cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Wolfgang Köhler
Wolfgang Köhler (21 January 1887 – 11 June 1967) was a German psychologist who, like Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, helped create Gestalt psychology. He was the first to show that apes could solve problems by thinking.
Gestalt psychology
Köhler’s famous quote, “the whole is different from the sum of its parts” is usually quoted differently. Though perhaps a simple error made in translation, many lectures in textbooks of modern-day psychology quote Gestalt theory by saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”. It is difficult to imagine that a translation error occurred here, especially when considering that ‘greater’ is ‘größer’ and ‘different’ is ‘unterschiedlich’ in German, respectively.
Problem solving
In 1913, Köhler left Frankfurt for the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, to be the Director of the Prussian Academy of Sciences anthropoid research station. Here, Köhler observed how chimpanzees solved problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when placed out of their reach. They stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders, in order to get the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms.
Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial-and-error. American psychologist Edward Thorndike claimed this was the basis of all animal learning: his law of effect. Instead, the chimps had an insight (also known as an “aha experience”). They saw the answer mentally, then they got the bananas in a way which was, in Köhler’s words, “unwaveringly purposeful”.
So, he concluded that the animals were capable of problem-solving and that they did not arrive at their methods through trial and error. This is one of the most important findings from the research done on apes. Köhler’s work on the mentality of apes was a turning point in the psychology of thinking. In the book The mentality of apes, Köhler explains that he was inspired to work with the chimpanzees for two main reasons. The first was because the “structure of their brains is more closely related to the chemistry of the human body and brain-structure than to the chemical nature of the lower apes and their brain development” Köhler (1925). The fact that human traits can be observed in the everyday behaviours of this animal was very intriguing for Köhler. Kohler also wanted to gain knowledge of the nature of intelligent acts.
Köhler recognized that, like humans, there is a great deal of individual differences in intellect. Chimps showed that they were able to grasp the objects around them in a variety of fashions. This is incorporated in their everyday playing behaviours. For this reason, it was not necessary to use experimental tests to introduce chimps to handle matter. In his book, Köhler describes how the apes use their hands: “large, powerful and flexible hands are natural links between himself and the world of things, and he attains the necessary amount of muscular force and co-ordination at an earlier age than the human child” Köhler (1925).
Books by Köhler
These are the editions in English:
Andrea Aguilera (model)
Andrea Victoria Aguilera Paredes (born April 27, 2001) is an Ecuadorian model and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Supranational 2023 pageant in Nowy Sącz, Poland.
She was previously crowned Miss Grand Ecuador 2021, and represented Ecuador at the Miss Grand International 2021 pageant where she finished first runner-up.
Early life and education
Aguilera was born in Ventanas, Ecuador on April 27, 2001. She was studying medicine at the University of Guayaquil in Guayaquil. In 2022, she entered the Universidad de Especialidades Espíritu Santo in Guayaquil to pursue a bachelor’s degree in international business. In the same year, she joined the Ecuadorian reality show Soy el Mejor but left the show early after three judges made derogatory comments about her participation in Miss Grand International. In 2022, Aguilera entered the Universidad de Especialidades Espíritu Santo in Guayaquil to pursue a bachelor’s degree in international business.
Miss Grand Ecuador 2021
On May 7, 2021, Aguilera was officially crowned Miss Grand Los Rios 2021. On June 26, 2021, she represented Los Rios at Miss Grand Ecuador 2021 at TC Televisión in Guayaquil, Ecuador and went on to win the title.
Miss Grand International 2021
On December 4, 2021, Aguilera represented Ecuador at Miss Grand International 2021 and competed against 59 other candidates at the SHOW DC Retail and Entertainment Mega Complex in Bangkok, Thailand and placed as 1st runner-up to Nguyen Thúc Thuy Tiên of Vietnam.
Miss Supranational 2023
On July 14, 2023, Aguilera also represented Ecuador at the Miss Supranational 2023 pageant in Nowy Sącz, Poland. In the competition, Aguilera advanced to the top twenty-four, then the top twelve and ultimately the top five, before being announced as the competition's winner and was succeeded by Lalela Mswane of South Africa. Aguilera became the first woman from Ecuador to be crowned Miss Supranational.
Richland, Washington
Richland is a city in the state of Washington.
Kerns
Kerns is a municipality of the canton of Obwalden in Switzerland.
British Rail Class 84
The British Rail Class 84 was a 25 kV AC electric locomotive that operated on the West Coast Main Line on the London Midland Region.
Connie Marrero
Conrado Eugenio Marrero Ramos (April 25, 1911 – April 23, 2014), nicknamed "Connie," was a former Cuban professional baseball pitcher. Marrero played for the Washington Senators from 1950 to 1954. At age 102, Marrero was the oldest living former Major League Baseball player at the time of his death. He was born in Sagua la Grande, Cuba.
Marrero died in Havana, Cuba from natural causes, aged 102.
Crystal City, Missouri
Crystal City is a city in Jefferson County, Missouri. It is on the Mississippi River. The 2020 United States Census showed about 4,700 people living in the city.
Crystal City and nearby Festus are called the "Twin Cities of Missouri".
Mortal Engines (movie)
Mortal Engines is a 2018 science fiction action adventure movie from Universal Pictures based on the 2001 novel of the same name by Philip Reeve.
The film is set in a post-apocalyptic world where entire cities have been mounted on wheels and motorised, and practice municipal Darwinism.
Rafael Hui
Rafael Hui Si-yan (born 8 February 1948) is a Hong Kong politician. He was the Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong from 2005 through 2007.
In March 2012, Hui was arrested for corruption. In December 2014, he was convicted of corruption and sentenced to 7.5 years in prison.
Ablutophobia
Ablutophobia is a fear of bathing, washing, or cleaning. It is a type of specific phobia. It is most often seen in children and women.
Sexual objectification
Sexually objectifying a person means to view them like things for sexual desire.
2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami
On 28 September 2018, an earthquake struck the Minahasa Peninsula, Indonesia, with its epicentre located in the mountainous Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi. The quake was located 77 km away from the provincial capital Palu and was felt as far away as Samarinda on East Kalimantan and also in Tawau, Malaysia.
Sexual objectification
Both males and females can be sexually objectified, as can children and teenagers. Women and girls, however, are more likely victims of sexual objectification than men and boys. The concept of sexual objectification toward females is very important for some feminist theories. The sexual objectification toward women and girls contributes to bad treatment against them and to gender inequality. A number of psychologists link sexual objectification under some physical and mental health risks for women and girls.
2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami
Many foreshocks followed, the largest of which was a magnitude 6.1 tremor that occurred earlier that day.
Sexual objectification
Sexual objectification of women
The sexual objectification of women/girls has them being viewed like an object under male sexual desires, not as a whole person. Opinions differ, however, on which situations are objectionable. Many see the sexual objectifying of women/girls taking place with sexual portrayals involving them under art, media, advertising, pornography, prostitution and beauty contests.
2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami
In the aftermath, a tsunami struck Palu, sweeping shore-lying houses and buildings on its way. The combined effects of the earthquake and tsunami led to the deaths of at least 2,256 people and injured a further 10,679. This is the deadliest earthquake in Indonesia since 2006.
A Gentle Creature (1960 movie)
A Gentle Creature (Кроткая) is a 1960 Soviet drama movie directed by Aleksandr Borisov. It stars Iya Savvina, Andrei Popov, and Vera Kuznetsova.
Sexual objectification
Sexual objectification of women
There is also evidence showing that females are sometimes sexually objectified by other females.
Sexual objectification of Hispanic/Latina women
Hispanic or Latina females are more often sexually objectified under stereotypes (unfair generalisations) toward them. The American media often portray these women as more likely to perform casual sex with multiple partners. The same media portray these females as having curved shapes, large breasts, large buttocks, having a melodramatic (over-the-top) attitude or being feisty.
Sexual objectification of men
Women also sometimes see men as sex objects. This often happens in movies and in advertising. It also happens in some television programs. Erotic shows (such as a striptease), or pornography may reduce men to sex objects.
Oudewater
Oudewater is a municipality in the Dutch province of Utrecht, and a former municipality of South Holland. In 2019, 10,201 people lived there.
Gluten-free diet
A gluten-free diet is the only medically accepted treatment for wheat allergy and coeliac disease (in North America, it is usually spelled "celiac disease").
Some gluten-free diets also exclude oats. Doctors do not agree on whether oats affect coeliac disease sufferers. Many alcoholic beverages are gluten free, but many types of whiskey and beer contain gluten, because using grains is a necessary part of their production. Gluten-free diets have become popular worldwide. Some say that such a diet can cause problems with Vitamin B and magnesium intake by the body, because wheat improves the rate in which humans body can use them. Gluten-containing ingredients sometimes are used as colorants, preservatives and thickeners in products such as ice cream and ketchup. Even some cosmetics like lip balm and lipsticks can contain gluten, so persons wanting to follow such a diet need to learn about which products contain wheat and its byproducts.
Ederheim
Ederheim is a municipality in the district of Donau-Ries in Bavaria in Germany. The mayor is currently Caroline Zehnpfennig.
Cardinal Secretary of State
The Secretary of State of His Holiness (Segretario di Stato di Sua Santità), commonly known as the Cardinal Secretary of State, is in charge over the Holy See's Secretariat of State, which is the oldest and most important dicastery of the Roman Curia. The Secretariat of State is seen as the prime minister of the Holy See.
The Secretary of State is currently Cardinal Pietro Parolin.
Selah, Washington
Selah is a city in the state of Washington.
Matt Kemp
Matthew Ryan "Matt" Kemp (born September 23, 1984) is an American professional baseball player. He plays for the Atlanta Braves. He plays the position of outfielder. He has previously played for the Los Angeles Dodgers and the San Diego Padres. His career began in 2006.
Kemp was drafted by the Dodgers in the sixth round of the 2003 draft. He went to the major leagues after four years in the minor leagues.
He did not become a full-time player until 2008. He became the everyday starting center fielder. He has been named to two All-Star teams. He has won two Gold Glove Awards. He has won two Silver Slugger Awards.
Donauwörth
Donauwörth (Swabian: Donawerd ) is a town and the capital of the Donau-Ries district in Swabia, Bavaria, Germany. It is said to have been founded by two fishermen where the rivers Danube (Donau) and Wörnitz meet. The city is part of the scenic route called "Romantische Straße" (Romantic Road).
The city is located between Munich and Nuremberg, 46 km north of Augsburg.
History
In 1704 the Battle of Schellenberg (or the Battle of Donauwörth) took place there. This was part of the War of the Spanish Succession, and was fought by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough against the French. The French were defeated and nearly 5000 of them drowned while trying to escape across the Danube.
Shyama
Shyama (Khurshid Akhtar; 7 June 1935 – 14 November 2017) was a Bollywood actress. Her best known roles were in Aar Paar (1954), Barsaat Ki Raat (1960) and Tarana (1951). She was born in Lahore, Punjab, British India (now Pakistan).
Shyama died in Mumbai, India on 14 November 2017 from complications of a lung infection at the age of 82.
Great Plague of London
During the Great Plague of London (1665-1666), the disease called the bubonic plague killed about 200,000 people in London, England. In seven months, almost one quarter of London's population (one out of every four Londoners) died from the plague. At its worst, in September 1665, the plague killed 7,165 people in one week. After this, the number of people dying from the plague began to slow down.
Around September 1666, the great outbreak ended. The Great Fire of London, which happened on 2-6 September 1666, may have helped end the outbreak by killing many of the rats and fleas who were spreading the plague.
Though most of the people who died during the Great Plague lived in London, the plague also killed people in other areas of England. By the time the Great Plague ended, about 2.5% of England's population had died from the plague. To compare, about 2% of the entire United Kingdom's population (including soldiers and civilians) died in World War I, and about 1% of the entire United Kingdom's population died in World War II.
Outbreak
Historians think that the plague spread to England from the Netherlands. Dutch trading ships carrying cotton from Amsterdam may have brought the plague to England. Amsterdam was badly hit by the plague in 1663–1664; the disease killed about 50,000 people.
In London, the first places hit by the plague were the dock areas outside of the city and the parish of St Giles in the Fields. In those places, poor workers lived crowded together in bad conditions. Nobody kept records about the deaths of very poor people and so nobody knows how many of these people may have died from the plague. However, records say the first person to die of the plague in London was Rebecca Andrews on 12 April 1665.
London
By July 1665, plague was in the City of London itself. Many of the people who could afford to leave the city left for the countryside. King Charles II of England, his family, and his court left the city for Oxfordshire. Most wealthy merchants and professionals left the city and so most businesses were closed. As the plague got worse, more and more people left. London became so empty that grass started to grow on the streets.
However, most of the city's government officials stayed in London such as the Lord Mayor of London, Sir John Lawrence. As the plague got worse, more and more people left, but a small number of clergymen, physicians and apothecaries chose to stay. Also, people who were too poor to move to the countryside had no choice but to stay in the city.
Some of the people who stayed in London wrote about the Great Plague. Samuel Pepys, who lived through the plague, kept a diary which gave historians information about what the plague was like. Henry Foe, a saddler who lived in East London, also decided not to leave the city. Years later, in 1722, Foe's nephew Daniel Defoe wrote A Journal of the Plague Year, a story about the plague that he may have based on Foe's journals.
Reactions
People in London tried many different things to try to treat the plague and stop it from spreading. At the time, nobody understood what caused the plague, how it spread, or how to treat it. p. 42 Antibiotic medications, which are the only treatment for plague, would not be discovered for another 300 years. People were so afraid of catching the plague from other people that they threw dead plague victims' bodies into overcrowded pits and buried them all together as quickly as possible. In one parish in London, 1,114 dead plague victims were buried together in a hole that was fifty feet long and twenty feet wide. pp. 174–175
Government officials tried several public health programs to prevent more people from getting the plague. For example:
"Plague doctors" walked the streets diagnosing victims, but many of them were not actual doctors. Wearing special costumes, they tried to treat plague victims with bloodletting, frogs, and leeches.
The plague was worst in London, but it also affected other parts of England. Perhaps the most famous example was the village of Eyam in Derbyshire. Nobody knows for sure how the plague got to Eyam. However, stories say that a merchant carrying cloth from London accidentally brought the plague with him. The villagers quarantined themselves (kept themselves apart from other people and other villages) to make sure the disease would not spread any further. That kept the plague from spreading outside Eyam, but about 80% of the people in the village had died from the plague within a little over a year.
Dies out
As time went on, more and more people died from the plague. That continued until the week of 19-26 September 1665, the worst week of the Great Plague, when 7,166 people died from the plague. The number of deaths from the plague then began to slow down. By February 1666, the King and his court decided it was safe enough to return to London.
Some people but not nearly as many as before continued to get the plague until September 1666. Around that time, the plague outbreak ended. The Great Fire of London is believed to have helped to end the plague.
Cyberphobia
Cyberphobia is a fear of working with computers. People who have cyberphobia are afraid or not able to learn new technologies. It is a type of specific phobia. It was first used in 1985.
Franklin Graham
William Franklin Graham III (born July 14, 1952) is an American Christian evangelist and missionary. He engages in Christian revival tours and political commentary. He is president and CEO of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) and of Samaritan's Purse, an international Christian relief organization.
Graham became a "committed Christian" in 1974 and was ordained in 1982, and has since become a public speaker and author. He is also known for being a son of the American evangelist Billy Graham.
Teddy Riley
Career
Riley started a band called Guy with Aaron Hall and Timmy Gatling in 1987. They have released three albums. In 1994 Riley started another band called Blackstreet. They have released four albums. Riley co-produced half of Michael Jackson's 1991 album Dangerous. It is the best-selling new jack swing album ever released.
Critical race theory
Critical race theory (CRT) is a way that scholars study and teach civil rights and the history of race, especially in the United States. Critical race theory shows another way of thinking and doing things than mainstream American liberal racial justice. CRT looks at social, cultural, and legal things and the way they affect race and racism. CRT says that the reason white people ended up and stayed richer and more politically powerful than people of other races was not only because of people acting racist on purpose. It was also because of complicated, changing social rules that people didn't always know were there.
CRT scholars think about race as an intersectional social construct. "Social construct" means that it comes from society's rules and not from the physical world. For example, money is a social construct. A piece of paper is worth money because the society agrees that it is. For example, which continent someone's ancestors came from is a real thing. However, whether or not that is important is a social construct. When CRT says that race is not "biologically grounded and natural," it does not mean that human beings from different parts of Earth do not look different. It means that the rules around looking different are made up. Instead, they think of race as an idea that makes life easier for white people by making it worse for people in other races. In legal studies, CRT says that even laws that are color blind, meaning laws that look like they are not about race, can still have racist effects. CRT focuses on intersectionality, which means that race affects other identities, for example gender and social class, to produce complicated effects on power and advantage.
Scholars who do not think CRT is good say that CRT acts as if storytelling is more important than evidence and logic, that it does not treat truth and merit as important enough, and that it does not value liberalism enough. Since 2020, conservative U.S. lawmakers have tried to keep CRT and other antiracism education out of primary and secondary schools. CRT is only taught at the university level, though some lower-level curricula do teach some CRT without calling it that. Supporters of CRT say these lawmakers don't talk honestly about CRT and that what they really want is for people to stop talking about racism, equality, social justice, and the history of race in America.
Definitions
In his introduction to the comprehensive 1995 publication of critical race theory's key writings, Cornel West describes CRT as "an intellectual movement that is both particular to our postmodern (and conservative) times and part of a long tradition of human resistance and liberation."
By the Sword
By the Sword is a 1991 action-drama movie. This movie is about people who fence with swords. F. Murray Abraham plays Max Suba. Mia Sara plays Erin.
Critical race theory
Definitions
Law professor Roy L. Brooks defines critical race theory in 1994 as "a collection of critical stances against the existing legal order from a race-based point of view". Education Week describes the core of CRT as the idea that that race is a social construct and racism is neither an individual bias nor prejudiceit is "embedded in the legal system" and supplemented with policies and procedures.
By the Sword
The movie got mixed reviews from the critics. The screenplay was considered "terrible".
Critical race theory
Definitions
University of Alabama School of Law professor Richard Delgado, a co-founder of critical race theory, defines it in 2017 as "a collection of activists and scholars interested in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power".
Gloria Ladson-Billings, a pedagogical theorist who introduced CRT to the field of education in 1994, describes CRT as an "interdisciplinary approach that seeks to understand and combat race inequity in society."
Early years
Delgado and legal writer Jean Stefancic wrote an article in 1998 called "Critical Race Theory: Past, Present, and Future." According to that article, CRT began with Derrick Bell in his 1976 Yale Law Journal article, "Serving Two Masters" and his 1980 Harvard Law Review article "Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma."
Marian Shields Robinson
Marian Lois Robinson (née Shields; July 30, 1937) is the mother of Michelle Obama and mother-in-law of President Barack Obama. She is the only living grandparent of Malia and Sasha Obama. She also has one granddaughter, Leslie Robinson, and two grandsons, Avery and Austin Robinson, from her son, Craig Robinson.
Critical race theory
Early years
Bell started out as a civil rights lawyer. He won 300 civil rights cases for the NAACP in Mississippi. Later, he worked as a professor at Harvard Law School. There, Bell made new classes about American law and how it worked with race.
Kya Hua Tera Vaada
Kya Hua Tera Vaada is an Indian television soap opera, it was aired on from Sony TV, The series will be created by Balaji Telefilms. And produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor The series is starred by Mona Singh.
Marian Shields Robinson
According to her youngest brother Steve Shields, Robinson was the fourth of seven children—five girls, followed by two boys. Her father was a house painter and her mother was a licensed practical nurse.
Critical race theory
Early years
In 2001, Delgado and Stefancic also wrote Critical Race Theory: a Introduction. That book talked about Bell's "interest convergence" as a "means of understanding Western racial history." The focus on desegregation after the 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Educationdeclaring school segregation unconstitutionalleft "civil-rights lawyers compromised between their clients' interests and the law." Many Black parents wanted better schools for their children but the lawyers wanted a "breakthrough," a famous case that would change things for the whole country. In 1995, Cornel West said that Bell was "virtually the lone dissenter" because he wrote articles in famous law review publications challenging the ways people thought about the law and people of color.
Bell wrote his own material for the classes he taught. In 1970, he turned them into a book called Race, racism, and American law. He became Harvard Law School's first Black tenured professor in 1971. In 1980, Bell resigned from the university because he thought it was doing racist things, and he became the dean at University of Oregon School of Law. Later, he went back to Harvard as a visiting professor. While he was away from Harvard, his supporters organized protests against Harvard's lack of racial diversity in the classes, student body, and teachers. In 1981, one student protest started a new class based on Bell's course and textbook. In that class, students brought in visiting professors, such as Charles Lawrence, Linda Greene, Neil Gotanda, and Richard Delgado, to teach Race, racism, and American law.
Marian Shields Robinson
Robinson married Fraser Robinson on October 27, 1960. She is now a widow. In addition to their daughter Michelle, they also had a son, Craig. Craig is the current coach of the Oregon State University men's basketball team. Robinson was formerly a secretary for mail-order retailer Spiegel and at a bank. While Michelle and Barack Obama campaigned in 2008, Robinson cared for her granddaughters. Early in January 2009, it was reported that Robinson would move into the White House with the rest of the First Family (the president's family), so that she could continue to care for her granddaughters. She was the first grandmother to live in the White House since Elivera M. Doud during the Eisenhower administration. Some news agencies have called Robinson the "First Granny."
Critical race theory
Early years
The students asked faculty members who were people of color to teach the new courses. The university said no to the things the students wanted. They said there was no black instructor who was qualified to teach the course. Legal scholar Randall Kennedy wrote that some students had "felt affronted" by Harvard's choice to hire an "archetypal white liberal... in a way that precludes the development of black leadership."
Delgado and Stefancic said Alan Freeman, who wrote in the 1970s, was also part of the beginning of critical race theory. In his 1978 Minnesota Law Review article, Freeman wrote about the Supreme Court and civil rights laws from 1953 to 1969. He said their interpretation of the law was too narrow to stop racial discrimination. In his article, Freeman said there were two ways to look at racial discrimination: victim and perpetrator. To the victim, racial discrimination was about real-world conditions and about the "consciousness associated with those objective conditions." To the perpetrator, racial discrimination was only about being able to perform actions without thining about the real-world conditions of the victims, such as the "lack of jobs, lack of money, lack of housing."
Sachseln
Sachseln is a municipality of the canton of Obwalden in Switzerland.
Critical race theory
Early years
In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, and Stephanie Phillips did a workshop at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. They called it "New Developments in Critical Race Theory." This was when people started calling it "Critical Race Theory." They said it would be an "intersection of critical theory and race, racism, and the law." Crenshaw chose Harvard to study under Bell because she had learned about him at Cornell. Crenshaw organized the alternative course using Bell's course materials. She was part of a group of students who considered themselves part of the "post-civil rights generation".
After this meeting, legal scholars started writing more articles with critical race theory in them, including over "300 leading law review articles" and books. In 1990, Duncan Kennedy published an article about affirmative action in law schools in the Duke Law Journal, and Anthony E. Cook published his article "Beyond Critical Legal Studies" in the Harvard Law Review. In 1991, Patricia Williams published The Alchemy of Race and Rights, while Derrick Bell published Faces at the Bottom of the Well in 1992. Cheryl I. Harris published her 1993 Harvard Law Review article "Whiteness as Property" in which she described how looking like a white person led to benefits similar to owning property. In 1995, 24 legal scholars contributed to a major compilation of key writings on critical race theory.
Although CLS criticized the way the legal system had made and protected social structures that allowed racism or made it worse, CLS did not talk about how to solve this problems. Derrick Bell and Alan Freeman said that CLS could not provide solutions unless it talked about race and racism. CRT criticized CLS for focusing too much on class and economic structures and not enough on race.
Growth and expansion
In 1995, Gloria Ladson-Billings and William F. Tate started using critical race theory in education. In an article they wrote in 1995, Ladson-Billings and Tate talked about why education focused on what white people think of as normal. They looked at how schooling was not always fair and equal. Other scholars have since spread this to school segregation in the U.S.; relations between race, gender, and academic achievement; pedagogy; and ways of studying social problems.
, over 20 American law schools and at least three non-American law schools offered critical race theory courses or classes. Critical race theory is also used in education, political science, women's studies, ethnic studies, communication, sociology, and American studies. Critical race theory also works with specific groups, for example Latino-critical (LatCrit), queer-critical, and Asian-critical movements. These groups work with with the main body of critical theory research. Over time, they found their own goals and ways of finding information. CRT has also been taught outside the United States, including in the United Kingdom and Australia.
Common themes
Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic say that critical race theory has several themes:
Internalization
Scholar Karen Pyke studied and wrote papers about internalized racism or internalized racial oppression. This is when people who suffer from racism start to believe that they are not as good as whites or that their culture is not as good as white culture. They think this not because they are less intelligent or easier to trick than other people are. Instead, it is because this is how authority and power in society make people feel.
Institutional racism
Camara Phyllis Jones defines institutionalized racism like this: "differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society by race. Institutionalized racism is normative, sometimes legalized and often manifests as inherited disadvantage. It is structural, having been absorbed into our institutions of custom, practice, and law, so there need not be an identifiable offender. Indeed, institutionalized racism is often evident as inaction in the face of need, manifesting itself both in material conditions and in access to power. With regard to the former, examples include differential access to quality education, sound housing, gainful employment, appropriate medical facilities, and a clean environment."
In other words, institutionalized racism is when the society is set up to help some people more than others and hurt some people more than others and it isn't always easy to see this happening. With institutionalized racism, a white person does not need to do anything racist to a non-white person. The rules of the society do it for them. For example, the schools in white neighborhoods might have more and newer computers than the schools in black neighborhoods, which means the white schoolchildren will get better grades even if the black schoolchildren work just as hard. The people at the white school might not know that the people at the black school have worse computers. In English, we say this as, "this is not a level playing field."
Influence of critical legal studies
Critical race theory is like critical theory, critical legal studies, feminist jurisprudence, and postcolonial theory. Tommy J. Curry wrote that the epistemic ways in which these ways of thinking are similar come from idealism. Idealism is about discourse (i.e., how individuals speak about race) and the theories of white Continental philosophers and the way they talk about structural and institutional stories about white supremacy. These ways of speaking and thinking are important to realist analysis of racism from Derrick Bell's early writing,. Black thinkers, for example, W. E. B. Du Bois, Paul Robeson, and Judge Robert L. Carter wrote about them even more.
Critical race theory uses the things critical legal studies says are important. It also uses ways of looking at things from critical legal studies and civil rights scholarship, but it also argues with them. Critical race theory takes its theory from many places. Angela P. Harris says critical race theory has the same "commitment to a vision of liberation from racism through right reason" as civil rights tradition. It deconstructs some premises and arguments of legal theory and simultaneously holds that legally constructed rights are incredibly important. Derrick Bell says that Harris thinks critical race theory is committed to "radical critique of the law (which is normatively deconstructionist) and... radical emancipation by the law (which is normatively reconstructionist)."
Applications
Scholars of critical race theory have used it to look at hate crime and hate speech. The U.S. Supreme Court made a ruling on hate speech in R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul in 1992. In that ruling, the Court struck down an anti-bias ordinance. In that case, a teenager who had burned a cross. Mari Matsuda and Charles Lawrence argued that the Court had not looked closely at the history of racist speech and the actual injury that racist speech can cause.
Critical race theorists also say affirmative action is good. They say that rules for whom to fire or whom to let into a good school that are officially based only on "merit," for example grades alone, are not really race-neutral.
Academics and jurists
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, "aspects of CRT have been criticized by legal scholars and jurists from across the political spectrum." Critics say it has a "postmodern way of looking at the truth. It also says critical race theory opposes "the traditional liberal ideals of neutrality, equality, and fairness in the law and legal procedures and of unreasonably spurning the notion of objective standards of merit in academia and in public and private employment, instead interpreting any racial inequity or imbalance in legal, academic, or economic outcomes as proof of institutional racism and as grounds for directly imposing racially equitable outcomes in those realms." People who want to use CRT have also been accused of calling criticism of CRT racist.
In 1997, law professors Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry said that critical race theory did not have enough evidence to support it. Instead, they said, it was based on the belief that reality was a socially construct, that it pushed away evidence to use storytelling instead, rejected truth and merit as ways of looking at political dominance, and rejected the rule of law. In 1995, Farber and Sherry wrote that anti-meritocratic tenets in critical race theory, critical feminism, and critical legal studies may unintentionally lead to antisemitic and anti-Asian implications. They wrote in 1997 that if the system really is unfair in its structure the way critical race theorists say it is, then the success of Jews and Asians might make people say they cheated. In 2017, Delgado and Stefancic wrote a response: They said that there was a difference between criticizing an unfair system and criticizing individuals who do well inside that system.
In a 1999 Boston College Law Review article called Race, Equality and the Rule of Law: Critical Race Theory's Attack on the Promises of Liberalism, First Amendment lawyer Jeffrey J. Pyle said that critical race theory undermined confidence in the rule of law. He wrote that "critical race theorists attack the very foundations of the liberal legal order, including equality theory, legal reasoning, Enlightenment rationalism and neutral principles of constitutional law."
Political controversies
Critical race theory inspired many arguments in the United States. The first were in the 1980s. People argued about the way critical race theory questioned color blindness. Color blindness, in this article, means the idea that one person can completely ignore another person's race and treat them fairly no matter what. People also argued about how critical race theory used narrative in legal studies, advocating "legal instrumentalism" instead of ideal-driven uses of the law. People also argued about how critical race theory looked at the U.S. Constitution and other laws and they way they hleped white people keep power over other people. People also argued about how critical race theory encourages legal scholars to work for racial equity. One example of an instrumentalist approach is when lawyer Johnnie Cochran's defended O. J. Simpson in the O. J. Simpson murder case. Cochran told the jury to say Simpson was not guilty of killing his ex wife and her friend, even though there was evidence against him as payback for the way the United States and the Los Angeles Police department had treated black people. This was a form of jury nullification. Before and after the 2020 U.S. presidential election, Donald Trump opposed the teaching of critical race theory in schools as part of his platform. Other conservative politicians did so too on Fox News and right-wing radio shows.
2010s
In 2010, a state law stopped a Mexican-American studies university program in Tucson, Arizona because it said public schools could not teach race-conscious education by "advocat[ing] ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals." The law banned books, including a book about CRT, from the school. State officials banned Matt de la Peña's young-adult novel Mexican WhiteBoy because they said it contained critical race theory. The rules against ethnic-studies programs were later declared unconstitutional because lawyers were able to prove that the state had meant to discriminate against some groups of people on purpose: "Both enactment and enforcement were motivated by racial animus," federal Judge A. Wallace Tashima ruled.
Australia
In June 2021, the media reported that the proposed lessons for Australia's schools was "preoccupied with the oppression, discrimination and struggles of Indigenous Australians." The Australian Senate approved a motion from right-wing senator Pauline Hanson asking the federal government to not use CRT, even though there was no CRT in in the lessons.
United Kingdom
Conservatives in the government of the United Kingdom began to criticize CRT in late 2020. Equalities Minister Kemi Badenoch, who is of Nigerian descent, said during a parliamentary debate to mark Black History Month:
"We do not want to see teachers teaching their pupils about white privilege and inherited racial guilt [...] Any school which teaches these elements of critical race theory, or which promotes partisan political views such as defunding the police without offering a balanced treatment of opposing views, is breaking the law.""
United States
The Washington Post says that conservative lawmakers and other conservatives have used the term "critical race theory" as a "catchall phrase for nearly any examination of systemic racism." In September 2020, conservative activist Christopher Rufo denounced CRT on Fox News, and then Donald Trump issued an executive order saying the United States federal government must cancel funding for programs that talk about "white privilege" or "critical race theory." President Trump said that this was because critical race theory was "divisive, un-American propaganda" and "racist." Rufo wrote on Twitter, "The goal is to have the public read something crazy in the newspaper and immediately think 'critical race theory,'" meaning that conservatives were trying to trick the public into thinking critical race theory was bad.
In a speech on September 17, 2020, Trump said critical race theory was bad. He said he had formed the 1776 Commission to promote "patriotic education." On January 20, 2021, Joe Biden took back Trump's order and ended the 1776 Commission. Conservative think tanks and other conservative groups continued to work on opposition to both actual critical race theory and what they mistakenly thought was critical race theory. These groups include the Heritage Foundation, the Idaho Freedom Foundation, and the American Legislative Exchange Council.
In early 2021, potential laws were started. These laws would limit the teaching of critical race theory in public schools in Idaho, Iowa, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas. Several of these bills used the words "critical race theory" or talked about the New York Times 1619 Project. In mid-April 2021, a bill was introduced to the Idaho legislature that would have banned any educational entity in the state (schools and other things like schools) from teaching or advocating sectarianism, including critical race theory and other social justice programs. On May 4, 2021, the bill was signed into law by Governor Brad Little. On June 10, 2021, every member of the Florida State Board of Education voted to stop public schools from teaching critical race theory. They did this because governor Ron DeSantis asked them to. As of July 2021, 10 U.S. states have introduced bills or done other things that would limit teaching critical race theory, and 26 others were in the process of doing so. In June 2021, the American Association of University Professors, the American Historical Association, the Association of American Colleges and Universities, and PEN America released a joint paper saying that these laws were bad. By August 2021, 167 professional organizations had signed the statement. In August 2021, the Brookings Institution recorded that eight statesIdaho, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, Iowa, New Hampshire, Arizona, and South Carolinahad passed laws on the critical race theory, though they also noted that none of the bills had passed, with the exception of Idaho's, actually contained the words "critical race theory." Brookings also noted that these laws often also stop teaching about gender. Critics called the state laws a memory law and said that the law banning critical race theory was proof that critical race theory was right: that racism is part of the law in the United States.
Subfields
There are smaller groups in critical race theory for different communities of people. These groups look at race and the way it affects disability, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class, and religion. For example, disability critical race studies (DisCrit), critical race feminism (CRF), Hebrew Crit (HebCrit), Black Critical Race Theory (Black Crit), Latino critical race studies (LatCrit), Asian American critical race studies (AsianCrit), South Asian American critical race studies (DesiCrit), and American Indian critical race studies, which is sometimes called TribalCrit. The methods developed for CRT have also been used to studying groups of white immigrants. In response to CRT, some scholars have asked for a second wave of whiteness studies. It is called Second Wave Whiteness (SWW). Critical race theory has also inspired scholars to study race outside the United States.
Disability critical race theory
Disability critical race studies (DisCrit) combines disability studies and CRT to look at the intersection of disability and race. This means the way race and disability affect each other.
Latino critical race theory
Latino critical race theory (LatCRT or LatCrit) is a research framework that talks about the way society defines race. Latino critical race theory says this is important to how people of color are oppressed in society. Race scholars developed LatCRT as a critical response to the "problem of the color line" first explained by W. E. B. Du Bois. While CRT focuses on the Black–White paradigm, LatCRT has moved to consider other racial groups, mainly Chicana/Chicanos, as well as Latinos/as, Asians, Native Americans/First Nations, and women of color.
In Critical Race Counterstories along the Chicana/Chicano Educational Pipeline, Tara J. Yosso discusses how the limits placed on POC can be defined. The tenets that separate such individuals are the intercentricity of race and racism, the problem of dominant ideology, the commitment to social justice, the centrality of experience knowledge, and the way of looking at things that uses many types of scholarship.
LatCRT's main focus is to work for social justice for people living in communities that have been pushed to the edges of society (specifically Chicana/os). Chicanos are Mexican-Americans. Society has placed limits on them that put them at a disadvantage, like with other people of color. Social institutions act to dispossess Chicanos, stop them from voting, and discriminate against them. LatCRT seeks to give voice to those who are victimized. In order to do so, LatCRT has created two common themes: