cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Melancholia
History
The name "melancholia" comes from the old medical belief that there are four basic liquids in the body (called humors). According to this belief, diseases happen when the humors are not balanced correctly in a person's body. Humors were also thought to determine personality types. According to Hippocrates, melancholia was caused by having too much black bile in the body. The name "melancholia" means 'black bile'. It comes from the Ancient Greek words μέλας (melas), meaning "dark, black", and χολή (kholé), meaning "bile".
Boeing 737 Classic
737-300
The prototype of the 737-300 was finished on January 17, 1984. It made its first flight on 24 February 1984. The plane became allowed to fly on November 14, 1984. USAir got the first 737-300 on 28 November. The plane was very popular. Boeing got 252 orders for it in 1985. It got over 1000 in total. The 737-300 series was made until 1999. The last plane was delivered to Air New Zealand on 17 December 1999.
Melancholia
History
Robert Burton, a16th century scholar, wrote in detail about the condition in The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621). It discussed melancholia from both literary and medical points of view. Burton wrote that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia. "But to leave all declamatory speeches in praise [3481]of divine music, I will confine myself to my proper subject: besides that excellent power it hath to expel many other diseases, it is a sovereign remedy against [3482] despair and melancholy, and will drive away the devil himself. Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, in [3483]Philostratus, when Apollonius was inquisitive to know what he could do with his pipe, told him, "That he would make a melancholy man merry, and him that was merry much merrier than before, a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout." Ismenias the Theban, [3484]Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and many other diseases by music alone: as now they do those, saith [3485]Bodine, that are troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance."
Boeing 737 Classic
737-300
In December 2008, Southwest Airlines asked Boeing to fit the 737-300 with new technology to make it more similar to the 737-700.
Accidents
On February 1, 1991, a US Air 737-300 under flight 1493 was landing at LAX when it collided with a SkyWest Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner. The SkyWest flight was told to taxi through a runway that the US Air flight was landing on. Upon landing the US Air flight crashed into the SkyWest flight. Everyone on board the SkyWest flight died. In total 35 people died and 66 people survived with 23 people obtaining injuries.
737-500
The first airline to order the 737-500 was Southwest Airlines. The -500 flew for the first time on 30 June 1989. A prototype had to fly for 375 hours so that the 737-500 could be allowed to fly. On February 28, 1990, Southwest got the first plane. The 737-500 has been replaced with the 737-600.
Development and design
The 737 Classics had CFM56 turbofan engines. These engines were a very big improvement. They burned less fuel and made less noise. However, when the 737 is on the ground, the bottom of the plane is quite close to the ground. This meant that if the engines were not changed, they would be too close to the ground. Boeing and CFMI solved this by putting the engine in front of the wing, instead of below it. They also moved some parts of the engine to the side of the engine, instead of the bottom. These changes mean that the front of the 737 engines are not circles.
Oxford Circus
Diagonal crossing
In 2009, Westminster City Council started a £4m scheme for the area, allowing shoppers to cross the intersection diagonally as well as the usual 'straight ahead', turning it into a "pedestrian scramble", much like Tokyo's Shibuya crossing.
Boeing 737 Classic
737-400
The 737-400 was made to fill the gap in between the 737-300 and the 757-200. Its main rivals were the Airbus A320 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80. It was 10 ft (3.45 m) longer than the 737-300. It could carry 168 passengers. It had a bumper on the tail so that it would not touch the ground while it was taking off. The prototype was finished on January 26, 1988. It flew for the first time on 19 February 1988.
The 737-400 went into service on September 15, 1988. The first airline to use it was Piedmont Airlines.
Oxford Circus
Oxford Circus is the busy intersection of Oxford Street and Regent Street in the West End of London. It is served by Oxford Circus tube station, which is directly beneath the junction itself.
Melancholia
History
The first person to describe melancholia was Hippocrates, in the 4th century BC. In his Aphorisms, Hippocrates wrote that all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time", are symptoms of melancholia.
Frank Lautenberg
Frank Raleigh Lautenberg (January 23, 1924 – June 3, 2013) was an American Senior Senator of the state of New Jersey. He first served in the United States Senate from 1982 to 2001; after a brief retirement, he was re-elected to the Senate and served from 2003 until his death in 2013. At age 89, Lautenberg was the oldest senator and the last serving veteran of World War II to remain a senator (after the death of Daniel Inouye and Ted Stevens,and Daniel Akaka left office). Lautenberg was the oldest serving Senator.
Health
In February 2010, Lautenberg was treated for stomach cancer. During that same week, Lautenberg suffered from non-serious injuries from a fall he had. June 2010, it was announced that Lautenberg had gone under chemotherapy for a curable case of lymphoma. Lautenberg later made a full recovery.
Early life
Lautenberg was born on January 23, 1924 in Paterson, New Jersey to Jewish-Polish-Russian parents. After graduating from Nutley High School in 1941, Lautenberg served overseas in the United States Army Signal Corps during World War II from 1942 to 1946. Then, financed by the GI Bill, he attended and graduated from Columbia Business School in 1949 with a degree in economics. He was president and chairman of the board of Automatic Data Processing (ADP) for years after joining the company soon after it started.
Career
Lautenberg was elected as Senator from New Jersey in 1982 and 1988. Following his second election, Lautenberg became a member of the President's Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism (PCAST), which was set up in September 1989 to review and report on aviation security policy in light of the sabotage of Pan Am Flight 103 on December 21, 1988.
Later career
On February 14, 2013, Lautenberg announced he would not seek re-election. In the press conference, Lautenberg joked, "is it too late to change my mind?" and joked that he would pray "something goes wrong" so he could be called on to run again.
Career
Lautenberg was again re-elected in the United States Senate elections of 1994, beating Republican New Jersey State Assembly Speaker Chuck Haytaian by 50% to 47%. Lautenberg helped pass laws that allowed no smoking on airplanes and to raise the drinking age to 21.
Death
Lautenberg died on June 3, 2013 in Manhattan, New York from pneumonia, aged 89. In the interim, the current governor, Chris Christie, appointed a Republican, which changed the party balance in the Senate by one. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia on June 7, 2013.
Succession
On June 4, 2013, Governor Chris Christie announced that a special election to fill the current Senate seat will be held on October 16, 2013. A special primary will be held on August 13, 2013. It has been estimated that the two additional elections will cost the state approximately $20 million. Christie also stated he would soon appoint a Republican to fill the seat until the elected replacement takes office. Republican politician Jeffrey Chiesa was chosen to be Lautenberg's acting successor. Chiesa was later chosen to be Lautenberg's official successor in October 2013.
Later career
He announced his retirement in 2000, but denied it was because he thought he would lose to Whitman or Kean, saying that he had been vulnerable in previous elections and "Mr. Vulnerable always wins". His fellow Democrat and businessman, Jon Corzine, was elected to replace him. In 2001, Lautenberg decided to run again for Senator in 2002. He won the election.
Personal life
Lautenberg was married to Lois Levenson until they divorced 31 years after their marriage. He was married to Bonnie Englebardt from 2004 until his death in 2013. He had four children with Levenson. In 2010, Lautenberg's wealth was estimated to be between $55 million and $116.1 million, making him the fifth-wealthiest Senator.
Division of Wannon
The Division of Wannon is an Australian Electoral Division in Victoria.
It is in the south-west of the state, and includes much of the western part of Victoria. It is next to the South Australian border in the west, and the Bass Strait coast in the south. The Division includes the towns of Warnambool, Portland, Ararat, Hamilton, Stawell and Halls Gap. The Grampians and the Port Campbell National Parks are in the Division. Maryborough and Avoca will become part of Wannon at the 2013 federal election after changes that took place on December 24, 2010.
The Division was one of the 75 divisions drawn up for the first federal election in 1901. It was named after the Wannon River, which had been named by Major Mitchell in 1836.
Edgar de Evia
Edgar Domingo Evia y Joutard (July 30, 1910 – February 10, 2003) was a Mexican-born American photographer. He took photos for Town & Country, House & Garden, Look, and The New York Times Magazine.
Division of Wannon
Members
For the first 50 years the division was held by both the Australian Labor Party and the conservative parties. However, changes in 1955 removed most of the seat's Labor-friendly territory, and it has been a safe Liberal seat since then. The seat was held by former Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.
Edgar de Evia
Evia was born on July 30, 1910 in Mérida, Yucatán. His father was Mexican, and his mother was French. In 1912, his family immigrated to New York City. Evia was partners with Robert Denning from the 1950s until the 1960s. Then he was partners with David McJonathan-Swarm from 1966 until his death in 2003. Evia died in New York City, New York on February 10, 2003 from pneumonia after a broken hip, aged 92.
Tina Majorino
Albertina Marie "Tina" Majorino (February 7, 1994 ) is an American movie and television actress. She started acting as a child. She acted in the movies Waterworld and Napoleon Dynamite. On television, she acted in the series Big Love, Veronica Mars and True Blood. She was also in the animated television version of Napoleon Dynamite. She has a recurring role on the series Bones. In 2012, Majorino joined the cast of Grey's Anatomy. Her acting was begun around 1992. She was born in Westlake, California.
American literature
American literature is poetry, fiction, drama, or essays written by Americans. It also includes literature written by people living in the United States (who are not American citizens).
Carbene
A carbene is a molecule with a carbon atom that has two bonds and two other electrons that do not make any bonds. Since the carbon has only 6 electrons around it, it is quite reactive. The general formula can be written as R-(C:)-R'.
Carbenes can do many reactions. They can be both electrophiles and nucleophiles. They like doing addition reactions on double bonds. They are also found in cheletropic reactions.
A carbene can be a singlet or a triplet. In the first type, the two electrons that do not make bonds are like a lone pair. They both stay in the same orbital. In a triplet carbene instead, the two electron stay in different orbitals. Here they both have the same spin.
Most carbenes are very unstable. However, some can exist for a long time. A famous example is Grubbs' catalyst, which was developed by Robert Grubbs.
North–South divide
The North–South divide is a term often used in the geography of socio-economics. It describes a difference in economic development between the north and south of the world. The North is made up of mostly developed countries in the Northern Hemisphere – those of Europe and North America. The South is made up of mostly developing and undeveloped countries – those in Africa, Latin America and Asia. Many of them are in the Southern Hemisphere. The North is home to four of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and all members of the G8.
American literature
19th Century
The 19th century was a fertile era for the American novel and American poetry. The most popular American novelists of the 19th Century were women. Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin about slavery in America. Luisa May Alcott wrote the popular novel Little Women about the dreams and hardships of sisters growing up in rural America.
20th Century
The 20th Century is often called The American Century in art. Novelists of the modern era include William Faulkner, John Steinbeck, T.S. Eliot, Ernest Hemingway, Sinclair Lewis, and Pearl Buck.
19th Century
Herman Melville wrote the famous novel Moby Dick, about a whaling in America. Moby Dick is often called the greatest American novels. Emily Dickinson is one of the greatest American poets. Dickinson wrote many lyrical, religious, philosophical poems. Walt Whitman wrote the epic poem Leaves of Grass. Masterpieces of Gothic fiction include Nathaniel Hawthorn's Fall of the House of Usher and The Scarlet Letter).  Charlotte Perkins Gilman's feminist classic "The Yellow Wallpaper" is also Gothic fiction.  Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau wrote philosophical essays. Their philosophical school of thought is called Transcendentalism.
20th Century
Toni Morrison, Eugene O'Neill, Saul Bellow, Joseph Brodsky and Isaac Bashevis Singer won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Refugee Boy
Refugee Boy is a book written by Benjamin Zephaniah.
American literature
21st Century
There are many popular literary genres. Humorist David Sedaris writes funny short stories about his personal life and odd things about strangers. Shel Silverstein and Dr.Seuss wrote rhyming poems for children’s books. Judy Bloom writes emotional stories about young girls for young readers. R.L.Stine writes scary stories (Goosebump Series) about monsters and ghosts for boys and girls. Stephen King writes horror novels for adults about murder, monsters, and kidnapping.
Contemporary fiction writers of include Don Delillo, Paul Auster, Jennifer Egan, Colson Whitehead, Giannina Braschi, David Foster Wallace, and Jonathan Frazen. These writers are often called Postmodern authors.
Refugee Boy
Plot
The whole story centers around the 14-year-old Alem Kelo. He is a boy born of an Ethiopian father and an Eritrean mother at a time when the two countries were at war with each other. His father takes him to London to be safe. There he has to fight for his status as a refugee. Alem and his father had to leave Ethiopia or die, so Alem's father (Mr Kelo) decides to leave Alem in England until there is peace.
Soon after arriving in London, Officers from the council in charge of refugees told Alem that he was going to have a hearing in court. In the hearing, they took a photograph, fingerprints, and was questioned for hours.
Awards and other versions
Refugee Boy was Benjamin Zephaniah's fifth book. It won the 2002 Portsmouth Book Award in the Longer Novel category. According to the opening to the book, the reason Zephaniah wrote the book is because he heard lots of different refugee stories and he combined the stories to create the book.
Refugee Boy has been adapted into a play that was directed by Gail McIntyre and designed by Emma Williams. The casting designer is Kay Magson and the playwright is Lemn Sissay. The play premiered in Leeds at the West Yorkshire Playhouse between 9 March 2013 and 30 March 2013.
Eritrean–Ethiopian War
The Eritrean–Ethiopian War was a war between Ethiopia and Eritrea. It lasted from May 1998 to June 2000. Both countries spent hundreds of millions of dollars on the war, and tens of thousands of people were killed by the conflict. The war resulted in small changes to the border between the two countries.
Events
The war took place from May 1998 to June 2000. It become one of the most violent wars in Africa. Ethiopia and Eritrea are some of the poorest countries in the world, but hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on the wars. Tens of thousands of people were killed in the conflicts.
Mario Party 2
Mario Party 2 is a party board video game for the Nintendo 64 console. It is the second game in the Mario Party series. It was published by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo. It was released on December 17, 1999 in Japan, on January 24, 2000 in North America, and on November 6, 2000 in Europe. It was later re-released for the Nintendo Wii's Virtual Console in November and December 2010.
Eritrean–Ethiopian War
Events
The fighting quickly increased to using artillery and tanks. On 5 June 1998, the Ethiopians launched air attacks on the airport in Asmara and the Eritreans retaliated by attacking the airport of Mekele. These raids caused civilian casualties and deaths on both sides of the border. The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1177 condemning the use of force and welcomed statements from both sides to end the air strikes.
Eritrea's war of independence lasted for 30 years, on and off; it was started in 1961 and finished in 1991 when Eritrea finally became independent. While this was going on, there was also a civil war in Ethiopia, which began in 1975. This war was started by Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) as a rebellion to overthrow the Marxist military dictatorship of Derg (a military committee that had overthrown Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974). TPLF and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front were formidable allies during the civil war, but then Ethiopia and Eritrea could not agree on where the border was after Eritrea's independence. One of the main areas of conflict was focused on Badme.
Mario Party 2
Gameplay
Mario Party 2 is played like the first Mario Party game. Players go around on boards to collect coins, which they can use to buy stars. Movement is done with the use of a dice block with the numbers one through ten. After all four players take their turns, a mini-game is played. The player that wins the mini-game wins coins. The winner is the player with the most stars at the end of the game. It introduces the item system. Players can buy items by going into an item shop. Items can also be gotten through an item mini-game. Item mini-games are done when a player lands on an Item Space. Players can hold one item at a time. Also introduced are battle mini-games. Battle mini-games are done when a player lands on a Battle Space. Before playing the mini-game, a certain number of coins are taken from all players. The first place player gets 70 percent of the total coins, while the second place player gets 30 percent. The other two players get nothing. Duel mini-games are introduced in this game. A Duel mini-game is played when a player uses the Dueling Glove item. The player chooses an opponent to play against and the amount of coins they want to wager. The wager is taken from both player's coin totals. Whichever player wins gets the total coin amount. The Koopa Bank is also introduced in this game. When a player passes by the Bank Space, they have to pay five coins. If a player lands on the Bank Space, they get the total that was in the bank at the time.
Eritrean–Ethiopian War
After the war
The border dispute was settled on 13 April 2002, when an international court heard the case and made a decision. It was decided that the area around Badme belonged to Eritrea. This area, however, was occupied by Ethiopian forces. On 10 December 2005, Ethiopia announced that it was withdrawing some of its forces from the border. As of 2013, Ethiopia still occupies Badme.
Mario Party 2
Gameplay
Six boards are in the game. In every board but the last one, the characters wear a costume. The costume is themed to the board.
Great Artesian Basin
The Great Artesian Basin in Australia is the largest and deepest aquifer (artesian basin) in the world. It stretches over 1711000 km2, which is 22% of the surface area of Australia. This includes most of Queensland, the south-east corner of the Northern Territory, the north-east part of South Australia, and northern New South Wales. The basin is 3000 m deep in places. It may contain 64900 km3 of groundwater. Its temperature ranges from 30°C to 100°C.
Geology
The water of the GAB is held in a sandstone layer laid down by continental erosion of higher ground during the Triassic, Jurassic, and Lower Cretaceous periods. At the time when much of what is now Australia was below sea level. The sandstone was then covered by a layer of marine sedimentary rock. This formed a confining layer, trapping water in the sandstone aquifer. The eastern edge of the basin was uplifted when the Great Dividing Range formed. The other side was created from the landforms of the Central Eastern Lowlands and the Great Western Plateau to the west.
The basin is the only reliable source of freshwater through much of inland Australia. The Great Artesian Basin Coordinating Committee (GABCC) coordinates activity between the various levels of government and community organisations.
Geology
Most water enters the rock formations from the higher ground near the eastern edge of the basin (in Queensland and New South Wales). It very gradually flows towards the south and west. A much smaller amount enters along the western margin in arid central Australia, flowing to the south and east. Because the sandstones are permeable, water gradually makes its way through the pores between the sand grains, flowing at a rate of one to five metres per year.
Discharge water eventually exits through a number of springs and seeps, mostly in the southern part of the basin. The age of the groundwater is got by measuring carbon-14 and chlorine-36. It ranges from several thousand years for the recharge areas in the north to nearly 2 million years in the south-western discharge zones.
Decompression sickness
Decompression sickness is caused by bubbles which form in the blood and other body parts of people who have the pressure around them decrease too quickly. These bubbles may block the flow of blood and starve the body parts of oxygen, or the bubbles may cause damage by stretching, tearing, or pressing on the affected parts. Decompression sickness is also called the bends.
Who can get decompression sickness?
Decompression sickness can happen to underwater divers who spend a lot of time in deep water, and return to the surface too quickly for the breathing gases dissolved in their bodies to escape without forming bubbles.
People can also get decompression sickness if they are in a pressurised aeroplane or spacecraft and it is damaged and the air is lost.
How to prevent decompression sickness
People flying high in aircraft avoid decompression by being in a pressurized cabin. In military aircraft the crew may breathe oxygen before the flight for a few hours so most of the nitrogen that is dissolved in their bodies can escape. This is called oxygen prebreathing. Astronauts preparing for a spacewalk also prebreathe oxygen and decompress inside the spacecraft before getting into their suit and going outside.
Decompression sickness can be prevented by decreasing the pressure slowly. This allows the gases which have dissolved in the body to get out in the breathing air without forming bubbles. Divers do this by coming up to the surface slowly, as the pressure depends on the depth, and reducing the depth will reduce the pressure. For each ten metres change of depth the pressure will change by 1 bar, which is about the same as normal air pressure at sea level.
Divers find out how slowly to come up by using decompression tables or a dive computer. They may need to stop on the way up to wait for enough gas to get out before it is safe to go up further. This is called a decompression stop. The tables or computer will inform the divers what depths they must stop at and how long they must stay at each depth.
What is actually happening?
When a person breathes, the air or other breathing gas dissolves into the blood from the lungs. This takes some time, and the amount of gas that can dissolve depends on the pressure around the person. If the pressure is greater, more gas can dissolve. After a while no more gas can dissolve at that pressure.
When a diver goes deeper, the pressure gets greater. This makes more gas dissolve in the diver. At the end of the dive the diver must return to the surface of the water where there is less pressure.
If the diver goes up slowly the pressure will change slowly, and there will be enough time for the gas dissolved in the diver to return from the blood to the breathing gas in the divers lungs and it will be safely removed. If the pressure change is too quick for enough of the dissolved gas to be removed, the gas may form bubbles in the blood and other parts of the diver's body. These bubbles will get bigger when the pressure gets less as the diver gets nearer to the surface. Bubbles which are in the blood may get stuck in small blood vessels. If this happens in the lungs they will usually do no great harm but if they block the blood flow in other parts of the body, the parts where the flow is blocked will not get enough oxygen and may be damaged. This is very dangerous if it happens in the brain or heart. The other place where bubbles may form is in the more solid parts of the body. If these bubbles grow enough they may tear the parts around them or press against them hard enough to do damage.
Treatment for decompression sickness
If a diver gets decompression sickness it can be treated by putting the diver in a decompression chamber, and increasing the pressure to squeeze the bubbles to a smaller size where they do less harm, and by giving the diver pure oxygen to breathe, which helps to get the bubbles to dissolve again. The oxygen also helps to stop more damage to the body by the bubbles which have blocked blood vessels, as there is more oxygen in the blood to keep the parts alive which have less blood supply because of the blockages.
Innamincka, South Australia
Innamincka is a very small town in north-east South Australia. It is 1065 km northeast of Adelaide and 459 km from Lyndhurst up the Strzelecki Track. It is on the banks of Cooper Creek in the state's Channel Country, and surrounded by the Strzelecki, Tirari and Sturt Stony Deserts. It is within Innamincka Regional Reserve. In 2006 there were 131 people living in the town.
History
The area was the traditional home of the Yandruwandha, Aborigines. The first European to visit the area was Charles Sturt in 1845. He was followed by A C Gregory in 1858 and then Burke and Wills. A monument to Sturt, Burke and Wills was built in Innamincka in 1944.
The town common, on the banks of the Cooper, is popular with campers, as are the town's public coin-in-slot toilets and showers.
In 1882 a police camp was set up and a small settlement followed. From 7 April 1889, a Royal Mail coach ran fortnightly from Farina, operated by merchants Davey and Pilkington. The town was first named Hopetoun after the Governor of Victoria, the Earl of Hopetoun but it was never popular with locals. The town was never very large, but had a hotel, a store and a police station. Until 1901 the police station was also the customs post for collecting duties on cattle brought overland from Queensland into South Australia. In 1928 the Australian Inland Mission built a hospital here, the Elizabeth Symon Nursing Home. Severe drought and poor access to the settlement resulted in the hotel and hospital closing. In 1951 the police post closed and the town was abandoned.
Burke and Wills
The Victorian Contingent Party under Alfred Howitt was sent by the Victorian government to find the expedition. Howitt found the remains of both leaders, Robert O'Hara Burke and William John Wills and buried them close to the site of Innamincka. He also found the only survivor, John King on the 15 September 1861. King was living with and being cared for by the Yandruwandha aboriginals.
History
Increased tourism and discovery of gas and oil in the late 1960s led to the formation of Cooper Creek Hotel Motel Pty Ltd. The company opened a hotel, a store and accommodation in the abandoned town. In 1994 the Elizabeth Symon Nursing Home was restored by Dick Smith and Australian Geographic and used as a visitor centre for South Australian Parks and Wildlife.
Burke and Wills
Howitt returned to the area in 1862 as leader of the Victorian Exploring Party. He set up a depot camp at Cullyamurra Waterhole before digging up the bodies of Burke and Wills and taking them to Melbourne for a State Funeral.
The site of Wills' grave and King's site are on Cooper Creek downstream of Innamincka. Burke's grave, Howitt's camp and the Dig Tree are on Cooper Creek upstream of Innamincka.
Averroes
Averroes's life
Averroes was born as ʾSan sebastián De La Cruz ʾAḥmad bin Rušd. He was born in 1126 in Andalusia, which at the time was a Muslim country called Al-Andalus. At a young age Averroes had many teachers who helped him begin his study of Islam. He excelled in this and was also interested in law. He began studying medicine in Seville under a man named Abu Jafar al-Turjali.
Averroës (also known as Ibn Rušd or Ibn Rushd; 14 April 1126 – 10 December 1198) was a Muslim polymath from Al-Andalus. He was a scholar of Greek and Islamic philosophy. He also studied Islamic theology, law, politics, classical music, and the sciences of medicine, psychology, physics, astronomy, geography and mathematics.
Averroes's life
Averroes began his career with the help of Ibn Tufail, a physician at the caliph's court in Marrakesh. He was able to go to Marrakesh and become a physician because of his knowledge of physics. Averroes was granted many honors and became a Qadi (judge) in Seville in 1169.
Averroes was born in Córdoba, Al-Andalus. He lived during a unique period in academic history. Interest in philosophy and theology was failing in the Muslim world but just beginning to become influential in Christian Europe. Averroes himself was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle. His philosophy was often criticised by fellow Muslims. He had a larger influence on Western European society. He has been described as the founder of secular thought in Western Europe.
Averroes's life
Two years later he became the Qadi of Córdoba. In his free time he studied and wrote. In 1195, Averroes wrote a paper about how he thought philosophy was less than useful for the discovery of religious truth. He was disgraced and many of his papers were burned. The Caliph imprisoned Averroes and exiled him from the country. He lived in Lucena for a short time, then he was brought back by the Caliph to be a judge. He died in 1198.
Averroes is most famous for his commentaries of Aristotle's works. Aristotle had been mostly forgotten in the West since the 6th century. Averroes' interpretations of Aristotle's ideas revived Western scholarly interest in Aristotle and ancient Greek philosophy in general. They also led to the development of scholasticism in medieval Europe.
The Mall, London
The surface of The Mall is coloured red to give the effect of a giant red carpet leading up to Buckingham Palace. This colour was obtained using synthetic iron oxide pigment from Deanshanger Oxide Works (Deanox), which was created using the Deanox Process devised by chemist Ernest Lovell.
The Mall is a short but important road in London. It runs from Buckingham Palace at its western end to Whitehall, right near Trafalgar Square. On the way, it runs through Admiralty Arch. It is closed to traffic on Sundays and public holidays, and on ceremonial occasions.
The Mall was built as a ceremonial route in the early 20th century. There are similar ceremonial routes in cities such as Berlin, Mexico City, Oslo, Paris, Saint Petersburg, Vienna and Washington, D.C.. These routes are often used for major national ceremonies. When the Mall was built, a new façade (front face) was constructed for Buckingham Palace, and the Victoria Memorial was erected.
The Queen Victoria Memorial is in front of the gates of the Palace, whilst Admiralty Arch at the far end leads into Trafalgar Square. The length of The Mall from where it joins Constitution Hill at the Victoria Memorial end to Admiralty Arch is exactly 0.5 nmi. St. James's Park is on the south side of The Mall, opposite Green Park and St James's Palace, on the north side. Running off The Mall at its eastern end is Horse Guards Parade, where the Trooping the Colour ceremony is held.
On VE Day – 8 May 1945 – the Palace was the centre of British celebrations. The King, Queen and Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret were on the balcony behind them, to the cheers from a vast crowd on The Mall.
During state visits, the monarch and the visiting head of state are escorted in a state carriage up The Mall, and the street is decorated with Union Flags and the flags of the visiting head of state's country. During the Golden Jubilee celebrations of Queen Elizabeth II in 2002, over one million people packed The Mall to watch the public displays and the appearance of the Royal Family on the palace balcony. These scenes were repeated in 2011 for the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, and again in 2012 for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee, and the Diamond Jubilee concert.
Buchenwald concentration camp
Buchenwald concentration camp was a Nazi concentration camp during World War II. In German, the camp was called Konzentrationslager (KZ) Buchenwald. It was built in Germany in 1937, and stayed open until 1945. Buchenwald was one of the first and largest labor camps built in Germany.
The Nazis sent people from all over Europe and the Soviet Union to Buchenwald. There, they were prisoners and did forced labor in weapons factories.
After the Allies won World War II, the Soviet Union took over Buchenwald and some other parts of Germany. From 1945 to 1950, they used Buchenwald as an internment camp. They called it NKVD Special Camp Number 2. (The NKVD was the Soviet police organization that ran the camp.) On January 6, 1950, the Soviets handed over Buchenwald to the East German Ministry of Internal Affairs.
Today, what is left of Buchenwald is a memorial. There is also a museum there.
History
The Nazis built Buchenwald on the Ettersberg (Etter Mountain), near Weimar, Germany, in July of 1937. They named the camp Buchenwald, which means "beech forest" in English. On the camp's main gate, they wrote Jedem das Seine ("Each to their own”).
Between April 1938 and April 1945, about 238,380 people were sent to Buchenwald. These prisoners included people from many different countries. They also included many Allied prisoners of war (POWs). Over 56,000 prisoners died at Buchenwald.
Karl-Otto Koch (1 August 1937–July 1941)
Buchenwald’s first commandant (camp leader) was Karl-Otto Koch. He ran the camp from 1937 to July 1941. His second wife, Ilse Koch, became well known as Die Hexe von Buchenwald ("the witch of Buchenwald") for the terrible ways she treated the prisoners. Koch made the prisoners build a zoo at Buchenwald, with a bear pit (Bärenzwinger).
Women in Buchenwald
Somewhere between 500 and 1,000 women prisoners were kept at Buchenwald. First, in 1941, twenty female political prisoners were brought to Buchenwald from Ravensbrück concentration camp. They were forced to work as sex slaves in the camp's brothel.
However, most of the female prisoners were sent to Buchenwald in 1944 and 1945 from other concentration camps. They were sent mainly from Auschwitz, Ravensbrück, and Bergen Belsen. Later, all the women prisoners were sent to Buchenwald's many female satellite camps (smaller camps around Buchenwald).
Ilse Koch was the head supervisor (Oberaufseherin) of 22 other female guards and hundreds of women prisoners in the main camp. More than 530 other female guards worked in Buchenwald's many other, smaller camps ("subcamps"). Only 22 women served or trained in the main Buchenwald camp, compared to over 15,500 men.
Liberation
On April 4, 1945, United States soldiers took over Ohrdruf, one of Buchenwald's smaller camps. Ohrdruf was the first Nazi camp liberated (taken over and freed) by U.S. soldiers.
Karl-Otto Koch (1 August 1937–July 1941)
After the war, Ilse Koch was sentenced to four years in jail. At first, her sentence was cut down to two years and she was set free. However, after this, she was arrested again and sentenced to life in prison by the new German government. She killed herself in jail in September 1967.
Liberation
- Part of Edward R. Murrow's Buchenwald report. April 15, 1945.
Hermann Pister (1942–1945)
After the war, Pister was tried in the Nuremberg Trials, and was sentenced to death. However, in September 1948, before he could be executed, Pister died of a heart problem.
Buchenwald's second commandant was Hermann Pister. He controlled the camp from 1942 to 1945, when it was taken over by American soldiers.
Soviet Special Camp Number 2
The NKVD (the Soviet police organization that ran the camp) would not let the prisoners talk to anyone outside the camp. The NKVD also did not try to figure out whether the prisoners were guilty.
Number of deaths
When all these deaths are added up, the total number of people who died at Buchenwald is about 56,545. This number includes:
Liberation
"I asked to see one of the barracks. It happened to be occupied by Czechoslovaks. When I entered, men crowded around, tried to lift me to their shoulders. They were too weak. Many of them could not get out of bed. I was told that this building had once stabled 80 horses. There were 1,200 men in it, five to a bunk. The stink was beyond all description.
Soviet Special Camp Number 2
On January 6, 1950, the Soviet Minister of Internal Affairs, Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov, decided that the East German Ministry of Internal Affairs would take over all of the NKVD special camps, including the one at Buchenwald.
Buchenwald is destroyed
In October 1950, Buchenwald was destroyed. The main gate, the crematorium, the hospital block, and two guard towers were left standing. All prisoner barracks and other buildings were torn down. Many of them have been rebuilt.
Number of deaths
This total of 56,545 deaths means that 24% of the prisoners who were sent to Buchenwald died.
Liberation
A Polish engineer named Gwidon Damazyn, who had been a prisoner since March 1941, had set up a secret short-wave radio. On April 8 at noon, Damazyn and Russian prisoner Konstantin Ivanovich Leonov sent a message in Morse code to the Allies. The message had been written by the leaders of the prisoners' underground resistance movement (a group of prisoners who tried to fight the Nazis in secret). It said:
"To the Allies. To the army of General Patton. This is the Buchenwald concentration camp. SOS. We request help. They want to evacuate us. The SS wants to destroy us."
The text was repeated several times in English, German, and Russian. Damazyn sent the English and German messages, and Leonov sent the Russian version. Three minutes after Damazyn sent the last message, the headquarters of the Third United States Army answered:
"KZ Bu. Hold out. Rushing to your aid. Staff of Third Army."
Soviet Special Camp Number 2
Between 1945 and February 10, 1950, the camp was run by the Soviet Union. They used it as a prison camp called Special Camp Number 2.
Liberation
Two days later, the Nazis started trying to evacuate (move everybody out of) Buchenwald. They made thousands of prisoners go on forced marches toward other camps that the Americans had not yet reached.
They called the doctor. We inspected his records. There were only names in the little black book, nothing more. Nothing about who these men were, what they had done, or hoped. Behind the names of those who had died, there was a cross. I counted them. They totalled 242. 242 out of 1,200, in one month.
Types of prisoners
The Nazis sent prisoners from all over Europe and the Soviet Union to Buchenwald. These included:
Causes of death
Because of the terrible living conditions in the camp, illness was very common and spread quickly. Prisoners were also starving. Because of this combination of illness and starvation, many prisoners were actually "worked to death" as the Nazis had planned. However, many other inmates died from executions, experiments by Nazi doctors, and other causes.
Nazi doctors also did experiments on prisoners at Buchenwald. For example, in 1942 and 1943, they used 729 prisoners to test a vaccine for typhus. This meant the prisoners were given the vaccine, and then given typhus on purpose. 154 of these prisoners died. In another experiment, Nazi doctors wanted to see how much of a certain poison was needed to kill a person. They gave four Russian POWs the poison. When the POWs did not die, they were "strangled in the crematorium" and then "dissected" (cut apart to study their bodies). Doctors also burned other prisoners very badly with white phosphorus to test whether a medicine would help similar wounds caused by bombs. After the war ended, at the Nuremberg Trials, one of these doctors defended himself by saying that while he was a doctor, he was also a "legally appointed executioner" (meaning the law allowed him to kill people).
Allied airmen
After the war, one airman remembered arriving at Buchenwald:
Causes of death
The Nazis' goal for camps like Buchenwald was Vernichtung durch Arbeit ("extermination through labor"). This meant that prisoners were being sent to Buchenwald to be worked to death.
Allied airmen
- Canadian airman Ed Carter
Number of deaths
The SS left behind records of how many prisoners came to the camp and how many left. They recorded how many prisoners were let go, sent to another camp, or died. These records say that 33,462 prisoners died at Buchenwald. However, these records may not be completely true. For example, before 1944, when the SS killed prisoners, they often wrote down that the prisoners were "transferred to the Gestapo," not that they were killed. Also, starting in 1941, many Soviet POWs were executed in mass killings. These POWs would be killed as soon as they got to the camp, and were never added to the camp's records. This means they were not listed among the 33,462 dead.
Karl-Otto Koch (1 August 1937–July 1941)
Karl Koch was tried and sentenced to death. He was executed by a firing squad on April 5, 1945. This was just one week before American soldiers arrived and took over Buchenwald.
Allied airmen
The airmen were treated and abused in the same way as the other prisoners at Buchenwald. Two airmen died there. Then, in October 1944, the airmen were sent to Stalag Luft III, a regular POW camp. The airmen who were accused of being "terror bombers" were going to be executed at Buchenwald after October 24. They were saved by officers of the Luftwaffe (the German air force), who visited Buchenwald. When they got back to Berlin, these officers made sure the airmen were sent to a regular POW camp, and not executed.
Causes of death
Summary executions of Soviet POWs (executions without a trial) were also done at Buchenwald. In 1941 and 1942, at least 1,000 men were chosen to be killed and were sent to Buchenwald, where they were immediately shot in the back of the head.
Liberation
United States soldiers arrived at Buchenwald on April 11, 1945 at 3:15 P.M. (The clock at the entrance gate is now permanently set to this time). The soldiers were given a hero's welcome.
After learning this news, Communist inmates attacked the camp's watchtowers and killed the guards who were still at the camp. They used guns they had been collecting since 1942 (one machine gun and 91 rifles).
Damazyn fainted after getting the message.
Soviet Special Camp Number 2
The Soviet Union held 28,455 prisoners, including 1,000 women, at Special Camp Number 2. Soviet records say that 7,113 of these prisoners died. They were buried in mass graves in the woods around the camp. Their families were not told they had died.
Allied airmen
"As we got close to the camp and saw what was inside... a terrible, terrible fear and horror entered our hearts. We thought, what is this? Where are we going? Why are we here? And as you got closer to the camp and started to enter [it] and saw these human skeletons walking around—old men, young men, boys, just skin and bone, we thought, what are we getting into?"
Karl-Otto Koch (1 August 1937–July 1941)
Eventually, Koch was put in prison at Buchenwald himself. At first, two Nazi officials named Prince Waldeck and Dr. Morgen accused Koch of encouraging murder. Later, Koch was also charged with corruption, embezzlement, black market dealings, and using the camp's workers to meet his own needs. Other camp officials were also charged, including Ilse Koch.
Liberation
On Thursday, April 12, 1945, some journalists arrived at Buchenwald. The journalists included Edward R. Murrow, whose radio report about seeing Buchenwald was broadcast on CBS and became one of his most famous:
Allied airmen
These airmen's planes had crashed in France, which Nazi Germany controlled. The airmen were sent to Buchenwald, not a POW camp, because the Nazis said they were spies and "terror bombers."
Liberation
As we walked out into the courtyard, a man fell dead. Two others, they must have been over 60, were crawling toward the latrine. I saw it, but will not describe it."
Buchenwald is destroyed
Just days after the camp was liberated in 1945, freed prisoners built a monument to honor the people who died at Buchenwald. It was made of wood and was meant to be temporary. Eventually it was replaced by a monument made of stainless steel. The surface of this monument is kept at 37 C, the temperature of human skin, all year round.