidrogen biasa dileupaskeun ka udara liwat prosés pameuleuman dina industri. Fluorida anu aya di udara dina antukna mah bakal turun kana taneuh atawa kana cai.
Kertawarma
Kertawarma (Sansekerta: कृतवर्म; Kṛtavarmā) mangrupa salah sahiji inohong dina wiracarita Mahabarata. Manéhna mangrupa golongan Wresni atawa Yadawa nu aya di pihak Kurawa dina perang Baratayuda. Dina vérsi pawayangan Jawa, Kertawarma lain hungkul mihak ka Kurawa, malahan anggota Kurawa asli.
2009 UL
Ari 2009 UL mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Apollo, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.412, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 22.2. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO�164411.
Sungaijambu, Kayu Aro Barat, Kerinci
Sungaijambu nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Kayu Aro Barat, Kabupatén Kerinci, Propinsi Jambi, Indonésia.
Gadingan, Sliyeg, Indramayu
Gadingan nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Sliyeg, Kabupatén Indramayu, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
2009 ML1
Ari 2009 ML1 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.436, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 19.5. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 234400.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Bebesan, Bebesen, Aceh Tengah
Bebesan nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Bebesen, Kabupatén Aceh Tengah, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.
Bolokotondo
Bolokotondo, kungkang atawa Pentatomidae, nyaéta kulawarga gegeremet dina ordo Hemiptera. Awak scutellum ilaharna satengah inci, kelir héjo atawa coklat, bentuk trapésoid, ku kituna dina basa Inggris katelah kutu taméng (shield bug). Ieu sato ogé katelah walang sangit (Jw., 'simeut nyereng') atawa stink bug ' (Ing.), ku sabab lamun kaganggu sok ngaluarkeun zat, kaasup golongan aldehida, anu bau tina sela dadana. Sababaraha spésiés ngaluarkeun ogé golongan sianida.
Mekarsari, Karangpawitan, Garut
Mekarsari nyaéta salah sahiji désa di kacamatan Karangpawitan, Kabupatén Garut, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia.
(254419) 2004 VT60
Ari 2004 VT60 mangrupa hiji astéroid. Ieu asteroid téh bagéan tina astéroid Amor, anu nganjrek deukeut jeung marcapada. Ékséntrisitas orbit ieu astéroid kacatet gedéna 0.434, sedengkeun magnitudo mutlakna 17.6. Ari nu jadi référénsina mah nyaéta MPO 396826.
Bebentukan
Kawas sakumna astéroid, ieu astéroid kabentuk tina nébula panonpoé primordial minangka beubeulahan planétisimal, objék di nébula marcapada ngora nu teu cukup badag pikeun robah jadi planét.
Keude Matangkuli, Matangkuli, Aceh Utara
Keude Matangkuli nyaéta salah sahiji Gampong di kacamatan Matangkuli, Kabupatén Aceh Utara, Propinsi Acéh, Indonésia.