cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
RAID
Why use RAID?
One of the reasons why many companies are using RAID is that the data in the array can simply be used. Those using the data need not be aware they are using RAID at all. When a failure occurred and the array is recovering, access to the data will be slower. Accessing the data during this time will also slow down the recovery process, but this is still much faster than not being able to work with the data at all. Depending on the RAID level however, disks may not fail while the new disk is being prepared for use. A disk failing at that time will result in losing all the data in the array.
The different ways to join disks are called RAID levels. A bigger number for the level is not necessarily better. Different RAID levels have different purposes. Some RAID levels need special disks and special controllers.
History
In 1978, a man called Norman Ken Ouchi, who worked at IBM, made a suggestion describing the plans for what would later become RAID 5. The plans also described something similar to RAID 1, as well as the protection of a part of RAID 4.
Workers at the University of Berkeley helped to plan out research in 1987. They were trying to make it possible for RAID technology to recognize two hard drives instead of one. They found that when RAID technology had two hard drives, it had much better storage than with only one hard drive. However, it crashed much more often.
In 1988, the different types of RAID (1 to 5), were written about by David Patterson, Garth Gibson and Randy Katz in their article, called "A Case for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)". This article was the first to call the new technology RAID and the name became official.
Caching
Caching is a technology that also has its uses in RAID systems. There are different kinds of caches that are used in RAID systems:
In modern systems, a write request is shown as done when the data has been written to the cache. This does not mean that the data has been written to the disk. Requests from the cache are not necessarily handled in the same order that they were written to the cache. This makes it possible that, if the system fails, sometimes some data has not been written to the disk involved. For this reason, many systems have a cache that is backed by a battery.
Mirroring: More than one copy of the data
When talking about a mirror, this is a very simple idea. Instead of the data being in only one place, there are several copies of the data. These copies usually are on different hard disks (or disk partitions). If there are two copies, one of them can fail without the data being affected (as it still is on the other copy). Mirroring can also give a boost when reading data. It will always be taken from the fastest disk that responds. Writing data is slower though, because all disks need to be updated.
Striping: Part of the data is on another disk
With striping, the data is split into different parts. These parts then end up on different disks (or disk partitions). This means that writing data is faster, as it can be done in parallel. This does not mean that there will not be faults, as each block of data is only found on one disk.
Error correction and faults
It is possible to calculate different kinds of checksums. Some methods of calculating checksums allow finding a mistake. Most RAID levels that use redundancy can do this. Some methods are more difficult to do, but they allow to not only detect the error, but to fix it.
Hot spares: using more disks than needed
Many of the ways to have RAID support something is called a hot spare. A hot spare is an empty disk that is not used in normal operation. When a disk fails, data can directly be copied onto the hot spare disk. That way, the failed disk needs to be replaced by a new empty drive to become the hot spare.
Stripe size and chunk size: spreading the data over several disks
RAID works by spreading the data over several disks. Two of the terms often used in this context are stripe size and chunk size.
The chunk size is the smallest data block that is written to a single disk of the array. The stripe size is the size of a block of data that will be spread over all disks. That way, with four disks, and a stripe size of 64 kilobytes (kB), 16 kB will be written to each disk. The chunk size in this example is therefore 16 kB. Making the stripe size bigger will mean a faster data transfer rate, but also a bigger maximum latency. In this case, this is the time needed to get a block of data.
Putting disk together: JBOD, concatenation or spanning
Many controllers (and also software) can put disks together in the following way: Take the first disk, till it ends, then they take the second, and so on. In that way, several smaller disks look like a larger one. This is not really RAID, as there is no redundancy. Also, spanning can combine disks where RAID 0 cannot do anything. Generally, this is called just a bunch of disks (JBOD).
This is like a distant relative of RAID because the logical drive is made of different physical drives. Concatenation is sometimes used to turn several small drives into one larger useful drive. This can not be done with RAID 0. For example, JBOD could combine 3 GB, 15 GB, 5.5 GB, and 12 GB drives into a logical drive at 35.5 GB, which is often more useful than the drives alone.
In the diagram to the right, data are concatenated from the end of disk 0 (block A63) to the beginning of disk 1 (block A64); end of disk 1 (block A91) to the beginning of disk 2 (block A92). If RAID 0 were used, then disk 0 and disk 2 would be truncated to 28 blocks, the size of the smallest disk in the array (disk 1) for a total size of 84 blocks.
Some RAID controllers use JBOD to talk about working on drives without RAID features. Each drive shows up separately in the operating system. This JBOD is not the same as concatenation.
Many Linux systems use the terms "linear mode" or "append mode". The Mac OS X 10.4 implementation — called a "Concatenated Disk Set" — does not leave the user with any usable data on the remaining drives if one drive fails in a concatenated disk set, although the disks otherwise operate as described above.
Concatenation is one of the uses of the Logical Volume Manager in Linux. It can be used to create virtual drives.
Drive Clone
Most modern hard disks have a standard called Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology (S.M.A.R.T). SMART allows to monitor certain things on a hard disk drive. Certain controllers allow to replace a single hard disk even before it fails, for example because S.M.A.R.T or another disk test reports too many correctable errors. To do this, the controller will copy all the data onto a hot spare drive. After this, the disk can be replaced by another (which will simply become the new hot spare).
Different setups
The setup of the disks and how they use the techniques above affects the performance and reliability of the system. When more disks are used, one of the disks is more likely to fail. Because of this, mechanisms have to be built to be able to find and fix errors. This makes the whole system more reliable, as it is able to survive and repair the failure.
RAID 0 "striping"
RAID 0 is not really RAID because it is not redundant. With RAID 0, disks are simply put together to make a large disk. This is called "striping". When one disk fails, the whole array fails. Therefore, RAID 0 is rarely used for important data, but reading and writing data from the disk can be faster with striping because each disk reads part of the file at the same time.
With RAID 0, disk blocks that come after one another are usually placed on different disks. For this reason, all disks used by a RAID 0 should be the same size.
RAID 0 is often used for Swapspace on Linux or Unix-like operating systems.
RAID 1 "mirroring"
With RAID 1, two disks are put together. Both hold the same data, one is "mirroring" the other. This is easy, fast configuration whether implemented with a hardware controller or by software.
RAID 5 "striping with distributed parity"
RAID Level 5 is what is probably used most of the time. At least three hard disks are needed to build a RAID 5 storage array. Each block of data will be stored in three different places. Two of these places will store the block as it is, the third will store a checksum. This checksum is a special case of a Reed-Solomon code that only uses bitwise addition. Usually, it is calculated using the XOR method. Since this method is symmetric, one lost data block can be rebuilt from the other data block and the checksum. For each block, a different disk will hold the parity block which holds the checksum. This is done to increase redundancy. Any disk can fail. Overall, there will be one disk holding the checksums, so the total usable capacity will be that of all disks except for one. The size of the resulting logical disk will be the size of all disks together, except for one disk which holds parity information.
Of course this is slower than RAID level 1, since on every write, all disks need to be read to calculate and update the parity information. The read performance of RAID 5 is almost as good as RAID 0 for the same number of disks. Except for the parity blocks, the distribution of data over the drives follows the same pattern as RAID 0. The reason RAID 5 is slightly slower is that the disks must skip over the parity blocks.
A RAID 5 with a failed disk will continue to work. It is in degraded mode. A degraded RAID 5 can be very slow. For this reason an additional disk is often added. This is called hot spare disk. If a disk fails, the data can be directly rebuilt onto the extra disk. RAID 5 can also be done in software quite easily.
Saint-Germain-du-Pert
Saint-Germain-du-Pert is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Larkana Taluka
Larkana Taluka is an administrative subdivision (taluka) of Larkana District in the Sindh province of Pakistan. The city of Larkana is the capital.
History
During British rule Larkana became headquarters of Larkana District and Larkana Taluka - and for a time was part of the Bombay Presidency of British India.
In 1901 the population was 100,827, compared with 90,15l in 1891. At that time the taluka contained one town, Larkana, and 72 villages.
Administration
Larkana Taluka is administratively subdivided into 18 Union Councils.
Tunisair
Société Tunisienne de l'Air, or Tunisair (الخطوط التونسية) is the flag carrier airline of Tunisia. Formed in 1948, it operates scheduled international services to European, African and Middle Eastern destinations. Its main base is Tunis-Carthage International Airport. The airline's head office is in Tunis, near Tunis Airport.
Boris Valábik
Boris Valábik (born February 14, 1986) is a Slovak ice hockey defenceman. He currently plays for HC Kometa Brno of the Czech Extraliga (EHL). He has also played for the Atlanta Thrashers and Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League (NHL).
Career
Before playing in the NHL, Valábik played 3 seasons with the Kitchener Rangers of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL).
Valábik was drafted with the 10th overall pick by the Atlanta Thrashers in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. He played 2 seasons with the Thrashers' AHL affiliate Chicago Wolves and was able to win the Calder Cup with them in 2007 before he was called up to the main roster in November 2008. He would play 80 games with the thrashers before he was traded along with Rich Peverley to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Blake Wheeler and Mark Stuart.
Caravel
A caravel (caravela) is a type of small sailing ship. It is easy to maneuver. It was developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese. The Portuguese used caravels to explore the West African coast and the Atlantic Ocean. Lateen sails made the caravels fast and able to sail against the wind. Caravels were used by the Portuguese to explore oceans during the 15th and 16th centuries in the Age of Discovery.
European Canadians
European Canadians (sometimes called Euro-Canadians) are Canadians with ancestry from Europe. As of 2011, there were 25,186,890 European Canadians in Canada.
Wallace Smith Broecker
Wallace Smith Broecker (November 29, 1931 – February 18, 2019) was an American geophysicist. He was the Newberry Professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University. He created the idea of a global "conveyor belt" and he was known for creating the term "global warming". Broecker received the Crafoord Prize and the Vetlesen Prize.
Broecker died in New York City on February 18, 2019 at the age of 87.
European Canadians
The French were the first Europeans to live in Canada permanently. Hélène Desportes was the first "white" person born in New France. She was born in 1620.
In 2006, most European Canadians had English ancestry (21.03%). Other common ancestries were French (15.82%), Scottish (15.11%), Irish (13.94%), German (10.18%) then Italian (4.63%). However, 32.22% of people said they had Canadian ancestry. Because of this, some people think the numbers for the English and French ancestry are too low.
Most European Canadians are Christian. A small number of them are Jews, Deists, Agnostics, Atheists, Muslims, Bahá'ís, Paganists/Wiccas and Unitarian Universalists. Most also speak English and French.
Bruno Maderna
Bruno Maderna (21 April 1920 – 13 November 1973) was an Italian conductor and composer. For the final ten years of his life he lived in Germany. He eventually became a citizen of that country.
Industrial music
Industrial music is a music term. It describes a wide range of bands generally mixing rock with samplers and electronic instruments.
Taking its name from a record label formed by the London band Throbbing Gristle, the roots of industrial music are firmly placed in punk rock, although the choice of instrumentation differs from the guitar/bass/drum combo of bands like the Sex Pistols.
The first wave of this music appeared in the late 1970's in the United Kingdom with bands. These are like the afore mentioned Throbbing Gristle, Cabaret Voltaire and SPK. Blending electronic synthesisers, guitars and early samplers, these bands created an aggressive and abrasive music fusing elements of rock with experimental electronic music. Like their punk cousins, they enjoyed the use of shock-tactics including explicit lyrical content, graphic art and Fascist imagery. The label Industrial Records controversially used an image of a gas chamber. That was in its logo.
Across the Atlantic, similar experiments were taking place. Boyd Rice (aka NON) released several albums of noise music. That was with guitar drones and tape loops creating a cacophony of repetitive sounds. In San Francisco, performance artist Monte Cazazza began releasing albums of atonal rock. In Germany Einstürzende Neubauten were performing acts daring, mixing metal percussion, guitars and even jackhammers in elaborate stage performances. They often damaged the venues they were playing.
In the early 1980s advances in sampling technology, and the popularity of synthesised new wave music bought some industrial musicians greater exposure. As much as some new wave bands were informed by the experiments of the industrial bands, the original industrial groups also began to refine their sound. Cabaret Voltaire and Throbbing Gristle experimented with dance beats, and the Cab's (as they were known by fans) album The Crackdown (1983) was released on Virgin Records to some success.
Into the 1980's the more experimental side of industrial music became subsumed into dance and rock music. Psychic TV, formed from the remnants of Throbbing Gristle released early albums of acid house music, like Jack The Tab (1988). In America, bands such as Skinny Puppy and Ministry, mixed shock-rock performances with electronic samples and heavy metal guitars and created a genre. It was often referred to as "industrial rock". Other notable artists in this genre enjoyed widespread mainstream success in the 1990's. These included but were not limited to Nine Inch Nails, Marilyn Manson and Fear Factory.
Bruno Maderna
Biography
Maderna was born in Venice. At the age of four he was taught violin in Chioggia. His grandfather also recognized the child's brilliance. He was known in Italy and abroad as "Brunetto" (Italian for Little Bruno).
He continued his studies in Milan (1935), Venice (1939) and in Rome (1940). That was where he finally took his degree in composition and musicology at the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. At Rome he was instructed by Alessandro Bustini, but he also took a course of instruction from Antonio Guarnieri in Siena in 1941, and he then studied composition with Gian Francesco Malipiero in Venice in 1942/43.
Saint-Germain-le-Vasson
Saint-Germain-le-Vasson is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sunderland, Vermont
Sunderland is a town in Bennington County, Vermont, United States.
Kenya Matsui
Kenya Matsui (born 10 September 1985) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Cerezo Osaka.
Tangier
Tangier, also Tangiers (Tifinagh: ⵜⴰⵏⵊⴰ Tanja, archaic Berber name: Tingi, Arabic: طنجة Ṭanja) is a city in northern Morocco with a population of about 700,000 (2008 census). It lies on the North African coast at the western entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar where the Mediterranean meets the Atlantic Ocean off Cape Spartel. It is the capital of the Tangier-Tetouan Region and of the Tangier-Asilah prefecture of Morocco near the Spanish border.
The history of Tangier is very rich due to the historical presence of many civilizations and cultures starting from the 5th century BC. Between the period of being a Phoenician town to the independence era around the 1950s, Tangier was a place—and, sometimes a refuge—for many cultures. However, it was not until 1923 that Tangier was attributed an international status by foreign colonial powers, thus becoming a destination for many Europeans, Americans and Indians alike.
The city is currently undergoing rapid development and modernization. Projects include new 5-star hotels along the bay, a modern business district called Tangier City Centre, a new airport terminal and a new soccer stadium. Tangier's economy is also set to benefit greatly from the new Tanger-Med port.
John Anderson (Australian politician)
John Duncan Anderson (born 14 November 1956) is an Australian politician. He was the Deputy Prime Minister of Australia and leader of the National Party from 1999 to 2005. He was a member of the House of Representatives from 1989 to 2007. He also served as Minister for Primary Industries and Energy (1996–1998) and Minister for Transport and Regional Development (1998–2005) in the Howard Government.
Anderson was born in Sydney, New South Wales. He is married to Julia Robertson. The couple have five children.
Marianne Jouvenel
Marianne Muszerak-Jouvenel also written as Marie Anne Jouvenel and Mayanne Jouvenel (21 December 1924 — 7 February 2012) was a French swimmer. She was specialized in the freestyle. She was a member of Mouettes de Paris.
She was French national champion in the 100 metre freestyle in 1941, 1942 and 1943. She was also national champion in the 400 metre freestyle in 1941, 1942, 1943 and 1944.
She was awarded the gold medal of the French Swimming Federation in 1976.
Biography
She started swimming in 1927 after her mother found out about the collective lessons of Mouettes de Paris. In July 1929 she obtained her school swimming certificate. When she was thirteen years old she swam every day in the summer and three times per week in the winter in the Lutetia swimming pool. In addition to swimming she also did stretching exercises, cycling and skiing. She had classical opera dance classes by professor Paul Raymond.
In 1939 she won the 4 x 100 metres relay with her team. She finished third in the 400 metre freestyle. In early 1941, she had measles. On 1 June at Pentecost, she fell off her bicycle and seriously injured her knee. At the 1941 national swimming championships in September she became for the first time national champion. She won the 100 metre freestyle in a time of 1:14 and also the 400 metre freestyle in a time of 5:55.4. On 6 October she broke the French 200m freestyle record with a time of 2:39.5 she swam in Marseille. In August 1942 she became for the second time French national champion in both the 100 metre freestyle (in 1:13.7) and 400 metre freestyle (in 6:07.4) On 2 September she broke the French 400 metre freestyle record with a time of 5:44.6 she swam in Marseille. In August 1943 she became for the third time national champion in the 400 metre freestyle in a time of 6.02 and in August 1944 she became for the fourth time national champion in the 400 metre freestyle in 6:02. She became that year also for the third time national champion in the 100 metre freestyle in 6:00.2.
Personal life
Jouvenel was born on 21 December 1924 Beaumont-sur-Oise. She was the daughter of a physical teacher at professional and technical schools in Paris. They had a large wolf-dog named Dick. He was secretary of the Mouettes de Paris club in 1944. He married to M. Billy after World War II.
Jouvenel lived in the 15th arrondissement of Paris (94, rue Baland) until the 1940s. In the summer she went during holidays to Méziard, a hamlet in the department of Eure. During the Christmas holidays she went to Saint Gervais or Les Houches in Chamonix.
Naushahro Feroze
Naushahro Feroze (نوشہرو فیروز) is town in Naushahro Feroze District, Sindh, Pakistan. It is the capital of Naushahro Feroze District.
Battle of Okinawa
The Battle of Okinawa was a great battle of World War II. It took place on Okinawa Island in the Ryukyu Islands (south of the four big islands of Japan). The battle was between the military forces of the Empire of Japan and the Allies. It was the second biggest amphibious battle (from sea to land) of World War II, after the Battle of Normandy. It was also one of the longest battles in history, from April to June 1945. The Allies won the battle and occupied Okinawa. Today, Okinawa is Japanese territory, but there are still American military bases there.
The Battle of Okinawa is considered to be the last major battle of World War II. The Americans were planning Operation Downfall, the invasion of the four great islands of Japan. This never happened, since the Japanese surrendered after the American use of the atomic bomb in August 1945 (first in Hiroshima, and a second time in Nagasaki) and the Soviet Union declaring war on Japan.
The battle has been called "Typhoon of Steel" in English, and "tetsu no ame," "tetsu no bōfū" by the people of Okinawa, which mean "rain of steel" and "violent wind of steel", because of the very heavy firing of guns and bombs at this battle.
Some battles, such as the Battle of Iwo Jima, had no civilians present, but Okinawa had a large civilian population. The civilians killed or injured in the battle were at least 150,000. American deaths were 18,900 killed or missing and 53,000 injured, more than double of the soldiers killed at Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal put together. Several thousand soldiers who died from wounds and other causes after the battle had finished, are not included. About a third of the civilian population of the island were killed.
There were about 100,000 Japanese soldiers killed and 7,000 captured. Some of the soldiers committed seppuku or simply blew themselves up with grenades. Some of the civilians, convinced by Japanese propaganda that the Americans were barbarians who did terrible things to prisoners, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture.
Allied
Overall Allied command authority for battle was Fifth Fleet (under Admiral Raymond A. Spruance). Fifth Fleet was divided into several task forces and groups.
TF 56 was the largest force within TF 50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command. In all, the Army had over 102,000 Army (of these 38,000+ were artillery, combat support and HQ troops, with another 9,000 service troops), over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly Seabees and medical personnel).
At the start of the Battle of Okinawa the 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. The U.S. Navy had greater casualties in this operation than in any other battle of the war.
Japanese
The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was had 67,000 men (77,000 according to some sources). As well, there were 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) troops at Oroku naval base. There were also 39,000 local Ryukyuan people who were forced to fight.
Naval battle
The United States Navy's Task Force 58 was east of Okinawa. It had 6 to 8 destroyers and 13 carriers. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz gave his naval commanders time to rest.
Japanese air attacks had been light during the first few days after the landings. However, on 6 April, there was an attack by 400 planes from Kyushu. From 26 March-30 April, 20 American ships were sunk and 157 damaged.
The Japanese had lost up to more than 1,100 planes in the battle.
Between 6 April and 22 June, the Japanese flew 1,465 kamikaze aircraft attacks. Several fleet carriers were severely damaged.
Latin American Canadians
Latin American Canadians are Canadians with ancestry from Latin America. They may also be called "Latino Canadian" and "Latin Canadian". As of 2011, there were 381,280 Latin American Canadians in Canada.
The Unguarded Hour
The Unguarded Hour is a 1936 American drama movie directed by Sam Wood and was based on the 1935 play of the same name by Bernard Merivale. It stars Loretta Young, Lewis Stone, Franchot Tone, Roland Young, Jessie Ralph, Henry Daniell, Aileen Pringle, Dudley Digges, Wallis Clark and was distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
Latin American Canadians
Most Latin American Canadians speak two or more languages. They usually speak Spanish and/or Portuguese along with English and French.
A lot of Latin American Canadians came to Canada in the late 20th century. They came to Canada because it has better economic opportunities than their native country. Some Cubans came to Canada to escape Fidel Castro's regime. Other Latino Americans left their country because Canada offered freedom from war.
Almost all Latino American Canadians are Christian.
Bahawalpur (princely state)
Bahawalpur was a princely state of the Punjab in what is now Pakistan. It was on the southern bank of the Sutlej and Indus Rivers. Its capital city was Bahawalpur.
In 1941, the state had 1,341,209 people. It covered 45,911 km² (17,494 sq mi). It was divided into three districts: Bahawalpur, Rahimyar Khan and Bahawalnagar.
The state was created in 1690 by Bahadur Khan II. In 1833 Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan III signed an agreement with the British guaranteeing the independence of the Nawab from the British. The state agreed to become part of Pakistan on 7 October 1947. The state was then merged into the province of West Pakistan on 14 October 1955.
Languages
Seraiki (also called Riasti) is the main language spoken. Urdu and Punjabi are also major languages.
Tando Allahyar
Tando Allahyar (ٹنڈو اللہ یار, ٽنڊو الهيار) is a town in Sindh, Pakistan. It is the capital of Tando Allahyar District.
Saint-Jouin
Saint-Jouin is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Woodford, Vermont
Woodford is a town in Bennington County, Vermont, United States.
Benthos
Benthos: the flora and fauna found at the bottom of the sea or lake. Covers quite a wide range of uses, for instance, animals in rock pools are benthic, though only a few inches below the surface. In the ocean, used to contrast organisms in the sea depths (though not actually on the bottom), with plankton, living in the upper pelagic zone. The problem is addressed by extending the pelagic zone down below the light to the bathypelagic and abyssopelagic zones. These terms, however, are mostly not used.
Serikbolsyn Abdildin
Serikbolsyn Abdildaevich Abdildin (Серікболсын Әбділдаұлы Әбділдин; 25 November 1937 – 31 December 2019) was a Kazakh politician and economist. He was a member of the Communist Party. He served as the last chairman of the Supreme Council from 1991 to 1993. He was also the leader of the Communist Party from 1996 to 2010. He was born in Tarbagatay.
Abdildin died on 31 December 2019 at the age of 82.
Islamic world
The Islamic world or Muslim world consists of all people who believe in Islam. It is not an exact location, but rather a community. When they do things together as Muslims, they are the "umma", which means "community" referring to all of the believers. The faith emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, so it is common for these nations to cooperate. Recent conflicts in the Muslim World have sometimes spread because of this desire to cooperate (see below). It is also likely that some have been made shorter and less damaging because of it. Some might even have never started.
Media
The Al-Jazeera satellite TV network in the Arabic language is a news source many Muslims watch.
In most Muslim nations, the government is the main source of news. This sometimes makes it very difficult or dangerous to make anti-government statements.
There are, however, many other news programmes and websites in the Muslim world.
Islam in law and ethics
Islamic law exists in many variations - in Arabic it is called shariah - five schools of which were created centuries ago. These are the classical fiqh: the Hanafi school from India, Pakistan and Bangaladesh, West Africa, Egypt, the Maliki in North Africa and West Africa, the Shafi in Malaysia and Indonesia, the Hanbali in Arabia, and Jaferi in Iran and Iraq - where the majority is Shia. All five are very old and many Muslims feel a new fiqh must be created for modern society. Islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and ijtihad are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws.
So, in most of the Muslim world, people are very conservative, especially about alcohol, adultery, abortion and women working in jobs where they are used to lure customers.
Muslim women often dress extremely modestly, and many do so by choice. But in some countries they have been forced to do so against their will. This is one of the things that causes tension between the Western World and that of Muslims.
Islamic economics bans debt but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed. This is another issue that many Muslims have with the Western world.
Islam in politics
Many people in these countries also see Islam as a political movement. In democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party.
Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Pakistan and Algeria have taken power.
Many in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups and their views of democracy are complex.
Some of these groups are called terrorists because they attack civilians of other non-Muslim nations, to make a political point.
Conflicts with Israel and the US
Israel is very unpopular in the Muslim world, because of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the way that the state of Israel came into being in 1948 which many Arabs thought was unfair.
In 1979 there was a big shift in the way the Muslim world dealt with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, Iran became an Islamic state after a revolution, and there was an invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union. A lot of things changed in that year. By 2001 the Soviet Union was gone, Jordan had also made peace with Israel, and on September 11, 2001 there were major attacks on the U.S. - which most people believe were made to drive the United States out of the Muslim world, especially Saudi Arabia. In many ways the events of 1979 led to the events of 2001.
The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq are called part of a War on Terrorism by the United States. Many or most Muslims see it as a War on Islam. After the invasion, the Islamic parties won more seats, and a majority of Muslims polled in many nations expressed support for Osama bin Laden and said he would "do the right thing". Olivier Roy is a French scholar who thinks that this does not express support for al-Qaeda or militant Islam but opposing colonialism and what many Muslims call racism - favourable treatment for Jews especially those living in West Bank settlements, many of whom have American or British passport, and which the United Nations says have no right to live there.
The situation is very complicated and there are many different views of it.
Organization
The Organization of Islamic Conference formed in 1969 lets the Muslim nations work as a group. Russia joined in 2003.
The Arab League is a smaller group of only the Arab countries.
Unter den Linden
Unter den Linden ("under the linden trees") is a boulevard in the Mitte district of Berlin, the capital of Germany. It is named for its linden (lime in British English) trees that line the grassed pedestrian mall in the middle of the road
Unter den Linden runs east–west from the site of the former Stadtschloss royal palace at the Lustgarten park, where the demolished Palast der Republik used to be, to Pariser Platz and Brandenburg Gate. Eastward the boulevard crosses the river Spree near the Dom (Berlin Cathedral) and continues as Karl-Liebknecht-Straße. The western continuation behind Brandenburg Gate is Straße des 17. Juni. Major north–south streets crossing Unter den Linden are Friedrichstraße and Wilhelmstrasse. Unter den Linden at the heart of the historic section of Berlin developed from a bridle path laid out by Elector John George of Brandenburg in the 16th century to reach his hunting grounds in the Tiergarten. It was replaced by a boulevard of linden trees planted in 1647, stretching from the city palace to the gates of the city, by order of the “Great Elector” Frederick William. While the western part of the boulevard retained its character, the area around present-day Bebelplatz was changed after the Thirty Years' War and fortified. There are no trees.
By the 19th century, as Berlin grew and expanded to the west, Unter den Linden became the best-known and grandest street in Berlin. In 1851 the famous equestrian (horse-riding) statue of King Frederick the Great, designed by Christian Daniel Rauch, was put up on the centre strip. In the course of the building of the Nord-Süd-Tunnel for the Berlin S-Bahn in 1934/35 most of the linden trees were cut down and during the last days of World War II the remaining trees were destroyed or cut down for firewood. The present-day linden were replanted in the 1950s, they are affected by air pollution as well as by soil contamination.
Fairfield, California
Fairfield is a city of the San Francisco Bay Area in the U.S. state of California. It is the county seat of Solano County.
Unter den Linden
Since 1937, the numbering has started at the Schlossbrücke (Palace Bridge), connecting Unter den Linden with the Lustgarten and Museum Island. The disputed replica of the Alte Kommandantur is No. 1, vis-à-vis the Zeughaus arsenal, the oldest building on Unter den Linden, built between 1695 and 1706, today the seat of the Deutsches Historisches Museum (No. 2). Buildings along the street include (from east to west) the Kronprinzenpalais (former palace of the Hohenzollern crown princes, No. 3), the Neue Wache war memorial built in 1817 (No. 4), considered by many to be Karl Friedrich Schinkel’s masterpiece. Furthermore, on Bebelplatz the Berlin State Opera (No. 7), coloquially called Lindenoper, St. Hedwig's Cathedral and the Altes Palais (No. 9), favoured residence of Emperor Wilhelm I; in the north the main building of the Humboldt University (No. 6) and House I of the Berlin State Library (No. 8). On the western end are the Russian Embassy (former Soviet Embassy, No. 63-65) the Hungarian Embassy (No. 76) at the corner of Wilhelmstrasse and finally the Hotel Adlon (No. 77) at the corner of Pariser Platz, which has been completely rebuilt on the site of the prewar hotel. Well-known statues of Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt in front of the university as well as of the Prussian generals Scharnhorst and Bülow also adorn the street.
Amerang
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Lewis and Clark County, Montana
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Democratic Party (United States)
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Carol (music)
A carol is a festive song. It is generally religious but not necessarily connected with church worship. It is also often with a dance-like or popular character.
Democratic Party (United States)
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Bernie Taupin
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Carol (music)
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Carol (music)
History
The word carol is thought to have been derived from the French word caroller. That was a circle dance accompanied by singers (in turn derived from the Latin choraula). The carol was very popular as a dance song from the 1150s to the 1350s. That was after which its use expanded as a processional song sung during festivals. That was while others were written to accompany religious mystery plays (such as the Coventry Carol, written in 1591).
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Holocene
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Holocene
Holocene climatic optimum
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Kuyachinsky Village Council
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Population
According to the 2010 All-Russian population census, the population of the municipality was 839 people.
Holocene
More details
The Holocene marks the end of the previous series of ice ages in the Pleistocene. About 11,700 years ago the temperatures rose quickly from the previous level.
Macedonia (Greece)
Geography
Macedonia has many mountains and the tallest is Mount Olympus which has a high of 2,917 meters. There are also many valleys that are some of the biggest in the whole Greece. Rivers such as Aliakmon, Axios, Nestos, and Strymonas cross these valleys and drain into the Aegean Sea.
Holocene
More details
During the early Holocene, there were many extinctions amongst larger mammals. This is because of human hunting and climate change.
Macedonia (Greece)
Prefectures and population
Macedonia consists 13 prefectures and sometimes it is said to be 14 because there is also a monastery region, Mount Athos, which is autonomous.
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Milky Way
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Rolf Harris
Early and personal life
Harris was born on 30 March 1930 in Bassendean, Perth, Western Australia, to Agnes Margaret (née Robbins) and Cromwell ("Crom") Harris, who had both emigrated from Cardiff, Wales. He grew up in Wembley, Western Australia. He was named after Rolf Boldrewood, the pseudonym of an Australian writer whom his mother admired. After his later fame, Harris was often referred to as "the boy from Bassendean" within Australia. As a child he owned a dog called Buster Fleabags, about whom he later wrote a book (for the UK Quick Reads Initiative).
Milky Way
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Charizard
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Milky Way
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Innocenzo Donina
Death
Donina died of COVID-19 infection in Bergamo, Italy on 19 March 2020. He died at the age of 69.
Electoral district of Burleigh
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Thomas Howard
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Benito Joanet
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RAID
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