cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Fischer-Tropsch process
Fischer-Tropsch catalysts
A catalyst is a substance added to change the rate of a chemical reaction, generally to make it faster. Many different catalysts can be used for the Fischer–Tropsch process. The most common catalysts are the metals cobalt, iron, and ruthenium. These metals are all transition metals. The metal nickel can also be used, but generally with unwanted results. A nickel catalyst in the reaction usually produces a lot of methane, which is undesirable.
Cobalt seems to be the most active catalyst (it has the greatest and fastest effect on the process). When the input is a natural gas, cobalt catalysts are very good for the Fischer-Tropsch process. Iron catalysts are better when the input gas is of lower quality (less pure) such as coal or biomass.
Most metals used for this process (like cobalt, nickel, and ruthenium) remain in their metal form when added to the process. However, iron catalysts behave very differently. Often, iron catalysts change form and chemical phase, like converting into various oxides and carbides during the reaction. It is important to control all of the iron reactions during the process, or else the process may not work correctly.
Fischer-Tropsch catalysts are famous for being extremely sensitive to the addition of sulfur. Even a tiny amount of sulfur can have an undesirable impact on the reaction. Cobalt catalysis is more sensitive to sulfur than iron.
HTFT and LTFT
High-Temperature Fischer-Tropsch (or HTFT) is performed at temperatures of 330°C-350°C. HTFT uses an iron-based catalyst. Sasol used HTFT in Coal-to-Liquid plants (CTL). Low-Temperature Fischer-Tropsch (LTFT) is performed at lower temperatures and uses a cobalt-based catalyst. Shell used LTFT in an integrated Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.
Gasification
Some F-T factories use coal, biomass or other solid compounds as a starting point. Before these factories can begin the F-T process, they must turn the solids into gases such as CO, H2, and alkanes. Changing solid chemical compounds into gas is called gasification. The gas collected from coal gasification often has a CO/H2 ratio of ~0.7 instead of the optimal ratio of ~2. This ratio can be adjusted from 0.7 to 2.0 using the water-gas shift reaction. Gasification is a dirty and expensive process. Coal-based Fischer–Tropsch factories start out with coal, gasify the coal, and then use the resulting gas as feed stock for the Fischer-Tropsch process. These factories can produce large volumes of CO2 in this way. One of the main reasons for this approach is the large amounts of energy required for a coal-based gasification process.
History
The original process was invented by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch while working at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in the 1920s. Since then, many improvements have been made. The term "Fischer-Tropsch" now is used for many similar processes. Fischer and Tropsch submitted several patents, like US patent no. 1,746,464, applied for in 1926, and published in 1930. It was given to the factories in Germany in 1936. Germany had an abundance of coal but very little petroleum. The F-T process enables the conversion of coal into gasoline, which is important for gasoline-based transport like cars, airplanes, and trucks. As a result, during World War II, the F-T process enabled Nazi Germany and Japan to produce substitute fuels for tanks and cars. F-T fuel production made up about 9% of German wartime fuel production and 25% of the automobile fuel.
The United States Bureau of Mines ran a program started by the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act. The Bureau hired seven fuel scientists from Operation Paperclip to work in a Fischer-Tropsch plant in Louisiana, Missouri in 1946. Operation Paperclip was a project to recruit German scientists to work for the US after World War II.
Commercialization
The F-T process has been used by many large companies, however the process is unpopular for many reasons. F-T factory equipment is expensive, and has high operating and maintenance costs. Also, petroleum, which competes with F-T products, has very unpredictable prices. Usually, factories are only profitable when they have access to "stranded gas". "Stranded gas" is the name for sources of natural gas very far from major cities that are too expensive to pump to consumers. If the natural gas could be pumped to these cities and sold directly to consumers, it would be much more profitable. Therefore, several companies are developing processes to enable practical exploitation of so-called stranded gas reserves.
Sasol
The largest F-T factories with the largest application of F-T technology are owned and operated by the company Sasol in South Africa. South Africa is a country with large coal reserves but not enough oil to meet demand. Germany is in a similar situation. Sasol employs coal and natural gas in the F-T Process. They produce many different substitutes for oil products, and produce most of the country's diesel fuel.
Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis
One of the largest uses of F-T technology is in Bintulu, Malaysia. This Shell factory turns natural gas into low-sulfur diesel fuels and food-grade wax. They produce approximately 12,000 barrels/day.
In October 2006, Finnish paper and pulp manufacturer UPM announced its plans to produce biodiesel using the Fischer–Tropsch process. It said that it will do this along with the manufacturing processes at its European paper and pulp plants. It will use waste biomass from paper and pulp manufacturing as raw material for biodiesel.
Carbon dioxide reuse
In 2009, chemists working for the U.S. Navy studied Fischer-Tropsch for making fuels with hydrogen from electrolyzed seawater. With the usually optimal cobalt catalyst, this study produced mostly methane gas. Use of an iron catalyst, however, resulted in only 30% methane in the product; the rest consisted of short-chain hydrocarbons. Further refining of the hydrocarbons produced could lead to the creation of kerosene-based jet fuel.
The abundance of CO2 makes seawater look like a good alternative fuel source. Scientists at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory said that, "although the gas forms only a small proportion of air – around 0.04 per cent – ocean water contains about 140 times that concentration". However this often-repeated statement is misleading because while the density of CO2 and related compounds in seawater is about 200x the density of CO2 in air on a per cubic meter basis, carbon dioxide compounds are only about 1/4 the density on a per kg basis.
List of Becca's Bunch characters
These Are Characters From Becca’s Bunch
Characters
Flag of Cape Verde
The flag of Cape Verde was used since September 22, 1992.
List of Becca's Bunch characters
Bunch
Flag of Cape Verde
Design
The five horizontal (facing left and right) stripes are blue, white, red, white, and blue. The top stripe is half as tall as the flag. The three stripes in the middle are each one-twelfth as tall as the flag. The bottom stripe is one-fourth as tall as the flag.
Covaxin
Covaxin (codenamed as BBV152) is an inactivated virus-based COVID-19 vaccine created by Bharat Biotech.
As of October 2021, 110.6 million people in India have received Covaxin. On 3 November 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) approved the vaccine for emergency use.
2009 Saskatchewan municipal elections
The Canadian province of Saskatchewan held municipal elections in its municipalities on October 28, 2009.
Flag of Cape Verde
Design
The middle of the circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is on the red stripe. It is three-eighths away from the left side of the flag.
List of Becca's Bunch characters
Becca
Becca Is The Main Character Of The Show
She Is A Spunky, Clever, Compassionate Bird Who Never Gives Up And Often Playing With Others, Her Confidence Is Often Seen On Occasion, She Is Also Cheerful And Innocent, She Is The Leader Of The Group
Becca’s Catchphrase Is “Bunch Crunch”
Russell
Russell Is A Bunch Member From Becca’s Bunch He Is 11-Years Old
Brave, outgoing, and strong-willed, Russell Is very bold And overconfident. He often gets overexcited. While happy-go-lucky And very loud, Russell has a cousin he is nervous of
Russell’s Catchphrase Is “Macadamia!”
Silva
Sliva Is A Bunch Member From Becca’s Bunch And Is 11-Years Old
Sliva Sure Does Have A Lot Of Things Up Her Sleeve! Clever, Smart, And Intelligent, Silva Is Easily The Brains Of The Group, She Always Uses Stuff On Adventures To Help Her Frineds
Sliva Does Not Have A Catchphrase
Pedro
Pedro Is A Bunch Member From Becca’s Bunch And Is 11-Years Old
Pedro Is Adventurous And Smart, However, He Does Show His Lack Of Confidence In Some Episodes, He Is A Bit High-Strug But Mostly A Friendly Person, Pedro Is Somewhat Lazy Aa Well, As He Fell Asleep During A Race
Pedro’s Catchphrase Is “I Am Not Diggin It” It Shows His Occasional Lack Of Confidence Even Though He Is Confident Most Times
John Brown
John Brown is the name of:
Fairchilds, Texas
Fairchilds is a village in the U.S. state of Texas.
Darling River
History
In 1828 the explorer Charles Sturt was sent by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Ralph Darling, to find the path of the Macquarie River. He visited the Bogan River and in 1829, the Darling, which he named after the Governor. In 1835 Major Thomas Mitchell traveled the whole length of the Darling.
The Darling does not have an even flow of water. It often dries up, and it sometimes floods. It flows through very dry parts of Australia. In the 1860's the Darling was used by the farmers of western New South Wales to send their wool by boat paddle steamer from Bourke and Wilcannia to South Australia where it could be loaded onto trains at Morgan and Murray Bridge.
Human rights in East Turkestan
Article 36 of the PRC Constitution provides constitutional protection for citizens’ freedom of religion and the country's official ethnic policies also reiterate protection of the freedom of religion of ethnic minorities, but in practice the Uyghur population, predominantly living in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, are subject to strict controls on the practice of Islam.
Examples of these restrictions now include:
Since the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Chinese government began to label violence in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region as terrorism, unlike in previous years. Chinese counter-terror legislation now makes explicit links between religion and extremism and has led to regulations that explicitly ban religious expression among Uyghurs in particular.
On January 19, 2021, outgoing Secretary of State Mike Pompeo formally declared that China is committing a genocide against the Uighurs and crimes against humanity. In a written letter, Pompeo wrote, “I believe this genocide is ongoing, and that we are witnessing the systematic attempt to destroy Uyghurs by the Chinese party-state.” Pompeo called for “all appropriate multilateral and relevant juridical bodies, to join the United States in our effort to promote accountability for those responsible for these atrocities." China strongly denies that human rights abuses are going on in Xinjiang. Pompeo has previously stated that China is trying to "erase its own citizens." On 16 August 2021, a young Chinese woman, named Wu Huan, told the Associated Press in her testimony that she was allegedly held for eight days at a Chinese-run secret detention facility in the United Arab Emirates, along with two other Uyghurs. Wu Huan said she was abducted from a hotel in Dubai and detained by Chinese officials at a villa converted into a jail. It was the first evidence that China was operating a “black site” beyond its borders.
Campospinoso
Campospinoso is a comune in the Province of Pavia in the Italian region of Lombardy.
Booing
Booing means shouting "BOO!" If people shout "boo" after a performance (for example, a concert, play or opera) they are showing that they did not like it. It is the opposite of applause (clapping to show that the performance was good).
Booing and hissing used to be very common, especially at the opera. In the early days of opera (from the 17th to the early 19th century) opera audiences often behaved badly. They went to the opera to chat with their friends, to cheer their favorite singers and to boo the singer s they did not like, not to listen carefully to the music.
Booing has recently become less common in Western culture except at sports events because people think it is rude. Audiences today are more likely simply not to clap if they do not like a performance. Slow hand-clapping is also a way of showing sarcastic applause.
ISO image
An ISO image is an archive file that contains data to be written to an optical disc including the optical disc file system.
Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe
The flag of São Tomé and Príncipe was created in 1975.
Appearance
It has a horizontal tricolour of green, yellow and green; with a red triangle based at the hoist and two black five-pointed stars in the yellow stripe.
Adyam Tesfalem
Adyam Tesfalem (born 17 January 1997) is an Eritrean road racing cyclist.
She competed at the 2021 UCI Road World Championships, in the women's time trial event and women's road race event.
After winning the silver medal in 2019, she became 2021 Eritrean National Time Trial Champion.
Luciana Roland
Luciana Roland (born 8 January 1995) is an Argentine road racing cyclist.
She competed at the 2021 UCI Road World Championships, in the women's time trial event and women's road race event.
She rode with Burgos Alimenta Women Cycling Sport, and WCC team.
Subrata Mukherjee
Subrata Mukherjee (14 August 1946 – 4 November 2021) was an Indian politician. He was a member of All India Trinamool Congress. He also served as the 36th Mayor of Kolkata from 2000 to 2005.
Mukherjee died at a Kolkata hospital from a heart attack on 4 November 2021, aged 75.
Kanfen
Kanfen is a village in France near Thionville. It is in the Lorraine Region, in the Moselle department, in north-eastern France. The population as of 2007 is about 996.
Origin of the name
The first mention of the village is under the name Cantevanne, in a 1239 text. Later it became Kaufen. In 1801, it changed to Kanfen. The name stayed the same when Alsace-Moselle became part of the German Empire in 1870.
The most likely etymology is a contraction of the Gaulish word canto (mountain) and the Germanic radical Fenn (marshland).
History of the commune
Kanfen and all of the Thionville region was dependent of the Duchy of Luxembourg. Le Grand Condé took Thionville in 1643. The village became part of the Kingdom of France. This was confirmed by the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.
As it was part of Alsace-Moselle, the commune was part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918. It was annexed by the Third Reich between 1940 and 1944.
Geography
Kanfen is next to the Kudertsberg hill, around 230 metres high. The river Kiesel has its source in the village flows through it.
The commune is 12 km north of Thionville and 20 km south of the city of Luxembourg. It is only a few kilometres away from the border with Luxembourg.
The commune regroups Kanfen and Kanfen-sous-Bois.
2010 Canadian electoral calendar
This is a list of elections in Canada in 2010. Included are provincial, municipal and federal elections, by-elections on any level, referendums and party leadership races at any level.
Video camera tube
A video camera tube uses a lens to focus the image on a photoelectric material (a material which emits electrons when light hits it) housed at the front of a glass tube.
An electron gun at the back of the tube, like those used in a cathode ray tube, fires electrons at the material. When the photoelectric material is hit with brighter light, it produces more electrons, which cause more of the electrons fired by the electron gun to bounce back.
By measuring the number of electrons which bounced back, the video camera tube is able to tell how bright each part of the image is, and create a signal suitable for display on a cathode ray tube.
Isengard (Norwegian band)
Isengard was the side project of Darkthrone's drummer and poet Fenriz.
Albums
Isengard (grupa muzyczna)
Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness
Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness is a 2005 role-playing game created by The Pokémon Company and developed by Genius Sonority. It was only released for the Nintendo GameCube. Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness was released on August 4, 2005 in Japan and on September 14, 2005 in the United States.
Sinocentrism
Sinocentrism is the belief that China is the cultural center of the world.
This idea may have possibly been reinforced by the Chinese Isolationist policy enforced by Emperor Hongwu during the Ming Dynasty.
Kakching
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Kakching Garden
Kakching Garden is located at Uyok Ching, to the south of Kakching Bazar, and has been made as a tourist centre. The site includes the Mahadev Temple, Ibudhou Pakhang Laiseng, the statue of Hao Sampubi, a rose garden, park and restaurants. A road up to the hill was made for vehicles to reach the garden.
The site is popular with people from Manipur and the surrounding area. Important programmes relating to social and culture are also organised here.
Sergio Massa
Sergio Tomás Massa (born 28 April 1972) is an Argentine politician who is a candidate for President of Argentina in the 2023 election. He became the country's Minister of Economy on 2 August, 2022. He was the president of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies from 2019 until 2022. He was also a national deputy for Buenos Aires Province.
Massa is the founder and current leader of the peronist Renewal Front. He was Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers from 2008 to 2009 under Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.
Soccer kick
A soccer kick, also known as a soccer ball kick, is a kick that is close to kicks used in association football. It is the term for a kick performed against a kneeling, rising or on the ground opponent by a fighter who is in a standing or semi-standing position, mostly to the head of the opponent on the ground. The soccer kick was used in the first match of the Ultimate Fighting Championship at UFC 1 in 1993. Gerard Gordeau used a soccer kick to win the match against Teila Tuli. The soccer kick also knocked out some of Tuli's teeth.
Avalon (mythology)
Avalon is a mythical place in Arthurian legend. It is the home of the Lady of the Lake. King Arthur got his famous sword called Excalibur at Avalon. Avalon is also called the Isle of Apples or the Isle of Glass. The island is said to have healing powers according to Arthurian authors. it is also to be the home of magic. according to the legends.
Bunker (disambiguation)
A bunker is a defensive military building.
Bunker can also mean:
Diane Ingabire
She competed at the 2021 UCI Road World Championships, in the women's trial event.
Bunker (disambiguation)
Media
Diane Ingabire
She won multiple medals at the African Cycling Championships in 2021.
Bunker (disambiguation)
Places:
Francis Fonseca
Francis William Fonseca (born 11 March 1967) is a Belizean politician who is the current Member of Parliament (MP) for Freetown constituency since 5 March 2003. He previously served as leader of the People's United Party (PUP) and as Leader of the Opposition of Belize from 2011 to 2016. First elected to the Belize House of Representatives in 2003, Fonseca served as Attorney General and Minister of Education, Culture and Labour in Prime Minister Said Musa's cabinet from 6 March 2003 until 9 February 2008, when the PUP lost the general election to the opposition United Democratic Party (UDP). Fonseca also served as the Chairman of the People's United Party (PUP) from 6 March 2003 to 22 February 2008. Fonseca was one of only six PUP area representatives nationwide to retain his seat in the National Assembly in the 2008 election.
Bunker (disambiguation)
People:
Francis Fonseca
Following the election defeat and subsequent resignation of Musa as prime minister and PUP leader on 30 March 2008, the party held a 2008 People's United Party (Belize) leadership election and convention to select its new leader. The party held it's nomination day on 21 February 2008 and the actual day for it's leadership election and convention on 30 March 2008. Fonseca along with second deputy leader of the PUP, Johnny Briceño stood as candidates for the party leadership at the convention, Fonseca was nominated by the United Woman's Group and several other constituency committees including Cayo West, Cayo North, Cayo South, Pickstock, Dangriga, Stann Creek West, Toledo East and Toledo West. Fonseca was thought to be the candidate preferred by the party establishment. He had the endorsements of former Prime minister, Said Musa and George Cadle Price. Fonseca also had the support of First Deputy Leader, Juan Vildo Marin and former Tourism minister, Godfrey Smith as well as from Secretary General, Henry Usher and Communication Director, Yasser Musa. Fonseca's campaigned for Leadership of the party has, to say the least, taken a life of its own. On 31 March 2008, results were announced and Fonseca was defeated by Briceño receiving 310 votes against 330 for Briceño. In Briceño acceptance speech after getting the results, Briceño acknowledged Fonseca and said “To Francis my brother, my friend, my college I offer my thanks for being a worthy opponent and a true and honourable man”. Following the resignation of Briceño as PUP leader on 7 October 2011, another 2011 People's United Party leadership election and convention was called. The party held it's nominations on 9 October 2011 and this time, both Fonseca and Albert Area Representative, Mark Espat submitted their nominations and ultimately stood as candidates for the party's leadership. However, this time the game was different. Fonseca campaigned well and sighted insecurity in the PUP that he will address if elected leader. After results were announced on 2 November 2011, it was made clear that Fonseca had emerged victorious over Espat. After he got into the leadership realms, Fonseca focused on delivering his promise and preparing the PUP for the 2012 general election. During the 2012 election campaign, he supported on further oil exploration and pledged a moratorium over continued exploration.
List of heads of government of the Central African Republic
This article lists the heads of government of the Central African Republic.
Versailles, Indiana
Versailles is a town in the state of Indiana, in the United States.
Thoroughfare Gap
Thoroughfare Gap is an album by American singer-songwriter Stephen Stills. The album was released in 1978.
Track listing
Most tracks were composed by Stephen Stills.
List of revocations of appointments to orders and awarded decorations and medals of the United Kingdom
Anyone who behaves in a way that might bring an order, decoration or medal into disrepute may have the award revoked (cancelled).
OBE
David Le Roux]] (appointed 1990), following his conviction under the Financial Services Act 1986.
Winamac, Indiana
Winamac is a town in the Monroe Township in Pulaski County in the state of Indiana, in the United States. It is the county seat of Pulaski County. As of the 2010 census, 2,490 people lived in Winamac.
Bill Daily
Bill Daily (August 30, 1927 – September 4, 2018) was an American comedian and dramatic actor. He acted in many television sitcoms. He was best known for playing astronaut Roger Healey on I Dream of Jeannie and commercial airline navigator Howard Borden on The Bob Newhart Show.
Daily was born in Des Moines, Iowa. He was raised in Chicago, Illinois. Daily died on September 4, 2018 at the age of 91 in his home in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
List of lost treasures
This is an incomplete list of famous treasures that are currently lost or missing.
Wattenwil
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Applause
Applause is the sound made by an audience who are clapping their hands (applauding) to thank someone for a performance. People at a concert usually applaud when the performers come onto the stage. This is a way of welcoming them. At the end of a performance people applaud again to thank the performers.
2011 Canadian electoral calendar
This is a list of elections in Canada in 2011. Included are provincial, municipal and federal elections, by-elections on any level, referendums and party leadership races at any level.
Human rights in Kashmir
Kashmir has an area of 230,166.1 km2 or (89,106 mi2). The population of the region is more than the individual populations of 127 UN member nations and its area is larger than that of 97 nations. Several international agencies and the UN have reported human rights violations in the disputed occupied territory of Indian-administered Kashmir. In a press release the OHCHR spokesmen stated "The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights is concerned about the recent violent protests in Indian-administered Kashmir that have reportedly led to civilian casualties as well as restrictions to the right to freedom of assembly and expression.".
LGBT rights of Kashmiris in PAK and IIOJK
Homosexuality is still illegal in the Pakistan-administered Kashmir and Occupied Kashmir. Pakistan was one of the 67 signatory nations opposing the UN declaration on Sexual orientation and Gender Identity, which failed to pass.
In Kashmir same-sex marriages, civil unions, and domestic partnerships are not recognised.
There are no legal protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
Kalisz
Kalisz is city in the central-western part of Poland in Greater Poland Voivodeship. In 2011, 105,386 people lived there.
New Territories
New Territories is one of the 3 main parts of Hong Kong. It is between Kowloon and the border between Hong Kong and Mainland China. It also includes over 200 outlying Islands. About 3.5 million people live there. It makes up 85% of Hong Kong's territory, and contains around half of the population of Hong Kong.
Saint-Père-en-Retz
Saint-Père-en-Retz is a commune. It is in the Pays de la Loire region in the Loire-Atlantique department in western France.
Crystle Stewart
Crystle Danae Stewart (born September 20, 1981) is a beauty queen from Houston, Texas. She won the Miss USA beauty contest in 2008.
Stewart graduated from the University of Houston in 2007. She won the Miss Texas USA 2008 title in a state pageant held in Laredo, Texas on July 1, 2007. She competed against 121 other contestants. She is the second African American to win the crown at Miss Texas USA. Chelsi Smith was crowned Miss Texas USA 1995. Smith later became Miss USA and Miss Universe.
Stewart became the ninth Texan to win the Miss USA title.
Stewart hosted the Miss Teen USA 2009 competition on July 31, 2009 with Seth Goldman. Goldman and Stewart again hosted the Miss Teen USA pageant on July 24, 2010. Stewart hosted the 2011 Miss Texas USA contest with Jason Feinberg.
Belarusian Association of Journalists
The Belarusian Association of Journalists (BAJ) (Беларуская асацыяцыя журналістаў Biełaruskaja Asacyjacyja Žurnalistaǔ) is a non-governmental organisation of journalists in Belarus. To have freedom of speech and rights of receiving and distributing information are its desire. It was made in 1995. BAJ is a friend of the International Federation of Journalists, the European Federation of Journalists, and Reporters Without Borders. It got the European Parliament's Sakharov Prize in 2004. It got Free Media Awards in 2021.
On August 27, 2021, the Association was formally closed by the Supreme Court of Belarus. However, it continued to function outside Belarus.
Bonnie, Illinois
Bonnie is a village in Illinois in the United States.
Full employment
Full employment is an idea from economics. It means that every person that is able and willing to work can get a job. It does not mean that all people have a job: People who do not have the skills the employers want may still not have a job, because there simply is no role that fits them. This is called structural unemployment. Also, it is very likely that there will be people looking for jobs (called frictional unemployment).
In general, people say there is full employment, if the percentage of people who are able and willing to work, but who do not have a job is below a given rate. In 1945, William Henry Beveridge said there was full employment if there are more jobs than job seekers. He said that an unemployment rate of three percent of frictional (short term) unemployment can be considered full employment.
White Pines Forest State Park
White Pines Forest State Park, also known as White Pines State Park, is an Illinois state park in Ogle County, Illinois.
Nashville, Indiana
Nashville is a town in the state of Indiana, in the United States.
Wengi
Wengi (Bernese German: Wängi, []) is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.
Saint-Philbert-de-Grand-Lieu
Saint-Philbert-de-Grand-Lieu is a commune. It is in the Pays de la Loire region in the Loire-Atlantique department in western France.
Martinism
Martinism is a form of Christian mysticism following with the fall of the first man, his state of material divine source, and the process of his return, called 'Reintegration' or illumination.
As a mystical tradition, it was first transmitted through a masonic system created around 1740 in France by Martinez de Pasqually, and later propagated in different forms by his two students Louis Claude de Saint-Martin and Jean-Baptiste Willermoz.
Konin
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Ole Knapp
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Thutmose I
Thutmose I (also known as Thothmes, Thutmosis or Tuthmosis I, meaning Thoth-Born) was the third Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He became pharaoh after the death of Amenhotep I. During his reign, he sent his armies into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt further than ever before. He built many temples in Egypt and a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings. He is the first king known to have done this, though Amenhotep I may have done it first. He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, and then his daughter, Hatshepsut. He ruled from 1506 to 1493 BC. Some scholars give his dates from 1526 BC to 1513 BC. This depends on where the astronomical observations used to calculate ancient Egyptian dates were made. If the observations were from the city of Memphis it would give the dates 20 years earlier than if it was Thebes.
Family
Thutmose's father is unknown, but it may have been Amenhotep I. His mother, Senseneb, was not from a royal family and may have been a lesser wife or concubine of Amenhotep. Thutmoses's wife, Queen Ahmose, the Great Royal Wife, was probably the daughter of Ahmose I and the sister of Amenhotep I. There is some doubt, as she was never called a "king's daughter." Some historians believe that she was Thutmose's own sister. Thutmose's first son with Ahmose was Amenmose. He was born long before Thutmose's coronation. He can be seen on a stela from about 1522 BC hunting near Memphis. He became the commander of the army. Amenmose died about the same time as Thutmose. Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose. Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant. Thutmose had a son by another wife, Mutnofret. This son, married to Thutmose's daughter Hatshepsut, succeeded him as Thutmose II. Hatshepsut said that Thutmose gave the kingship to them both. However, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsut's supporters to support her claim to the throne when she later took over power.
Dates and length of reign
An Egyptian priest, Manetho, writing in the third century BC, said that Thutmose I's reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months (or 13 Years). This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign with Thutmoses's cartouche found on a stone block in Karnak. Accordingly, Thutmose is usually said to have ruled from 1506 BC to 1493 BC, but some scholars date him from 1526 BC to 1513 BC
Military achievements
At the time Thutmose became king, Nubia rebelled against Egyptian rule. Thutmose travelled up the Nile with his army and fought in the battle, personally killing the Nubian king. He returned to Thebes with the Nubian king's body hung from the front of his ship. In the third year of his reign he led another expedition against Nubia. He ordered the canal at the first cataract to be made deeper to make it easier to get his ships upstream. The canal had been first built by Sesostris III of the 12th Dynasty. This helped make Nubia part of the Egyptian empire. This expedition is mentioned in two separate inscriptions by the king's son Thure: ""Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22, under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Aakheperre who is given life. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with stones [so that] no [ship sailed upon it]; Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush.""
In the second year of Thutmose's reign, a stele at Tombos records that he built a fortress there. This is near the third cataract. Before this the Egyptian army had stopped at Buhen, at the second cataract. This stele says that he already fought in Syria. His Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of the second year of his rule. The Syrian campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned. Although it has not been found in modern times, he set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River. During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared loyalty to Thutmose. However, after he went back to Egypt, they stopped tribute and began building defences against future attacks. Thutmose celebrated his victories with an elephant hunt in the area of Niy, near Apamea in Syria. He returned to Egypt with strange tales of the Euphrates, "that inverted water which flows upstream when it ought to be flowing downstream." The Euphrates was the first major river which the Egyptians had seen which flowed from the north. This would be downstream on the Nile, instead of the south which was upstream on the Nile. The river became known in Egypt as the "inverted water."
Nubia rebelled against Egyptian rule again in his fourth year. He sent his army even farther south to stop it. An inscription from his reign has been found as far south as Kurgus, which was south of the fourth cataract. During his reign, he began a number of projects which effectively ended Nubian independence for the next 500 years. He enlarged a temple to Sesostris III and Khnum, opposite the Nile from Semna. There are also records of specific religious rites which the viceroy of El-Kab was to have performed in the temples in Nubia for the king. He also appointed a man, Turi, to the position of viceroy of Cush, also known as the "King's Son of Cush." With a civilian representative of the king living in Nubia itself, Nubia did not dare to revolt as often as it had. It was easily controlled by future Egyptian kings.
Building projects
Thutmose I organized great building projects during his reign, including many temples and tombs. His greatest projects were at the Temple of Karnak under the supervision of the architect Ineni. Before this, Karnak probably consisted only of a long road to a central platform, with a number of shrines for the solar boats along the side of the road. Thutmose had the temple made much bigger. He had a fifth pylon built along the temple's main road. He built a wall around the inner temple and two flagpoles on either side of the gateway. Outside of this, he built a fourth pylon and another enclosing wall. He built a hypostyle hall between pylons four and five. This was made with columns of cedar wood. This was common in ancient Egyptian temples, and supposedly represents a papyrus marsh, an Egyptian symbol of creation. Along the edge of this room he built very large statues, each one alternating wearing the crown of Upper Egypt and the crown of Lower Egypt. Finally, outside of the fourth pylon, he built four more flagpoles and two obelisks. One of them, which now has fallen, was not inscribed until Thutmose III about 50 years later. The cedar columns in Thutmose I's hypostyle hall were replaced with stone columns by Thutmose III, however at least the northernmost two were replaced by Thutmose I himself. Hatshepsut also erected two of her own obelisks inside of Thutmose I's hypostyle hall.
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Thutmose I
Death and burial
Thutmose I was the first king who definitely was buried in the Valley of the Kings. The architect, Ineni, built the tomb, and his mortuary temple. This temple has not been found as it was probably destroyed by the building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri.
Aleksey Batalov
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Thutmose I
Death and burial
Thutmose I was buried in a tomb now called KV20 dug high into the cliffs of the Valley of the Kings. His daughter Hatshepsut had the tomb made bigger, with a room big enough for both of their stone coffins (sarcophagus). His grandson, Thutmose III had him reburied in KV38. KV20 was rediscovered during the Napoleonic expedition of 1799. In 1844, the Prussian scholar Karl Richard Lepsius had explored its upper passage. However, many passageways were blocked by rocks, stones and other rubbish brought in during floods. In 1903-1904 Howard Carter, after two years of hard work, was able to clear the passages and enter the double burial chamber. He found broken pottery and shattered stone vessels from the burial chamber and lower passages. He found parts of two vases made for Queen Ahmose Nefertari, which were part of the original funerary equipment of Thutmose I. On one vase was written that Thutmose II "[made it] as his monument to his father." Other vessels which had the names and titles of Thutmose I had also been inscribed by his son and successor, Thutmose II. There were parts of stone vessels made for Hatshepsut before she herself became king which had her royal name of 'Maatkare'.
Carter, however, also discovered two separate coffins in the burial chamber. The beautifully carved sarcophagus of Hatshepsut "was discovered open with no sign of a body, and with the lid lying discarded on the floor." It is now in the Cairo Museum with a matching yellow quartzite canopic chest. A second sarcophagus, was found lying on its side, with its almost undamaged lid propped against the wall. This was given to Theodore M. Davis, who had paid for the excavation. Davis gave it to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. The sarcophagus had originally been engraved with the name of "the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare Hatshepsut." However, when the sarcophagus was complete, Hatshepsut decided to have a new one made for herself. She used the first sarcophagus for her father, Thutmose I. The stonemasons then tried to erase the original carvings by restoring the surface of the quartzite so that it could be re-carved with the name and titles of Thuthmose I. The sarcophagus is seven feet long and three feet wide with walls five inches thick. It has text carved on it which records Hatshepsut's generosity towards her father: "...long live the Female Horus...The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, the son of Re, Hatshepsut-Khnemet-Amun! May she live forever! She made it as her monument to her father whom she loved, the Good God, Lord of the Two Lands, Aakheperkare, the son of Re, Thutmosis the justified."
After Hatshepsut's death, Thutmose III, Hatshepsut's successor, moved his grandfather to a magnificent new tomb, KV38. This had another yellow sarcophagus dedicated to Thutmose I. It was covered with texts which spoke of this pharaoh's love for his dead grandfather. Thutmose I's remains were disturbed during the 20th dynasty when KV38 was robbed. The sarcophagus' lid was broken and all this king's valuable precious jewellery and grave goods were stolen. The original coffin of Thutmose I was taken over and re-used by a later pharaoh of the 21st dynasty. In 1994 a flood refilled KV20 with stones and debris.
Thutmose I's mummy has not yet been identified. He was reburied during 21st dynasty when the bodies of the pharaohs of the 18th and 19th dynasties were rewrapped and buried in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. They were discovered in 1881. The mummies included Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX, as well as the 21st dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I, Pinedjem II, and Siamun. Egyptologist Gaston Maspero, believed that unlabelled mummy #5283 was that of Thutmose I. The face had the same features as the mummies of Thutmose II and Thutmose III. Later research proved that it was an 18th dynasty mummy.
Gaston Maspero wrote: "The king was already advanced in age at the time of his death, being over fifty years old, to judge by the incisor teeth, which are worn and corroded by the impurities of which the Egyptian bread was full. The body, though small and emaciated, shows evidence of unusual muscular strength; the head is bald, the features are refined, and the mouth still bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning."
This mummy can be viewed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. However, in 2007, Dr. Zahi Hawass announced that the mummy is that of a 30-year-old man who had died as a result of an arrow wound to the chest. Because of the young age of the mummy and the cause of death, it could not be King Thutmose I.
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