cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Arrondissement of Bayonne
Cantons
After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the arrondissements so they could have communes that belong to different arrondissements.
The cantons of the arrondissement of Bayonne are:
Communes
The communes with more inhabitants in the arrondissement are:
WarGames
WarGames is a 1983 American science fiction thriller teen movie starring Matthew Broderick and Ally Sheedy and directed by John Badham. The movie follows a computer hacker named David Lightman (Broderick) who breaks into a NORAD war games simulation computer that he thinks is really the computer for a computer game company. Lightman begins a series of events that could start World War III. The movie was nominated for three Academy Awards and was a big hit. It continues to be popular.
Plot
The movie begins with two air force officers in a nuclear missile silo who are ordered to fire the missiles in the silo. The officers believe the order to be real and begin to fire the missiles. One of the officers decides not to fire and so the US government replaces all the men in the missile silos with computer control.
David Lightman (Broderick) is a smart high school student and computer hacker that at first limits himself to changing his and a girl whom he likes a lot, Jennifer's (Sheedy) grades from failing to passing grades: Lightman being smart but not motivated at school. A little while later David uses his IMSAI 8080 computer to dial many phone numbers and finds a backdoor into a NORAD war games simulation computer called WOPR (nicknamed the Whopper). At first David is looking for new computer games to download and play and believes that the WOPR is actually the computer of a company that makes new computer games. After finding a list of games on the computer decides to play a game. WOPR (who is an Artificial Intelligence computer) asks David for a password and after doing some research on the computer's creator Professor Steven Falken he guesses that the password is named after the creator's dead son, Joshua. After logging in using the correct password, W.O.P.R. believes David to actually be Dr. Falken whom the computer had believed to be dead. The computer (which David now calls "Joshua") asks him if he would like to play a game. David selects the game "Global Thermonuclear War". Doing so starts off a series of events that will end up taking the World into World War III unless it is stopped.
The television news later reports that the USA went on high-alert due to a computer error leading David and Jennifer to wonder if they had caused the problem. David throws away the evidence of his calling Joshua but the computer calls David back. David then asks Joshua if the game it is playing is real or not, Joshua relies "what is the difference?" At this point David learns that Joshua is not a computer game companies' computer but a government one and is actually is playing the game for real. He hangs up but Joshua calls him back, leading David to remove the cord from the back of his telephone. David is then arrested by the FBI and taken to NORAD to answer charges of espionage. David tries to explain that he was not trying to be a spy, but he is not believed. Using things found in the medical office in which he is locked, David escapes from NORAD on a bus load of visitors to the facility. After David escapes he telephones Jennifer (using Phreaking skills) to ask her to buy him an airplane ticket so he can go and see Falken and get his help in stopping Joshua. Jennifer meets him and together then both go off to convince Falken to help them stop World War III.
Ethel Grimwood
Mrs. Ethel St. Clair Grimwood, also known as Ethel Moore, is a British lady who became to be known as the Heroine of Manipur in the History of modern Manipur. She is main person behind the devising of plans for the escape of Tikendrajit Singh from the several capture attempts of the British Army. She is the authoress of the "My Three Years in Manipur and Escape from the Recent Mutiny", published in 1891, the same year of the outbreak of the Anglo-Manipur War.
WarGames
Cult status
WarGames has a cult following amongst computer users and fans of the 1980s. The movie led to the development of the term war dialing (the calling of phone numbers looking for computers to connect to and hack).
Darvin Moon
Darvin Moon (October 1, 1963 – September 19, 2020) was an American logger and amateur poker player. He was the runner-up of the 2009 World Series of Poker (WSOP) US$10,000 no-limit Texas hold'em Main Event. It was his first time playing in the World Series of Poker.
Make Way for Noddy
Make Way for Noddy is the American-British CGI children's musical computer-animated television series. The show originally aired on PBS and PBS Kids in the United States for the first and the second seasons in 2001 and re-aired on Channel 5 and Milkshake! in the United Kingdom for Seasons 1 and 2 respectively in 2002.
Darvin Moon
Moon, who taught himself how to play poker, ran a small logging company in the Maryland Panhandle before earning a 2009 World Series seat by winning a $130 satellite tournament. He was born in Oakland, Maryland.
Moon died on September 19, 2020 from problems caused by surgery, aged 56.
Andrew Kishore
Andrew Kishore (4 November 1955 – 6 July 2020) was a Bangladeshi playback folk singer. He was known as the king of Dhallywood. Kishore was born in Rajshahi, Bangladesh.
Kishore won Bangladesh National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer eight times for the movies Boro Bhalo Lok Chhilo (1982), Surrender (1987), Khotipuron (1989), Padma Meghna Jamuna (1991), Kabul (1996), Aaj Gaye Holud (2000), Saajghor (2007) and Ki Jadu Korila (2008).
Dillon, Montana
Dillon is a city in and the county seat of Beaverhead County, Montana, United States. The population was 4,134 at the 2010 census. The city was named for Union Pacific Railroad President Sidney Dillon. It was founded in 1880 as a railroad town.
John Stapleton (English journalist)
Works
He has best known for his work as a presenter, newsreader and reporter on ITV breakfast television formerly (TV-am, GMTV, Daybreak and the programmes's successor Good Morning Britain), as well as hosting Nationwide and Watchdog for the BBC.
Dillon, Montana
The Beaverhead River flows through the town.
Western Digital
Western Digital is an American technology company. It is based in the U.S. state of California. The company make hard drives. Hard drives are used by computers to store data.
Rifferswil
Rifferswil is a municipality in the district of Affoltern in the canton of Zurich in Switzerland.
Financial regulation
Financial regulation is supervision of financial institutions to certain rules and guidelines.
The aim is to keep the financial system honest and legal. Regulation may be done by either a government or non-government organization. Also, financial regulation has increased the variety of financial products available.
In the early modern period, the Dutch were the pioneers in financial regulation. The first recorded regulation was a ban on short selling done by the Dutch authorities in 1610.
Aims
The objectives of financial regulators are usually:
Rear Window
Rear Window is a 1954 American mystery thriller movie directed by Alfred Hitchcock. The movie is based on the story, It Had To Be Murder, by Cornell Woolrich. John Michael Hayes wrote the script The film stars James Stewart, Grace Kelly, Wendell Corey, Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. It was nominated for four Academy Awards. Critics consider it one of Alfred Hitchcock's best movies and one of the greatest movies of all time.
Plot
The movie tells the story of a photographer L. B. "Jeff" Jefferies (played by James Stewart) who has a broken leg. He spends his days sitting in his Greenwich Village apartment watching his neighbors through their open windows. There is a ballet dancer Miss Torso, a pianist and songwriter, a couple with a dog who digs the flowers up, a newly married couple, 'Miss Lonelyhearts', and a jewelry seller Lars Thorwald with his bed-ridden wife. Lisa Fremont (played by Grace Kelly) is Jeff's girlfriend and visits several times. A nurse Stella (played by Thelma Ritter) also takes care of Jeff.
One night Jeff hears and sees some unusual things. Jeff hears a woman scream, "Don't!" and glass breaking. He sees Thorwald leave the house several times at night with a suitcase. The next day Thorwald's wife is gone, and Jeff sees him cleaning a knife and saw. There is a large trunk. Jeff thinks there has been a murder. He tells Lisa and Stella. Jeff calls Tom Doyle to investigate. Doyle finds nothing. Witnesses say Thorwald's wife had left. Jeff sees Thorwald take out his wife's jewelry and her wedding ring. Lisa says that women would not leave their jewelry at home like that. The two agree that Thorwald's wife did not leave the apartment.
The dog dies and the owner shouts at everyone. Everyone listens except Thorwald. Jeff thinks Thorwald killed the dog and that he buried something in the ground. Jeff calls Thorwald to get him out of the house. He does this so Lisa and Stella can search the ground. The two find nothing. Lisa surprisingly enters Thorwald's apartment. Jeff and Stella see Miss Lonelyhearts try to kill herself, but the piano music stops her. Distracted, Jeff and Stella do not notice Thorwald coming back. Thorwald goes to Lisa and starts grabbing her. Jeff calls the police and says there is an assault. The police arrive and arrest Lisa for breaking in. She shows her finger to Jeff that she has the wedding ring of Thorwald's wife. Thorwald sees Lisa's hand signal and sees Jeff.
Jeff calls detective Doyle. Thorwald calls Jeff and enters Jeff's apartment. Jeff uses flashbulbs to slow down Thorwald by blinding him. Thorwald throws Jeff off the window. Jeff calls for help, and the police come. Jeff falls, but officers catch him. Doyle, Lisa and Stella rush to Jeff's side. Thorwald confesses murdering his wife. A few days later Jeff has casts on both legs. The neighbors of Greenwich Village are happy again. There is a new puppy. Miss Torso's love is back from war. Miss Lonelyhearts is seeing the pianist. The Thorwald's apartment is being painted and redone. Lisa is with Jeff. She reads Beyond the High Himalayas and then reads a fashion magazine.
Cast
Uncredited
Alfred Hitchcock makes a cameo appearance in the apartment of the pianist.
Voyeurism
A major theme in Rear Window is voyeurism. This is when someone intimately watches someone else. In the film, Jeff is spying on his neighbors. This act is morally questionable, and the audience participates in it. The camera follows Jeff's eyes. It switches back to facing Jeff. The camera allows the viewers to join Jeff in his actions. The audience should feel guilty. Stella criticizes Jeff's actions. She says that people should stop looking out and look at themselves. Lisa says Jeff's actions are like a disease. She is upset that Jeff only watches the neighbors. Jeff himself questions if it is alright to spy on a man with binoculars. Lisa and Stella question Jeff's actions at first, but they join him later. The idea of spying can relate to surveillance in the state. During the time, people feared that the government would watch them the whole time. This fear was due to McCarthyism. In the film, a helicopter comes close above the village. It is like the helicopter is spying on the village. There is almost no difference between private and public in the film.
Gender and Marriage
Gender roles are important in the film. It is after World War II and women were changing roles in society. In the film, male characters are no longer heroes. Hitchcock switches the roles of men and women. For instance, Thorwald murders his wife. Jeff is injured, his camera is destroyed, and he cannot walk. Detective Doyle cannot find evidence. Meanwhile, Lisa and Stella are the only ones who can investigate. Gender roles connect to marriage. Jeff talks about marriage on the phone. He analyzes Lisa a lot and is not ready to marry her. At one point, Jeff and Lisa argue. Jeff thinks that Lisa could not stand Jeff's lifestyle as a photographer. Stella says that people in the past just fell in love and that now they study each other like samples in a bottle. This type of marriage connects to the other themes of loneliness and surveillance. The couples are not just loving each other, but objectively studying each other. They are distant from each other and must constantly watch each other. Jeff, for example, watches Lisa. Marriage appears in other places. There is a newly married couple. Lisa gets the wedding ring of Thorwald's wife. The wedding ring is symbolic for marriage and is a form of situational irony. Lisa wants to marry Jeff, but she ends up with the wedding ring of Thorwald's wife.
Filming
The entire movie was shot at Paramount Studios. There was a complete set of Greenwich Village. It was one of the largest sets at Paramount. The set had a special drainage system and lighting for different parts of the day. There were 31 apartments on the set and 12 had full furniture.
Costume Design
Edith Head was the costume designer for the movie. Costumes and clothing are important in the film for characterization. Grace Kelly is into fashion and has many different outfits. The different clothes relate to changes in the roles of the characters. For instance, when Lisa and Stella help Jeff to investigate they we are wearing simple day dresses.
Music
Frank Waxman composed the score including the Piano song "Lisa". The film has mainly diegetic sounds. These are sounds that the characters in the film hear.
Natural sounds were used that would get louder or softer with distance. There are several songs including "To See You Is to Love You" by Bing Crosby, songs by Nat King Cole ("Mona Lisa", 1950) and Dean Martin ("That's Amore", 1952), Richard Rodgers' song "Lover" (1932), and "M'appari tutt'amor" from Friedrich von Flotow's opera Martha (1844), and part of Leonard Bernstein's music for the ballet Fancy Free (1944).
Box Office
The film was a box office success. It was one of the highest grossing films of 1954. The film had a budget of $1 million and made over $37 million.
Critical Response
The movie had very positive reviews. Critics praised the film as an intense, suspenseful, and exciting thriller. They considered the film to be a masterpiece of suspense that drew in viewers. Some noted that the film says a lot about human nature and the desire to intimately watch other people. The technical and artistic skills were also praised. The film has a 98% on Rotten Tomatoes. On Metacritic, the film has a rare 10/10 with "universal acclaim." The film was ranked number 5 on the Top 10 films of the Year on Cahiers du Cinéma.
Awards
The film was nominated for four Academy Awards Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography - Color and Best Sound - Recording. The movie won Best Actress from the National Board of Review. The New York Film Critics Circle awarded Grace Kelly the NYFCC Award for Best Actress. The film won Best Motion Picture at the Edgar Allen Poe Awards. The film also got nominations from the Writers Guild of America and Directors Guild of America.
Legacy
Rear Window was chosen to be part of the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 1997. In the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound, the movie was ranked the 53rd greatest film. In Time Out magazine the film ranked 21st and 26th greatest film of all time in 1998 and 2022. The film made several American Film Institute lists. They include number 42 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies, number 14 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills, number 48 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) and number three in AFI's 10 Top 10 (Mysteries).
Rear Window was restored in the late 1990s. Technicolor used a new dye process to improve the image. The movie influenced later films. Several films are based on Rear Window. They include Body Double (1984), Silver (1993) and Time Out (1998). In 1998, there was a TV show remake of Rear Window. Disturbia (2007) is a modern version of Rear Window about a serial killer. Rear Window has appeared in other TV shows such as The Simpsons, That '70s Show , Get Smart , The Flintstones , Psych , The White Collar , The Family Guy , Raising Hope, Castle, The Detectives and others.
Revolution
A revolution is a very sharp change made to something. The word comes from Latin and is related to the word revolutio (which means turnaround).
Revolutions are usually political in their nature. Some people feel unhappy with their lives, and others are not happy with whole systems. They might join together, share their ideas, and make something change. Often, revolutions include fighting and civil unrest, but there are also revolutions that happen without fighting.
The Soviet Union was started by the Russian Revolution, which killed millions, and the couutry later fell apart in another revolution without much fighting. Howerver, in the French Revolution (1789), there was much bloodshed., which included the Reign of Terror.
Other events often called "revolutions" include:
The opposing idea in politics is called gradualism.
List of Leeds United A.F.C. players
The List of Leeds United A.F.C. players is evolving. The history of the team is created by its players.
Leeds United A.F.C. is an English football club in Leeds, West Yorkshire.
2011 team
There were 30+ men on the 2010-2011 team, including
2012 team
There were 30+ men on the 2011-2012 team. Only some of the names were the same as the 2011 season.
†
(Note) † Symbol - Indicates the player is currently 'Transfer Listed' by the club.
Florida Attorney General
The attorney general of Florida is the state attorney general of the state government of the U.S. state of Florida. The attorney general is also the chief legal officer and the head of the Florida Department of Legal Affairs.
The state attorney general is elected to a four-year term, and can only be reelected once. The election is held at the same statewide election as the governor, lieutenant governor, etc.
Ashley Moody is the 38th and current attorney general of Florida, in office since January 2019.
Juris Kronbergs
Juris Kronbergs (9 August 1946 – 6 July 2020) was a Latvian-Swedish poet and translator. He was best known for his poetry, written in Latvian. His most known book is Vilks vienacis (Wolf One-Eye, 1996).
He translated mant volumes of poetry and fiction by Imants Ziedonis, Vizma Belševica, Knuts Skujenieks, Uldis Bērziņš, Sandra Kalniete, Jānis Elsbergs, Edvīns Raups, Inguna Jansone and other authors.
Kronbergs died in Stockholm on 6 July 2020, aged 73.
IMSAI 8080
The IMSAI 8080 was an early microcomputer begun in late 1975, based on the Intel 8080 and later 8085 and the S-100 bus. It was compatible with its main competitor, the earlier MITS Altair 8800, by which it was inspired. The IMSAI is largely thought of as the first "clone" computer. The IMSAI machine used a highly modified version of the CP/M operating system called IMDOS. It was designed, made and sold by IMS Associates, Inc. (later renamed IMSAI Manufacturing Corp). In total, between 17,000 and 20,000 units were produced from 1975 until 1978.
History
In May 1972, William Millard began business as IMS Associates (IMS) in the area of computer consultancy and engineering, using his home as an office. By 1973, Millard began IMS Associates, Inc. Millard soon found capital for his business, and received several contracts, all for software.
In 1974, IMS was contacted by a client which wanted a "workstation system" that could do jobs for any General Motors new-car dealership. IMS planned a system including a terminal, small computer, printer, and special software. Five of these work stations were to have common access to a hard disk, which would be controlled by a small computer. Eventually product development was stopped. Millard and his chief engineer Joe Killian turned to the microprocessor. Intel had announced the 8080 chip, and compared to the 4004 to which IMS Associates had first used, the 8080 looked like a better idea. Full scale development of the IMSAI 8080 was begun, and by October 1975 an advertisement was placed in the magazine Popular Electronics, receiving positive reactions.
IMS shipped the first IMSAI 8080 kits on December 16 1975. In 1976, IMS was renamed to IMSAI Manufacturing Corporation because by then they were a manufacturing company, not a consultancy one. By October 1979 the IMSAI corporation had gone bankrupt, and the 'IMSAI' trademark was acquired by Thomas "Todd" Fischer and Nancy Freitas (former early employees of IMS Associates), who continued manufacturing the computers under the IMSAI name as a division of Fischer-Freitas Co. Support for early IMSAI systems continues to this day.
Uses
The IMSAI 8080 was used for
IMSAI in popular culture
An IMSAI 8080 and an acoustic coupler type modem were among the hacking tools used by the main character in the 1983 movie WarGames. However, even by 1983 the acoustic coupler was out of date. It was selected over a more modern model so that the audience would immediately recognize it as the device that connected to the telephone.
Florida State Road A1A
State Road A1A is a road in the U.S. State of Florida. The road starts in Key West and ends in Callahan. It is the main road through most towns in Florida along the Atlantic Ocean.
Jamiroquai
Jamiroquai are a British funk and acid jazz band. It was created by Jason Kay. The name of the band is a compound word created from "jam session", a type of music event, and "Iroquois", the name of a Native American tribe.
The band's first single, "When You Gonna Learn?", was released in 1992. Because of the success of this single, Jamiroquai made a contract with Sony BMG. They release their first album, Emergency on Planet Earth, in 1993. The next year, their second album (The Return of the Space Cowboy) was released. This album became popular. In 1996, a song named "Virtual Insanity" on their third album, Travelling Without Moving, was very popular. The music video for this song was so innovative that it caused a big sensation. With this song, Jamiroquai was nominated for ten MTV video awards. It won four awards. This album made the band famous all across the world.
Members
The members of Jamiroquai have changed for many times, except Jason Kay.
Biaches
Biaches is a commune. It is in Hauts-de-France in the Somme department in north France.
Comcast Technology Center
The Comcast Technology Center is a supertall skyscraper in Philadelphia.
The 91-floor building, with a height of 1121 ft, is the tallest building in Philadelphia and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the tenth-tallest building in the United States and the tallest outside Manhattan and Chicago.
Granite County, Montana
Granite County is a county found in the U.S. state of Montana. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 3,079 people. Its county seat is Philipsburg. The county was founded in 1893, and was named for a mountain which contains the Granite Mountain silver mine.
Foraminifera
Foraminifera or forams, as they are called, are an important group of tiny single-celled rhizarian eukaryotes. They are mostly marine, though a few live in fresh-water, and even on damp land areas. In the sea, they live both in the plankton (pelagic), and in the deeper water (the benthos). They have tests (like shells) made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
The organism has pseudopodia like an amoeba. It uses these to capture and eat bacteria and small diatoms. Also, many of them keep algal endosymbionts. Some are idioplastic, which means they eat the algae, but keep the algal chloroplasts for their own benefit.
Forams are often used to date strata in palaeontology. The detailed record of forams from deep sea drilling projects are the basis of a fossil index for geological periods or stages. This is called biostratigraphy.
Deep sea forams from the Mariana Trench are below the carbonate compensation depth, below which all CaCO3 dissolves. They have evolved organic tests, instead of calcium carbonate ones. This suggests that the tests are a vital part of their life-style, perhaps protecting them from other micro-predators.
Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943) was fought during the Second World War between Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin. They were fighting for control of the city of Stalingrad. Germany got support from Italy, Hungary, Croatia and Romania. The battle was fought between 23 August 1942 and 2 February 1943. It was one of the most important battles of the war because it marked the end of Germany's advances. Hitler even blamed his defeat partly on Stalingrad. The Battle of Stalingrad has often been recorded as an example of how brutal a war can be. It is reported that, due to limited supplies, soldiers and civilians had to resort to eating rats, mice, and even cannibalism.
Stalingrad, now Volgograd, was a city on the Volga River. It was an important industrial city, and the Volga was an important transport route. Hitler also wanted to capture Stalingrad because it was named after Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, thus it would embarrass him.
In June 1942, Adolf Hitler launched an attack in southern Russia. By the end of July the German army had reached Stalingrad. With bombs and fire the German Luftwaffe turned the city into ruins. However, the rubble made hiding places from which Russian snipers could attack the Germans. Hitler and Stalin sent in large numbers of soldiers. They both ordered that anyone who retreated would be shot on the spot for treason.
The battle lasted five months, one week, and three days. 1.6 million people dead or wounded in battle were reported. There were more Russian deaths than German, but it was a victory for the Russians. They had killed so many Germans that Hitler's overall plan to conquer the Soviet Union, started with Operation Barbarossa, was seriously weakened. Also, the Germans failed to get control of Russian oil fields.
About one quarter of the German Sixth Army's soldiers were Eastern European volunteers called HIWIs. The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in the history of warfare.
Background
By the spring of 1942, the German Operation Barbarossa did not defeat the Soviet Union. The war was still going well for the Germans: the U-boat offensive in the Atlantic had been very successful and Rommel had just captured Tobruk.
In the east, they had captured land including Leningrad in the north and Rostov-on-Don in the south. There were a number of places where Soviet attacks had pushed the Germans back (to the northwest of Moscow and south of Kharkov) but this did not threaten the Germans. Hitler was confident that he could beat the Red Army after the winter of 1941. Even though Army Group Centre had heavy losses near Moscow the previous winter, 65% of its infantry had not fought and had been rested and given new equipment. Army Groups North and South had also not had a hard time over the winter. Stalin was expecting German summer attacks to again be directed against Moscow.
Philipsburg, Montana
Philipsburg is a town in the U.S. state of Montana. It is the county seat of Granite County.
Battle of Stalingrad
Background
The German operations were initially very successful. On July 23, 1942, Hitler changed the goals for the 1942 attack. He made occupying Stalingrad one of the goals. The city was important, because it was named after Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union. The Germans thought that if they captured Stalingrad, it would help the northern and western parts of the German armies to attack Baku. The Germans wanted to capture Baku because it had a lot of oil.
The Soviets were aware of the German plan to attack. The Soviets ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight.
Attack on Stalingrad
On the 23 of August the 6th Army reached the edge of Stalingrad. They were following the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had gone back into the city. Kleist later said after the war: "The capture of Stalingrad was [a place] where we could block an attack...by Russian forces coming from the east."
The battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by Luftflotte 4. A 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped. Much of the city turned to rubble. Some factories continued to produce goods.
Wuyi Mountains
The Wuyi Mountains are a mountain range with an area of 60 km² that cover the northern border of Fujian province with Jiangxi province, China.
Battle of Stalingrad
Attack on Stalingrad
Stalin moved troops to the east bank of the Volga. All the regular ferries were destroyed by the Luftwaffe. The Luftwaffe also attacked troop barges. Many civilians were moved out of the city across the Volga. Stalin prevented most civilians from leaving the city because he thought that this would make the Soviet armies fight harder. Civilians, including women and children, were told to dig trenches. Massive German bombing on 23 August caused a firestorm. It killed thousands and turned Stalingrad into rubble and ruins. Between 23 and 26 August, 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded from the bombing.
The Soviet Air Force, the Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS), was destroyed by the Luftwaffe. The Soviets lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August. They brought in another 100 aircraft in August. The Soviets continued to bring new planes into Stalingrad in late September, but they were destroyed by the Germans.
The city was briefly defended by the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, an all-women's regiment that was actually able to halt an entire German division due to their massive firepower. The Germans eventually swarmed and killed them, but were shocked to discover that this whole time they were being held back by young women that seemed fresh out of high school. In the battle, the NKVD organized "Workers' militias" who were often sent into battle without rifles.
By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had reached the Volga. By 1 September, the Soviets could only supply their forces in Stalingrad by crossing the Volga under constant bombing by artillery and aircraft.
On 5 September, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized an attack against XIV Panzer Corps. The Luftwaffe helped stop the attack by attacking Soviet artillery and soldiers. The Soviets had to pull back. Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had sent into battle, 30 were lost to air attack.
The Soviets were always being attacked by the Luftwaffe. On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army attacked VIII Army Corps. VIII. Fliegerkorps sent Stuka dive-bombers to prevent the Soviets from advancing. The Soviet attack was stopped. The Stukas destroyed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks that were destroyed that morning. German Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft. In the wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, used houses and factories to hide in.
Germany reaches the Volga
After three months of slow advance, the Wermacht finally reached the river banks. The Germans captured 90% of the ruined city and split the Soviet forces into two parts. Ice on the Volga river made it impossible for the Soviets to bring in supplies by boat.
Operation Uranus: the Soviet offensive
In autumn, the Soviet generals Georgy Zhukov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky gathered their soldiers in the north and south of the city. The northern side was defended by Hungarian, and Romanian troops. The Don river had never been defended well by the German side. The Soviet plan was to attack and surround the German forces in the Stalingrad region.
The operation was code-named "Uran". It started with Operation Mars, aimed at Army Group Center.
On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus. The attacking Soviet units under the command of Gen. Nikolay Vatutin consisted of three armies. This included a total of 18 infantry divisions, eight tank brigades, two motorized brigades, six cavalry divisions and one anti-tank brigade. The Soviets pushed past the Romanian Third Army. The response by the Wehrmacht was disorganized. Bad weather prevented air attacks against the Soviets.
Sixth Army surrounded
About 265,000 German, Romanian, Italian soldiers, the 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment, and other troops including 40,000 Soviet volunteers fighting for the Germans. were surrounded. There were 210,000 Germans on 19 November 1942. There were also around 10,000 Soviet civilians and several thousand Soviet soldiers the Germans had taken captive during the battle. Not all of the 6th Army was trapped; 50,000 were not surrounded. Of the 210,000 Germans surrounded, 10,000 remained to fight, 105,000 surrendered, 35,000 left by air and the remaining 60,000 died.
The Red Army formed two defensive groups. Field Marshal Erich von Manstein told Hitler not to order the 6th Army to break out. Manstein thought that he could break through the Soviet troops and free the 6th Army. p451 After 1945, Manstein says he told Hitler that the 6th Army must break out. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg said that Manstein lied. p1045
Manstein was told to attack Stalingrad in Operation Winter Storm (Unternehmen Wintergewitter). He thought that this attack could work if the 6th Army was supplied through the air.
Adolf Hitler had said on 30 September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city. At a meeting shortly after the Soviets formed a ring around the Germans, the German army chiefs wanted to try to escape to the west of the Don. Hitler thought that the Luftwaffe could supply the 6th Army with an "air bridge". This would allow the Germans in the city to fight while a new force was assembled. A similar plan had been used a year earlier at the Demyansk Pocket.
The director of Luftflotte 4, Wolfram von Richthofen, tried to get this decision stopped. The forces under 6th Army were almost twice as large as a regular German army unit, plus there was also a corps of the 4th Panzer Army trapped in the city. The maximum 117.5 ST they could deliver a day was far less than the minimum 800 ST needed.
To add to the limited number of Junkers Ju 52 planes the Germans used other planes like the Heinkel He 177. General Richthofen told Manstein on 27 November that the Luftwaffe could not supply 300 tons a day by air. Manstein now saw the problems of a supply by air. The next day he made a report which said that the supply by air would be impossible. He said the Sixth Army should try to escape. He said that giving up Stalingrad would be a difficult loss, but that it would keep the Sixth Army intact. Hitler said that the Sixth Army would have to stay at Stalingrad and that the air force would supply it until the Germans could attack the Soviets.
The Luftwaffe was able to deliver an average of 94 ST of supplies per day. The most successful day, 19 December, delivered 289 ST of supplies in 154 flights. In the early parts of the operation, more fuel was shipped than food and ammunition because the Germans thought they could escape from the city. Transport airplanes also flew out sick or wounded men from the city. The German attack did not reach the 6th Army. The air supply operation continued. The 6th Army slowly starved. 160 German transport aircraft were destroyed and 328 were heavily damaged. Some 266 Junkers Ju 52s were destroyed.
Operation Winter Storm
Soviet forces grouped together around Stalingrad. Violent fighting to attack the Germans began. Operation Winter Storm (Operation Wintergewitter), the German attempt to rescue the trapped army from the south, was at first successful. By 19 December, the German Army had pushed to within 48 km (30 mi) of Sixth Army's positions. Some German officers asked Paulus go against Hitler's orders and try to escape out of the Stalingrad. Paulus refused. On 23 December, Manstein's forces had to defend themselves from new Soviet attacks.
Operation Little Saturn
On 16 December, the Soviets launched Operation Little Saturn. It attempted to make a hole through the Axis army (mainly Italians) on the Don and capture Rostov. The Germans set up a defence of small units. 15 Soviet divisions—supported by at least 100 tanks—attacked the Italian Cosseria and Ravenna Divisions. The Soviets never got close to Rostov because of the Italian defence.
The German attempt to break through to Stalingrad was stopped and Army Group A was told to come back from the Caucasus.
The 6th Army could no longer hope to escape. The 6th Army did not have enough fuel. As well, the German soldiers have found it very hard to break through the Soviet lines on foot in the cold winter conditions.
Soviet victory
The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition. They continued to fight because they thought the Soviets would execute any Germans who surrendered. A Soviet group (Major Aleksandr Smyslov, Captain Nikolay Dyatlenko and a trumpeter) carried an offer to Paulus: if he surrendered within 24 hours, he would receive a guarantee of safety for all prisoners, medical care for the sick and wounded, prisoners allowed to keep their personal belongings, food rations, and be sent to any country they wanted after the war. Paulus was ordered not to surrender by Hitler, so he did not respond.
On 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler coming to power, Goebbels said "The heroic struggle of our soldiers on the Volga should be a warning for everybody..." Also on that day Hitler promoted Paulus to Generalfeldmarschall. Since no German Field Marshal had ever been taken prisoner, Hitler assumed that Paulus would fight on or kill himself.
The next day, the southern group in Stalingrad was defeated by the Soviets. Soviet forces reached the entrance to the German headquarters. General Schmidt surrendered the headquarters. Paulus said he had not surrendered and refused to order the remaining German forces to surrender.
Four Soviet armies attacked the remaining northern group. On 2 February, General Strecker surrendered. Around 91,000 tired, ill, wounded, and starving prisoners were taken, including 3,000 Romanians (the survivors of the 20th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and "Col. Voicu" Detachment). The prisoners included 22 generals. Hitler was angry and said that Paulus should have killed himself, but instead "he prefers to go to Moscow." Paulus was Roman Catholic and therefore did not.
Aftermath
The German public was not officially told of the loss until the end of January 1943, though positive media reports had stopped in the weeks before the announcement. Stalingrad marked the first time that the Nazi government publicly admitted a failure in its war effort. It was a major defeat where German losses were almost equal to those of the Soviets. Prior losses of the Soviet Union were generally three times as high as the German ones. On 31 January, German state radio played the Adagio movement from Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony, followed by the announcement of the defeat at Stalingrad.
On 18 February, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels gave the Sportpalast speech in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a total war.
Out of the nearly 110,000 German prisoners captured in Stalingrad, only about 6,000 ever returned. They were sent to prisoner camps and later to labour camps all over the Soviet Union. Some 35,000 were eventually sent on transports, of which 17,000 did not survive. Some were kept in the city to help rebuild.
Some senior officers were taken to Moscow and used for propaganda purposes. Some of them joined the National Committee for a Free Germany. Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements that were broadcast to German troops. Paulus testified for the prosecution during the Nuremberg Trials. He remained in the Soviet Union until 1952, then moved to Dresden in East Germany. General Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept. It was not until 1955 that the last of the 5-6,000 survivors were repatriated (to West Germany).
Orders of battle
During the defence of Stalingrad, the Red Army used six armies (8th, 28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd and 64th Armies) in and around the city. An additional nine armies in the final attack on the Germans. The nine armies used for the final attack were the 24th Army, 65th Army, 66th Army and 16th Air Army from the north as part of the Don Front offensive and 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank, 21st Army, 2nd Air Army and 17th Air Army from the south as part of the Soviet Southwestern Front.
Casualties
Counting how many people were killed and wounded in the battle of Stalingrad is hard. One way is to only count the fighting within the city and suburbs. Another way of counting is to count all the fighting on the southern part of the Soviet-German front from the spring of 1942 to the winter of 1943. Different scholars have made different estimates depending on how widely you consider the battle.
The Axis had from 500,000 to 850,000 casualties (killed, wounded, captured) among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies and only 5-6,000 returned to Germany by 1955. The remainder of the POWs died in Soviet captivity.
On 2 February 1943, the fighting of Axis troops in Stalingrad stopped. Out of the 91,000 prisoners taken by the Soviets, 3,000 were Romanian.
The Red Army had a total of 1,129,619 total casualties; 478,741 men killed or missing and 650,878 wounded. These numbers are for the whole Don region; in the city itself 750,000 were killed, captured, or wounded.
Anywhere from 25,000 to 40,000 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs during a single week of aerial bombing by Luftflotte 4 as the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies got close to the city; the total number of civilians killed in the regions outside the city is unknown.
In all, the battle resulted in an estimated total of 1.7-2 million Axis and Soviet casualties, making it possibly the bloodiest battle in all of human history.
Scope of the battle
In the original 1942 plan, the occupation of Stalingrad had not been a goal. Based on the military successes of the Germans in the first month of the attacks, Hitler decided to expand the military goals. Hitler thought that the Soviet forces across the Don river were weak. The new goals included Stalingrad and even capturing the Volga.
Once the Armies began to fight in the for the city, both sides began to feel that it was very important to win. The Germans sent a lot of troops into the city. This meant that their side did not control the Don river and the Soviet bridges. The German side made steady progress in the fighting and eventually held about 90% of the city.
The German focus on the city made them not think of the weakness of their defenses along the Don and the massive buildup of Soviet forces on their sides. After the Soviet breakthrough, the Germans were very disorganized. The 6th Army was eventually reorganized in time for the Battle of Kursk, but was made up mostly of new soldiers and was never as strong as it had once been.
Germany failed at Stalingrad because they expanded the goals in the second half of July. After one month of success, the Germans started believing they could win the battle. Hitler ordered too many goals and he did not think Soviet reserves were as strong as they were. To the south of Stalingrad, Army Group A was trying to capture the oilfields. Then its goals were expanded to include the whole of the Black Sea coast.
Stalingrad was a turning point in the war. It also showed the discipline and determination of both the German Wehrmacht and the Soviet Red Army. The Soviets first defended Stalingrad against a strong German attack. Newly arrived Soviet soldiers often died in less than a day. Soviet officers often died in three days.
Historians have talked about how much terror there was in the Red Army. Beevor noted the bravery of the Soviet soldiers. Richard Overy says that some people think that in the "summer of 1942 the Soviet army fought because it was forced to fight,” but he says this is not true A historian talked to Soviet veterans about terror on the Eastern Front. Many soldiers said they were relieved at the order not to retreat. Infantryman Lev Lvovich’s said he felt better.
For the heroism of the Soviet defenders of Stalingrad, the city was awarded the title Hero City in 1945. Twenty-four years after the battle, in October 1967, a monument, The Motherland Calls, was built on Mamayev Kurgan, the hill overlooking the city. The hill actually used to be much larger, but had been flattened due to constant artillery fire. The statue forms part of a war memorial that includes ruined walls from the battle. The Grain Silo, as well as Pavlov's House can still be visited.
Many women fought on the Soviet side, or were under fire. At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Stalingrad area who had finished military or medical training, and all of whom were to serve in the battle. Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the Luftwaffe but German tanks. Soviet nurses not only treated wounded men under fire but brought wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire. Many of the Soviet wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy injuries and deaths. Though women were not usually trained as infantry, many Soviet women fought as machine gunners, mortar operators, and scouts. Women were also snipers at Stalingrad. Three air regiments at Stalingrad were entirely female. At least three women won the title Hero of the Soviet Union while driving tanks at Stalingrad.
Madeleine Bordallo
Madeleine Mary Zeien Bordallo (born May 31, 1933) is a Guamanian politician, who served as the Delegate from the United States territory of Guam to the United States House of Representatives from 2003 until 2019.