cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Oshkosh, Wisconsin
History
In 1670, a French priest, Jean Claude Allouez, landed his canoe in what is now Menominee park in Oshkosh. He came to hold mass for the Indians. European settlers came to the area as early as 1818 and a trading post was set up. By 1837 the small community became known as 'Athens'. In an election in 1840 the name was changed to honor (or flatter) the Menominee chief Oshkosh (meaning 'claw' or 'brave'). Oshkosh became a city in 1853.
In 1847 the first Sawmill began making lumber. Soon other sawmills were operating up and down the Fox river. Oshkosh provided lumber for the railroads. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed much of Chicago in 1871, Oshkosh sawmills provided much of the lumber used to rebuild the city.
By 1870, Oshkosh had become the third-largest city in Wisconsin. It had a population of over 12,000. The Oshkosh Daily Northwestern newspaper (now the Oshkosh Northwestern) was founded around this time. Oshkosh State Normal School later became the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh).
Oshkosh B'Gosh
Oshkosh B’Gosh, a clothing manufacturer, started here in 1903. They started out making adult work clothing. But they became famous making children's clothing. Their bib overalls allowed children to dress just like their working fathers. In 2005 the company was purchased by Carter's, Inc., a children's clothing company. Oshkosh B'Gosh is still sold as a separate brand of clothing. The clothing is no longer made in Oshkosh but the corporate headquarters are still there.
The EAA Annual Convention and Fly-In
The Experimental Aircraft Association, headquartered in Oshkosh, holds a yearly air show called AirVenture Oshkosh. It is mainly for experimental and recreational aircraft. The event has been held at Oshkosh since 1970. The large number of planes coming and going during the fly-in week makes the Wittman Field air traffic control tower the busiest in the world. The event has become so popular that fans simply call it "Oshkosh".
Silius
Silius (Silìus) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Province of Sud Sardegna in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 1,192 people lived there. Its area is 38.36 km². It is 585 meters above sea level.
Pamela Anderson
Pamela Denise Anderson (born July 1, 1967 in Ladysmith, British Columbia, Canada ) is a Canadian-American actress, sex symbol, glamour model, producer, television personality, and author.
Anderson started her career in Labatt Beer commercials. She was then offered to pose for Playboy and appeared in five issues. Anderson was the Playmate of the Month in February 1990. Anderson was a sex symbol in the 1990s. In 1993 she joined the cast of Baywatch. Anderson has been a contestant in two series of Dancing with the Stars and in the 2013 series of Dancing on Ice.
For a time, she was known as Pamela Anderson Lee during her marriage to the drummer for Mötley Crüe, Tommy Lee. The couple had two sons. She later married Kid Rock and Rick Salomon. She is a dual citizen: Canadian and American. In 2002, she stated that she has been diagnosed with hepatitis C.
Kyoto University
History
Kyoto Imperial University (京都帝國大學) was established on June 1897 as a part of the Imperial university system.
Pamela Anderson
Anderson is a vegan and an animal rights' activist.
Kyoto University
History
The College of Law and the College of Medicine were founded in 1899, and the College of Letters was established in 1906.
In October 1947, Kyoto Imperial University was renamed Kyoto University.
Organization
Kyoto University has the following schools.
Private prison
A private prison is a prison run by a private company instead of the government. The government hires the private prison company to perform all the services needed to keep the convicts locked up while they serve out their sentences.
In the twenty-first century, many industries that were government-run before have become more privatized.
The countries that have private prisons are Australia, Brazil, Chile, Greece, Jamaica, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, United States and the United Kingdom. Private prisons are only common in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.
Israel used to have private prisons, until the Israeli Supreme Court, declared them illegal (against the law) in 2005. Canada also used to have private prisons, but due to widespread protests against them, the last private prison went to government control in 2006.
Jonathan Goldsmith
Jonathan Goldsmith (born September 26, 1938) or Jonathan Lippe is an American movie, television, stage, and voice actor. He is known for playing "The Most Interesting Man in the World" in the Dos Equis commercials starting in 2007.
Goldsmith was born in September 26, 1938 in New York City, New York to a Jewish family. He studied at Boston University. He was married to Barbara Goldsmith since 2006. He now lives in Marina del Rey, California and in Manchester, Vermont.
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
The Gulf of Saint Lawrence (French: golfe du Saint-Laurent) is the outlet of North America's Great Lakes via the Saint Lawrence River into the Atlantic Ocean. It is the world's largest estuary. It is a semi–enclosed sea, covering an area of about 236000 km2 and having 35000 km3 of water.
Geography
The gulf is bounded on the north by the Labrador Peninsula, to the east by Newfoundland, to the south by the Nova Scotia peninsula and Cape Breton Island, and to the west by the Gaspé and New Brunswick. It has Anticosti Island, Prince Edward Island, and the Magdalen Islands.
Besides the Saint Lawrence River itself, some of the tributaries of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence include the Miramichi River, the Natashquan River, the Restigouche River, the Margaree River, and the Humber River. Arms of the Gulf include the Chaleur Bay, Miramichi Bay, St. George's Bay, Bay of Islands, and Northumberland Strait.
Protected areas
St. Paul Island, Nova Scotia, off the northeast tip of Cape Breton Island, is called the "Graveyard of the Gulf" for its many shipwrecks. Getting to the island is controlled by the Canadian Coast Guard.
Bonaventure Island on the eastern tip of the Gaspé Peninsula, Île Brion and Rochers-aux-Oiseaux (Bird Rock) northeast of the Magdalen Islands are important migratory bird sanctuaries. They are administered by the Canadian Wildlife Service.
The Government of Canada maintains national parks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence estuary at Forillon. It is on the eastern tip of the Gaspé, Prince Edward Island on the north shore of the island. Kouchibouguac is on the northeast coast of New Brunswick. Cape Breton Highlands is on the northern tip of Cape Breton Island. Gros Morne is on Newfoundland's west coast. And a national park reserve is in the Mingan Archipelago on Quebec's Côte-Nord.
Paola Estrada
Paola Estrada (born 10 February 1975) is a retired Mexican female volleyball player, who played as a libero.
She was part of the Mexico women's national volleyball team at the 2002 FIVB Volleyball Women's World Championship in Germany. She also played at the 2002 Central American and Caribbean Games, 2002 Women's Pan-American Volleyball Cup, and 2003 Women's Pan-American Volleyball Cup. On club level she played with Distrito Federal.
Simaxis
Simaxis (Simàghis) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Province of Oristano in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 2,243 people lived there. Its area is 27.82 km². It is 7 meters above sea level.
Viridian
Viridian is a teal-green color with a hue toward green. The name comes from the Latin word viridis which means "green".
Siniscola
Siniscola (Thiniscòle) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Province of Nuoro in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 11,517 people lived there. Its area is 196.38 km². It is 39 meters above sea level.
Lisa Bergenthal
Lisa Bergenthal (born 30 November 1999) is a German wheelchair basketball player. She is a member of Germany's national women's wheelchair basketball team, and the RBC Koln 99ers team.
She competed in the 2020 Summer Paralympics.
Career
Born in 1999 in Mechernich, she lives in Cologne. From birth she suffers from family spastic paraparesis. Your father and uncle have the same disease. Bergenthal studies at the University of Cologne.
Patti Deutsch
Patricia Deutsch Ross (born Elaine Patricia Deutsch; December 16, 1943 – July 26, 2017) was an American actress. She was best known for appearing the television game show Match Game in the 1970s. She was also known for doing voices in animated movies. Deutsch was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Ileana Vulpescu
Ileana Vulpescu (May 21, 1932, Bratovoeşti – May 12, 2021, Bucharest) was a Romanian philologist, lexicographer, prose writer, novelist and translator. She was awarded the Order of the Star of Romania.
She graduated from the University of Bucharest. She worked as a lexicographer at the Romanian Academy of Linguistics.
She collaborated in writing the works Dicţionarul limbii române and Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române (1959-1975).
Dominican Republic national football team
Dominican Republic national football team is the national football team of Dominican Republic, and is controlled by the Dominican Football Federation. The team has never featured globally. Football is a popular sport in the country recently, where the main sport is baseball. The Dominican assembly made history when in October 2010 a scandalous thrashed 17-0 British Virgin Islands, with the biggest victory in the history of the CONCACAF.
Mariana Lopez
Mariana Lopez (born 30 August 1985) is a Mexican volleyball player.
She played at the 2002 FIVB Volleyball Women's World Championship and 2006 FIVB Volleyball Women's World Championship.
Donnacona
Donnnacona (died 1539 or 1540, in France) was the chief of the St. Lawrence Iroquois village of Stadacona. The village was located where Quebec City is currently. French explorer Jacques Cartier made three trips to what is now Canada. In 1534, he discovered the bay near Gaspé, Quebec (which was called Honguedo at the time). He took two hostages, Domagaya and Taignoagny and returned to France. He came back the following year, with the hostages. They showed him where the St. Lawrence River was. They went up the river, to their father's village, Stadacona, where they passed the winter. Cartier called Donnacona Agohanna, a local word for chieftain. During the winter, the relations between the French and the Iroquois got worse. In spring, Cartier organised a celebration, where Donnacona and his advisers would also attend. During the celebration, Carier captured them. During their return to France, 25 people died of scurvy. In France, Donnacona was well treated, and the king paid for his living expenses. In France, Donnacona told the French about a kingdom of gold, called Saguenay. In 1536/37, Cartier returned to Canada, to search for the kingdom. Donnacona got ill ,and soon died. Of the original 25 people taken from Stadacona, only a small girl survived, and there's no info about her.
London Underground 2009 Stock
The London Underground 2009 Stock is a type of London Underground train. It is built by Bombardier Transportation at their Litchurch Lane Works in Derby, England. The stock belongs to Bombardier's Movia type of train. Bombardier Transportation UK used to be known as ADtranz, and before that ABB Asea Brown Boveri. ABB Asea Brown Boveri built the 1992 tube stock which is currently used on the Central and Waterloo & City lines.
Forty-seven 8-car units will be built for use on the Victoria line. These replace the line's original 1967 tube stock. The trains are still being built. They were introduced by 2012, when all of the 1967 tube stock trains were completely replaced. The first 2009 tube stock train started running on the line with passengers on board on 21 July 2009. One new train will enter service every two weeks from early 2010.
Joan of France, Duchess of Berry
Joan of France, Duchess of Berry, (born 23 April 1464 – 4 February 1505) was a wife of King Louis XII. She was queen of France from the death of her brother, King Charles VIII in April 1498 and the annulment of her marriage in December 1498. After that, she retired to her domain in Bourges. She founded the monastic Order of the Sisters of the Annunciation of Mary. She served as abbess. She was made a Saint in 1950.
London Underground 2009 Stock
Description
The trains are part of a 3.4 billion pound contract that was awarded to Bombardier by Metronet. The contract was to supply new trains featuring Automatic Train Operation and signalling for the Victoria and sub-surface lines. When it is finished this upgrade should make the lines and trains more reliable. There should also be an 8% decrease in journey times between stations, and a 16% overall decrease in journey times. This decrease is partly because the new trains have better performance than the 1967 tube stock that they are replacing. The new trains have a higher top speed of 80 km/h, a faster maximum acceleration of 1.3 m/s2, a normal service deceleration of 1.14 m/s2, and an emergency brake deceleration of 1.4 m/s2. This is the same as the 1992 tube stock.
During the busiest times of the day, or the "peaks", 43 trains should be available in service. This will be an increase of 6 trains over the 37 units of 1967 tube stock. The trains have seats for 252 people and standing space for an estimated 1196 passengers. This gives a 19% increase in capacity. The new trains also have wider doors for easier boarding and alighting (to descend or step down) of passengers to decrease the times that the trains have to wait at stations.
The new trains are being built 40 mm wider than the current 1967 tube stock. This is because the Victoria line has a larger than normal loading gauge compared to the other deep level tube lines. The larger size means that the new trains cannot leave the Victoria line except by road as they are too wide to travel on the other London Underground deep level tube lines. This means that to move the units, each car has to be uncoupled, loaded onto a lorry, and then re-coupled when they are delivered. The trains have been built using Bombardier's technology called FICAS, which gives them a thinner bodyshell. Along with the larger size this gives more space for passengers.
The stock is the first to be designed since the Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations came into force. Because of this they will have more facilities for people with impaired mobility, including multi-purpose areas with tip-up seats and space for wheelchairs and pushchairs and offset centre door poles for wheelchair access.
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Raymond Massey
Raymond Hart Massey (August 30, 1896 – July 29, 1983) was a Canadian-American actor.
Early life
Massey was born Raymond Hart Massey in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford and at the University of Toronto. Massey served in the Canadian Army during World War II. Massey moved to London to begin his acting career in 1922.
Career
He was known for his roles in Abe Lincoln in Illinois, Santa Fe Trail, Seven Angry Men, Arsenic and Old Lace, Hotel Berlin, East of Eden, Battle Cry, and in How the West Was Won. Massey retired in 1973.
He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Abraham Lincoln in Abe Lincoln of Illinois. Massey was also known for his television role as Dr. Gillespie in Dr. Kildare.
Personal life
Massey was married to Margery Fremantle from 1921 until they divorced in 1929. Then he married Adrianne Allen from 1929 until they divorced in 1939. Then he married Dorothy Whitney from 1939 until her death in 1982.
Massey two sons and one daughter. He had his first son, Geoffrey, with Margery and his other, Daniel, with Adrianne. He had one daughter, Anna, with Adrianne. His son, Daniel, died in 1998 and his daughter, Anna, died in 2011.
Massey was related to Governor-General of Canada Vincent Massey and to Canadian voice actor Walter Massey. Massey was a Republican and, along with Ronald Reagan, supported Barry M. Goldwater presidential campaign.
Death
Massey died of pneumonia in Los Angeles, California at the age of 86. He died a month before he would have turned 87. That was the same day as the death of David Niven, who had co-starred with him in The Prisoner of Zenda and A Matter of Life and Death. Massey is buried in New Haven, Connecticut's Beaverdale Memorial Park.
Intergenerational conflict
An intergenerational conflict is either a conflict situation between teenagers and adults or a more abstract conflict between two generations, which often involves prejudices against another generation.
Furthermore, intergenerational conflict describes cultural, social or economic discrepancies between generations. These can be caused by value shift or conflict of interest between younger and older generations. An example are changes to an intergenerational contract that may be necessary to reflect a change in demographics.
For examples of intergenerational conflict, Dreaming in Cuban, by Cristina Garcia is a good novel to take a look at.
Intergenerationality
Emperor Seimu
Emperor Seimu (成務天皇) was the 13th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Historians consider Emperor Seimu to be a legendary person, and the name Seimu-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations.
No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.
Traditional history
Seimu is almost certainly a legend; but the Kojiki and Nihonshoki record his name.
Events of Seimu's life
The limited information about Seimu does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
After his death
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Seimu.
The actual site of his grave is not known. According to the Imperial Household Agency, this emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara.
FC Barcelona Atlètic
F.C. Barcelona B is the reserve team of F.C. Barcelona. They compete in the Segunda División B, the third division of Spanish association football, after being relegated from the Segunda División in the 2014-15 season finishing in 22nd place.
History
Barça B was originally founded on 1 August 1934, as Societat Esportiva Industrial Espanya. It was owned by a textile company of the same name. In 1945, the company agreed with FC Barcelona to make the club Barça's reserve team. They were promoted to La Liga in 1953, but decided to stay in Segunda División. In 1956, they won promotion again, and since teams with names of companies were not allowed, they changed their name to CD Condal.
In 1970, they decided to merge Condal with Atlètic Catalunya and formed Barcelona Atlètic. They reached Segunda División B and Segunda División after 1974. In 1991, Barcelona Atlètic was then renamed FC Barcelona B. In 2008, they were named Barcelona Atlètic once again when Pep Guardiola brought them to Segunda División B, and then once again named FC Barcelona B when they were promoted to Segunda División.
Siris, Sardinia
Siris (Sìris) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Province of Oristano in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 230 people lived there. Its area is 6 km². It is 161 meters above sea level.
Pedestrian
A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case historically.
History
The main way humans get around is by walking. The first humans walked out of Africa about 60,000 years ago. We walked across India to reach Australia. We walked across Asia to reach the Americas. We walked from the fertile crescent area to reach Europe.
Nowadays, roads often have a designated footpath attached especially for pedestrian traffic, called the sidewalk in American English and the pavement in British English. There are also footpaths not associated with a road which are used only by pedestrians, especially ramblers, hikers or hill-walkers and there are roads not associated with a footpath. These footpaths, in mountains or forests, are called trails.
Efforts are underway by pedestrian advocacy groups to make it easy to be a pedestrian in new developments, especially to counteract newer developments where 20 to 30 percent do not include sidewalks. Some activists advocate large auto-free zones where pedestrians only or pedestrians and some non-motorised vehicles are allowed.
Medic Droid
The Medic Droid is an American electronic pop band. They are most notable for their fans making their own comedic music videos and posting them on YouTube as well as their song Fer Sure.
Adaminaby
Adaminaby (-35.98333°N, 148.76667°W) is a town in southeast New South Wales, Australia on the Snowy Mountains Highway. The first town of Adaminaby was in the way of a new dam built on the Eucumbene River as part of the Snowy Mountains Scheme. In 1957 more than 100 buildings were relocated to a new site 10 kilometres away where they would not be flooded. The name, Adaminaby is an Aboriginal word meaning a camp, or a resting place. The town first started during the gold rush to Kiandra, New South Wales|Kiandra in 1860. It was first called Seymour, but the name was changed to Adaminaby in 1886.
Ewok
Ewoks are a fictional race of small, bear-like creatures from George Lucas' Star Wars universe. They first appeared in the film Return of the Jedi.
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics explains how the universe works at a scale smaller than atoms. It is also called quantum physics or quantum theory. Mechanics is the part of physics that explains how things move and quantum is the Latin word for 'how much'. A quantum of energy is the least amount possible (or the least extra amount), and quantum mechanics describes how that energy moves or interacts.
Atoms were long considered the smallest pieces of matter, but modern science has shown that there are even smaller subatomic particles, like protons, neutrons and electrons. Quantum mechanics describes how the particles that make up atoms work.
Quantum physics also tells us how electromagnetic waves (like light) work. Wave–particle duality means that particles behave like waves and waves behave like particles. (They are not two kinds of things, they are something like both: this is their duality.) Much of modern physics and chemistry can be described and understood using the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics.
Ewok
They live on the forests on the moon of the Planet Endor. They often wear the skins or skulls of animals they have hunted. The most famous Ewok is Wicket W. Warwik, a brave Ewok who destroyed an entire Imperial shield projector. The Ewoks were also well known for their victory against the Empire in the "Battle of Endor".
Inca rope bridge
Inca rope bridges were simple suspension bridges over canyons and gorges to provide access for the Inca Empire. Bridges of this type were suitable for use since the Inca people did not use wheeled transport - traffic was limited to pedestrians and livestock. These bridges were an important part on the Inca road system and are an excellent example of Inca innovation in engineering. They were frequently used by runners delivering messages throughout the Incan empire.
Quantum mechanics
Waves and photons
Photons are particles that are point-sized, tinier than atoms. Photons are like "packets" or packages of energy. Light sources such as candles or lasers produce light in bits called photons.
A light's color depends on its wavelength. The color violet (the bottom or innermost color of the rainbow) has a wavelength of about 400 nm ("nanometers") which is 0.00004 centimeters or 0.000016 inches. Photons with wavelengths of 10-400 nm are called ultraviolet (or UV) light. Such light cannot be seen by the human eye. On the other end of the visual spectrum, red light is about 700 nm. Infrared light is about 700 nm to 300,000 nm. Human eyes are not sensitive to infrared light either.
Wavelengths are not always so small. Radio waves have longer wavelengths. The wavelengths for an FM radio can be several meters in length (for example, stations transmitting on 99.5 FM are emitting radio energy with a wavelength of about 3 meters, which is about 10 feet). Each photon has a certain amount of energy related to its wavelength. The shorter the wavelength of a photon, the greater its energy. For example, an ultraviolet photon has more energy than an infrared photon.
Wavelength and frequency (the number of times the wave crests per second) are inversely proportional, which means a longer wavelength will have a lower frequency, and vice versa. If the color of the light is infrared (lower in frequency than red light), each photon can heat up what it hits. So, if a strong infrared lamp (a heat lamp) is pointed at a person, that person will feel warm, or even hot, because of the energy stored in the many photons. The surface of the infrared lamp may even get hot enough to burn someone who may touch it. Humans cannot see infrared light, but we can feel the radiation in the form of heat. For example, a person walking by a brick building that has been heated by the sun will feel heat from the building without having to touch it.
The mathematical equations of quantum mechanics are abstract, which means it is impossible to know the exact physical properties of a particle (like its position or momentum) for sure. Instead, a mathematical function called the wavefunction provides information about the probability with which a particle has a given property. For example, the wavefunction can tell you what the probability is that a particle can be found in a certain location, but it can't tell you where it is for sure. Because of this uncertainty and other factors, you cannot use classical mechanics (the physics that describe how large objects move) to predict the motion of quantum particles.
Ultraviolet light is higher in frequency than violet light, such that it is not even in the visible light range. Each photon in the ultraviolet range has a lot of energy, enough to hurt skin cells and cause a sunburn. In fact, most forms of sunburn are not caused by heat; they are caused by the high energy of the sun's UV rays damaging your skin cells. Even higher frequencies of light (or electromagnetic radiation) can penetrate deeper into the body and cause even more damage. X-rays have so much energy that they can go deep into the human body and kill cells. Humans cannot see or feel ultraviolet light or x-rays. They may only know they have been under such high frequency light when they get a radiation burn. Areas where it is important to kill germs often use ultraviolet lamps to destroy bacteria, fungi, etc. X-rays are sometimes used to kill cancer cells.
Quantum mechanics started when it was discovered that if a particle has a certain frequency, it must also have a certain amount of energy. Energy is proportional to frequency (E ∝ f). The higher the frequency, the more energy a photon has, and the more damage it can do. Quantum mechanics later grew to explain the internal structure of atoms. Quantum mechanics also explains the way that a photon can interfere with itself, and many other things never imagined in classical physics.
Quantization
Max Planck discovered the relationship between frequency and energy. Nobody before had ever guessed that frequency is directly proportional to energy (this means that as one of them doubles, the other does, too). Under what are called natural units, then the number representing the frequency of a photon would also represent its energy. The equation would then be: meaning energy equals frequency.
But the way physics grew, there was no natural connection between the units that were used to measure energy and the units commonly used to measure time (and therefore frequency). So the formula that Planck worked out to make the numbers all come out right was: or, energy equals h times frequency. This h is a number called Planck's constant after its discoverer.
Quantum mechanics is based on the knowledge that a photon of a certain frequency means a photon of a certain amount of energy. Besides that relationship, a specific kind of atom can only give off certain frequencies of radiation, so it can also only give off photons that have certain amounts of energy.
History
Isaac Newton thought that light was made of very small things that we would now call particles (he referred to them as "Corpuscles"). Christiaan Huygens thought that light was made of waves. Scientists thought that a thing cannot be a particle and a wave at the same time.
Scientists did experiments to find out whether light was made of particles or waves. They found out that both ideas were right — light was somehow both waves and particles. The Double-slit experiment performed by Thomas Young showed that light must act like a wave. The Photoelectric effect discovered by Albert Einstein proved that light had to act like particles that carried specific amounts of energy, and that the energies were linked to their frequencies. This experimental result is called the "wave-particle duality" in quantum mechanics. Later, physicists found out that everything behaves both like a wave and like a particle, not just light. However, this effect is much smaller in large objects.
Here are some of the people who discovered the basic parts of quantum mechanics: Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Satyendra Nath Bose, Niels Bohr, Louis de Broglie, Max Born, Paul Dirac, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Erwin Schrödinger, John von Neumann, and Richard Feynman. They did their work in the first half of the 20th century.
Beyond Planck
Quantum mechanics formulae and ideas were made to explain the light that comes from glowing hydrogen. The quantum theory of the atom also had to explain why the electron stays in its orbit, which other ideas were not able to explain. It followed from the older ideas that the electron would have to fall in to the center of the atom because it starts out being kept in orbit by its own energy, but it would quickly lose its energy as it revolves in its orbit. (This is because electrons and other charged particles were known to emit light and lose energy when they changed speed or turned.)
Hydrogen lamps work like neon lamps, but neon lamps have their own unique group of colors (and frequencies) of light. Scientists learned that they could identify all elements by the light colors they produce. They just could not figure out how the frequencies were determined.
Then, a Swiss mathematician named Johann Balmer figured out an equation that told what λ (lambda, for wave length) would be:
where B is a number that Balmer determined to be equal to 364.56 nm.
This equation only worked for the visible light from a hydrogen lamp. But later, the equation was made more general:
where R is the Rydberg constant, equal to 0.0110 nm−1, and n must be greater than m.
Putting in different numbers for m and n, it is easy to predict frequencies for many types of light (ultraviolet, visible, and infared). To see how this works, go to Hyperphysics and go down past the middle of the page. (Use H = 1 for hydrogen.)
In 1908, Walter Ritz made the Ritz combination principle that shows how certain gaps between frequencies keep repeating themselves. This turned out to be important to Werner Heisenberg several years later.
In 1913, Niels Bohr came up with the idea that electrons could only take up certain orbits around the nucleus of an atom. Under Bohr's theory, the numbers called m and n in the equation above could represent orbits. Bohr's theory said electrons could begin in some orbit m and end up in some orbit n, or an electron could begin in some orbit n and end up in some orbit m so if a photon hits an electron, its energy will be absorbed, and the electron will move to a higher orbit because of that extra energy. Under Bohr's theory, if an electron falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit, then it will have to give up energy in the form of a photon. The energy of the photon will equal the energy difference between the two orbits, and the energy of a photon makes it have a certain frequency and color. Bohr's theory provided a good explanation of many aspects of subatomic phenomena, but failed to answer why each of the colors of light produced by glowing hydrogen (and by glowing neon or any other element) has a brightness of its own, and the brightness differences are always the same for each element.
By the time Niels Bohr came out with his theory, most things about the light produced by a hydrogen lamp were known, but scientists still could not explain the brightness of each of the lines produced by glowing hydrogen.
Werner Heisenberg took on the job of explaining the brightness or "intensity" of each line. He could not use any simple rule like the one Balmer had come up with. He had to use the very difficult math of classical physics that figures everything out in terms of things like the mass (weight) of an electron, the charge (static electric strength) of an electron, and other tiny quantities. Classical physics already had answers for the brightness of the bands of color that a hydrogen lamp produces, but the classical theory said that there should be a continuous rainbow, and not four separate color bands. Heisenberg's explanation is:
There is some law that says what frequencies of light glowing hydrogen will produce. It has to predict spaced-out frequencies when the electrons involved are moving between orbits close to the nucleus (center) of the atom, but it also has to predict that the frequencies will get closer and closer together as we look at what the electron does in moving between orbits farther and farther out. It will also predict that the intensity differences between frequencies get closer and closer together as we go out. Where classical physics already gives the right answers by one set of equations the new physics has to give the same answers but by different equations.
Classical physics uses the mathematical methods of Joseph Fourier to make a math picture of the physical world, It uses collections of smooth curves that go together to make one smooth curve that gives, in this case, intensities for light of all frequencies from some light. But it is not right because that smooth curve only appears at higher frequencies. At lower frequencies, there are always isolated points and nothing connects the dots. So, to make a map of the real world, Heisenberg had to make a big change. He had to do something to pick out only the numbers that would match what was seen in nature. Sometimes people say he "guessed" these equations, but he was not making blind guesses. He found what he needed. The numbers that he calculated would put dots on a graph, but there would be no line drawn between the dots. And making one "graph" just of dots for every set of calculations would have wasted lots of paper and not have gotten anything done. Heisenberg found a way to efficiently predict the intensities for different frequencies and to organize that information in a helpful way.
The rule says that when the electron moves from one orbit to another it either gains or loses energy, depending on whether it is getting farther from the center or nearer to it. So we can put these orbits or energy levels in as headings along the top and the side of a grid. For historical reasons the lowest orbit is called n, and the next orbit out is called n - a, then comes n - b, and so forth. It is confusing that they used negative numbers when the electrons were actually gaining energy, but that is just the way it is.
Florentino Pérez
Florentino Pérez Rodríguez (born 8 March 1947) is a Spanish businessman, civil engineer, and politician. He serves as president of Real Madrid Football Club, and ACS.
Quantum mechanics
Beyond Planck
Since the Rydberg rule gives us frequencies, we can use that rule to put in numbers depending on where the electron goes. If the electron starts at n and ends up at n, then it has not really gone anywhere, so it did not gain energy and it did not lose energy. So the frequency is 0. If the electron starts at n-a and ends up at n, then it has fallen from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. If it does so then it loses energy, and the energy it loses shows up as a photon. The photon has a certain amount of energy, e, and that is related to a certain frequency f by the equation e = h f. So we know that a certain change of orbit is going to produce a certain frequency of light, f. If the electron starts at n and ends up at n - a, that means it has gone from a lower orbit to a higher orbit. That only happens when a photon of a certain frequency and energy comes in from the outside, is absorbed by the electron and gives it its energy, and that is what makes the electron go out to a higher orbit. So, to keep everything making sense, we write that frequency as a negative number. There was a photon with a certain frequency and now it has been taken away.
So we can make a grid like this, where f(a←b) means the frequency involved when an electron goes from energy state (orbit) b to energy state a (Again, sequences look backwards, but that is the way they were originally written.):
Intergenerational contract
An intergenerational contract is an agreement between different generations. It assumes that future generations will honor the contract and provide a service to a generation that has done the same service for an older generation.
Quantum mechanics
Beyond Planck
Grid of f
Intergenerational contract
The most common use of the term is in social security and refers to the consensus to provide pensions for the retired generations through payments made by the working generations.
Quantum mechanics
Beyond Planck
Heisenberg did not make the grids like this. He just did the math that would let him get the intensities he was looking for. But to do that he had to multiply two amplitudes (how high a wave measures) to work out the intensity. (In classical physics, intensity equals amplitude squared.) He made an odd-looking equation to handle this problem, wrote out the rest of his paper, handed it to his boss, and went on vacation. Dr. Born looked at his funny equation and it seemed a little crazy. He must have wondered, "Why did Heisenberg give me this strange thing? Why does he have to do it this way?" Then he realized that he was looking at a blueprint for something he already knew very well. He was used to calling the grid or table that we could write by doing, for instance, all the math for frequencies, a matrix. And Heisenberg's weird equation was a rule for multiplying two of them together. Max Born was a very, very good mathematician. He knew that since the two matrices (grids) being multiplied represented different things (like position (x,y,z) and momentum (mv), for instance), then when you multiply the first matrix by the second you get one answer and when you multiply the second matrix by the first matrix you get another answer. Even though he did not know about matrix math, Heisenberg already saw this "different answers" problem and it had bothered him. But Dr. Born was such a good mathematician that he saw that the difference between the first matrix multiplication and the second matrix multiplication was always going to involve Planck's constant, h, multiplied by the square root of negative one, i. So within a few days of Heisenberg's discovery they already had the basic math for what Heisenberg liked to call the "indeterminacy principle." By "indeterminate" Heisenberg meant that something like an electron is just not pinned down until it gets pinned down. It is a little like a jellyfish that is always squishing around and cannot be "in one place" unless you kill it. Later, people got in the habit of calling it "Heisenberg's uncertainty principle," which made many people make the mistake of thinking that electrons and things like that are really "somewhere" but we are just uncertain about it in our own minds. That idea is wrong. It is not what Heisenberg was talking about. Having trouble measuring something is a problem, but it is not the problem Heisenberg was talking about.
Intergenerational contract
The use of the word contract is not entirely accurate as the next generation enters the agreement without consent.
Quantum mechanics
Beyond Planck
Heisenberg's idea is very hard to grasp, but we can make it clearer with an example. First, we will start calling these grids "matrices," because we will soon need to talk about matrix multiplication.
Suppose that we start with two kinds of measurements, position (q) and momentum (p). In 1925, Heisenberg wrote an equation like this one:
He did not know it, but this equation gives a blueprint for writing out two matrices (grids) and for multiplying them. The rules for multiplying one matrix by another are a little messy, but here are the two matrices according to the blueprint, and then their product:
Matrix of p
The matrix for the product of the above two matrices as specified by the relevant equation in Heisenberg's 1925 paper is:
Where:
B=p(n-a←n-a)*q(n-a←n-c)+p(n-a←n-b)*q(n-b←n-c)+p(n-a←n-c)*q(n-c←n-c)+.....
C=p(n-b←n-a)*q(n-a←n-d)+p(n-b←n-b)*q(n-b←n-d)+p(n-b←n-c)*q(n-d←n-d)+.....
and so forth.
If the matrices were reversed, the following values would result:
A=q(n←n-a)*p(n-a←n-b)+q(n←n-b)*p(n-b←n-b)+q(n←n-c)*p(n-c←n-b)+.....
B=q(n-a←n-a)*p(n-a←n-c)+q(n-a←n-b)*p(n-b←n-c)+q(n-a←n-c)*p(n-c←n-c)+.....
C=q(n-b←n-a)*p(n-a←n-d)+q(n-b←n-b)*p(n-b←n-d)+q(n-b←n-c)*p(n-d←n-d)+.....
Note how changing the order of multiplication changes the numbers, step by step, that are actually multiplied.
Beyond Heisenberg
The work of Werner Heisenberg seemed to break a log jam. Very soon, many different other ways of explaining things came from people such as Louis de Broglie, Max Born, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, and Erwin Schrödinger. The math used by Heisenberg and earlier people is not very hard to understand, but the equations quickly grew very complicated as physicists looked more deeply into the atomic world.
Further mysteries
In the early days of quantum mechanics, Albert Einstein suggested that if it were right then quantum mechanics would mean that there would be "spooky action at a distance." It turned out that quantum mechanics was right, and that what Einstein had used as a reason to reject quantum mechanics actually happened. This kind of "spooky connection" between certain quantum events is now called "quantum entanglement".
When an experiment brings two things (photons, electrons, etc.) together, they must then share a common description in quantum mechanics. When they are later separated, they keep the same quantum mechanical description or "state." In the diagram, one characteristic (e.g., "up" spin) is drawn in red, and its mate (e.g., "down" spin) is drawn in blue. The purple band means that when, e.g., two electrons are put together the pair shares both characteristics. So both electrons could show either up spin or down spin. When they are later separated, one remaining on Earth and one going to some planet of the star Alpha Centauri, they still each have both spins. In other words, each one of them can "decide" to show itself as a spin-up electron or a spin-down electron. But if later on someone measures the other one, it must "decide" to show itself as having the opposite spin.
Einstein argued that over such a great distance it was crazy to think that forcing one electron to show its spin would then somehow make the other electron show an opposite characteristic. He said that the two electrons must have been spin-up or spin-down all along, but that quantum mechanics could not predict which characteristic each electron had. Being unable to predict, only being able to look at one of them with the right experiment, meant that quantum mechanics could not account for something important. Therefore, Einstein said, quantum mechanics had a big hole in it. Quantum mechanics was incomplete.
Later, it turned out that experiments showed that it was Einstein who was wrong.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
In 1925, Werner Heisenberg described the Uncertainty principle, which says that the more we know about where a particle is, the less we can know about how fast it is going and in which direction. In other words, the more we know about the speed and direction of something small, the less we can know about its position. Physicists usually talk about the momentum in such discussions instead of talking about speed. Momentum is just the speed of something in a certain direction times its mass.
The reason behind Heisenberg's uncertainty principle says that we can never know both the location and the momentum of a particle. Because light is an abundant particle, it is used for measuring other particles. The only way to measure it is to bounce the light wave off of the particle and record the results. If a high energy, or high frequency, light beam is used, we can tell precisely where it is, but cannot tell how fast it was going. This is because the high energy photon transfers energy to the particle and changes the particle's speed. If we use a low energy photon, we can tell how fast it is going, but not where it is. This is because we are using light with a longer wavelength. The longer wavelength means the particle could be anywhere along the stretch of the wave.
The principle also says that there are many pairs of measurements for which we cannot know both of them about any particle (a very small thing), no matter how hard we try. The more we learn about one of such a pair, the less we can know about the other.
Even Albert Einstein had trouble accepting such a bizarre concept, and in a well-known debate said, "God does not play dice". To this, Danish physicist Niels Bohr famously responded, "Einstein, don't tell God what to do".