cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Brown v. Board of Education II
Effects
However, many states, especially in the South, were able to avoid integrating their schools for years because Brown II did not set a specific deadline for integration. Justice Warren's ruling that schools needed to de-segregate "with all deliberate speed" was vague and could have many different meanings. States and schools that did not want to integrate chose meanings that gave them excuses not to let black students into their schools.
The Griffin case
For example, based on the Brown II ruling, a federal district court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia, did not have to de-segregate its schools right away. Several years later, in 1959, a federal court of appeals ordered the county to start de-segregating its schools. Prince Edward County responded by refusing to fund (give any money to) the county's schools. With no money, the schools had to close. They stayed closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.
Prince Edward County helped white students go to white-only private schools. Black students could not go to school at all, unless they moved to a different county.
Finally, in 1964, the United States Supreme Court ruled that what Prince Edward County was doing was unconstitutional, and ordered the schools to re-open – without segregation.
Black Hills
Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills.
But, when European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. The US government reassigned the Lakota, against their wishes, to other reservations in western South Dakota. Unlike most of South Dakota, the Black Hills were settled by European Americans from population centers to the west and south. Miners flocked there from earlier gold boom places in Colorado and Montana.
As the economy shifted from mining and logging, the tourism industry has grown. The Black Hills have two areas: "The Southern Hills" and "The Northern Hills". The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Harney Peak (the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies), Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), the Crazy Horse Memorial (the largest Mountain sculpture in the world), and the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, the world’s largest mammoth research facility.
Franz Boas
Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German born American anthropologist. He is considered by many to have been the 'Father of American Anthropology.' While today archaeology, cultural anthropology, linguistics, and Biological anthropology are often considered somewhat separate discipline, Boas had a holistic approach, meaning to him they were a unified discipline.
Zeppelin
A Zeppelin is a type of airship. Airships are aircraft that float in air, because they are filled with a lightweight gas. A Zeppelin is a dirigible, which means it is a rigid airship, but can be moved around by itself. It was developed by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, in the early 20th century. The name Zeppelin is now used as a common name for all rigid airships. Zeppelins were used in the First World War. In the Second World War the Nazis largely used them for propaganda purposes.
Franz Boas
Early life
Boas was born in Germany to Jewish parents. His parents were rich, well educated, and sought to expose him to the values of the enlightenment. This resulted in Boas did not identifying as Jewish, and left him with a dislike of religion. Because of parents, he received a very strong early education. Boas studied natural history in primary school, and in secondary school he researched the natural range of plants.
Early Academic Career
Franz Boas attended Heidelberg University for one semester, before transferring to Bonn University where he studied mathematics, physics, and geography.
Zeppelin
Plans have been proposed, to use Zeppelins to lift heavy weights. Some are used as tourist attractions, or for advertising.
Franz Boas
Emigration to America
Boas first traveled to Baffin Island in 1883 to study the native Inuit to see what role the environment plays in their migrations. He published his findings in 1888. Boas returned to Germany for a time, but due to rising antisemitism he decided to emigrate to the United States. He worked as an editor for Science and as a docent of anthropology at Clark University. He left the university in 1892. He went north to collect ethnographic material for the 1893 World's Colombian Exposition. After the exposition the material was given to the Field museum in Chicago, here Boas became the curator for anthropology. During this time Boas became involved in the Fin de Siècle debates. It was here he argued for separating natural sciences from the humanities. He also began the ground work that would eventually grow into historical particularism: the idea that every aspect of a culture has a unique history.
University of Colombia
Boas eventually settled at the University of Colombia in 1896. There, he created the first PhD program for anthropology in the United States. He taught his most famous students, who included: Alfred Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Edward Sapir, and Zora Neale Hurston.
Later life
Franz Boas was censored by the American Anthropological Association (AAA) in December 1919 for a publication he wrote denouncing anthropologists who became involved with the war effort during the First World War. This persisted for the remainder of his life, not being reversed until 2005. He was very critical of Nazism as well as critical of the radical the war effort in the United States. Boas was also involved with combating racism. In 1963 Thomas Gossett claimed that "It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history." Franz Boas died of a stroke on December 21, 1942. According to legend he died in the arms of none other than Claude Levi-Strauss.
Contributions to Anthropology
Franz Boas is often credited with the development of 'historical particularism ', as well as 'cultural relativism. ' Boas was a founding member of the American Anthropology Association (AAA) and served as one of the organization's first vice presidents.
Alto Paraná Department
The Alto Paraná department (Departamento de Alto Paraná) is a department of Paraguay. The capital is the city of Ciudad del Este.
Its ISO 3166-2 code is PY-10.
Rivers
The main river in the department is the Paraná river. The Acaray is an important tributary of the Paraná.
Climate
Ciudad del Este, the capital of the department, has a humid subtropical climate that is mild with no dry season, constantly moist (year-round rainfall). (Köppen climate classification : Cfa).
The average amount of rainfall for the year in the city is 1694.5 mm. The month with the most precipitation on average is January with 184.1 mm of rainfall, followed by October with 176 mm.
The month with the least rainfall on average is July with an average of 90.6 mm and the second is August with 115 mm.
Ciudad del Este is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is 21.5 C. The warmest month, on average, is January with an average temperature of 26.1 C. The coolest month on average is June, with an average temperature of 16.3 C.
Districts
The department is divided in 22 districts:
President of Pakistan
The president of Pakistan (صدر, Sadr-e-Mumlikat) is the head of state of Pakistan. Pakistan has a parliamentary form of government. According to the Constitution, the President is chosen by the Electoral College to serve a five-year term. The electoral college is made up of the Senate, National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies.
The position of president in Pakistan has usually been one of a figurehead. That is with real power being given to the Prime Minister. However the power of the president has changed over the years, due to the military changing the role.
History
In 1947, Pakistan became a dominion and part of the British Commonwealth with the British Monarch as head of state, represented by the Governor-General of Pakistan. In 1956 Pakistan established its first constitution and became a Republic, and the Queen and Governor-General were replaced by the president.
Pakistan's first president was Iskander Mirza, who was also the last Governor General. In 1958, he removed the constitution and declared martial law. A few weeks later, he was overthrown by General Ayub Khan, who then declared himself president. The constitution was changed and the president became the ruler of Pakistan. The constitution also said that the president be elected by the people. Elections were held in 1963, and Khan defeated Fatima Jinnah, sister of founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Present holder of the post
The President is now Arif Alvi, a former dentist. He has been a member of the National Assembly of Pakistan since August 2018. Before, he was a member of the National Assembly from June 2013 to May 2018. He is a member of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, a moderate Party with democratic ideals.
Jackson County, Florida
Jackson County is a county in the U.S. state of Florida. The population as of the 2020 census was 47,319. Its county seat is Marianna, Florida.
History
Jackson County was created by the Florida Territorial Council in 1822 by splitting from Escambia County, making it the third county in the Territory. The county was named for Andrew Jackson, who had served as Florida's first military governor for six months in 1821. Jackson County originally spread from the Choctawhatchee River on the west to the Suwannee River on the east. The county had been shrunk close to its current boundaries by 1840 through the creation of new counties from its original land. Small changes to the county border continued through most of the 19th century, however.
There were no towns in Jackson County when it was formed. The first county court met at what was called "Robinson's Big Spring" (later called Blue Springs) in 1822 and then at the "Big Spring of the Choctawhatchee" in 1823. The following year the county court met at "Chipola Settlement" which is also known as Waddell's Mill Pond.
Marianna became the county seat, but not without controversy. It was founded by Robert Beveridge, a native of Scotland, in September 1827. The first town established in Jackson County was Webbville in January 1827. Webbville, a community of land squatters, was located 9 mi northwest of present day Marianna and was named the county seat. Webbville thrived until 1828 when Beveridge and other Marianna settlers went to Tallahassee and enticed the Florida Legislature with free land, construction of a courthouse, a public square and $500 to purchase a quarter section of land to be sold at public auction as a way to finance the new government, if the county seat was moved to Marianna.
Beveridge and his supporters succeeded and Marianna became the county seat of the county justice and civil authority, even though it was never officially named the county seat. Marianna began to grow and prosper when the county government moved into the new courthouse in 1829. Webbville's important citizens moved to Marianna and the L&N Railroad decided to bypass the town.
From 1869-71, Jackson County was the center of a low-level guerrilla war known as the Jackson County War. Ku Klux Klan members, including Confederate Army veterans, assassinated over 150 Republican Party officials and important African-Americans as part of a successful campaign to retain conservative white Democratic power.
Geography
According to the 2000 census, the county has a total area of 954.58 sqmi, of which 915.64 sqmi (or 95.92%) is land and 38.94 sqmi (or 4.08%) is water. Jackson County is the only county in Florida that borders both Georgia and Alabama. Jackson County is in the Central Standard Time Zone. Its eastern border with Gadsden County forms the boundary in this area between the Central Standard and Eastern Standard Time Zones.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 46,755 people, 16,620 households, and 11,600 families living in the county. The population density was 51 people per square mile (20/km²). There were 19,490 housing units at an average density of 21 per square mile (8/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 70.18% White, 26.56% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.81% from other races, and 1.40% from two or more races. 2.91% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 16,620 households out of which 30.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.50% were married couples living together, 14.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.20% were not related. 27.00% of all households were made up of people living alone and 12.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the county the population was spread out with 22.30% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 29.60% from 25 to 44, 23.80% from 45 to 64, and 14.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 110.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111.20 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $29,744, and the median income for a family was $36,404. Males had a median income of $27,138 versus $21,180 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,905. About 12.80% of families and 17.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.70% of those under age 18 and 21.00% of those age 65 or over.
Politics
Jackson County is mainly Republican.
Jackson County is governed by a five-member board of county commissioners.
Biography
A biography is the story of a person's life. The word comes from the Greek words bios (which means life) and graphein (which means write). When the biography is written by the person it is about, it is called an autobiography.
The oldest written biographies that historians have were written to record rulers' lives. Some were written in Assyria, ancient Babylonia, ancient Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia. Biographies were an early form of history. Another early form of biography was called hagiography, meaning writing about holy people.
In ancient China, a biography was one of the basic forms of a history book. In India, biographies of Buddha and his reincarnated lives were written. In ancient Greece, people wrote biographies of people that were not rulers too. Xenophon wrote a biography of Socrates and gave this book the name Memorabilia (Memories). During the Roman Empire, Plutarch wrote Parallel Lives about ancient Greek and Roman politicians, and Suetonius wrote biographies of the Roman emperors. The Gospels were also biographies of Jesus Christ.
In West Africa, griots tell histories which often include biographies.
Many written biographies today are released by publishers as products for sale.
Mercury (planet)
Mercury is the smallest planet in the Solar System. It is the closest planet to the sun. It makes one trip around the Sun once every 87.969 days.
Mercury is bright when we can see it from Earth. It has an apparent magnitude ranging from −2.0 to 5.5. It cannot be seen easily because it is usually too close to the Sun. Because of this, Mercury can only be seen in the morning or evening twilight or when there is a solar eclipse.
Less is known about Mercury than about other planets of our Solar System. Even with telescopes only a small, bright crescent can be seen. It is also hard to put a satellite in orbit around it. Two spacecraft have visited Mercury. The first one was Mariner 10. It only made a map of about 45% of the Mercury's surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which finished mapping Mercury in March 2013.
Mercury looks like Earth's Moon. It has many craters and smooth plains. It has no moons and little atmosphere as we know it. However, Mercury does have an extremely thin atmosphere, known as an exosphere. Mercury has a large iron core. Because of this Mercury has a magnetic field about 1% as strong as that of the Earth. It is a very dense planet because its core is large.
Temperature at the surface can be anywhere from about 90 to 700 K (−183 °C to 427 °C, −297 °F to 801 °F), with the subsolar point being the hottest and the bottoms of craters near the poles being the coldest.
Known sightings of Mercury date back to at least the first millennium BC. Before the 4th century BC, Greek astronomers thought that Mercury was two different objects: The one that they were only able at sunrise, they called Apollo; the other one that they were only able to see at sunset, they called Hermes. The English name for the planet is from the Romans, who named it after the Roman god Mercury. The symbol for Mercury is based on Hermes' staff.
Even though Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, it is not the hottest. This is because it has no greenhouse effect. The heat that the Sun gives it, quickly escapes into space. The hottest planet is Venus.
Inside Mercury
Mercury is one of four inner planets in the Solar System. It is a terrestrial planet like Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System. It has a radius of 2439.7 km. Mercury is even smaller than some of the largest moons in the solar system, such as Ganymede, the largest moon of Jupiter and Titan, the largest moon of Saturn. However, it has in 2.2 times greater mass than Ganymede and around 2 times heavier than Titan. Mercury is made of about 70% metallic and 30% silicate material. Mercury has the second highest density in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm³, only a little bit less than Earth’s.
Surface of Mercury
Mercury's surface looks like the surface of the Moon. It has plains that look like mares and has lots of craters. Mercury was hit by a lot of comets and asteroids 4.6 billion years ago. Mercury was also hit during a period called the Late Heavy Bombardment. Mercury has many craters because its atmosphere is too faint to slow objects down. Images from MESSENGER have shown that Mercury may have shield volcanoes.
The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F) at the most extreme places. Even though the temperature at the surface of Mercury in the day is very high, observations suggest that there is frozen water on Mercury.
Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to keep any thick atmosphere for a long time. It does have a thin exosphere that is made up of hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium. This exosphere is blown away and replenished from lots of sources. Hydrogen and helium may come from the solar wind. Radioactive decay of elements inside the crust of Mercury is another source of helium, and also sodium and potassium.
Orbit and rotation
Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System. It has an eccentricity of 0.21. It ranges from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi) away from the Sun. Mercury takes 87.969 Earth days to go around the Sun. Mercury's axial tilt is 0.027 degrees.
In the future, because Mercury's orbit's is very eccentric and Jupiter's huge gravity, its orbit may become unstable and the following things may happen:
List of satellites sent to Mercury
Many man-made satellites have been sent to Mercury to study it. They are:
Mariner 10
The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10. It stayed in Mercury's orbit from 1974 to 1975. Mariner 10 took the first close-up pictures of Mercury's surface. It showed many features, such as the craters. Unfortunately, the same side of Mercury was day each time Mariner 10 flew close to Mercury. This made observing of both sides of Mercury impossible. In the end, less than 45% of the Mercury's surface was mapped.
On March 24, 1975, eight days after its last close fly by, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Because its orbit could no longer be controlled, mission controllers shut down the probe. Mariner 10 is thought to still be orbiting the Sun.
MESSENGER
MESSENGER was made to study Mercury's high density, the history of Mercury's geology, its magnetic field, the structure of its core, if it has ice at its poles, and where its thin atmosphere comes from. MESSENGER crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015.
Bepicolombo
The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency made and launched a spacecraft called BepiColombo. It will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere. It was launched on October 20, 2018. BepiColombo is expected to reach Mercury in 2025. It will release the probe that will study the magnetosphere into an elliptical orbit. It will then release the probe the will make a map of Mercury into a circular orbit.
French Guiana
French Guiana (Guyane) is an overseas department and region of France, on the north Atlantic coast of South America. By land area, it is the second largest region of France (after Nouvelle-Aquitaine) and the largest overseas department of France and of the European Union.
Its prefecture and largest city is Cayenne.
Name
French Guiana and the two larger countries to the north and west, Guyana and Suriname, are still often collectively referred to as the Guianas and form the Guiana Shield.
Geography
French Guiana borders two countries: Surinam to the west, and Brazil to the east and south. To the north is the Atlantic Ocean. There are two main geographical regions: a coastal strip where the majority of the people live, and a dense rainforest which gradually rises to the modest peaks of the Tumuc-Humac mountains along the Brazilian frontier.
The highest point in the department is Bellevue de l'Inini Bellevue de l'Inini in the Maripasoula commune; it is (851 m) high. Other mountains are Mont Machalou (782 m), Pic Coudreau (711 m) and Mont St Marcel (635 m).
Several small islands are found off the coast, the three Îles du Salut which include Devil's Island, and the isolated Îles du Connétable further along the coast towards Brazil.
It is the French department with more forests, 98% of the department is covered with an equatorial forest.
, the Amazon rainforest in the most southern part of the department, is protected as the Guiana Amazonian Park, one of the ten national parks of France. The territory of the park covers some 33900 km2 in the communes of Camopi, Maripasoula, Papaïchton, Saint-Élie and Saül.
Climate
The climate in Cayenne, at an altitude of 9 m above sea level, is of the subtype Af (Tropical Rainforest Climate also known as Equatorial Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.
The average temperature for the year in Cayenne is 26.7 °C. The warmest month, on average, is September with an average temperature of 27.2 °C. The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 26.1 °C.
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Cayenne is 3205.5 mm. The month with the most precipitation on average is May with 513.1 mm of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is September with an average of 43.2 mm. There is an average of 201.0 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in May with 27.0 days and the least precipitation occurring in September with 5.0 days.
Administration
The department of French Guiana is managed by the Collectivité territorial de la Guyane in Cayenne.
Administrative divisions
There are 2 arrondissements (districts) and 22 communes (municipalities) in French Guiana. The cantons of the department were eliminated on 31 December 2015 by the Law 2011-884 of 27 July 2011.
The 22 communes in the department are:
Demographics
The inhabitants of French Guiana are known, in French, as Guyanais (women: Guyanaises).
French Guiana has a population, in 2014, of 252,338, for a population density of inhabitants/km2. The city with more people living in it is the capital, Cayenne (55,817 inhabitants). The subprefecture of Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni has 44,169 inhabitants.
Evolution of the population in French Guiana
Economy
The main traditional industries are fishing, gold mining and timber. The Guiana Space Centre of the European Space Agency has played a significant role in the local economy since it was established in Kourou in 1964.
Devils Island Prison
Three Islands off the coast were used by the French Government from 1852 to 1953 as Prison Islands. They were:
Convicts who were sentenced to more than 8 years and survived and served their terms could not return to France but were required to stay on as involunatary settlers for the rest of their lives. Famous Inmates:
Kori Creek
The Kori Creek (કોરી ખાડી, کوری کریک) is a tidal creek and maritime Border dispute between the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat and the Kachchhi region of the Pakistani province of Sindh. It is in the Rann of Kutch marshland east of the Sir Creek, which is disputed between India and Pakistan. It is a 96 km (60 mi) strip of water disputed between the Republic of India and Pakistan, claimed by India as a part of the Indian Rann of Kutch marshlands. The creek, which opens up into the Arabian Sea, divides the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat with the Sindh province of Pakistan. The long-standing dispute hinges in the actual demarcation "from the mouth of Kori Creek to the top of Kori Creek, and from the top of Kori Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus". From this point onwards, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.
The creek itself is in the uninhabited marshlands. During the monsoon season between June and September, the creek floods its banks and envelops the low-lying salty mudflats around it. During the winter season, the area is home to flamingoes and other migratory birds.
Dispute
The dispute is in the interpretation of the boundary line between Kutch and Sindh as depicted in a 1914 and 1925 map. At that time, the region was a part of Bombay Presidency of undivided India. After India's independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch became a part of India.
The resolution, which demarcated the boundaries between the two territories, included the creek as part of Sindh province, thus setting the boundary as the eastern flank of the creek. The boundary line, known as the "Green Line", is disputed by India which maintains that it is an indicative line, known as a "ribbon line" in technical jargon. India's position is that the boundary is mid-channel as depicted in another map drawn in 1925, and implemented by the installation of mid-channel pillars back in 1924.
In April 1965, a dispute there contributed to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when fighting broke out between India and Pakistan. Later the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson persuaded both countries to set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. A verdict was reached in 1968, which saw Pakistan getting 10% of its claim of 9,000 km² (3,500 sq. miles).
The disputed region was at the center of international attention in 1999 after Mig-21 fighter planes of the Indian Air Force shot down a Pakistani Navy Breguet Atlantique surveillance aircraft over the Kori Creek on August 10, 1999, killing all 16 on board. India claimed that the plane had strayed into its airspace, which was disputed by the Pakistani navy. (See the Atlantique Incident)
Economic reasons
Though the Kori Creek has little military value, it holds immense economic gain. Much of the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed, and control over the creek would have a huge bearing on the energy potential of each nation. Also once the boundaries are defined, it would help in the determination of the maritime boundaries which are drawn as an extension of onshore reference points. Maritime boundaries also help in determining the limits of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and continental shelves. EEZs extend to 200 nautical miles (370 km) and can be subjected to commercial exploitation.
Frederick II of Prussia
Frederick II (Friedrich II; 24 January 1712 – 17 August 1786) was a King in Prussia (1740–1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty. As a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he was Frederick IV Margrave of Brandenburg. He was also the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. Victorious in war, he became known as Frederick the Great (Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed der alte Fritz ("Old Fritz").
When he was young, Frederick was mostly interested in music and philosophy and not military affairs. Frederick tried to escape from his strict father, Frederick William I, with childhood friend, Hans Hermann von Katte. When they were captured Frederick was forced to watch von Kattel's execution. Many historians consider him to be bisexual and perhaps possibly celibate in his later life. After the death of Frederick William I in 1740, Frederick the Great only attended his wife with formal visits once a year.
Kori Creek
Economic reasons
The demarcation would also prevent the inadvertent crossing over of fishermen of both nations into each others' territories.
Dispute resolution
The Federal Government of Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per paras 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed between the then provincial Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj, then the ruler of the former Princely state of Kutch. However since 1969, there have been eight rounds of talks between the two nations, without a breakthrough. Steps to resolve the dispute include:
Since neither side has conceded ground, India has proposed that the maritime boundary could be demarcated first, as per the provisions of Technical Aspects of Law of Sea (TALOS). However, Pakistan has firmly refused the proposal on the grounds that the dispute should be resolved first. Pakistan has also proposed that the two sides go in for international arbitration, which India has flatly refused. India maintains that all bilateral disputes should be resolved without the intervention of third-parties.
Frederick II of Prussia
Crown Prince
In 1732, Queen Sophia Dorothea tried to arrange a dual marriage of Frederick and his sister Wilhelmina with Amelia and Frederick, the children of her brother, King George II of Great Britain. Fearing an alliance between Prussia and Great Britain, Field Marshal von Seckendorff, the Austrian ambassador in Berlin, bribed Field Marshal von Grumbkow, the Prussian Minister of War, and Benjamin Reichenbach, Prussian ambassador in London. They pair discreetly slandered the British and Prussian courts in the eyes of the two kings. Angered by the idea of the marriage Frederick William made impossible demands to the British, such as Prussia acquiring Jülich and Berg, leading to the collapse of the marriage proposal.
Frederick William considered marrying Frederick to Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the niece of Empress Anna of Russia, but this plan was opposed by Prince Eugene of Savoy. Frederick himself proposed marrying Maria Theresa of Austria in return for renouncing the succession. Instead, Eugene persuaded Frederick William, through Seckendorff, that the crown prince marry Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern, a Protestant relative of the Austrian Habsburgs. Although Frederick wrote to his sister that, "There can be neither love nor friendship between us," and he considered suicide, he went along with the wedding on 12 June 1733. He had little in common with his bride and resented the political marriage as an example of the Austrian interference which had plagued Prussia since 1701. Once Frederick secured the throne in 1740, he would not let Elisabeth visit his court in Potsdam, and instead gave her Schönhausen Palace and apartments at the Berliner Stadtschloss. Frederick bestowed the title of the heir to the throne, "Prince of Prussia", on his brother Augustus William; despite this, his wife remained devoted to him.
Frederick was given back a rank in the Prussian Army as Colonel of the Regiment von der Goltz, stationed near Nauen and Neuruppin. When Prussia gave troops to help Austria during the War of the Polish Succession, Frederick studied under Prince Eugene of Savoy during the campaign against France on the Rhine. Frederick William, weakened by gout brought about by the campaign, gave Frederick Schloss Rheinsberg in Rheinsberg, north of Neuruppin. In Rheinsberg, Frederick assembled a small number of musicians, actors and other artists. He spent his time reading, watching dramatic plays, making and listening to music, and regarded this time as one of the happiest of his life. Frederick formed the "Bayard Order" to discuss warfare with his friends; Heinrich August de la Motte Fouqué was made the grand master of the gatherings.
The works of Niccolò Machiavelli, such as The Prince, were considered a guideline for the behaviour of a king in Frederick's age. In 1739, Frederick finished his Anti-Machiavel, which put another point of view. It was published anonymously in 1740, but Voltaire distributed it in Amsterdam.
Frederick's years dedicated to the arts instead of politics ended upon the 1740 death of Frederick William and his inheritance of the Kingdom of Prussia.
Reign (1740–1786)
When Frederick ascended the throne as "King in Prussia" in 1740, Prussia consisted of scattered territories, including Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg in the west of the Holy Roman Empire; Brandenburg, Hither Pomerania, and Farther Pomerania in the east of the Empire; and the former Duchy of Prussia, outside of the Empire bordering the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was titled King in Prussia because this was only part of historic Prussia; he was to declare himself King of Prussia after acquiring most of the rest in 1772.
Warfare and Conquest
Frederick's goal was to modernize and unite his vulnerably disconnected lands; toward this end, he fought wars mainly against Austria, whose Habsburg dynasty reigned as Holy Roman Emperors, almost continuously from the 15th century until 1806. Frederick established Prussia as the fifth and smallest European great power by using the resources his frugal father had cultivated.
The First Silesian War (1740–1742), part of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), resulted in Frederick conquering the Polish part of Silesia. Austria attempted to recover Silesia in the Second Silesian War (1744–1745), but Frederick was victorious again and forced Austria to stick to the previous peace terms. Prussian possession of Silesia gave the kingdom control over the Oder River.
Habsburg Austria and Bourbon France, traditional enemies, allied together in the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 following the collapse of the Anglo-Austrian Alliance. Frederick swiftly made an alliance with Great Britain at the Convention of Westminster. As neighboring countries began conspiring against him, Frederick was determined to strike first. On 29 August 1756 his well-prepared army crossed the frontier and invaded Saxony, thus beginning the Seven Years' War which lasted until 1763. He faced widespread criticism for his attack on neutral Saxony and for his forcible incorporation of the Saxon forces into the Prussian army following the Siege of Pirna in October 1756.
Bald eagle
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Frederick II of Prussia
Warfare and Conquest
Facing a coalition which included Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden, and having only Great Britain and Hanover as his allies, Frederick narrowly kept Prussia in the war despite having his territories frequently invaded.
Bald eagle
The bald eagle (Latin name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey that lives in North America. It is the national bird of the United States of America. The bald eagle is a kind of sea eagle. It can be found in most of Canada, all of the United States, and the northern part of Mexico. It lives near big areas of water, where there are trees to nest in and there is a lot of food to eat. It is called bald because of its white head and neck. (There is more information on the bald eagle's name in the section below called "Name.")
Frederick II of Prussia
Warfare and Conquest
Late in his life Frederick also involved Prussia in the smaller War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778, in which he stopped Austrian attempts to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria. When Emperor Joseph II| tried the scheme again in 1784, Frederick created the Fürstenbund, making Germans see him as a defender of German liberties, in contrast to his earlier role of attacking the imperial Habsburgs.
Frederick frequently led his military forces personally and had six horses shot from under him during battle. Frederick is often admired as one of the greatest tactical geniuses of all time, especially for his usage of the oblique order of battle. Even more important were his operational successes, especially preventing the unification of numerically superior opposing armies and being at the right place at the right time to keep enemy armies out of Prussian core territory. In a letter to his mother Maria Theresa, the Austrian co-ruler Emperor Joseph II wrote,
Bald eagle
The species almost died in the United States (while its numbers were growing in Alaska and Canada) late in the 20th century. Now it has a more stable population.
Frederick II of Prussia
Warfare and Conquest
"When the King of Prussia speaks on problems connected with the art of war, which he has studied intensively and on which he has read every conceivable book, then everything is taut, solid and uncommonly instructive. There are no circumlocutions, he gives factual and historical proof of the assertions he makes, for he is well versed in history… A genius and a man who talks admirably. But everything he says betrays the knave."
Modernization of Prussia
Frederick transformed Prussia from a European backwater into an economically strong and politically reformed state. His conquest of Silesia, which provided Prussia's new industries with raw materials, helped boost industrial production and development, and he protected these industries with high tariffs and a minimum of restrictions on internal domestic trade. The modernizing mechanisms and technology of the state also enabled Frederick, in 1747, to undertake a massive six-year drainage and "reclamation" program in the country's northern marsh-land. This rationalist-mided program, which Frederick saw as the "taming" and "conquering" of "useless" and "barbarous" nature, created roughly 150,000 acres of arable farmland, but also eliminated vast swaths of natural habitat, destroyed the region's biodiversity, and displaced numerous indigenous communities. With the help of French experts, Frederick also reorganized Prussia's taxation policy, implementing a system of indirect taxation, which was more lucrative than the previous policy of direct taxation. Frederick also commissioned the eminent Prussian merchant Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky to help promote trade. Gotzkowsky directed Frederick to reform the Prussian system of toll levies and import restrictions, and to construct a major a silk factory in an effort to compete with the French silk trade. In 1763, when Gotzkowsky went bankrupt during an Amsterdam-based financial crisis, Frederick took over a porcelain factory of his.
Bald eagle
Description
The bald eagle is a large bird. It is usually as tall as 70 to 102 cm and its wingspan is 2.44 m. Female eagles are about 25 percent larger than males. Adult females weigh 5.8 kg, while males weigh 4.1 kg. The adult bald eagle has a brown body, and its head and tail are white. It also has yellow feet with large talons, and a hooked yellow beak. The males and the females' wings have the same colors.
Before bald eagles become adults, their wings are brown. Their wings are usually speckled with white dots until the fifth year. The size of the bird depends on where it lives. The smallest birds are in Florida, where an adult male is only about 2.3 kg. The largest Bald Eagles are in Alaska, where large females may be as much as 7.5 kg.
Frederick II of Prussia
Modernization of Prussia
Frederick also presided over national currency reform during his reign. The effects of the Seven Years' War and the acquisition of Silesia had transformed the economy, depreciating the national currency and leading to high nation-wide inflation. The Prussian Mint Edict of May 1763 revalued the national currency, stabilizing the rates of highly depreciated coinage and mandating that the payments of taxes be in currency of prewar value. Other European rulers soon undertook similar monetary reforms, which helped to lower region-wide prices.
Frederick also presided over other important modernization efforts in Prussia, including the establishment of a modern governmental bureaucracy, the cultivation of one of Europe's most highly-regarded educational systems, and the abolition torture and corporal punishment.
Bald eagle
Description
The bald eagle is closely related to a species called the golden eagle. The bald eagle is physically and mentally different from the golden eagle. The bald eagle has a bigger head and a bigger beak, and its legs do not have feathers.
When bald eagles "call," (make sounds), they chirp weakly and whistle. The young birds whistle more shrilly than adults.
Frederick II of Prussia
Modernization of Prussia
After the acquisition of Royal Prussia (West Prussia) in 1772, Frederick also changed his title from the "King in Prussia,"  which had been the royal title used since the coronation of Frederick I, to the  "King of Prussia," underscoring the increasing prominence of his state and his own importance as a ruler.
Religious Tolerance
Frederick was generally a champion of religious tolerance, including accepting Jesuits, fleeing the suppression of Pope Clement XIV, as teachers in Silesia, Warmia, and the Netze District. He was interested in attracting many skills to his country, whether from Jesuit teachers, Huguenot citizens, or Jewish merchants and bankers, particularly from Spain. He wanted development throughout the country. As an example of this practical-minded but not fully unprejudiced tolerance, Frederick wrote in his Testament politique that:
Bald eagle
Description
Bald eagles usually live for around 20 years if they live in nature. The oldest ones sometimes live for 30 years. When bald eagles live in captivity, such as in zoos, they can live much longer.
Frederick II of Prussia
Religious Tolerance
"We have too many Jews in the towns. They are needed on the Polish border because in these areas Hebrews alone perform trade. As soon as you get away from the frontier, the Jews become a disadvantage, they form cliques, they deal in contraband and get up to all manner of rascally tricks which are detrimental to Christian burghers and merchants. I have never persecuted anyone from this or any other sect [sic]; I think, however, it would be prudent to pay attention, so that their numbers do not increase."
Bald eagle
Name
The bald eagle was one of the many species written in Carolus Linnaeus's 18th century book Systema Naturae. Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who made the binomial nomenclature system.
There are two main subspecies of the bald eagle:
Frederick II of Prussia
Religious Tolerance
As under Frederick much wasteland was made arable Prussia was looking for new colonists. Frederick repeatedly emphasized that nationality and religion were of no concern to him.
Architecture
Frederick had famous buildings constructed in his capital, Berlin, most of which still exist today, such as the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library (today the State Library Berlin), St. Hedwig's Cathedral, and Prince Henry's Palace (now the site of Humboldt University). However, the king preferred spending his time in his summer residence Potsdam, where he built the palace of Sanssouci, the most important work of Northern German rococo. Sanssouci, which translates from French as "carefree" or "without worry", was a refuge for Frederick. "Frederician Rococo" developed under Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff.
Later years
Near the end of his life Frederick spent more and more time alone. His circle of friends at Sanssouci gradually died off without replacements, and Frederick became increasingly critical and arbitrary, to the frustration of the civil service and officer corps. The people of Berlin always cheered the king when he returned to the city from provincial tours or military reviews, but Frederick took no pleasure from his popularity with the common folk, preferring instead the company of his pet Italian greyhounds, whom he referred to as his 'marquises de Pompadour' as a jibe at Madame de Pompadour. Frederick died in an armchair in his study in the palace of Sanssouci on 17 August 1786.
Frederick had wished to be buried next to his greyhounds on the vineyard terrace on the side of the corps de logis of Sanssouci. His nephew and successor Frederick William II instead ordered the body be entombed next to his father in the church of the Potsdam garrison. Near the end of World War II, Adolf Hitler ordered the coffins of Frederick and Frederick William I, as well as those of Paul von Hindenburg and his wife, transferred first to an underground bunker near Berlin, then hidden in a salt mine close to the town of Bernrode, Germany, to protect them from destruction. The US Army discovered the four coffins on 27 April 1945, behind a 6-foot-thick (1.8 m) masonry wall deep within the mine, and moved them to the basement of Marburg Castle, a collection point for recovered Nazi "treasure". As part of a secret project dubbed "Operation Bodysnatch", the US Army relocated both kings first to the Elisabeth Church of Marburg and then on to Burg Hohenzollern close to the town of Hechingen. After German reunification, the body of Frederick William was entombed in the Kaiser Friedrich Mausoleum in Sanssouci's Church of Peace.
Bald eagle
Habitat
The most bald eagles live near seas, rivers, large lakes, oceans, and other large places with open water and a lot of fish.
Bald eagles need old trees with hard wood to live, sleep, and make nests. They like trees that have holes and are safe from predators. However, the height or kind of tree is not as important as its distance from a body of water. Bald eagles need to live near water.
Frederick II of Prussia
Places
King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, is named after the King of Prussia Inn, itself named in honor of Frederick.