cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Pakistani Instrument of Surrender
Text of the Instrument
The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all Pakistan land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora.
The Pakistan Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora as soon as this instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms and will be dealt with in accordance with the accepted laws and usages of war. The decision of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora will be final, should any doubt arise as to the meaning or interpretation of the surrender terms.
Setesdal
Setesdal is a valley in the county of Aust-Agder, in the south part of Norway.
Pakistani Instrument of Surrender
Text of the Instrument
Signed:
Setesdal
History
Since the 1200s, one can find papers, where the name "Setesdal", has been written.
Pakistani Instrument of Surrender
Text of the Instrument
(Jagjit Singh Aurora) Lieutenant-General General Officer Commanding in Chief Indian and Bangladesh Forces in the Eastern Theatre
(Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi) Lieutenant-General Martial Law Administrator Zone B and Commander Eastern Command (Pakistan)
16 December 1971"
This document can be seen on display in the National Museum in Delhi (as of January 2012)
Boaz Vaadia
Boaz Vaadia (November 13, 1951 – February 25, 2017) was an Israeli-American artist and sculptor. He was born in Gat Rimon, Israel. He worked primarily in stone and later by casting in bronze. He said that his work is based on the power of natural materials and the relation of human beings to that power.
Vaadia died in Brooklyn, New York from pancreatic cancer on February 25, 2017, aged 65. He was survived by his wife Kim and two daughters.
Pragelato
Pragelato is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Piedmont region in Italy. It is about 60 km west of Turin, in the upper Val Chisone.
It was the site of the cross-country skiing, ski jumping, and nordic combined events of the 2006 Winter Olympics. Together with the villages of Sestriere, Sauze d'Oulx, Claviere, Cesana Torinese, San Sicario and Montgenèvre, in France which makes up the Via Lattea (Milky Way) skiing area.
Inkatha Freedom Party
The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) is a political party in South Africa. Since it was founded it has been led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi. It is currently the fourth largest party in the National Assembly of South Africa. It was very close with the African National Congress.
Beggs, Oklahoma
Beggs is a city in Oklahoma in the United States.
Martha Kolthoff
Career
Her earliest achievement was in September 1923, becoming champion of South Holland in the athletics’ triathlon. In 1924 she won in this competition the javelin throw. In September 1925 she broke with Hygiëa the national record in the 4x 80 meters. Later the month she became national champion in the athletics’ triathlon ahead of Leny Rombout and Nettie Grooss. She also became with her club national champion in the 4x 80 metres relay.
Hard Again
Hard Again is a album by Muddy Waters. It was produced by Johnny Winter who also played guitar. The record was his first for Blue Sky Records. It was also the first studio album after he left Chess Records
Martha Kolthoff
Career
In 1927 she became Dutch national champion in the 4x 100 metres together with Nici Mür, Willy Hamerslag and Nettie Grooss with a time of 55 seconds.
Hard Again
Recording
The recordings lasted three days. For the recordings Muddy used his then current touring band of guitarist Bob Margolin, pianist Pinetop Perkins, and drummer Willie "Big Eyes" Smith. James Cotton played harmonica and Charles Calmeses the bass.
Martha Kolthoff
Career
During an out of competition record attempt in September 1927 Nici Mür threw in discus throw 24.11 metres, so further than the record of Kolthoff. Kolthof broke during this record attempt session the national records javelin throw with 27.25 metres. While a special prize was awarded for the new record and these records were mentioned in newspapers as new national records, the records were never recognized by the Dutch athletics federation. Kolthof lost eventually the record in August 1928 to Lena Michaëlis.
Hard Again
Songs
Three of the songs on the album – "Mannish Boy", "I Want to Be Loved", and "I Can't Be Satisfied" – were re-recordings of songs for Chess Records. One of the songs recorded, "The Blues Had a Baby and They Named It Rock and Roll, Pt. 2", was co-written by Brownie McGhee and another song, "Bus Driver", was co-written by T. Abrahamson.
Martha Kolthoff
Personal life
Kolthoff was born on 27 January 1908 in Batavia, Dutch East Indies. She was the only child of father Abraham Kolthoff (1863-1940) who was director Officer of Health 1st class of the K.N.I.L. and worked in in Batavia. Her mother was Johanna Cornelia Brandon (1870-1947). They moved back to the Netherlands where she married to mechanical engineer Lucas Ruinen (1901-1993) on 20 August 1937 in The Hague. They had four children together.
Hard Again
Songs
An outtake from the recording sessions, "Walking Through the Park", appeared on the 2004 Legacy Recordings reissue CD, while several more unused tracks appeared on King Bee in 1981.
Reception
The album has been well received by several critics. Dan Oppenheimer of Rolling Stone magazine said that "Mannish Boy" sounded like it was recorded live while both Oppenheimer and Daniel Gioffre of Allmusic state how powerful Willie "Big Eyes" Smith's drumming is. Oppenheimer, Gioffre, and Robert Christgau all share the opinion that Hard Again is Muddy Waters comeback album.
Charts and awards
Hard Again peaked at #143 on the Billboard 200, which was his first appearance on the chart since Fathers and Sons in 1969.
Track listing
All songs written by McKinley Morganfield, except where others are noted.
2004 bonus track
<li>"Walking Through the Park" – 3:55</ol>
Personnel
The following people contributed to Hard Again:
Attica (village), New York
Attica is a village in Wyoming County and Genesee County, New York. The population was 2,547 at the 2010 census.
Sufers
Sufers (Sur) is a municipality of the district of Hinterrhein in the canton of Graubünden in Switzerland.
Kiln
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber or oven in which a controlled temperature regime is produced.
Batavia, New York
Batavia is a city in and the county seat of Genesee County, New York, United States. It is near the center of the county, surrounded by the Town of Batavia. Its population as of the 2010 census was 15,465. The name Batavia is Latin for the Betuwe region of the Netherlands, and honors early Dutch land developers.
Craft
Craft or handicraft is about making things with one's own hands and skills. The different types of crafts can be put in groups according to the material being used. In the Middle Ages the most common materials were metal, wood or clay.
Whalan, Minnesota
Whalan is a city in Fillmore County, Minnesota, United States.
Craft
A craftsman is a person who has the knowledge and skills of a craft. When they have a lot of experience they may be called a master craftsman. If they are young people learning a craft they are called an apprentice.
Aptos, California
Aptos (Ohlone for "The People") is an unincorporated town in Santa Cruz County, California.
Ancestor
A second meaning relates to evolution. There, it is used of a species or group of species of animals or plants from which others have evolved. In a similar way, the word ancestor can be used for an early prototype or forerunner of a later device.
In law an ancestor can mean the person from whom an estate is lawfully obtained. No blood relationship is necessarily implied. More commonly, however, it is the person from whom an estate is obtained based on law and blood.
Two people have a genetic relationship if one is the ancestor of the other, or if they share a common ancestor. Each of someone's ancestors will have contributed to their DNA. In evolution, species that have evolved from the same ancestor are said to be of common descent. However, this concept of ancestry does not apply to some bacteria and other organisms capable of horizontal gene transfer. DNA testing is used in determining ancestry. This can be for paternity testing, to determine the parents of a child for legal purposes. DNA is also used to better understand the ancestry and history of all humans over the last 50,000 years. This was one of the benefits of the Human genome project.
Keith Ellison
Keith Maurice Ellison (born August 4, 1963) is an American politician. He is the Attorney General of Minnesota. He is a member of the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (DFL), the Minnesota state Democratic Party affiliate.
He was the U.S. Representative for MN's 5th congressional district from 2007 to 2019. Ellison is a co-chair of the Congressional Progressive Caucus and a Chief Deputy Whip, also notably serving in the House Committee on Financial Services.
Ellison is the first Muslim to be elected to Congress. He is also the first African American elected to the House from Minnesota.
In November 2016, progressive groups and United States senators, including Bernie Sanders of Vermont, supported Ellison for chair of the Democratic National Committee. On February 25, 2017, minutes after defeating him on a second ballot, Chairman Tom Perez motioned for Ellison to be elected his Deputy Chair which was approved by a unanimous voice vote of DNC members.
On June 5, 2018, Ellison announced that he was running for Attorney General of Minnesota and not seeking reelection to Congress. He won the election in November 2018.
Gopal Krishna Agarwal
Gopal Krishna Agarwal  (born June 1, 1962) is an Indian politician, economist,  and spokesperson of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). With a background in finance, business and economics, and management consultancy, Agarwal has been actively involved in the formulation and advocacy of the BJP's economic policies for over two decades. He is known for his expertise in economic policy matters and his articulate arguments on economic issues.
Early Life and Education
Gopal Krishna Agarwal was born on June 1, 1962, in Buldhana, Maharashtra, India. He pursued his Bachelor of Commerce (Honours) degree and went on to become a Chartered Accountant. Agarwal is a fellow member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) and has also completed post-graduate studies in M.sc economics.
Political Career
Agarwal's association with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) spans over two decades. He has actively participated in the party's economic policy formulation and has been a member of various committees and forums related to the economy and finance. Notably, Agarwal has served on the Board of Bank of Baroda and North Eastern Electrical Power company.
Hyundai Palisade
The Hyundai Palisade is a luxury SUV produced by Hyundai since 2020. It is a seven-seater car, in the same class as the Hyundai Grandeur.
Gopal Krishna Agarwal
Political Career
As the spokesperson of the BJP on economic affairs, Agarwal plays a crucial role in articulating the party's economic policies and positions to the media and the public. He has been a vocal advocate of economic liberalization and reforms, and his contributions in this field have earned him recognition as an expert on economic matters. He is on the board of Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited as an independent Director
== Books ==
Geraint Jones
Geraint Owen Jones MBE was born 14 July, 1976 in Kundiawa, Papua New Guinea. He is a former cricketer who played for England and Papua New Guinea. He played 34 tests and 51 one-day internationals for both countries from 2004 to 2014.
Lynne Ewing
Lynne Ewing is an American book writer and a movie writer.
Burg im Leimental
Burg im Leimental is a municipality of the district of Laufen in the canton of Basel-Landschaft in Switzerland.
Lynne Ewing
She moved a lot as she was growing up; her father was in the Marine Corps. She has two sisters. Lynne finished high school in Lima, Peru after going to seven other schools. The time she was in the country Peru, she learned to speak the language Spanish. She attended the University of California at Santa Barbara. She was 30 years old when she began writing for newspapers, documentaries, magazines, and did screen writing. She is also a counselor. The first books that she wrote were Drive-By and Party Girl. Drive-By took six years to write, and Party Girl has been made into a movie called Living the Life. She has written the finished book Daughters of the Moon and Sons of the Dark line of books. She lives in Los Angeles and Washington D.C.. Ms. Ewing has two children, Jonathan, a molecular biologist, and Amber, a lawyer who works around the country. She has also been to Japan, China, Russia, Europe, Malaysia, Singapore, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. She has started a new line of books named Sisters of Isis.
Books
In 2001, Lynne's book Party Girl became a movie called Living the Life; Lynne was one of two moviewriters.
Wykoff, Minnesota
Wykoff is a city in Fillmore County, Minnesota, United States.
Howard Schmidt
Howard Anthony Schmidt (October 5, 1949 – March 2, 2017) was an American cyber security expert and partner with Tom Ridge in Ridge Schmidt Cyber LLC, a consultancy company in the field of cybersecurity.
He was the Cyber-Security Coordinator of the Obama Administration, operating in the Executive Office of the President of the United States. He announced his retirement from that position on May 17, 2012, effective at the end of the month.
Schmidt died in Muskego, Wisconsin on March 2, 2017 from brain cancer, aged 67.
Departments of Haiti
Haiti is divided into 10 departments (French, départements). When Haiti was the French colony of Saint-Domingue, there were three provinces: North, South and West. Under Toussaint L'Ouverture, the provinces were converted into departments.
The departments are further divided into 41 arrondissements, and 133 communes.
German Wikipedia
The German Wikipedia (Deutschsprachige Wikipedia) is the German language edition of Wikipedia. Founded 16 March 2001, it is the second-oldest and the first non-English-language Wikipedia.
By count of articles, it is the third largest Wikipedia, after the English Wikipedia and the Swedish Wikipedia. As of September 2023, it has about 0 articles.
Mohammad Shtayyeh
Mohammad Ibrahim Shtayyeh (محمد اشتية) (born 17 January 1959) is a Palestinian politician, academic and economist. He became prime minister of the Palestinian National Authority in March 2019.
Philip Gidley King
Philip Gidley King (April 23, 1758 – September 3, 1808) was a sailor in the British Royal Navy who became the third Governor of New South Wales.
Early life
King was born in Launceston, Cornwall. His father was a draper, selling cloth and fabrics. He joined the navy in 1770 at the age of 12. He was made the captain's servant on the HMS Swallow. He served in the West Indies and then fought in the American War of Independence. He became a midshipman and later a lieutenant. He served with Captain Arthur Phillip in HMS Ariadne. He went to India with Phillip in 1783 in the ship HMS Europe. Phillip was very pleased with King. He made King a lieutenant on HMS Sirius when he took the First Fleet to Australia in 1787 to start the penal colony.
Norfolk Island
Three weeks after the First Fleet got to Sydney, Governor Phillip sent King to Norfolk Island. His task was to set up a small penal colony that would make use of the timber and flax growing on the island. These would be of use to the British Navy. He arrived at the island on March 3, 1788. There was no safe place to land on the island and this made it a difficult place to have a settlement. King had a group of 23 people including 15 convicts. Over the next two years they began clearing land (removing trees) to grow crops and to raise cattle and other animals. King was made Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island. In March 1790, Phillip sent King back to England. He was to go back and tell the British government about the problems of the new settlements in Australia.
King stayed in London for about four months. He married Anna Josepha Coombe on March 11, 1791, and they left for Australia four days later. After reporting to Phillip in Sydney, they were back on Norfolk Island in November, where his son Phillip Parker King was born.
Return to Norfolk Island
While he had been away, Norfolk had been governed by Lieutenant-Governor Robert Ross. Phillip had moved Ross to the island because of his difficulties in working with him at Sydney. When King arrived, the convicts, settlers and soldiers were very unhappy because of Ross's leadership. King made new rules, which made things better for people who wanted to settle on the island, many of whom had been marines or convicts. In 1794 the island was growing all of the wheat it needed, and had so many pigs it was able to send food to Sydney.
The flax on the island was too hard to turn into cloth. Two Maoris from New Zealand were kidnapped and brought to Norfolk to teach people how to work the flax. The two men did not know about flax, because in New Zealand it was work done by the women. In November 1793, King left the island for ten days to take the men back home. He did not have permission to leave and got into trouble from Lieutenant-Governor Francis Grose. King also had problems with many of the soldiers. They said he punished them more than the convicts. King arrested 20 soldiers and charged them with mutiny, and sent them to Sydney. Grose released the soldiers and told the soldiers on Norfolk that they were in charge, not King. These orders were later changed by the Duke of Portland.
England
He soon became better with proper medical treatment. He began to look for work, and Phillip wanted the government to send him back to New South Wales to be the new governor. After many delays, he set out for Australia in a new ship partly designed by Sir Joseph Banks. This ship turned out to be unsafe, and could not sail in rough seas. King was forced to return to England. After further delays, he finally sailed on the ship Speedy, and arrived in Sydney on November 26, 1799.
Governor of New South Wales
Hunter remained in charge until he could arrange to sail back to England in Spetember, 1800. King as the new governor, immediately set about to try and make changes. He wanted to control the amount of alcohol being brought to Australia by the military and sold at a profit. For example, the two surgeons that came to Australia on the Speedy had brought 4359 gallons (19,816 litres) of alcohol to sell. He tried to get merchants in Calcutta and the US not to send alcohol. He started a brewery to make beer, hoping this would be less of a problem than the alcohol like rum.
King arranged for the government to bring in supplies for sale at a reasonable price, which ended the power of some of the military. He also brought in controls over prices, wages, working hours, baking, butchers, interest rates, weights, measures and currency. He reduced the number of convict servants that the military officers could have. He arranged for more convicts to be put to work on farms and projects like building roads, guard houses, and granaries. The new colony began to grow all of its own food. King looked at ways to increase the food supply and arranged for the import of sheep and cattle to build up stocks. King also began to employ convicts who had finished their prison sentences, called emancipists. He started a school for female orphans, a newspaper (the Sydney Gazette), and even had people vaccinated for smallpox.
King was often in conflict with the military, the New South Wales Corps. As soldiers, they did not like taking orders from a naval officer. They felt that their duties were to protect New South Wales, and not to be responsible for the convicts. They wanted the colony to be run like a prison, even though there was no other people but them to run it. They objected to freed convicts being given any rights or land. King's changes had also upset their money making schemes through the sale of alcohol and other goods. King's orders were often ignored or disobeyed. In 1801 he sent an officer, John Macarthur, back to England to be tried for refusing orders and fighting a duel with his commanding officer. Instead of going to trial, Macarthur was able to make the British government believe that he was innocent, and all the problem were caused by King's lack of ability. Macarthur left the army and returned to Australia in July 1805 as a hero, having been told he could have 5000 acre of the best land. King asked for leave, and was told his resignation was accepted.
Death
King had to stay until August 1806 so that a new governor could be sent out. His health broke down and he was not fit to sail until February 1807. He reached England in November 1807. King died on September 3, 1808, and was buried in London.
Turquoise
Turquoise is an opaque (cannot be seen through), blueish-green mineral. It is not common and can be valuable in finer grades. It has been prized as a gem and ornamental stone for thousands of years because of its interesting coloring.
The word 'turquoise' means Turkish in French.
Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach
Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach (9 February  1875 in Wahn am Rhein - 25 August 1943 in Linz am Rhein) was minister of mail and minister of transport.
Florence Welch
Florence Leontine Mary Welch (born 28 August 1986 in London) is an English singer who is part of Florence and the Machine. Evelyn Welch is a Professor of Renaissance Studies and Academic Dean for Arts at Queen Mary, University of London and author and formerly a Studio 54 regular. Nick Welch works in advertising. Welch says she is prone to "falling into severe holes” that leave her crying on the floor. Welch has been diagnosed with dyslexia and dysmetria. Welch would like to have a career similar to PJ Harvey and Björk who are "constantly creating new exciting stuff". When she was 13, Welch found comfort in the music of Hole, Nirvana, Green Day, Kate Bush, Annie Lennox, The Velvet Underground and Celine Dion. As a teenager she was the frontwoman for Toxic Cockroaches and Ashok. Feeling she was in "the wrong band" she got out of a contract with Ashok by resigning.
African National Congress Youth League
The African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) is a part of the African National Congress for younger people. It was founded in 1944 by Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu. They created the foundation to put an end to apartheid in Africa.
The African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was established on 2 April 1944, by Anton Lambede (who became the League’s first President), Nelson Mandela, Ashby Mda, Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo. They were joined by, Duma Nokwe, B Masekela, Ida Mtwa, Lillian Ngoyi, James Njongweni, William Nkomo and Dan Tloome. The aim of the Youth League was to galvanise the youth to step up the fight against segregation within the country. At the time the ANCYL was established, political circumstances in South Africa were tenuous as the ruling United Party was divided about South Africa’s participation in World War II. Four years after the establishment of the Youth League, the United Party’s rule came to an end and the country was subsequently governed by the National Party.
Kokusai himitsu keisatsu series
Kokusai himitsu keisatsu series (国際秘密警察シリーズ, International Secret Police Series) is an action movie produced by Toho from 1963 to 1967. A total of five films were produced by Toho and stars Tatsuya Mihashi, a look-alike Cary Grant.
Overview
The first work "Interpol Code 8" and the second work "Tiger Fang" were produced as pure spy action movies with a serious mood, but the third work "Director Takashi Tsuboshima" written by Shinichi Sekizawa and directed by Takashi Tsuboshima. From "Keg of Gunpowder" onwards, elements of sex appeal are added and Kitami becomes sloppy with women, the appearance of unrealistic enemy characters, elements of comedy touches is also included. It has become a work of entertainment for audiences looking to watch something different from other film genres they watched like kaiju and tokusatsu.
In 1966, Toho invited American actor and producer Roger Smith, who was also popular in Japan with "77 Sunset Strip", a one-hour TV series planned starring a Japanese-American duo with Mihashi. Although the project fell through with many script changes, Shinichi Sekizawa rewrote the 5th and final film, "The Killing Bottle," by reusing the novel "Desperate Situation" ( 絶体絶命, Zettai zetsumei) written by novelist Michio Tsuzuki for the pilot episode.
Kauniainen
Kauniainen (Grankulla) is a city in Uusimaa, Finland. It is part of the Greater Helsinki area. Kauniainen has an area 6.0 km² and is fully located within Espoo.
Kauniainen has the lowest local taxation rate in Finland (16,5 %). A lot of rich people live there.
Kauniainen has very good bus and train connections. There is a railway station. Many buses drive through Kauniainen.
Species
All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.
Racial segregation
Definition
Segregation is not as simple as having "separate but equal" places for people of different races. Segregation happens when a country or a society views one race as better than another. The goal of segregation is to keep the "inferior" race away from the "better" race. Because one race is seen as "inferior," people of that race are not treated well. They go through discrimination. Often they are not given basic rights, like the right to vote. As a United States Supreme Court judge said in a case about segregation in schools: "separate facilities are [always] unequal." Things did stop segregation, like Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks. They helped a lot by speaking up for their side. Although they knew that they would get in trouble. Rosa Parks made every black person stop using the buses until the bus company ran out of money (most of their money came from black people). This worked and the black people were allowed to use the buses without separation.
Anglo-Saxon England
Segregation may have existed in early Anglo-Saxon England. When the Anglo-Saxons arrived in England in the 4th century, they may have created an "apartheid-like society," according to some historians. They may have treated the native British people like slaves, and had rules against marrying them. Some historians say Anglo-Saxons were much richer and had a higher social status than Celtic Britons.
Species
There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".
Racial segregation
Australia
From the early 1800s to the late 1980s, the Australian government took many Aboriginal children away from their families. Their families had not agreed to let their children go. However, the government had decided to force Aboriginal children to "assimilate" into Australian society. The children where placed in white homes or on missions. There, they were forced to learn Christianity, leave behind their Aboriginal culture, become a part of white society, and marry white people. The goal of this program was to "breed out" Aboriginal traits so that they no longer existed in Australia. Later, in 1951, the United Nations would define this type of program as genocide.
Species
Example
Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:
Racial segregation
Australia
From about 1900 to the 1970s, Australia followed what became known as the "White Australia Policy." This policy kept non-white people from immigrating to Australia by making immigration tests too hard to pass.
Species
Historical changes in the term
There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.
Racial segregation
Australia
In the early- to mid-twentieth century, many Aborigines were forced to live on missions. The goal of this policy was to get the Aborigines off their lands, because white settlers wanted to use them.
Species
Historical changes in the term
Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).
Racial segregation
Australia
In the 1960s, Australia changed its official policy to "integration." This meant that the Aborigines had to be able to live in Australian society or on missions. However, many Aborigines refused to follow these orders and kept living far away from cities. In these areas, they were segregated from the rest of Australian society, and were also poorer. At the time, some people called the situation "apartheid," and even suggested that the Australian government's policies inspired the apartheid program in South Africa.
Species
Historical changes in the term
It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.
Racial segregation
English settlers in Ireland
In 1366, the King of England passed thirty-five laws called the Statutes of Kilkenny. Their goal was to prevent English settlers in Ireland from mixing with the Irish people or becoming too much like the Irish. The laws made it illegal the English to marry native Irish people, have Irish children, adopt Irish children, use Irish names or clothes, or speak anything but English.
Species
Historical changes in the term
The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.
Racial segregation
French Algeria
In 1830, France took control of Algeria from the Ottoman Empire. For over a hundred years, Algeria was a French colony. The French rulers kept an apartheid-like system in Algeria. For example, Arab and Berber Algerians were allowed to apply for French citizenship (which would give them the right to vote and other rights) only if they abandoned their Muslim religion and culture.
Species
Numbers
According to the most recent estimate, there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.
Racial segregation
French Algeria
Algerian Muslims were not willing to go along with this "system of apartheid," and this system was one of the main causes of the Algerian War in 1954.
Species
Numbers
Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.
Racial segregation
Germany
In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, "Wendish" (Slavic) people were not allowed to join some guilds. According to Wilhelm Raabe, "into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."
In 1935, after the Nazi Party had taken control of the German government, they passed the Nuremberg Laws. The Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, believed that the "Aryan" race was better than any other races. The Nuremberg Laws made it illegal for "Aryan" and "non-Aryan" people to marry or have sex. At first, the laws were mostly meant to keep "Aryans" from mixing with Jewish people (who the Nazis viewed as an inferior race ). However, the Nazis later added "Gypsies, Negroes and their bastard [children]" to the Laws. Aryans who broke these laws could be sent to concentration camps; non-Aryans could be executed. To keep German blood "pure," after World War II began, the Nazis made it illegal for any non-German to marry or have sex with a German person.
In 1939, the Nazis invaded Poland and took it over. They divided the Polish people into different ethnic groups. Based on how "Germanic" they were, each group had different rights. For example, the different groups were allowed different amounts of food; and were only allowed to live in certain places and use certain public transportation.
During the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis made Jews wear yellow ribbons or stars of David with the word "Jude" ("Jew") on them. Racial laws discriminated against Jews and Roma people (Gypsies). For example, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients; Jewish professors were not allowed to teach Aryan students. Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry; ride bicycles; or ride in cars. They were allowed to shop only from 3:00pm to 5:00pm, and only in stores owned by Jews. They could not go to theaters, swimming pools, or any other places for entertainment.
During the Holocaust, the Nazis tried to kill all of the Jews and Roma in Europe. They also killed millions of Slavic people (including Ukrainian, Soviet, and Polish people), because they saw Slavs as an inferior race. First the Nazis forced Jews and Roma to live in ghettoes, apart from everyone else. Then they sent millions of Jews, Roma, and Slavs to concentration camps and death camps.
Nummi-Pusula
Nummi-Pusula is a former municipality in Finland. It was formed in 1981 from the existing municipalities of Nummi and Pusula. The municipality is in Uusimaa and in the province of Southern Finland. On 1 January 2013, it became a part of Lohja.
Nummi-Pusula has an area of 504.82 km2. 35.29 km2 of it is water. About 6,175 people lived there as of 31 December 2012.
Racial segregation
Tang dynasty
During the Tang Dynasty, the Han Chinese passed several laws that segregated non-Chinese people from Chinese people. In 779, the Tang Dynasty made a rule which forced Uighurs to wear their traditional ethnic clothing, not Chinese clothing. It also banned them from 'pretending' to be Chinese, and from marrying Chinese women. The Han Chinese disliked the Uighurs because they loaned money for interest.
In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and marrying them. Lu made segregation the law. He made it illegal for non-Chinese people to marry Chinese people or to own property. The law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of color." This meant foreigners like "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", and others.
Italy
In 1938, Italy was ruled by a fascist regime led by Benito Mussolini. The regime was allied with Nazi Germany. Under pressure from the Nazis, the regime passed several laws that said the Italian Empire would now practice segregation. They called these laws the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race).
The laws especially targeted Jews. For example, Jews could not:
Because of these laws, Italy lost some of its best scientists. Some were fired. For example, Rita Levi-Montalcini, who would later win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, was told she could no longer work at her university. Others left Italy because of the laws. For example, Enrico Fermi, who worked on the first nuclear reactor and won the Nobel Prize for Physics, left the country. (His wife was Jewish.) Many other well-known scientists, physicists, mathematicians, and other scholars lost their jobs or left Italy because of the race laws.
Albert Einstein resigned from his honorary membership at the Accademia dei Lincei, an Italian science academy, to protest the race laws.
After 1943, when Northern Italy was occupied by the Nazis, Italian Jews were taken to Nazi concentration camps and death camps.
Jewish segregation
For centuries, Jews in Europe were often forced to live in segregated ghettos and shtetls (small towns where mostly Jews lived). In 1204, the Pope ordered Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and to wear clothing that marked them as Jews. Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the Russian Empire, starting in the 1790s, Jews were only allowed to live in the Pale of Settlement. This was the Western frontier of the Russian Empire, about where Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine are today. By the early 20th century, most European Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.
In Morocco, beginning in the 15th century, Jewish people were segregated in mellahs. In cities, a mellah was a separate area for Jews, surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. Rural mellahs were separate villages where only Jews lived.
For the same reason, they are [not allowed] to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would [dirty] the feet of the Mussulmans…
If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he [suffers] the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully…
If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the [homes] of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he [risks paying] for it with his life...
If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered.
Latin America
Usually, when they won their independence from Spain, most Latin American countries made laws against caste systems. However, prejudice based on race remains.
Background
Racial segregation in South Africa began when the country was a Dutch colony. The Dutch landed at Cape Town in 1652 and gradually took over more and more of the country. Segregation continued when the British Empire took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795.
Slavery existed in South Africa until 1833. However, two years later, the government passed a law that changed slaves into indentured servants. This system was not very different from slavery. Throughout the rest of the 1800s, the South African colonies passed laws that limited these worker's rights and freedoms.
In 1894 and 1905, the government passed laws saying that "Indians" and 'blacks" had no right to vote. Other laws discriminated against non-whites, but were not as bad as the apartheid laws that would come within the next 50 years.
Beginnings of apartheid
Apartheid in South Africa started in 1948. At that time, the National Party won control of the South African government. This political party was made up of Afrikaner people. Afrikaners are the descendants of Dutch settlers who came to South Africa in the 1600s and 1700s. The National Party believed in Afrikaner nationalism.
Apartheid laws
The National Party passed apartheid laws to make racial segregation the law in South Africa. Some of the most important laws included:
Under these apartheid laws, between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million non-white South Africans were forced to leave their homes and move into segregated neighborhoods. This is one of the largest mass removals in modern history.
In 1970, non-whites were banned from having representatives in the government. That same year, black people's South African citizenship was taken away.
Protests
Protests against apartheid started right after apartheid did. As early as 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) suggested fighting against racial segregation using many different strategies. Over the next 45 years, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred. They included protests by the Black Consciousness Movement; student protests; labor strikes; and church group activism. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, reversing laws about racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act. In 1990, President Frederik Willem de Klerk started trying to end apartheid. Nonwhites were given the right to vote in 1993. South Africa had its first multiracial elections (where non-whites were allowed to be candidates in 1994. Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress won. Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for working together to end apartheid.
United States
The United States has a long history of racial segregation, starting when the first European settlers came to North America. First through slavery, then through racist laws, and then through racist attitudes, African-American people in the United States have faced segregation for centuries. People of other races have been segregated too. For example, during World War II, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, ordered almost the entire Japanese-American population to be segregated in internment camps.
People of all races have fought against segregation and discrimination in the United States. Thanks to movements like the Civil Rights Movement, segregation is now against the law in the United States. However, prejudice against minority groups still exists. This has led to new types of segregation caused by people's prejudices and behavior.
Israel
The State of Israel has practiced apartheid against Palestinians. It started in its occupation of the West Bank; the term apartheid in this context refers to apartheid in international law. Or may compare it with apartheid in South Africa. Some use the term to include treatment of Arab citizens of Israel. They describe their status as second-class citizens.
These features regard such things as the ID system. Also includes the pattern of Israeli settlements, separate roads for Israeli and Palestinian people, Israeli military checkpoints, marriage law, the West Bank barrier, the use of Palestinians for cheaper labour, the Palestinian West Bank land exclaves, inequality in infrastructure, legal rights (e.g. "Enclave law"), and inequality of access to land and resources between Palestinians and Israeli settlers. It is argued that, like South Africa, Israel may be classified as a settler colonial society,  in violation of international law.
EFF DES cracker
In cryptography, the EFF DES cracker (nicknamed "Deep Crack") is a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) to perform a brute force search of DES cipher's key space — that is, to decrypt an encrypted message by trying every possible key. The aim in doing this was to prove that DES's key is not long enough to be secure.
The DES uses a 56-bit key, meaning that there are 256 possible keys under which a message can be encrypted. This is approximately 7.21 (more than 72 quadrillion). When DES was approved as a federal standard in 1976, a machine fast enough to test such a number of keys in a reasonable time would have cost an unreasonable amount of money to build.
Vacuum
A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space.
A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum. The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains.
Industrial uses
Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production. Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber. It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum. This is called "hard vacuum". Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.
Industrial vacuums are mainly used in:
Yotsuya Kaidan
Yotsuya Kaidan, also known as Tōkaidō yotsuya kaidan, is one of the most famous Japanese ghost stories of all time. It was written as a play in 1825 by Tsuruya Nanboku.
Vacuum
Scientific experiments
Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.
Yotsuya Kaidan
The tale takes place in the Tōkaidō region.
Plot
The story is a tale of murder, betrayal and ghostly revenge. It continues to be an influence on Japanese horror today.
Ritornello
Ritornello is an Italian word meaning "little return". At first in music ritornello was used as an instruction to repeat a part. By the 1600's the word was used to describe a part of the music played by instruments in a vocal piece. These instrumental sections could be at the start (a prelude), in the middle (an interlude), or at the end (a postlude). In dramatic music, the ritornello provided an opportunity for dancing, or for a scene change. In the Baroque period, a common way to write a song, called an aria, was in da capo form. The aria would be written as two contrasting sections, A and B. By adding an instrumental ritornello (R), the aria could be developed further, forming the scheme R–A–R–B–R–A–R.
In the early 1700's composers began using the ritornello form in concertos, the solo instrument replacing the voice. This gave the composer the chance to develop music during the solos with new material and key changes, between repeated sections of full orchestra. Guiseppe Torelli began using this form, which was then developed and extended by Antonio Vivaldi. Vivaldi's way of using this form has the following features:
Later composers such as Bach and Telemann used Vivaldi's form in their works.