cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
37th G8 summit
History
The Deauville summit of the Group of Eight (G8) was the 37th meeting in a series which began in 1976.
Previous G8 summits have been hosted by France at Rambouillet (1975); Versailles (1982); Paris (1989); Lyon (1996); and Évian-les-Bains (2003).
Zionism
Herzl and Political Zionism
Political Zionism wanted to work with the established powers to get a publicly recognized and legally assured homeland. Palestine at the time was under the control of the Ottoman Empire, but Herzl's attempts to get support from the Ottomans failed, and he had to appeal to the imperial powers of Europe. Herzl negotiated with British and Russian officials to use their influence to get official support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, but this failed as well. In 1903 the British offered Herzl a Jewish homeland in Uganda instead, but this was eventually rejected by the Zionist congress. Only during World War I did the Zionist movement get the great power support they had been seeking. In 1917 the British signed the Balfour Declaration, wherein they declared that they "favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". Part of the British motivation in signing was getting support of Jews in Russia and the U.S.A. for the allied cause. After the war, the British Empire took control of Palestine and administered it as their own colony, the Mandate of Palestine. During this time the cooperation between the Zionist movement and the British continued, though there were still tensions. The alliance would fall apart just before World War II.
Labor Zionism in Ottoman and British Palestine
Organized Jewish migration into Palestine began after the pogroms of 1881 with the Hibbat Zion movement. However, even when they later joined forces with the Zionist congress it remained a small movement, as most Jewish migrants went to the United States. Only 3% of the Jews fleeing eastern Europe between 1881 and World War I went to Palestine. In the first wave of migration, known as the first Aliyah, the Jewish immigrants established agricultural colonies called moshavot. These settlements were poor, and so the immigrants turned to outside sponsors for help, who funded the development of other systems. The farms were turned into wine and citrus plantations based on the model of French Algeria, where they employed mostly cheaper Palestinian labor. Jewish workers had to compete with Palestinian workers, which lowered their wages. The immigrants of the second Aliyah of 1905 included many socialists. They thought that they needed higher wages for the Jewish workers in order to attract immigrants for the Zionist project. They wanted a "conquest of labor", fighting the landowners for better working conditions, but also trying to exclude Arab workers from these jobs to give them to Jewish workers.
This was the beginning of Labor Zionism, which would overtake Political Zionism as the dominant variety after World War I. Labor Zionism was influenced by socialist ideals, and believed that to build a Jewish state a strong Jewish working class had to be created as well. They established farms called kibbutzim where all the workers collectively owned the land. In 1920 they formed the Histadrut, a trade union that eventually gained control of large sectors of the economy, becoming one of the largest employers for Jewish workers. The secretary of the Histadrut, David Ben-Gurion, became the unofficial leader of the Zionist movement in 1935 when he became chairman of the Jewish Agency. In 1948 he declared the establishment of a Jewish State in the Land of Israel and became Israel's first prime minister.
37th G8 summit
History
The G8 and the summit are part of a consultation process. The G8 is not an international organization. It is an informal group.
Civil Rights Movement
Across the United States
When he was elected in 1913, President Woodrow Wilson made government offices segregated. He believed that segregation was best for everyone.
Zionism
Current views
Some Zionists believe that Israel should control the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Other Zionists support a Two-state solution in which Israel and Palestine are separate countries. The entire region is the subject of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
37th G8 summit
Participants
These summit participants were the current "core members" of the G8:
Invited leaders
Other national leaders are traditionally invited to attend the summit. They participate in some, but not all, G8 summit activities. African leaders who came to Deauville included:
Civil Rights Movement
Across the United States
Black people fought in both World War I and World War II. However, the military was segregated, and they were not given the same opportunities as white soldiers. After activism from black veterans, President Harry Truman de-segregated the military in 1948.
37th G8 summit
Invited leaders
Also invited were:
Civil Rights Movement
Early activism
African Americans tried to fight back against discrimination in many ways. They formed new groups and tried to form labor unions. They tried to use the courts to get justice. For example, in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created. It fought to end race discrimination through lawsuits, education, and lobbying.
37th G8 summit
Schedule and Agenda
Traditionally, the host country of the G8 summit sets the agenda. French general priorities included peace and security.
Discussions included some issues which remained unresolved from previous summits.
Civil Rights Movement
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Schools in the South, and some other parts of the country, had been segregated since 1896. In that year, the Supreme Court had ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that segregation was legal, as long as things were "separate but equal."
Nauvoo, Alabama
Nauvoo is a town in the U.S. state of Alabama.
37th G8 summit
Schedule and Agenda
Some of the specific topics on the agenda were:
World events caused the list of topics to grow, including
Protesters and demonstrations
Protest groups and others organized public events. In these demonstrations, the slogan G8 dégage ("G8 Go Away") was notable.
The demonstrators are widely understood to be against globalisation.
Business opportunity
According to the Mayor of Deauville, "Our main interest is the economic implications."
For some, the G8 summit became a profit-generating event. For example, the G8 Summit magazines have been published under the auspices of the host nations for distribution to all attendees since 1998.
Civil Rights Movement
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
In 1951, thirteen black parents filed a class action lawsuit against the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas. In the lawsuit, the parents argued that the black and white schools were not "separate but equal." They said the black school was much worse than the white one.
The lawsuit eventually went to the United States Supreme Court. After years of work, Thurgood Marshall and a team of other NAACP lawyers won the case. The Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were illegal. All nine Supreme Court judges agreed.
In their decision, the Court said:
"We conclude that, in ... public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."
This was the Civil Rights Movement's first major victory. However, Brown did not reverse Plessy v. Ferguson. Brown made segregation in schools illegal. But segregation in all other places was still legal.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)
Civil rights leaders focused on Montgomery, Alabama, because the segregation there was so extreme. On December 1, 1955, local black leader Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a public bus to make room for a white passenger. Parks and was a civil rights activist and NAACP member; she had just returned from a training on nonviolent civil disobedience. She was arrested.
African-Americans gathered and organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott. They decided they would not ride on the buses again until they were treated the same as whites. Under segregation, blacks could not sit in front of whites - they had to sit in the back of the bus. Also, if a white person told a black person to move so they could sit down, the black person had to.
Most of Montgomery's 50,000 African Americans took part in the boycott. It lasted for 381 days and almost bankrupt the bus system. Meanwhile, the NAACP had been working on a lawsuit about segregation on buses. In 1956, they won the case, and the Supreme Court ordered Alabama to de-segregate its buses. The boycott ended with a victory.
De-segregating Little Rock Central High School (1957)
Then came the black students' first day of school. The Governor of Arkansas called out soldiers from the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the black students from even entering the school. This was against a Supreme Court ruling, so President Dwight D. Eisenhower got involved. He took control of the Arkansas National Guard and ordered them to leave the school. Then he sent soldiers from the United States Army to protect the students. This was an important civil rights victory. It meant the federal government was willing to get involved and force states to end segregation in schools.
Unfortunately, the Little Rock Nine were treated very badly by many of the white students at the school. At the end of the school year, Little Rock Central High School closed so it would not have to allow black students the next year. Other schools across the South did the same thing.
Sit-ins (1958-1960)
Between 1958 and 1960, activists used sit-ins to protest segregation at lunch counters (small restaurants inside stores). They would sit at the lunch counter and politely ask to buy some food. When they were told to leave, they would continue to sit quietly at the counter. Often they would stay until the lunch counter closed. Groups of activists would keep coming back to sit in at the same places until those places agreed to serve African Americans at their lunch counters.
In 1958, the NAACP organized the first sit-in in Wichita, Kansas. They sat in at a lunch counter in a store called Dockum's Drug Store. After three weeks, they got the store to de-segregate. Not long after, all of the Dockum Drug Stores in Kansas were de-segregated. Next, students in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma led a successful sit-in at another drug store.
In 1960, college students (including some white students) began to sit in at a Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina. After a while, they began to sit in at other lunch counters. In the stores that held these lunch counters, sales dropped by one-third. These stores de-segregated to avoid continuing to lose money. After five months of sit-ins, the Woolworth's in Greensboro also de-segregated its lunch counter. Newspapers all over the country wrote about the Greensboro sit-ins. Soon, people started sitting in across the South.
A few days after the Greensboro students started their sit-in, students in Nashville, Tennessee began their own sit-ins. They chose stores in the part of Nashville that had the most businesses. Before starting their sit-ins, they decided they would not be violent, no matter what. They wrote out rules, which activists in other cities began to use also. Their rules said:
"Do not [hit] back or curse if abused. ... Do not block entrances to stores outside [or] the aisles inside. [Be polite] and friendly at all times. Do sit straight; always face the counter. ... Do refer information seekers to your leader in a polite manner. Remember the teachings of Jesus, Gandhi, Martin Luther King. Love and nonviolence is the way."
Many of the Nashville students were attacked and abused by groups of white people; arrested; and even beaten by police. However, the students were always nonviolent. Their protests, and the attacks on them, brought more newspaper stories and attention. It also showed how the activists were truly nonviolent. After three months of sit-ins, all of the lunch counters in Nashville's downtown department stores were de-segregated.
Soon, there were sit-ins all over the country. Sit-ins even happened in Nevada, and in northern states like Ohio. Over 70,000 people, black and white, took part in sit-ins. They used sit-ins to protest all kinds of segregated places - not just lunch counters, but also beaches, parks, museums, libraries, swimming pools, and other public places.
The sit-ins even got the support of President Eisenhower. After the Greensboro sit-ins started, he said he was "deeply sympathetic with the efforts of any group to enjoy the rights of equality that they are guaranteed by the Constitution."
In April 1960, students who had led sit-ins were invited to a conference. At the conference, they decided to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC would become an important group in the civil rights movement.
Freedom Rides (1961)
In 1960, the Supreme Court had ruled in Boynton v. Virginia that it was illegal to segregate people on public transportation that was going from one state to another. In 1961, student activists decided to test whether the Southern states would follow this ruling. Groups of black and white activists decided to ride buses through the South, sitting together instead of segregating themselves. They planned to ride buses from Washington, D.C., to New Orleans, Louisiana. They called these rides the "Freedom Rides."
The Freedom Riders were met with danger and violence. For example:
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) brought in more Freedom Riders to keep the movement going. They were also met with violence:
A new law
However, people around the country began to support the Freedom Riders, who had never used violence, even when being attacked. Eventually, Robert Kennedy, the Attorney General in his brother John F. Kennedy's government, insisted on a new law about de-segregation. It said that:
Voter registration (1961-1965)
Between 1961 and 1965, activist groups worked on trying to get black people registered (signed up) to vote. Since the end of Reconstruction, the Southern states had passed laws and used many strategies to keep black people from registering to vote. Often, these laws did not apply to white people.
Darwin's Arch
Darwin's Arch was a natural rock arch on the southeast of Darwin Island on the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The arch sat on a rocky plateau, nicknamed "the theatre".
José Manuel Martín
José Manuel Martín Pérez (born May 24, 1924) is a retired Spanish actor, radio broadcaster, and screenwriter. He was a popular character actor in Spanish cinema during the 1950s and 60s. He is best remembered for playing villainous henchmen, appearing in more than 100 movie and television productions.
Early life
Martín born in Casavieja, Spain. He studied at Madrid's Teatro Español Universitario and the Lope de Rueda, and began working for Radio Nacional de España in 1942, before making his feature movie debut in César Fernández Ardavín's 1952 war drama La llamada de África starring Ali Beiba Uld Abidin, Yahadid Ben Ahmed Lehbib and Farachi Ben Emboiric.
Career
Martín is particularly noted for his work in the Spaghetti Western genre, alongside regulars such as Aldo Sambrell and Andrea Scotti, with supporting roles in Savage Guns (1961), Gunfighters of Casa Grande (1964), Minnesota Clay(1964), A Pistol for Ringo (1965), Seven Dollars on the Red (1966), Arizona Colt (1966), A Bullet for the General (1966), Blood River (1967), 100 Rifles (1969), and Cut-Throats Nine (1972).
Martín also had memorable roles in EuroHorror movies such as Sax Rohmer's The Castle of Fu Manchu (1969), The Sinister Eyes of Dr. Orloff (1973), Count Dracula's Great Love (1974), and Curse of the Devil (1974).
Civil Rights Movement
Voter registration (1961-1965)
Voter registration activists started out in Mississippi. All of Mississippi's civil rights organizations joined together to try to get people registered. Activist groups in Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina then started similar programs. However, when the activists tried to register black people to vote, police, white racists, and the Ku Klux Klan beat, arrested, shot, and even murdered them.
Darwin's Arch
The arch collapsed because of natural erosion on May 17, 2021, leaving two freestanding pillars.
Civil Rights Movement
Voter registration (1961-1965)
Meanwhile, black people who tried to register to vote were fired from their jobs, thrown out of their homes, beaten, arrested, threatened, and sometimes murdered.
In 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed. It made discrimination illegal, and specifically said it was illegal to have different voter registration requirements for different races. However, even after this law was passed, the Southern states still made it very difficult for black people to vote. Finally, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed. This law included ways to make sure that all United States citizens were getting their right to vote.
Integrating Mississippi universities (1956–1965)
Starting in 1956, a black man named Clyde Kennard wanted to go to Mississippi Southern College. Kennard had served in the Korean War, and he wanted to use the GI Bill to go to college. The college's president, William McCain, asked state politicians and a local racist group who supported segregation to make sure Kennard never got into the college.
Kenner was arrested twice for crimes he never committed. Eventually he was convicted and sentenced to seven years in prison. After Kennard had spent three years in prison doing forced labor, Governor Ross Barnett pardoned him. Journalists had looked into Kennard's case, and wrote that the state did not give Kennard the treatment he needed for his colon cancer. Kennard died that same year. Later, in 2006, a court ruled that Kennard was innocent of the crimes he had been sent to jail for.
Real (hypermarket)
Mein real (stylised mein real, real until 2022 and real,- until 2017) is a German hypermarket chain operating in Germany and earlier in Europe that was part of the German trade and retail giant Metro AG. It was founded in 1992.
Battle of Thermopylae
The Battle of Thermopylae, 480 BC, was a battle in the second Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. It took place at the pass of Thermopylae. The battle was fought for over three days, at the same time as the naval Battle of Artemisium.
Synchronization (computer science)
In computer science, synchronization refers to one of two different but related concepts: synchronization of processes, and synchronization of data.
Process synchronization is commonly used to implement Data synchronization.
Battle of Thermopylae
The preparation
Xerxes had a huge army and navy, and in this Second Persian War set out to conquer all of Greece.
The Athenian general Themistocles suggested the Greek allies should block the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae, and block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium.
A Greek force of about 7,000 men marched north to block the pass in the summer of 480 BC. The huge Persian army arrived at the pass in late August or early September.
The battle
Heavily outnumbered, the Greeks held off the Persians for seven days in total (including three of battle), before the rearguard was annihilated in one of history's most famous last stands.
1244
1244 was a leap year.
Run (island)
It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and mace. Both spices are from the same tree. The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands. During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603. They made good contacts with the people who lived there.
Civil Rights Movement
Integrating Mississippi universities (1956–1965)
In September 1962, James Meredith won a lawsuit that gave him the right to go to the University of Mississippi. He tried three times to get into the university to sign up for classes. Governor Ross Barnett blocked Meredith each time. He told Meredith: "[N]o school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your Governor."
Battle of Thermopylae
The battle
During two full days of battle, the small force led by King Leonidas I of Sparta blocked the only road by which the massive Persian army could pass. After the second day of battle, a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing a small path that led behind the Greek lines. Aware that his force was being outflanked, Leonidas dismissed the bulk of the Greek army, and remained to guard the rear with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians (who refused to leave), 400 Thebans and perhaps a few hundred others. Most of them were killed.
Integron
An integron is a type of transposon, a mobile genetic element. It is a two-part genetic system found in bacteria, and maybe more widely. It is the way antibiotic resistance is passed on so rapidly. It is found in plasmids and chromosomes. Although the first function discovered was antibiotic resistance, other bacterial functions (traits) can be transferred by integrons.
The first part of an integron is a gene which codes for an enzyme which captures cassettes. The second is a site on the genome where the cassettes are inserted, and a promoter which drives expression of cassette-associated genes. "Integron" describes such structures both when no cassettes are present and when there are integrated cassettes. Cassettes can be inserted at the site, they can be cut out, and they can undergo horizontal gene transfer.
Run (island)
Two wars were fought over the extremely costly spices.
Battle of Thermopylae
The battle
The pass at Thermopylae was thus opened to the Persian army according to Herodotus, at the cost to the Persians of up to 20,000 fatalities. The Greek rearguard meanwhile, was annihilated, with a probable loss of 2,000 men, including those killed on the first two days of battle.
The Greek navy
After this engagement, the Greek navy at Artemisium received news of the defeat at Thermopylae. Since their strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, and given their losses, the Greek navy decided to withdraw to Salamis. The Persians then captured the evacuated Athens. During the battle the Greek navy lured the Persians into a narrow pass and obliterated at least 200 Persian war ships, thanks to Themistocles.
Run (island)
The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654. According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England. The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.
Battle of Thermopylae
The Greek navy
Seeking a decisive victory over the Allied fleet, the Persian fleet attacked, but were defeated at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC. Fearing to be trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. The following year, however, saw a Greek army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion.
Littleton, New Hampshire
Littleton is a town in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. As of the 2010 census, 5,928 people lived there.
Battle of Thermopylae
The Greek navy
Both ancient and modern writers have used the Battle of Thermopylae as an example of the power of a patriotic army of freemen defending native soil. The performance of the defenders at the battle of Thermopylae is also used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers and has become a symbol of courage against overwhelming odds.
Boys Like Girls (album)
Boys Like Girls is the debut hit album released in 2006 by rock band Boys Like Girls. The album was recorded in 2005-2006. The album has 4 singles.
Track listing
The album was re-released on November 13, 2007 which contains an acoustic version of "Hero/Heroine" plus live performance videos and photo galleries as part of the enhanced portion of the disc.
Run (island)
After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York. Run was officially given to the Dutch.
Fate/stay night
Fate/stay night (フェイト/ステイナイト) is a Japanese visual novel. It was developed by Type-Moon. At first, it was released as an adult game for Windows. There is a manga series by Datto Nishiwaki based on this visual novel. It was published in Kadokawa Shoten's manga magazine Shōnen Ace. A 24-episode anime series was created by Studio Deen. It aired in Japan between January and June 2006. A second anime television series, Fate/stay night: Unlimited Blade Works was produced by Ufotable. It aired between October 2014 and June 2015.
Run (island)
The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole. This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.
Fate/stay night
Fate/stay night is the "highest selling visual novel" in 2004 of the adult game retailer Getchu.com. Readers of Dengeki G's Magazine ranked the game second in a list of "most interesting bishōjo games" in August 2007.
Corinth, Texas
Corinth is a city in Denton County, Texas, United States. It is a suburb of Dallas and a part of the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex. The population was 19,935 at the 2010 census.
Civil Rights Movement
Integrating Mississippi universities (1956–1965)
Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent United States Marshals to protect Meredith. On September 30, 1962, Meredith was able to enter the college with the Marshals protecting him. However, that evening, students and other racist whites started a riot. They threw rocks and fired guns at the Marshals. Two people were killed; 28 marshals were shot; and another 160 people were hurt. President John F. Kennedy sent the United States Army to the school to stop the riot. Meredith was able to begin classes at the college the day after the Army arrived. Meredith survived harassment and isolation at the college and graduated on August 18, 1963, with a a degree in political science.
Meredith and other activists kept working on de-segregating public universities. In 1965, the first two African American students were able to go to the University of Southern Mississippi.
Birmingham Campaign (1963)
In 1963, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) started a campaign in Birmingham, Alabama. Its goals were to de-segregate the stores in downtown Birmingham; make hiring fair; and create a committee, including blacks and whites, that would make a plan for de-segregating Birmingham's schools. Martin Luther King described Birmingham as "probably the most [completely] segregated city in the United States."
Birmingham's Commissioner of Public Safety was Eugene "Bull" Connor. (A Commissioner of Public Safety is in charge of the police and fire department, and deals with emergencies that could be dangerous to people in the city.) Connor was very much against integration. He often let the police, Ku Klux Klan, and racist white people attack civil rights activists. He promised that blacks and whites would never be integrated in Birmingham.
The activists used a few different non-violent ways of protesting, including sit-ins, "kneel-ins" at local churches, and marches. p. 218 However, the city got a court order saying all protests like this were illegal. The activists knew this was illegal, and in an act of civil disobedience, they refused to follow the court order. p. 108 The protesters, including Martin Luther King, were arrested.
While in jail, King was held in solitary confinement. While there, he wrote his famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail." He was let go after about a week.
The Children's Crusade
However, very few activists could afford to risk being arrested. One of SCLC's leaders then came up with the idea of training high school, college, and elementary school students to take part in the protests. He reasoned that students did not have full-time jobs to go to, they did not have families to take care of, and they could "afford" to be in jail more than their parents.
Newsweek magazine later named this plan the "Children's Crusade." On May 2, more than 600 students, including some as young as 8 years old, tried to march from a local church to City Hall. They were all arrested.
Agreement
People throughout the United States were so angry at seeing these videos that President Kennedy worked with the SCLC and the white businesses in Birmingham to work out an agreement. It said:
Some of Birmingham's whites were not happy with this agreement. They bombed the SCLC's headquarters; the home of King's brother; and a hotel where King had been staying. Thousands of blacks reacted by rioting; some burned buildings and one even stabbed and hurt a police officer. p. 301
On September 15, 1963, the Ku Klux Klan bombed a church in Birmingham, where civil rights activists often met before starting their marches. Since it was a Sunday, church services were going on. The bomb killed four young girls and hurt 22 other people.
"Rising tide of discontent" (1963)
During the spring and summer of 1963, there were protests in over a hundred United States cities, including Northern cities. There were riots in Chicago after a white police officer shot a 14-year-old black boy who was running away from the scene of a robbery. In Philadelphia and Harlem, black activists and white workers fought when the activists tried to integrate state-run construction projects. On June 6, over a thousand white people attacked a sit-in in North Carolina; black activists fought back, and a white man was killed.
In Cambridge, Maryland, white leaders declared martial law to stop fighting between blacks and whites. Attorney General Robert Kennedy had to get involved to create an agreement to de-segregate the city.
On June 11, 1963, Alabama Governor George Wallace actually stood in the doorway of the University of Alabama to stop its first two black students from getting inside. President Kennedy had to send United States soldiers to make him get out of the doorway, and make sure that the black students could get into the school.
Meanwhile, the Kennedy government had become very worried. Black leaders had told Robert Kennedy that it was getting harder and harder for African Americans to be nonviolent when they were getting attacked, and when it was taking so long for the United States government to help them get their civil rights. On the evening of June 11, President Kennedy gave a speech about civil rights. He talked about "a rising tide of discontent [unhappiness] that threatens the public safety." He asked Congress to pass new civil rights laws. He also asked Americans to support civil rights as "a moral issue ... in our daily lives."
In the early morning of June 12, Medgar Evers, a leader of the Mississippi NAACP, was murdered by a Ku Klux Klan member. p. 113 The next week, President Kennedy gave Congress his Civil Rights bill, and asked them to make it into law. p. 126
The March on Washington (1963)
In 1963, civil rights leaders planned a protest march in Washington, D.C. All of the major civil rights groups, some labor unions, and other liberal groups cooperated in planning the march. The march's full name was "The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom." The goals for the march were to get civil rights laws passed; to get the U.S. government to create more jobs; and to get equal, good housing, education, jobs, and voting rights for everyone. However, the most important goal was to get President Kennedy's civil rights law passed. p. 159
Pointless (game show)
Pointless is a British quiz show on BBC One. Who gets the answer that was the said the least gains the point. The team with the highest number of points loses. It is presented by Alexander Armstrong and Sally Lindsay. It now has 10 series and many episodes. In each game there are four teams of two.
SC Rheindorf Altach
The SC Rheindorf Altach is a football club from Altach,Vorarlberg. The club is playing in the Austrian First league, the second division in Austrian football. The official name is Cashpoint Sportclub Rheindorf Altach, due to sponsorship of Austrian sports betting company Cashpoint.
Civil Rights Movement
The March on Washington (1963)
Many people thought it would be impossible for so many activists to come together without violence and rioting. The United States government got 19,000 soldiers ready nearby, in case of riots. Hospitals got ready to treat huge numbers of injured people. The government made selling alcohol in Washington, D.C., illegal for the day. p. 159
SC Rheindorf Altach
The second team (SC Altach Juniors) is playing in the Vorarlbergliga (4th level).
Civil Rights Movement
The March on Washington (1963)
The March on Washington was one of the largest non-violent protests for human rights in United States history. Martin Luther King, Jr., thought that having 100,000 marchers would make the event successful. On August 28, 1963, about 250,000 activists from all over the country came together for the march. The marchers included about 60,000 white people (including church groups and labor union members), and between 75 and 100 members of Congress. p. 160 Together, they marched from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial. There, they listened to civil rights leaders speak.
SC Rheindorf Altach
History
The club was founded on 26 December 1929 as the football section of the gymnastics and sports club Turnerbund Altach. 1930 they started to play in Vorarlberg football. In 1937 the club was dissolved and started again in 1946 as Sportvereinigung Altach. In 1949 this club was dissolved and the football section started under today's name SC Rheindorf Altach.
In the 2013–14 season they won the league and were promoted to the Bundesliga. 2014–15 they finished 3rd in and qualified to UEFA European League. In the 2015-16 season they finished 8th and avoided relegation by five points. 2018-19 and 2019-20 they finished 8th, 2020-21 10th. The 2021-22 season was not good. Due to the fact that Altach is at the end of the table headcoach Damir Canadi was dismissed in December 2021. In January 2022 Ludovic Magnin became new headcoach of the team. After the return og Magnin to Swizerland Miroslav Klose became new headchoach.
Current squad
The club has also a amateur team playing in the Vorarlbergliga (4th division). A football academy is also part of the club. ( AKA Hypo Vorarlberg).
Civil Rights Movement
The March on Washington (1963)
Historians have said that the March on Washington helped get President Kennedy's civil rights bill passed.
Malcolm X joins the movement (1964)
Malcolm X was an American minister who converted to Islam in prison, around 1948. He became a member of the Nation of Islam. p. 138 This group believed in black supremacy - that the black race was the best of all. They believed that blacks should be completely independent from whites, and should eventually return to Africa. pp.127–128, 132–138 pp. 149–152 They also believed that black people had the right to fight back and use violence to get their rights. Because of this, Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam did not support the civil rights movement, because it was non-violent and supported integration. pp. 79–80
However, in March 1964, Malcolm X was kicked out of the Nation of Islam, because he had disagreements with the group's leader, Elijah Muhammad. He offered to work with other civil rights groups, if they accepted that blacks had the right to defend themselves.
Between 1963 and 1964, civil rights activists got more angry and more likely to fight back against whites. In April 1964, Malcolm gave a famous speech called "The Ballot or the Bullet." ("The ballot" means "voting.") In the speech, he said that if the U.S. government is "unwilling or unable to defend the lives and the property of Negroes," then African Americans should defend themselves. p. 43 He warned politicians that many African Americans were not willing "to turn the other cheek any longer." p. 25 Then he warned white America about what would happen if blacks were not allowed to vote:
[I]f we don't cast a ballot, it's going to end up in a situation where we're going to have to cast a bullet. It's either a ballot or a bullet. ... There's new strategy coming in. It'll be Molotov cocktails this month, hand grenades next month, and something else next month. It'll be ballots, or it'll be bullets. p.30
Mississippi Freedom Summer (1964)
In the summer of 1964, civil rights groups brought almost 1,000 activists to Mississippi. Most of them were white college students. p. 66 Their goals were to work together with black activists to register voters, and to teach summer school to black children in "Freedom Schools." They also wanted to help create the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). At the time, only white people could take part in the Mississippi Democratic Party. The MFDP was planned as another political party that would allow black and white Democrats to take part in politics.
Many white Mississippians were angry that people from other states were coming in and trying to change their society. Government workers, police, the Ku Klux Klan, and other racist whites used many strategies to attack the activists and black people who were trying to register to vote. The Freedom Summer project lasted for ten weeks. During that time, 1,062 activists were arrested; 80 were beaten; and 4 were killed. Three black Mississippians were murdered because they supported civil rights. Thirty-seven churches, and thirty black homes or businesses, were bombed or burned.
On June 21, 1964, three Freedom Summer activists disappeared. Weeks later, their bodies were found. They had been murdered by members of the local Ku Klux Klan - including some who were also police in the Neshoba County sheriff's department. When people were searching for their bodies in local swamps and rivers, they found the bodies of a 14-year-old boy and seven other men who also seemed to have been murdered at some time.
During Freedom Summer, activists set up at least 30 Freedom Schools, and taught about 3,500 students. The students included children, adults, and the elderly. The schools taught about many things, like black history; civil rights; politics; the freedom movement; and the basic reading and writing skills needed to vote.
Also during the summer, about 17,000 black Mississippians tried to register to vote. Only 1,600 were able to. However, more than 80,000 joined the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). This showed that they wanted to vote and take part in politics, not just let white people do it for them.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
John F. Kennedy's suggested civil rights bill had support from Northern members of Congress - both Democrats and Republicans. However, Southern Senators blocked the suggested law from passing. They filibustered for 54 days to block the bill from becoming a law. Finally, President Lyndon B. Johnson got a bill to pass.
48
48 is a year in the 1st century. It was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vitellius and Poplicola.
Civil Rights Movement
Civil Rights Act of 1964
On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The law said:
King awarded Nobel Peace Prize (1964)
In December 1964, Martin Luther King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. When giving him the award, the Chairman of the Nobel Committee said: Today, now that mankind [has] the atom bomb, the time has come to lay our weapons and armaments aside and listen to the message Martin Luther King has given us[:] "The choice is either nonviolence or nonexistence"....
[King] is the first person in the Western world to have shown us that a struggle can be [fought] without violence. He is the first to make the message of brotherly love a reality in the course of his struggle, and he has brought this message to all men, to all nations and races.
Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965)
In January 1965, Martin Luther King and the SCLC went to Selma, Alabama. Civil rights groups there had asked them to come help get black people registered to vote. At the time, 99% of the people registered to vote in Selma were white. Together, they started working on voting rights.
However, the next month, an African-American man named Jimmie Lee Jackson was shot by a police officer during a peaceful march. Jackson died. pp. 121–123 Many African-American people were very angry. The SCLC was worried that people were so angry that they would get violent.
The SCLC decided to organize a march from Selma to Montgomery. This would be a 54-mile (87-kilometer) march. Activists hoped the march would show how badly African-Americans wanted to vote. They also wanted to show that they would not let racism or violence stop them from getting equal rights.
The first march was on March 7, 1965. Police officers and racist whites attacked the marchers with clubs and tear gas. They threatened to throw the marchers off the Edmund Pettus Bridge. Seventeen marchers had to go to the hospital, and 50 others were also injured. This day came to be called Bloody Sunday. Pictures and film of the marchers being beaten were shown in newspapers and on television around the world.
Seeing these things made more people support the civil rights activists. People came from all over the United States to march with the activists. One of them, James Reeb, was attacked by white people for supporting civil rights. He died on March 11, 1965.
Finally, President Johnson decided to send soldiers from the United States Army and the Alabama National Guard to protect the marchers. From March 21 to March 25, the marchers walked along the "Jefferson Davis Highway" from Selma to Montgomery. On March 25, 25,000 people entered Montgomery. Martin Luther King gave a speech called "How Long? Not Long" at the Alabama State Capitol. He told the marchers that it would not be long before they had equal rights, "because the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice."
After the march, Viola Liuzzo, a white woman from Detroit, drove some other marchers to the airport. While she was driving back, she was murdered by three members of the Ku Klux Klan.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965
On August 6, 1965, the United States passed the Voting Rights Act. This law made it illegal to stop somebody from voting because of their race. This meant that all the state laws that kept black people from voting were now illegal.
For almost 100 years, registrars (the government workers who had registered people to vote) were all white. They had total power over who they could register and who they would not register. If a registrar refused to let a black person register, that person could only file a lawsuit, which they were not likely to win. However, the Voting Rights Act finally made a change to this system. If a registrar discriminated against black people, the Attorney General could send federal workers to replace local registrars.
The law worked right away. Within a few months, 250,000 new black voters had signed up to vote. One out of every three of them was registered by a federal worker who replaced a racist registrar. In 1965, 74% of Mississippi's black voters actually voted, and more black politicians were elected in Mississippi than in any other state. By 1967, most African Americans were registered to vote in 9 of the 13 states in the South.
Politics in the South were completely changed by African Americans having the power to vote. White politicians could no longer make laws about African Americans without blacks having a say. In many parts of the South, black people outnumbered whites. This meant that they could vote in black politicians, and vote out racist whites. Also, black people who were registered to vote could be on juries. Before this, any time an African American was charged with a crime, the jury that decided whether they were guilty would be all-white.
Fair housing movements (1966-1968)
From 1966 to 1968, the civil rights movement focused a lot on fair housing. Even outside the South, fair housing was a problem. For example, in 1963, California passed a Fair Housing Act which made segregation in housing illegal. White voters and real estate lobbyists got the law reversed the next year. This helped cause the Watts Riots. (Later, in 1966, California made the Fair Housing Act the law again. )
Activists, including Martin Luther King, led a movement for fair housing in Chicago in 1966. The next year, young NAACP members did the same in Milwaukee. Activists in both cities got attacked physically by white homeowners, and legally by politicians who supported segregation.