cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Sha Tin
The city was founded in 1973 under the New Towns Development Programme of the Hong Kong government. Its current name was named after the nearby village of Sha Tin Wai. Housing the industrial area of Fo Tan, Shatin's economy once heavily relied on manufacturing, logistics and transportation. Since the late 1990s, it has undergone an extensive transition into areas such as business, service, tourism, entertainment, culture, education, sports, technology and scientific research. This has been marked by the building of Sha Tin Racecourse, Hong Kong Sports Institute and the Hong Kong Science Park in its outskirts.
Palazzo Pitti
Palazzo Pitti (in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace) is a palace in Florence, Italy. It is from the Renaissance period. The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549. It became the main home of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It was the centre of government for the 300 years that Tuscany was a monarchy. Later the palace was used as a base by Napoleon. During the Risorgimento, for a short time it was the royal palace of the newly united Italy.
The palace and its contents were given to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919. Its doors were opened to the public as one of Florence's largest art galleries. It is the largest museum complex in Florence. It is divided into several main galleries or museums: the Palatine Gallery, the Royal Apartments, the Gallery of Modern Art, the Silver Museum, the Porcelain Museum, the Costume Gallery and the Carriages Museum.
Behind the Pitti palace there is the Boboli's Garden. It is a historical park visited every year by about 800,000 tourists. The park is famous for the beauty of the flowers and for the very old sculptures.
Ihwan Datu Adam
Ihwan Datu Adam (10 October 1964 – 28 January 2021) was an Indonesian politician who became the Vice Regent of North Penajam Paser from 2003 until 2007, member of the Regional People's Representative Council of East Kalimantan from 2009 until 2012, and as the member of the People's Representative Council from 2017 until 2019. Ihwan and Yusran was inaugurated a month after the elections. He was born in Makassar, South Sulawesi.
Ihwan died on 25 January 2021 in Jakarta at the age of 56.
Lu'an
Lu'an, is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui province, People's Republic of China, bordering Henan to the northwest and Hubei to the southwest. At the 2010 census, it had a total population of 5,612,590, whom 1,644,344 lived in the built-up area made of 2 urban districts. Neighbouring prefecture-level cities are the provincial capital of Hefei to the east, Anqing to the south, Huanggang (Hubei) and Xinyang (Henan) to the west, and Huainan and Fuyang to the north. Although the character "" (literally: "six") is normally pronounced "Liù", in this case it changes to "Lù" on account of the historical literary reading.
Upper Karabakh Economic Region
Yukhari-Karabakh economic region is one of 10 regions in Azerbaijan.
Its administrative divisions are:
Saint-Laurent-de-la-Cabrerisse
Saint-Laurent-de-la-Cabrerisse is a commune. It is in the region Occitanie in the Aude department in the south of France.
Battle of Guam (1941)
The First Battle of Guam was a battle fought during the Pacific War in World War II. It took place on 8 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands. The battle was between Japan and the United States. The American forces on Guam were defeated by Japanese forces. The Japanese forces then occupied the island until the Second Battle of Guam in 1944.
Pinwheel galaxy
The Pinwheel galaxy (Messier 101, M101 or NGC 5457) is a face-on unbarred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major, the Great Bear.
The galaxy is 21 million light-years (six megaparsecs) away from us. It was first discovered by Pierre Méchain on March 27 1781. Charles Messier verified its position and included it in the Messier Catalogue as one of the last entries.
In 2006, NASA and the ESA released a very detailed image of the Pinwheel Galaxy, which was the largest and most detailed image of a galaxy by the Hubble Space Telescope at the time. The image was composed from 51 individual exposures, plus some extra ground-based photos.
Interesting features
A remarkable property of this galaxy are its huge and extremely bright H II regions, of which about 3,000 can be seen on photographs like the Hubble image. H II regions have numbers of short-lived young and massive blue stars formed from clouds of high density molecular hydrogen. These regions give off huge amounts of ultraviolet light that ionizes the surrounding gas.
The galaxy contains ULX-1 (an ultra-luminous X-ray source), which is a relatively small black hole, just 20 to 30 times the mass of our Sun.
The Ballad of Cossack Golota
The Ballad of Cossack Golota (Москве) is a 1937 Soviet action drama movie directed by Igor Savchenko. It stars Konstantin Nassonov, Leonid Shekhtman, and Konstantin Tyrtov.
Chatham oystercatcher
The Chatham oystercatcher or Chatham Island oystercatcher (Haematopus chathamensis) is a bird in the family Haematopodidae. It lives in only on New Zealand's Chatham Islands.
Appearance
Its body is smaller and thicker than the variable oystercatcher's, but they both have black and white feathers.
Habitat and actions
Chatham oystercatchers live in pairs. These pairs will fight other Chatham oystercatchers over good places to look for food and build nests. This bird builds nests on rocky coasts. It likes sheltered coasts the most.
Threats
In the 1970s there were as few as 50 Chatham oystercatchers alive on Chatham Island (and others on other nearby islands). By 1998, there were about 140. Conservationists tried even harder to save the birds. There were 300 Chatham oystercatchers alive by 2005.
This bird is threatened because human beings change the places it lives. Human beings changed the islands to make farmland, and they put marram grass on the sand dunes, which changes the way the sand flows. The dunes are steeper, so the birds must build nests closer to the water, and sometimes the high tide takes the eggs away. Humans also brought new animals to the islands in the 1800s: cats eat eggs and chicks, and weka eat eggs.
Conti di Segni
The Conti di Segni (de Comitibus Signie, also known as Conti or De Comitibus for short) were an important noble family of medieval and early modern Italy. They came from Segni, Lazio. Many members of the family served as military commanders or religious leaders, including many cardinals and four popes.
The family began with Trasimondo, the father of Lotario Conti, who became Pope Innocent III in 1198. He ruled until 1216. The second Conti pope was Ugolino (1227-1241), as Gregory IX. The third pope to come from the Conti family was Rinaldo, as Alexander IV (r. 1254-1261). Later, in the early modern period, Michelangelo Conti reigned as Pope Innocent XIII from 1721 to 1724.
Torquato Conti (1591–1636) served as a General-Field Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War. His cruelty earned him the nickname The Devil.
The family eventually became divided into many branches. The two main branches were the counts of Segni and Valmontone, and the dukes of Poli and Guadagnolo.
Yuya Yoshizawa
Yuya Yoshizawa (born 20 April 1986) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Kamatamare Sanuki.
Club career statistics
27||4||4||0||0||0||31||4 27||4||4||0||0||0||31||4
Philip the Arab
Philip the Arab (c. 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249 AD.
Early life
Philip (Marcus Julius Philippus) was born in around 204. He got the name "Philip the Arab" (Philippus Arabs or Marcus Iulius Philippus Arabs). (The Chronicon Paschale, a Greek chronicle, and the Latin historian Aurelius Victor each have different dates for Philip's birth.) He was the son of Julius Marinus. Philip was probably born in the city he later named Philippopolis, in the Roman province of Arabia Petraea (now the city of Shahba, Syria).
244–245
Philip became emperor at the start of 244. (The Justinianic Code 's writing means that Philip became emperor after 13 January 244 and before 14 March the same year.) Philip's wife, Marcia Otacilia Severa, became augusta (empress) early in 244. After Philip became emperor, the Romans and the Sasanian Empire made peace. With this success, Philip got the name Persicus maximus (or Parthicus maximus) in the middle of 244. Philip came to Rome in 244, probably in early summer.
245–247
In 245, Philip was Roman consul for the first time. That year, the Romans went to war with the Carpi. On 12 November 245, Philip was at Aquae in Dacia (Vidonac, Serbia). Wars against the Carpi and Germanic peoples continued into 247. In 247, Philip was Roman consul for the second time. In late summer 247, Philip held a triumph in Rome. For his military success against the Carpi, Philip probably got the name Carpicus maximus at the end of 247.
247–249
In 248, Philip was Roman consul for the third time. In April 248, Philip held a festival for the one thousandth anniversary of Rome, a thousand years since Romulus became the first king of Rome. (The chronicle of the Latin historian Cassiodorus says that this started on 21 April and ended on the 23 April 248.)
Salsigne
Salsigne is a commune. It is in the region Occitanie in the Aude department in the south of France.
Philip the Arab
247–249
John Chrysostom wrote that unlike other pagan rulers of the Romans, Philip was tolerant to the Christians and let them practise their faith openly. Eusebius wrote Philip and his wife received letters from Origen.
Death
Some time before 11 September 249, soldiers in the Roman army killed Philip in a battle against the army of Decius. The battle was probably near Verona on the Italian Peninsula. Philip, Philip II, and Marcia Otacilia Severa may all have had damnatio memoriae on them, and the Romans removed their names from some inscriptions.
The Latin historian Eutropius says that Philip and Philip II were both deified (made into gods). This is probably not true. Where Philip's grave was is unknown.
Family
Philip married Marcia Otacilia Severa before 238. At the start of 244, Marcia Otacilia Severa became augusta (empress) and got the Latin title: mater castrorum et senatus et patriae. Marcia Otacilia Severa probably died in 248.
They had a son, Philip II. The Latin history Epitome de Caesaribus says that Philip II was born in 236 or 237. Only the Greek historian John of Antioch says Philip had other sons. Philip made his son Philip II his caesar (junior emperor) in July or August 244. After July or August 244, Marcia Otacilia Severa also had the title mater caesaris. In July or August 247, Philip made his son his augustus (co-emperor).
Philip's father, Julius Marinus, died while his son was emperor. After that, people in Philippopolis in Arabia (Philip's home town) worshipped Julius Marinus as a god. However, the Roman Senate probably did not deify Julius Marinus, and he probably did not become one of the official gods.
Football League Second Division
The Football League Second Division was the former 2nd division of English football. It was the 2nd division from 1892 until 1992, when the Premier League was created. It became the 3rd division after the founding of the Premier League replaced the Football League First Division as the 1st tier of football in England. It was replaced by the EFL League One in 2004.
Battle of Berlin (RAF campaign)
The Battle of Berlin was the British bombing raid on Berlin during the Second World War from November 1943 to March 1944. British bombers had new navigation aids to help them, such as the new H2S radar, and Bomber Command made 16 attacks on the city.
Although the bombings were mostly done by British bombers, Australian and Canadian bombers also flew to Germany.
The Battle of Berlin was considered a failure for the Royal Air Force (RAF). It lost 1,047 bombers, with 1,682 more damaged, and over 7,000 air crew members. Also, the bombings did not cause the Germans to give up but left 450,000 of them homeless.
Afif Hossain
Afif Hossain Dhrubo is a cricketer from Bangladesh. Afif plays for the Bangladesh national cricket team. He was born on September 22, 1999.
Edgardo Labella
Edgardo "Edgar" Colina Labella (May 22, 1951 – November 19, 2021) was a Filipino politician and lawyer. He was the mayor of Cebu City from 2019 until his death in 2021. He was the city's vice mayor from 2013 to 2019. He was a member of the city council from 1998 to 2001 and again from 2004 to 2013. Labella was born in Cebu City.
Labella died on November 19, 2021 in Cebu City from sepsis caused by pneumonia, aged 70.
Michael Nyqvist
Rolf Åke Mikael Nyqvist (8 November 1960 – 27 June 2017) was a Swedish actor. Born in Stockholm, he studied drama in Malmö. He started acting as Officer Banck in the series one of the Swedish movies about Martin Beck in 1997.
Nyqvist became known internationally as the main character Mikael Blomkvist in the Millenium miniseries opposite Noomi Rapace. He also had a role in Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol and John Wick.
Nyqvist died on 27 June 2017 in Stockholm from lung cancer at the age of 56.
Judgment Day: In Your House
Judgment Day: In Your House was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Federation (WWF), which took place on October 18, 1998 at the Rosemont Horizon in Rosemont, Illinois.
Jacques Drouin
Drouin died on 28 August 2021 at the age of 78.
Kalbajar–Lachin Economic Region
Kalbajar-Lachin was one of the 10 former economic regions of Azerbaijan, until the change of economic regions in 2021. Now, Kalbajar-Lachin lies entirely within the East Zangezur economic regions
Districts in the region were:
Hurricane Charlie (1951)
Hurricane Charlie was the deadliest storm in 1951. It was the second hurricane of the year in the Atlantic hurricane season. This hurricane hit Jamaica with winds around Category 3 levels, strengthened to Category 4 at 135 miles an hour and then struck Mexican Yucatán Peninsula. The storm made its last landfall in the Tampico area of Mexico. Over 250 people died, half of whom near the Tampico region. This hurricane was Tampico's worst tropical cyclone since 1936.
Tobruk
Tobruk is a port city on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast. It is near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District. In 2011, it had a population of about 120,000. There was once an ancient Greek colony at Tobruk. Later, the Romans built a fortress there. By 1911, Tobruk had become an Italian military base. During World War II, in a battle called the Siege of Tobruk, Allied forces captured the town. After the war, Tobruk was rebuilt. During the 1960s, a port terminal was built at Tobruk.
Glen Drover
Glen Drover (born May 25, 1969) is a Canadian guitarist. He is best known for having been the lead guitarist for Megadeth and King Diamond. He played in Megadeth with his brother, Shawn Drover.
Graeme Gibson
Graeme C. Gibson (9 August 1934 – 18 September 2019) was a Canadian novelist. He was a Member of the Order of Canada (1992). He was one of the organizers of the Writer's Union of Canada (chair, 1974–75). He was also a founder of the Writers' Trust of Canada.
Gibson was in a partnership with fellow Canadian novelist Margaret Atwood from 1973 until his death.
In April 2017, Gibson was diagnosed with dementia. He died on 18 September 2019 in a hospital in London, England at the age of 85.
Pardon C. Williams
Pardon Clarence Williams (July 12, 1842 – January 18, 1925) was an American lawyer and judge.
Early life and career
Pardon Williams was born on July 12, 1842 in Ellisburg, New York. His father was William Williams Jr. and his mother was Jerusha Plummer.
Williams went to school in Pierrepont Manor. Later, he went to the Union Academy in Fort Plain and the Clinton Liberal Institute in Clinton. He studied at St. Lawrence University for two years. He started to teach in 1856 when he was 14 years old and he tought for six years until 1862. Williams worked on his families farm in the summers when he was a teacher. In spring 1862, he moved to Watertown and started to study law in the law firm Hammond & Bigelow. Williams was admitted to the bar in October 1863. Then, he became a member of the law firm Hammond & Williams after Bigelow became an editor of the Watertown Daily Times. General Bradley Winslow joined the law firm later, and it was renamed to Hammond, Winslow & Williams. In 1867, he started to practice law without a law partner. In 1868, he was elected district attorney of Jefferson County, and he served two terms until 1875. In March 1874, he became partners with Judge John C. McCartin and Williams.
Later life
In 1883, Williams was elected as a justice of the New York Supreme Court in the 5th Judicial District, and he started on June 1, 1884. His term ended in 1898. In 1895, Governor Levi P. Morton made Williams an associate justice of the Appellate Division of the New York Supreme Court, First Judicial Department in New York City. He left the Appellate Division when his term ended in 1898. The local people didn't like that he had to leave his district for New York City, so he promised to stay in the Fifth Judicial District. In 1900, he became an associate justice of the Fourth Department of the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, which included New York City. Williams retired in 1912.
He was the judge for many murder trials, like for Roxana Druse. Williams had a reputation for being fair, and Governor Roswell P. Flower chose him as the judge for the trial of Bartholomew Shea and John McGough for the murder of Robert Ross.
Personal life and death
He married Sarah E. Hewitt on September 9, 1868. Their children were Edith, Robert Plummer, and Marguitte. His son Robert was a clerk for Pardon. Williams died at his home on January 18, 1925. He was buried in Brookside Cemetery in Watertown.
Siege of Tobruk
The reason that both sides wanted to control Tobruk is that it had a deep protected harbour. This made it a good place for ships to seek shelter. As well, the Italians had built fortifications. There were also escarpments and cliffs near Tobruk, which helped to protect the town from attack.
The Allies wanted to control Tobruk so that they could defend Egypt and the Suez Canal. When the Axis armies could no longer use the port at Tobruk, they had to bring in supplies at the distant port of Tripoli. This required the Axis armies to bring the supplies by truck through 1500 km of desert. After the Allies won Tobruk, the Axis armies continuted fighting to take it back. The Axis armies fired many artillery shells at Tobruk and dropped many bombs on the town.
The Defense of Volotchayevsk
The Defense of Volotchayevsk (Волочаевские дни) is a 1937 Soviet drama movie directed by Vasilyev brothers. It stars Varvara Myasnikova, Nikolai Dorokhin, and Lev Sverdlin.
London General
London General is a bus company operating services in Greater London. It is a part of the Go-Ahead Group and operates buses under for Transport for London. The company was named in honour of the London General Omnibus Company, the principal operator of buses in London between 1855 and 1933.
Venice and Dalmatia
Middle Ages
Venice influenced Dalmatia commercially since the times of Charlemagne. But only at the end of the first millennium the Republic of Venice started to conquest Dalmatia.
Indeed, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Illyrian towns on the dalmatian coast continued to speak Latin and their language evolved relatively independent from other Romance languages, progressing toward a regional variant and finally to a distinct language called Dalmatian language.
Alfta GIF
Alfta GIF is a sports club in Alfta in Sweden. It was established on 10 November 1900. The club runs handball, ice hockey and soccer. Earlier the club also ran bandy. The men's bandy team played in the Swedish top division in 1941. The men's soccer team has played in the Swedish third division. The ice hockey section was established in 1947. The skiing and track and field athletics sections have been inactive since 2002.
Venice and Dalmatia
Middle Ages
The earliest reference on the language dates from the 10th century and it is estimated that about 50,000 people spoke it at that time (according to the linguist Matteo Bartoli).
The Dalmatian language is an extinct Romance language that was spoken along the eastern Adriatic in the Dalmatian coast from Fiume (Rijeka) as far south as Kotor (Cattaro) in Montenegro.
The Dalmatian speakers lived mainly in the coastal towns of Zadar, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik and Kotor (Zara, Traù, Spalato, Ragusa and Cattaro in Italian), each of these cities having a local dialect, and also on the islands of Krk, Cres and Rab (Veglia, Cherso and Arbe) Almost every city developed its own dialect, but the most important dialects we have information on are the Vegliot a northern dialect, spoken on the island of Krk (Veglia in Italian, Vikla in Dalmatian) and the Ragusan', a southern dialect, spoken at Dubrovnik (Ragusa in both Italian and Dalmatian).
The dialect of Zara disappeared because of the strong Venetian influence while the two other dialects due even to the assimilation by Slavic language speakers.
We know about the dalmatian dialect of Ragusa from two letters, from 1325 and 1397, and other medieval texts, which show a language influenced heavily by Venetian. The available sources include hardly 260 Ragusan words. Surviving words include pen (bread), teta (father), chesa (house) and fachir (to do), which were quoted by an Italian, Fillipo Diversi, the head of school of Ragusa in the 1430s.
The "Republic of Ragusa" had at one time an important fleet, but its influence decreased. We know that the language was in trouble in the face of Croatian expansion, as the Ragusan Senate decided that all debates had to be held in lingua veteri ragusea (ancient Ragusan language) and the use of the lingua sclava (Croatian) was forbidden. Nevertheless, in the 16th century, Ragusan fell out of use and became extinct.
Other languages influenced the Ddalmatian language, but without erasing its Latin roots (superstrates): the Slavs, then the Republic of Venice. Several cities of the regions have Italian names, and other mostly the romanized Illyrian ones (like Zara, Spalato, etc..)
The oldest preserved documents written in Dalmatian are some 13th century inventories, in the Ragusan dialect. A letter of the 14th century from Zara (Zadar) shows strong Venetian influence, which was also the cause of its extinction soon after.
The Christian schism was an important factor in the history of Dalmatia. While the Croatian-held branch of the Catholic Church in Nin was under Pope's jurisdiction, they still used the Slavic liturgy. Both the Latin population of the cities and the Holy See preferred the Latin liturgy, which created tensions between different dioceses.
The great schism between Eastern and Western Christianity of 1054 further intensified the rift between the coastal cities and the hinterland, with many of the Slavs in the hinterland preferring the Eastern Orthodoxy. Areas of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina also had an indigenous "Bosnian Church" which was often mistaken for "Bogomils".
The Latin influence in Dalmatia was increased and the Byzantine practices were further suppressed on the general synods of 1059-1060, 1066, 1075-1076 and on other local synods, notably by demoting the bishopric of Nin, installing the archbishoprics of Spalatum (Split) and Dioclea (Montenegro), and explicitly forbidding use of any liturgy other than Greek or Latin.
The Republic of Venice
Dalmatia never attained a political or racial unity and never formed as a "nation", but it achieved a remarkable development of art, science and literature. Politically, the neolatin Dalmatian city-states were often isolated and compelled to either fall back on the Venetian Republic for support, or tried to make it on their own.
The geographical position of the Dalmatian city states suffices to explain the relatively small influence exercised by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries (535-1102) during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to become merely nominal, while the influence of the Republic of Venice increased.
The medieval Dalmatia had still included much of the hinterland covered by the old Roman province of Dalmatia. However, the toponym of "Dalmatia" started to shift more towards including only the coastal, Adriatic areas, rather than the mountains inland. By the 15th century, the word "Herzegovina" would be introduced, marking the shrink of the borders of Dalmatia to the narrow littoral area where was spoken the Dalmatian language (that was being assimilated into the venetian language).
In the thirteenth century the Republic of Venice took definitive control of the Montenegro coast and created the Albania Veneta.
Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Hungary in Dalmatia
As the city states gradually lost all protection by Byzantium, being unable to unite in a defensive league hindered by their internal dissensions, they had to turn to either Venice or Hungary for support. Each of the two political factions had support within the Dalmatian city states, based mostly on economic reasons.
The Venetians, to whom the Dalmatians were already bound by language and culture, could afford to concede liberal terms as its main goal was to prevent the development of any dangerous political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic. The seafaring community in Dalmatia looked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In return for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute either in money or in kind. Arbe (Rab), for example, annually paid ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold to Venice.
Hungary, on the other hand, defeated the last Croat king in 1097 and laid claim on all lands of the Croatian noblemen since the treaty of 1102. King Coloman of Hungary proceeded to conquer Dalmatia in 1102-1105. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior favoured Hungary as their most powerful neighbour on land that affirmed their municipal privileges. Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law remained valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could live in a city where he was unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality.
These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed. Hungarian garrisons were being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered with trade, the appointment of bishops, or the tenure of communal domains. Consequently, the Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred. Even in Zara four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although Zadar was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritime ascendancy.
The once rival Romanic and Slavic population eventually started contributing to a common civilization, and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was the primary example of this. By the 13th century, the councilmen from ragusan names were mixed, and in the 15th century the ragusan literature was even written in the Slavic language (from which Croatian language is directly descended), and the city was often called by its Slavic name, Dubrovnik. Only in 1918 Ragusa was called officially "Dubrovnik", with the creation of Yugoslavia.
The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the "Bogomil heresy", and by many outside influences.
The cities of Zara (Zadar), Spalato (Split), Trau (Trogir) and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and the surrounding territories each changed hands several times between Venice, Hungary and the Byzantium during the 12th century.
In 1202, the armies of the Fourth Crusade rendered assistance to Venice by occupying Zadar for it. In 1204 the same army conquered Byzantium and finally eliminated the Eastern Empire from the list of contenders on Dalmatian territory.
The early 13th century was marked by a decline in external hostilities. The Dalmatian cities started accepting foreign sovereignty (mainly of the Republic of Venice) but eventually they reverted to their previous desire for independence. The Mongol invasion severely impaired Hungary, so much that in 1241, the king Bela IV had to take refuge in Dalmatia (in the Klis fortress). The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew.
The Croats were no longer regarded by the city folk as a hostile people, in fact the power of certain Croatian magnates, notably the counts Šubić of Bribir, was from time to time supreme in the northern districts (in the period between 1295 and 1328).
In 1346, Dalmatia was struck by the Black Death. The economic situation was also poor, and the cities became more and more dependent on Venice.
Stephen Tvrtko, the founder of the "Bosnian kingdom", was able in 1389 to annex the Adriatic littoral between Cattaro and Sebenico (Šibenik), and even claimed control over the northern coast up to Fiume (Rijeka) except for the Venetian-ruled Zara (Zadar), and his own independent ally, Ragusa (Dubrovnik). This was only temporary, as the Hungarians and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatia as soon as Tvrtko died in 1391.
An internal struggle of Hungary, between King Sigismund and the Neapolitan house of Anjou, also reflected on Dalmatia: in the early 15th century, all Dalmatian cities welcomed the Neapolitan fleet except for Dubrovnik (Ragusa). The Bosnian duke Hrvoje controlled Dalmatia for the Angevins, but later switched loyalty to Sigismund.
Over the period of twenty years, this struggle weakened the Hungarian influence. In 1409, Ladislaus of Naples sold his rights over Dalmatia to Venice for 100,000 "Ducats". Venice gradually took over most of Dalmatia by 1420. In 1437, Sigismund recognized Venetian rule over Dalmatia in return for 100,000 Ducats. The city of Omiš yielded to Venice in 1444, and only Ragusa (Dubrovnik) preserved temporarily its freedom.
The rule of Venice on most of Dalmatia will last nearly four centuries (1420 - 1797).
Venetian and Ottoman rule in Dalmatia
During the Venetian rule in Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797 the number of Orthodox Serbs in Dalmatia was increased by numerous migrations.
An interval of peace ensued, but meanwhile the Ottoman advance continued.
Hungary was itself assailed by the Turks, and could no longer afford to try to control Dalmatia. Christian kingdoms and regions in the east fell one by one, Constantinople in 1453, Serbia in 1459, neighbouring Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the Venetian and Ottoman frontiers met and border wars were incessant.
Dubrovnik sought safety in friendship with the invaders, and in one particular instance, actually sold two small strips of its territory (Neum and Sutorina) to the Ottomans in order to prevent land access from the Venetian territory.
In 1508 the hostile "League of Cambrai" compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home service, and after the overthrow of Hungary in 1526 the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia by 1537. The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to Venice, the interior forming a Turkish province, governed from the fortress of Klis by a "Sanjakbeg" (an administrator with military powers). Christian Croats from the neighbouring lands now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Romanic population even more, and making their language the primary one. The pirate community of the "Uskoks" had originally been a band of these fugitives, especially near Segna (Senj); its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and Turkey (1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary manners is presented by the Venetian agents, whose reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of the Middle Ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that the Dalmatian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at the Battle of Lepanto, for example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy.
The continental bits of Dalmatia were under Ottoman rule, parts of the Viyalet of Bosnia or the Klis Sanjak. The desolated areas of the Knin Frontier and Bukovica were inhabited by Orthodox Serbs from Bosnia, while the Albania veneta received constant Serb migrations from Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbs formed one quarter of Dalmatia's population in the 16th century. They had absolute majority in the Knin Frontier, Bukovica and the Cattaro area. The Ottomans have resettled this populace to create a living defence towards the territories of the Venetian Republic. A great portion of this population fled to Venetian land and gladly fought against the Ottomans. The number of Serbs in Venetian Dalmatia rapidly increased during the War of Crete in 1645 - 1669 and the Great Viennese War in 1683 - 1699, after which the "Peace of Karlowitz" gave the whole of Dalmatia and coastal Montenegro (from Sutorina to Cattaro) to the Venetian Republic. After the Venetian-Turkish war of 1714-1718, Venetian territorial gains were confirmed by the 1718 "Treaty of Passarowitz". The number of Dalmatian Serbs remained between 20% and 25% by the end of Venetian rule, while the venetian speaking population in the Dalmatian cities and islands increased with colonists from north-east Italy.
The Serbian peasant population of infertile Upper Dalmatia was freed of "Feudal bonds", according that they fight wars for the Venetian Republic. The Serbs living in urban area of cities in Dalmatia were much wealthier. The Serbs in Dalmatia with Boka have had strong national and religious determination through numerous old monasteries as beacons of culture and faith. Such were the early 14th century Krupa, Krka and Dragović monasteries in the Knin Frontier and Bukovica. The Serbs in the area of Cattaro (Kotor) had much more cultural advancement due to the nearby Cetinje capital area, and the Venetians had to fall back from influencing the religious life of people there.
Tony Mills
Anthony Paul "Tony" Mills (7 July 1962 – 18 September 2019) was an English rock singer. He was best known for his work with Shy and TNT. Mills was born in Solihull, Warwickshire, England.
Venice and Dalmatia
Venetian and Ottoman rule in Dalmatia
Dalmatia was the largest Europe's concentration of Roman Catholic Bishops, Priesthood, Churches, Monasteries and religious institutions. The Catholic Bishops controlled the Orthodox Episcopy in Dalmatia by naming the Eastern Othodox Christian Episcopes themselves.
Tony Mills
In April 2019, Mills announced that he was diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer. He died on 18 September 2019 at the age of 57.
Venice and Dalmatia
Venetian and Ottoman rule in Dalmatia
This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797.
Napoleon united for the last time Dalmatia and Venice in his Kingdom of Italy in 1805. After his fall Venice followed the history of Italy with the Risorgimento, while Dalmatia was aggregated to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Child development
Child development refers to biological, psychological and emotional changes that happen in humans between birth and the end of adolescence, at which time the individual goes from dependence to independence. The development is strongly influenced by genetic, mental, physical and social factors that may happen during the progression. Children develop at different levels. In particular, children having autism spectrum troubles or Down syndrome may have different development than usual or substandard motor development. Ideas about how children develop psychologically have changed over time. There are several important theories on how children develop.
In medieval times
During this time children were seen as separate than adults. Children under 7 or 8 were different than other people and treated as children. Even teenagers were not fully grown. Religious writings sometimes talked about children as evil and needing to be pure. They also sometimes talked about them as good and angels.
During the Reformation
At the time of the Reformation, children were thought to be born evil. Adults thought children needed to be taught to be a person. Children had to wear tight and uncomfortable clothes. Raising a child was thought to be one of the most important things. Adults wanted children to use reason in learning.
Age of Enlightenment
In the time of the Enlightenment, people started to think differently about children and development. People respected children more and treated them better. Two important people had ideas about children during the Enlightenment. They were John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
John Locke
John Locke thought that children were born without any knowledge. He thought the mind is tabula rasa, or blank slate. This means that the mind is like a blank piece of paper when someone is born. Children get knowledge in life and fill up the blank paper. Locke thought that the only way that children get knowledge is from doing different things in life and getting experience from those things. Locke’s ideas on how children get knowledge changed how people thought about children. His belief was that learning should be fun rather than a task. "Children [should be] free to be childish,” wrote Locke. Locke's ideas were opposed to church principles, strictly believing children should be reading fables and not religious texts. Children were seen in a better way and got more respect from adults. Locke wanted parents to spend more time with their children and help them learn. He thought that children’s development of knowledge needed parents to help children experience new things and teach about those things. Locke pushed nurture as the most important part of child development.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean Jacques Rousseau had a different idea than Locke on children. He thought that children are born knowing what is right and wrong. Rousseau did not think that children are “blank slates” as Locke did. He thought that children are “noble savages”. This is the idea that children are born good, but society can make them bad. Rousseau felt that adults should pay attention to children’s needs during their different stages of development.
Psychosexual theory
Sigmund Freud was a neurologist an psychoanalyst who tried to help adults with their troubles. He talked with adults about when they were children and anything that happened during that time. Freud focused on the unconscious mind. This is the part of the mind that a person is not able to know about directly. Freud thought that the unconscious mind was important in how people think and feel. The way people think and feel can affect how they act. Freud’s ideas lead him to make his psychosexual theory. The psychosexual theory focuses on how a child’s wants are controlled in early years and the effect it has when the child becomes an adult.
Freud thought that each person’s personality is made of three parts. The parts are the id, ego, and super-ego. The three parts each have a purpose, but are almost never in agreement. The three parts not in agreement is what causes people to be unhappy and have problems.
Benay Venuta
Benay Venuta (born Benvenuta Rose Crooke, January 27, 1910 – September 1, 1995) was an American actress, singer and dancer.
Docklands Buses
Docklands Buses is a bus company operating in East London. It is part of the Go-Ahead Group and operates services for Transport for London.
Child development
Psychosexual theory
When a baby is born, it only has basic needs. The baby needs to eat, sleep, and use the bathroom. These basic needs help the baby to live. These basic needs are what make up the id. The id only wants to take cause of these needs. The id wants the needs to be taken care of right away and not have to wait. Freud thought that young children are ruled by the id. The id does not know or care about right and wrong. It only wants to take care of its needs. This means that young children do not know about right and wrong. They only know what the id wants. Children will act on the wants of the id even when they should not. Children begin to learn that they cannot always get what they want when they want it. This causes the ego to form. The ego “is ruled by the reality principle”. This means that it knows what can really happen in the world. The ego knows if the id can get what it wants by looking at if the want can be filled. When the id’s needs cannot be taken care of, the ego controls the id and its wants. Children that have the ego formed can control their basic needs and their actions. When the ego is formed, children gain a sense of self by controlling their needs. The superego is formed by children working with their parents and others in society. The superego acts as a rule follower. It allows the child to know what is right and wrong by what society’s rules on right and wrong are. Guilt is the primary way that the superego tells children the rules of what is right and wrong.
Freud thought that children went through five psychosexual stages of development. In the stages children have to fix problems between needs and what society wants. Fixing these problems allows children to do well as adults. Problems that adults get have to do with the stage where they had trouble with. The five stages are : oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. The oral stage begins at birth  and has to do with the baby’s suckling needs. The anal stage is the second and is from 1-3 year olds. It has to do with holding and letting go of urine and feces. The third stage, the phallic stage is from 3-6 year olds and has to do with the genital region. Freud thought that this stage is one of the most important stages to fix problems in. If a child does not fix the problems, he or she can develop either the Oedipus complex (for boys) or the Electra complex (for girls). These problems come from love either a boy’s love for his mother or a girl’s love for her father. To stop problems the boy or girl take up the values of their father (for boys) or mother (for girls). The fourth stage of the psychosexual stages is the latency stage and it occurs from 6-11 year olds. In this stage the superego grows the most and children get values from society. The last stage is the genital stage and lasts through adolescence. In this stage children start to like others and form heterosexual relationships.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
Freud’s theory of child development is important because it was the first to point out the importance of parent-child relationships.
Vakha Agaev
Vakha Agaev (15 March 1953 – 23 September 2020) was a Russian politician. He was a member of the State Duma representing the Krasnoyarsk region from 2011 until his death. He was a member of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.
Agaev died on 23 September 2020 in Moscow from COVID-19, aged 67.
María Elsa Viteri
María Elsa Viteri (25 February 1965 – 18 November 2021) was an Ecuadorian economist and politician. She was Minister of Finance from 2008 to 2010 and again in 2018. Viteri was born in Guayaquil, Ecuador.
Child development
Psychocosocial theory
Erik Erikson was a follower of Freud’s ideas and started his own theory using Freud’s ideas. Erikson’s theory is called the psychosocial theory of child development. Erikson used Freud’s idea of the id, ego, and superego and his stages of development to build his own theory. Erikson thought that the ego was “of the utmost importance”. The ego was important because it lets children become an individual and add to society. Erikson added more stages to his theory than Freud did, and some of his stages are similar to Freud’s. Erikson ended up with eight stages in his theory. Every stage has a problem between two different feelings. A child's personality is shaped by how they fix each problem.
María Elsa Viteri
Viteri died on 18 November 2021 from pancreatic cancer in Guayaquil, aged 56.
Child development
Psychocosocial theory
Erkison's stages
Dale, Texas
Dale is an unincorporated community in Caldwell County, Texas, United States. As of 2000, the community had a population of 500.
Child development
Psychocosocial theory
Erikson’s stages are important because they looked at society and culture and how they affect personality. Freud only focused on sexuality. Erkison's stages are also show how personality is shaped as children grow.
Erikson's vs Freud's Stages
Behaviorism
John Watson did not like the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson. Watson chose to look at behavior of people to understand how children develop. His ideas fall under the concept of behaviorism. Watson was “inspired by Pavlov’s studies of animal learning”. Pavlov’s studies focused on classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is when an animal or person learns to react to stimulus, a thing that will cause a reaction. Watson thought that children could be taught using this way. Watson decided to test his theory by doing an experiment using a nine-month old baby, Little Albert.