cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Notre-Dame de Paris
The bronze plate in the parvis before the cathedral is the origin of all road distances in France calculated from Paris. The national geographic institute in France uses the building as a benchmark. The coordinates and altitude for this point are known precisely.
Tradition has it that Notre-Dame’s first stone was laid in 1163 in the presence of Pope Alexander III.
On May 21, 2013 French historian Dominique Venner committed suicide at Notre Dame de Paris because of his beliefs for gay rights. About 1,500 people were evacuated from the cathedral.
2019 fire
On 15 April 2019, smoke and flames were sighted and the Cathedral was declared to be on fire. The fire burnt for over half a day and caused massive damage. Most works of art in the cathedral could be saved. The French government announced that the damage would be repaired and the cathedral would be rebuilt.
13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi
13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi (also known simply as 13 Hours) is a 2016 American biographical war action thriller movie  directed and produced by Michael Bay and written by Chuck Hogan. The movie is about six members of Annex Security Team who fought to defend the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, Libya after waves of attacks by militants on September 11, 2012. The movie stars James Badge Dale, John Krasinski, Pablo Schreiber, Max Martini, David Denman and Dominic Fumusa with supporting roles by Toby Stephens, Alexia Barlier and David Costabile.
The movie was released on January 15, 2016, by Paramount Pictures to mixed reviews.
The movie was nominated for an Oscar for Best Sound Mixing.
Stefon Diggs
Stefon Marsean Diggs (born November 29, 1993) is an American football wide receiver for the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Maryland. He was drafted by the Minnesota Vikings in the fifth round of the 2015 NFL Draft.
Human mission to Mars
A human mission to Mars has been seen in science fiction since the 1880s, and of aerospace engineering and scientific proposals since the late 1940s.
Plans include landing on Mars for exploration at a minimum, with some thinking about exploring its moons Phobos and Deimos.
The exploration of Mars has been a goal of national space programs for many years with planned missions typically being stated as taking place anywhere between 10 and 30 years.
Many spacecrafts have already landed on Mars and they include: Landed spacecraft on the surface of Mars: Mars 3, Viking 1, Viking 2, Mars Pathfinder and its Sojourner rover, Spirit, Opportunity, Phoenix, Curiosity, InSight, Beagle2 and Perseverance.
In April 2021, the Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment was able to create oxygen in the Martian atmosphere by using carbon dioxide. Many believe this is the first step for a human mission to Mars as it will help humans create breathable oxygen.
Sargon
Sargon may refer to different rulers. The name Sargon is what texts in the Bible use, the people were not known as Sargon in their native language:
Lorquí
Lorquí is a municipality of 7,141 people (2019). It is found in the province and autonomous community of Murcia in Spain.
Henry Benedict Stuart
Henry Benedict Maria Clement Thomas Francis Xavier Stuart (11 March 1725 - 13 July 1807) was a Roman Catholic Cardinal, as well as the fourth and final Jacobite heir to publicly claim the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Unlike his father, James Francis Edward Stuart, and brother, Charles Edward Stuart, Henry made no effort to seize the throne. After Charles's death in January 1788 the Pope did not recognise Henry as the lawful ruler of England, Scotland and Ireland, but referred to him as the Cardinal Duke of York.
He spent his life in the Papal States and had a long career in the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church, rising to become the Dean of the College of Cardinals and Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia and Velletri. At the time of his death he was (and still is) one of the longest serving Cardinals in the Church's history.
When he was young, Henry's father made him Duke of York (in the Jacobite peerage), and that was how he was best known. Upon the death of his brother in 1788 Henry became known by Jacobites, and within his personal entourage, as Henry IX of England, although publicly he referred to himself as Cardinal-Duke of York nuncupatus.
Early life
Henry was born in exile at Rome on 6 March 1725 and baptized on the same day by Pope Benedict XIII, 37 years after his grandfather James II and VII lost the throne, and ten years after his father's failed attempt to regain it. His father was James Francis Edward Stuart, known to his opponents as "the Old Pretender". His mother was the Princess Maria Klementyna Sobieska, granddaughter of the Polish King, John III Sobieski.
Henry went to France in 1745 to help his brother, Prince Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie", or "the Young Pretender") prepare the Jacobite campaign of that year. After its defeat, Henry Stuart returned to Italy. On 30 June 1747 Pope Benedict XIV conferred him with tonsure and created him Cardinal-Deacon of S. Maria in Portico in special consistory held on the 3 July 1747. On 27 August 1747 he was promoted to the four minor orders by the Pope. He received the subdiaconate on 18 August 1748 and diaconate on 25 August 1748. He was ordained priest on 1 September 1748 and consecrated titular Archbishop of Corinth on 2 October 1758.
He was made Cardinal Priest in 1748, and Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati on 13 July 1761. When he became the senior cardinal Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals on 26 September 1803, he transferred to the See of Ostia and Velletri.
French Revolution and later life
At one point Henry was very rich,
At the time of the French Revolution, he lost the land and income he was given by the French king, and spent a lot of his money helping Pope Pius VI. This, in addition to the seizure of his Frascati property by the French, caused him to descend into poverty. The British Minister in Venice arranged for Henry to receive an annuity of £4,000 from King George III of Great Britain. Although the British government said this as an act of charity, Henry and the Jacobites called it to be a first installment on the money which was legally owed to him. (For many years the British government had promised to return the English dowry of his grandmother, Mary of Modena, but had never done so.)
Henry returned to Frascati in 1803. In September of that year he became the Dean of the College of Cardinals and hence Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Velletri, though he still lived in the episcopal palace at Frascati. He died there on 13 July 1807, aged 82.
Henry was the last claimant to the English throne to touch for the King's Evil (see Royal Touch).
After death
Contrary to popular belief, he did not leave the Crown Jewels to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV of the United Kingdom. All his property was entrusted to Monsignor Angelo Cesarini, for distribution. Cesarini sent the Prince of Wales several jewels from Henry's private collection. These included a "Lesser George" insignia (thought to have been worn by Charles I at his execution, and now at Windsor Castle) and a St Andrew's Cross (now at Edinburgh Castle), which is an insignia of the order of the Thistle, and also a ruby ring.
He was a cardinal elector in the papal conclaves of 1758, 1769, 1774-75 and 1799-1800.
David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was the British Prime Minister during the last half of World War I. He was Prime Minister for six years, between 1916 and 1922.
Early life
Lloyd George was born in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, Lancashire, England to Welsh parents. His father, who died before Lloyd George was two-years old, was a teacher and a farmer. When he was young, he lived with his mother and his brother. When he was 21, Lloyd George became a lawyer and opened an office in the back of his brother's house.
Robert Smith (murderer)
Robert Smith was the last public hanging in Scotland and the second-to-last public hanging in the United Kingdom, only succeeded by Michael Barrett. He was convicted of the murder of a girl. He was hanged May 12, 1868.
David Lloyd George
Political career
Lloyd George's law practice was a success. Shortly after opening it, Lloyd George became interested in politics. He began working with the Liberal Party. He was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) on 13 April 1890. Lloyd George would serve as an MP until 1945. In the House of Commons, Lloyd George worked to promote Welsh issues, fought against the Second Boer War and campaigned for education reform.
In 1905, Lloyd George was selected to become a cabinet minister. He served as President of the Board of Trade (1905–1908) and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908–1915). After World War I started, he held the positions of Minister of Munitions (1915) and War Secretary (1916).
By the end of 1916, the war was going badly for Great Britain. Lloyd George gathered together a coalition (a type of political team) of Liberal and Conservative MPs to form a new government. On 5 December 1916, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith resigned, and Lloyd George took his place. Lloyd George's government introduced conscription (forcing men to join the armed forces) and rationing (placing limits on the amount of food someone can buy) by the end of the war.
After the war, Lloyd George represented Britain at the Versailles Peace Conference and helped create the Irish Free State. By 1922, Lloyd George's coalition was breaking apart. In October 1922, the Conservative Party led by Andrew Bonar Law won the election. Lloyd George remained an MP, however, until 1945.
In 1945, he was given the titles Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor and Viscount Gwynedd. He was to take a seat in the House of Lords, but he died before he could do so.
References
Notes <references group="lower-alpha"/>
Survivor (TV series)
Survivor is a popular reality television game show produced in many countries throughout the world. In the show, contestants are isolated in a remote location and compete for cash and other prizes. The format for Survivor was created in the UK in 1992 by Charlie Parsons, and the first production of it was the Swedish show Expedition: Robinson in 1997. The US version is commonly considered the mother of American reality TV shows because it was the first highly rated and profitable reality show on broadcast television in the USA. The show even has its own "reality coaster" at Paramount's Great America in Santa Clara, CA, called Survivor: The Ride!.
Starks, Louisiana
Starks is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana, United States.
Timothy Faherty
Timothy Faherty was one of the last public hangings in the United Kingdom. He was convicted of the murder of Mary Hammer and was hanged in public April 4, 1868. The United Kingdom hanged two other men that day as well, including Miles Wetherill.
Henry Royce
Sir Henry Royce was born 27 March 1863 and died 22 April 1933. He made cars, and with Charles Stewart Rolls started the Rolls-Royce company.
He was born in Alwalton, Huntingdonshire which is near Peterborough as the youngest child of five.
Young and Wild (1958 movie)
Young and Wild is a 1958 crime movie directed by William Witney and starring Gene Evans, Scott Marlowe, Robert Arthur, Tom Gilson, Ken Lynch, Morris Ankrum, John Zaremba. It was distributed by Republic Pictures.
Izé
Izé is a commune of 477 people (1999). It is found in the Pays de la Loire region in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Carola Schouten
Cornelia Johanna "Carola" Schouten (born October 6, 1977 in 's-Hertogenbosch) is a Dutch politician of the ChristianUnion (ChristenUnie). She is a Minister and also a Deputy Prime Minister.
Schouten spent her youth on a farm in Giessen, a village in the Land of Heusden and Altena (a region in the very north of the Province of North Brabant).
She studied business administration at Erasmus University Rotterdam, and worked afterwards at the Social Affairs Ministry and as an assistant to the ChristianUnion parliamentary group.
In 2011 she was chosen into the Second Chamber. She participated in political negotiations in 2012 and in the government negotiations of 2017.
From 2017 to 2022 she was minister of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality and also third Deputy Prime Minister in the Third Rutte cabinet. Since January 2022 she has been minister for Poverty Policy, Participation and Pensions and also third Deputy Prime Minister in the Fourth Rutte cabinet.
Carola Schouten is single with one child. She is a member of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated).
Division of Tangney
The Division of Tangney is an Australian electoral division in the state of Western Australia. It was named after Dame Dorothy Tangney, the first woman in the Australian Senate. it was set up in 1974.
It covers most of the City of Melville and a large part of the City of Canning. In Melville it includes the suburbs of:
In Canning it includes the suburbs of:
Members
John Dawkins later became Treasurer of Australia (as Member for Fremantle). Daryl Williams, was Attorney-General of Australia in the Howard Government and Rhodes Scholar.
Twins (1988 movie)
Twins (rendered in its title sequence logo as TWiiNS) is a 1988 American buddy comedy movie produced and directed by Ivan Reitman. It is about unlikely twins (Arnold Schwarzenegger and Danny DeVito) who were separated at birth.
The movie was a commercial success, grossing $216 million worldwide. Schwarzenegger and DeVito both agreed with the studio to take 20% of the movie's box office returns; this resulted in them receiving the biggest paychecks of their movie careers.
Mazarrón
Mazarrón is a municipality of 32,209 people (2019). It is found in the province and autonomous community of Murcia in Spain.
Charles Brooks
Charles Brooks was the first person to be executed by lethal injection in the United States. He was executed by lethal injection by Texas on December 7, 1982.
Although Oklahoma was the first State to legislate execution by lethal injection, the method was not administered until 1990. Among the first ten men executed by lethal injection in the U.S., all were done by Texas, three of whom had the first name of Charles.
Trégastel
Trégastel is a commune. It is found in the region Bretagne in the Côtes-d'Armor department in the west of France.
Sister cities
These are the official sister cities of Trégastel:
Rennes School of Business
Rennes School of Business is an European higher studies establishment. The school is in Rennes, France. It has been established in 1990.
Rennes SB is specialist in the fields of economics, social sciences and management.
Cruise ship
A cruise ship (or cruise liner or ocean liner, though the latter mainly refers to cruise ships which cross the ocean) is a large ship with sleeping cabins and other facilities that takes people on holiday and vacation trips. Hundreds of thousands of people take cruises each year.
Today's cruise ships are like floating hotels. They have a complete "hospitality staff" (to serve food and help passengers in other ways) as well as the usual ship's crew. The largest cruise ships have casinos, shops, many restaurants, theaters for both live entertainment and movies, several pools, day care, a gym, and a running track. The most expensive cruises often have more crew and staff than passengers. This means that the people who control the cruise can give many personal services.
Today, hundreds of cruise ships sail all over the world. Some carry over 3,000 passengers. These are some of the largest ships ever built. For some places, such as Antarctica, because it lacks other methods of regular transport, cruise ships are one of the few ways for tourists to visit.
Javron-les-Chapelles
Javron-les-Chapelles is a commune of 1,473 people (2006). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Cruise ship
There's also cruise type vessels that have permanent residences. Like the World Ship and MS Utopia.
Hamza Hamry
Hamza Hamry (حمزة حمري; born 12 January 1995 in Kairouan) nicknamed The Joker, is a Tunisian he is a former judoka and professional mixed martial artist and professional bareknuckle boxer competing in the Featherweight division of the Extreme Fighting Series. he is the first fighter that was born and raised in an Arab country to be signed with BYB.
Rod Bernard
Rod Bernard (August 12, 1940 – July 12, 2020) was an American pop singer. He helped create the genre "swamp pop". He was born in Opelousas, Louisiana. His career began in 1957. His best known singles were "Diggy Liggy Lo" and "This Should Go On Forever".
Bernard died on July 12, 2020 at the age of 79.
Strontium
Strontium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sr. It has the atomic number 38. It is a metal. The colour of the metal is silver-white or yellow-silver. The metal is soft, and highly reactive chemically.
Ascaphidae
Ascaphidae is a family of frogs. They are called tailed frogs because they have an organ that looks like a tail. The tail helps them to live in fast-moving streams. They live in North America.
Ama, Louisiana
Ama is a census-designated place (CDP) in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana, United States.
Strontium
In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkaline earth metals. Strontium has a high chemical reactivity. The metal turns yellow when exposed to air. Strontium has properties similar to those of its two vertical neighbours in the periodic table, calcium and barium.
It is found naturally in the minerals celestite and strontianite. The 90Sr isotope is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.9 years.
Patrick Devedjian
Patrick Devedjian (Պատրիկ Դևեջյան; 26 August 1944 – 29 March 2020) was a French politician. He was a member of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) party. He was a close adviser of Nicolas Sarkozy, starting in the 1990s.
From 1983 to 2002, he was Mayor of Antony. He was Minister under the Prime Minister in charge of the Implementation of the Recovery Plan beginning in December 2008. In 2007, Devedjian became President of the General Council of Hauts-de-Seine.
Devedjian was born in Fontainebleau, Seine-et-Marne. He died on 29 March 2020 of COVID-19 in Antony, aged 75.
Post-Soviet states
The post-Soviet states, also known as the former Soviet Union (FSU), the former Soviet Republics and in Russia as the near abroad (ближнее зарубежье), are the 15 sovereign states that were union republics of the Soviet Union, which emerged and re-emerged from the Soviet Union following its dissolution in 1991.
Russia is the main de facto internationally recognized successor state to the Soviet Union after the Cold War. Ukraine has, by law, claimed that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the Soviet Union which stayed under dispute over formerly Soviet-owned areas.
The three Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania – were the first to declare their independence from the USSR, between March and May 1990. They claimed continuity from the original states that existed before to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940. The remaining 12 republics all left after. All 12 of these republics joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and most of the 12 joining the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). However, the Baltic states focused on European Union (EU) and NATO membership. EU officials have made clear the importance of Association Agreements between the EU and post-Soviet states.
Many disputed states with varying degrees of recognition exist within the territory of the former Soviet Union. These are Transnistria in eastern Moldova, Abkhazia and South Ossetia in northern Georgia and Artsakh in southwestern Azerbaijan. Since 2014, the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic in far eastern Ukraine have claimed independence. All of these unrecognized states except Artsakh depend on Russian armed support and financial aid. Artsakh is part of Armenia at a de facto level, which also maintains close cooperation with Russia. Before its annexation by Russia in March 2014, which was not recognized by most countries, Crimea shortly declared itself an independent state.
Country comparison
The 15 states may be divided into four subregions. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).
Politics
Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2021 report listed the following:
Similarly, the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2022 recorded the following for press freedom:
It has been said that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019, and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005. Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself. His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, has kept a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov.
The issue of dynastical succession has been another thing affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev, after creating an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound. The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.
Separatist conflicts
Economic, political, national, military, and social problems have all been reasons of separatism in the post-Soviet era. In many cases, problems because of reasons such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open. Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:
Windows Media Player
Windows Media Player is a digital media player made by Microsoft. It is already installed on Microsoft Windows operating systems, and an older version is available for some Apple Macintosh operating systems. The program allows people to watch certain video files and play music files that are in a compatible file format. How the program looks can also be changed with skins, and it can be made small enough to fit on the taskbar.
Post-Soviet states
Civil wars
Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:
Molina de Segura
Molina de Segura is a municipality of 71,890 people (2019). It is found in the province and autonomous community of Murcia in Spain.
Jonathan Collier
Jonathan Collier is an American television writer. He is best known for his work on The Simpsons, Monk, King of the Hill and Bones. He worked as an executive producer on Mike Reiss's DVD movie, Queer Duck: The Movie. He attended and graduated from Harvard University.
Urbi et Orbi
Urbi et Orbi ("to the City of Rome and to the World") was a standard opening of proclamations in Imperial Rome.
Miles Wetherill
Miles Wetherill, or sometimes Miles Weatherill, was one of the last public hangings in the United Kingdom. He was convicted of the murders of Rev. Plow and his maid. He was hanged April 4, 1868. The United Kingdom hanged two other men that day as well, including Timothy Faherty.
Urbi et Orbi
Now Urbi et Orbi refers to a papal address and Apostolic Blessing that is addressed to the City of Rome and to the entire world from the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. Usually they are only given at Christmas and Easter, but also the first speech of a new pope is Urbi et Orbi, and sometimes one is given to special gatherings of pilgrims in Rome and during Holy Years
The blessing after the speech is given in Latin, and usually many other languages too. Catholics who listen to the blessing, either because they are present at the Vatican or because they are listening to the radio or television broadcasts, have their sins forgiven because the blessing includes a plenary indulgence.
Universe
The universe is all of time and space and its contents. It is made of many millions of billions of stars and planets and enormous clouds of gas separated by a big space. The Big Bang created the universe.
Astronomers can use telescopes to look at very distant galaxies. This is how they see what the universe looked like a long time ago. This is because the light from distant parts of the Universe takes a very long time to reach us. From these observations, it seems the physical laws and constants of the Universe have not changed.
Helena Rakoczy
Helena Rakoczy (née Krzynówek; 23 December 1921 – 2 September 2014), also Rákóczy or Rákóczi, was a Polish gymnast. She competed in two Summer Olympic Games: 1952 in Helsinki, Finland and 1956 in Melbourne, Australia. After a poor performance in 1952, she had a successful one in 1956, winning a bronze medal. After this, she became the most decorated gymnast from Poland.
Rakoczy was born in Kraków. In 2004, she was added to the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame.
Rakoczy died from natural causes on 2 September 2014 in Kraków, aged 92.
Universe
History
People have long had ideas to explain the Universe. Most early ideas had the Earth at the centre of the Universe. This is known as geocentrism.
Some ancient Greeks thought that the Universe has infinite space and has existed forever. They thought it had a set of celestial spheres which corresponded to the fixed stars, the Sun and various planets. The spheres circled about a round but unmoving Earth.
Over hundreds of years, better observations led to Copernicus's Sun-centred model, known as heliocentrism. This was very controversial at the time, and was fought by religious authorities, most famously by the Christian church (see Giordano Bruno and Galileo).
The invention of the telescope in the Netherlands, 1608, was a very important moment in astronomy. By the middle of the 1800s, telescopes were good enough for other galaxies to be seen. The modern optical (uses visible light) telescope is still more advanced. Meanwhile, Isaac Newton improved the ideas of gravity and dynamics (equations) and showed how the Solar System worked.
In the 1900s, even better telescopes showed astronomers that the Solar System is in a galaxy made of billions of stars, which we call the Milky Way. Other galaxies exist outside it, as far as we can see. This started a new kind of astronomy called cosmology, in which astronomers study what these galaxies are made of and how they are spread out through so they can learn more about the history of the Universe and how it works. By measuring the redshift of galaxies, cosmologists soon discovered that the Universe is expanding (see: Hubble).
Big Bang
The most used scientific model of the Universe is known as the Big Bang theory, which says the Universe expanded from a single point that held all the matter and energy of the Universe. There are many kinds of scientific evidence that support the Big Bang idea. Astronomers think that the Big Bang happened about 13.73 billion years ago, making the Universe 13.73 billion years old. Since then, the universe has expanded to be at least 93 billion light years, or 8.80 metres, in diameter. It is still expanding right now, and the expansion is getting faster.
Some parts of the universe are expanding even faster than the speed of light. This means the light will never be able to reach us here on Earth, so we will never be able to see these parts of the universe. We call the part of the universe we can see the observable universe.
Myths
The word Universe comes from the Old French word Univers, which comes from the Latin word universum. The Latin word was used by Cicero and later Latin authors in many of the same senses as the modern English word is used.
A different interpretation (way to interpret) of unvorsum is "everything rotated as one" or "everything rotated by one". This refers to an early Greek model of the Universe. In that model, all matter was in rotating spheres centered on the Earth; according to Aristotle, the rotation of the outermost sphere was responsible for the motion and change of everything within. It was natural for the Greeks to assume that the Earth was stationary and that the heavens rotated about the Earth, because careful astronomical and physical measurements (such as the Foucault pendulum) are required to prove otherwise.
The most common term for "Universe" among the ancient Greek philosophers from Pythagoras onwards was το παν (The All), defined as all matter (το ολον) and all space (το κενον).
Broadest meaning
The broadest word meaning of the Universe is found in De divisione naturae by the medieval philosopher Johannes Scotus Eriugena, who defined it as simply everything: everything that exists and everything that does not exist.
Time is not considered in Eriugena's definition; thus, his definition includes everything that exists, has existed and will exist, as well as everything that does not exist, has never existed and will never exist. This all-embracing definition was not adopted by most later philosophers, but something similar is in quantum physics.
Definition as reality
Usually the Universe is thought to be everything that exists, has existed, and will exist. This definition says that the Universe is made of two elements: space and time, together known as space-time or the vacuum; and matter and different forms of energy and momentum occupying space-time. The two kinds of elements behave according to physical laws, in which we describe how the elements interact.
A similar definition of the term universe is everything that exists at a single moment of time, such as the present or the beginning of time, as in the sentence "The Universe was of size 0".
In Aristotle's book The Physics, Aristotle divided το παν (everything) into three roughly analogous elements: matter (the stuff of which the Universe is made), form (the arrangement of that matter in space) and change (how matter is created, destroyed or altered in its properties, and similarly, how form is altered). Physical laws were the rules governing the properties of matter, form and their changes. Later philosophers such as Lucretius, Averroes, Avicenna and Baruch Spinoza altered or refined these divisions. For example, Averroes and Spinoza have active principles governing the Universe which act on passive elements.
Space-time definitions
It is possible to form space-times, each existing but not able to touch, move, or change (interact with each other. An easy way to think of this is a group of separate soap bubbles, in which people living on one soap bubble cannot interact with those on other soap bubbles. According to one common terminology, each "soap bubble" of space-time is denoted as a universe, whereas our particular space-time is denoted as the Universe, just as we call our moon the Moon. The entire collection of these separate space-times is denoted as the multiverse. In principle, the other unconnected universes may have different dimensionalities and topologies of space-time, different forms of matter and energy, and different physical laws and physical constants, although such possibilities are speculations.
Observable reality
According to a still-more-restrictive definition, the Universe is everything within our connected space-time that could have a chance to interact with us and vice versa.
According to the general idea of relativity, some regions of space may never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the Universe, due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space, even if the Universe would exist forever; space may expand faster than light can traverse it.
It is worth emphasizing that those distant regions of space are taken to exist and be part of reality as much as we are; yet we can never interact with them, even in principle. The spatial region within which we can affect and be affected is denoted as the observable universe.
Basic data on the Universe
The Universe is huge. The matter which can be seen is spread over a space at least 93 billion light years across. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is only 30,000 light-years, and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is only 3 million light-years. As an example, our Milky Way Galaxy is roughly 100,000 light years in diameter, and our nearest sister galaxy, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light years away. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).
Typical galaxies range from dwarf galaxies with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with one trillion (1012) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Thus, a very rough estimate from these numbers would suggest there are around one sextillion (1021) stars in the observable Universe; though a 2003 study by Australian National University astronomers resulted in a figure of 70 sextillion (7 x 1022).
The matter that can be seen is spread throughout the Universe when averaged over distances longer than 300 million light-years. However, on smaller length-scales, matter is observed to form 'clumps', many atoms are condensed into stars, most stars into galaxies, most galaxies into galaxy groups and clusters and, lastly, the largest-scale structures such as the Great Wall of galaxies.
The Universe is old, and changing. The best good guess of the Universe's age is 13.798±0.037 billion years old, based on what was seen of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Independent estimates (based on measurements such as radioactive dating) agree, although they are less precise, ranging from 11 to 20 billion years. to 13–15 billion years.
The Universe has not been the same at all times in its history. This getting bigger accounts for how Earth-bound people can see the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away, even if that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the very space between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey. The rate of this spatial expansion is accelerating, based on studies of Type Ia supernovae and other data.
The relative amounts of different chemical elements — especially the lightest atoms such as hydrogen, deuterium and helium — seem to be identical in all of the Universe and throughout all of the history of it that we know of. The Universe seems to have much more matter than antimatter. The Universe appears to have no net electric charge. Gravity is the dominant interaction at cosmological distances. The Universe also seems to have no net momentum or angular momentum. The absence of net charge and momentum is expected if the Universe is finite.
The Universe appears to have a smooth space-time continuum made of three spatial dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension. On the average, space is very nearly flat (close to zero curvature), meaning that Euclidean geometry is experimentally true with high accuracy throughout most of the Universe. However, the Universe may have more dimensions, and its spacetime may have a multiply connected global topology.
Special relativity holds in all the Universe in local space and time. Otherwise, general relativity holds. There is no explanation for the particular values that physical constants appear to have throughout our Universe, such as Planck's constant h or the gravitational constant G. Several conservation laws have been identified, such as the conservation of charge, conservation of momentum, conservation of angular momentum and conservation of energy.
General theory of relativity
Accurate predictions of the Universe's past and future require an accurate theory of gravitation. The best theory available is Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which has passed all experimental tests so far. However, since rigorous experiments have not been carried out on cosmological length scales, general relativity could conceivably be inaccurate. Nevertheless, its predictions appear to be consistent with observations, so there is no reason to adopt another theory.
General relativity provides of a set of ten nonlinear partial differential equations for the spacetime metric (Einstein's field equations) that must be solved from the distribution of mass-energy and momentum throughout the Universe. Since these are unknown in exact detail, cosmological models have been based on the cosmological principle, which states that the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic. In effect, this principle asserts that the gravitational effects of the various galaxies making up the Universe are equivalent to those of a fine dust distributed uniformly throughout the Universe with the same average density. The assumption of a uniform dust makes it easy to solve Einstein's field equations and predict the past and future of the Universe on cosmological time scales.
Big Bang model
The prevailing Big Bang model accounts for many of the experimental observations described above, such as the correlation of distance and redshift of galaxies, the universal ratio of hydrogen:helium atoms, and the ubiquitous, isotropic microwave radiation background. As noted above, the redshift arises from the metric expansion of space; as the space itself expands, the wavelength of a photon traveling through space likewise increases, decreasing its energy. The longer a photon has been traveling, the more expansion it has undergone; hence, older photons from more distant galaxies are the most red-shifted. Determining the correlation between distance and redshift is an important problem in experimental physical cosmology.
Other observations are not clearly answered by known physics. According to the prevailing theory, a slight imbalance of matter over antimatter was present in the Universe's creation, or developed very shortly thereafter. Although the matter and antimatter mostly annihilated one another, producing photons, a small residue of matter survived, giving the present matter-dominated Universe.
Several lines of evidence also suggest that a rapid cosmic inflation of the Universe occurred very early in its history (roughly 10−35 seconds after its creation). Recent observations also suggest that the cosmological constant (Λ) is not zero, and that the net mass-energy content of the Universe is dominated by a dark energy and dark matter that have not been characterized scientifically. They differ in their gravitational effects. Dark matter gravitates as ordinary matter does, and thus slows the expansion of the Universe; by contrast, dark energy serves to accelerate the Universe's expansion.
Multiverse hypothesis
Some people think that there is more than one universe. They think that there is a set of universes called the multiverse.
Future
This is a scientific topic called "the ultimate fate of the universe". It is a topic in cosmology. There are possible scenarios for its evolution. The basic issue is whether its existence is finite or infinite.
The future of the Universe is a mystery. However, there are a couple of theories based on the possible shapes of the Universe:
There is a strong consensus among cosmologists that the shape of the universe is considered "flat" (parallel lines stay parallel) and will continue to expand forever.
People think it will end. However, this is not true. The universe will last forever. If the Universe holds enough matter, including dark matter, the combined gravitational attraction of everything will gradually halt this expansion and precipitate the ultimate collapse. Over time, galaxies, then individual stars, will smash into each other more frequently, killing off any life on nearby planets.
Listen Up
Listen Up! was a 2004 CBS television series. It was a sitcom starring Jason Alexander as Tony Kleinman, a sportscaster from the fictional "Listen Up!" His cohost is named Bernie, and is a hall of famer. Jason has a wife, Dana, and two kids, one named Mickey. Mickey is very good at golf, but gets low grades.
The series only lasted for one season, 22 episodes.
James Badge Dale
James Badge Dale (born May 1, 1978) is an American actor. He is known for playing Chase Edmunds in 24, Robert Leckie in The Pacific, State Trooper Barrigan in Martin Scorsese's The Departed, Eric Savin in Iron Man 3, and Tyrone S. Woods in 13 Hours.
Josh Allen (quarterback)
Joshua Patrick Allen (born May 21, 1996) is an American football player. He is currently the starting quarterback for the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL). Allen played college football at Wyoming after transferring there from Reedley College, a community college in California, where he grew up. After playing well at Wyoming, he was selected by the Bills in the NFL Draft. He has since broken many records for the team. He has led them to the playoffs three times. He is known for his very strong arm while throwing the football and ability to run with the ball.
College career
After being rejected by Eastern Michigan and Fresno State one last time, Allen committed to Wyoming. He enrolled there before the 2015 season, after they gave him a scholarship. He had grown from 6'3" and 180 pounds to 6'5" and 210 pounds. In his first year, he broke his collarbone during his first game and had to sit out the rest of the year. He played through his next two years at Wyoming, helping the football team win many games.
Professional career
Allen was picked 7th overall by the Buffalo Bills in the 2018 NFL Draft. In his first year, he struggled a bit, but had a good game against the Minnesota Vikings. He not only helped Buffalo win, but jumped over Anthony Barr, a linebacker just as big as he was. Allen missed four games after hurting his right elbow, but came back and did a little better. He finished with a very good game against the Miami Dolphins in which he scored 5 total touchdowns. He ended up breaking several rookie records for the team that year, even though he was not very accurate throwing the ball.
Allen improved a little more in 2019 and led the Bills to a playoff game. He did even better in 2020 after working on his technique. He passed for over 4,500 yards and 37 touchdowns. He completed nearly 70 percent of his passes, the fourth best rate that season, after two years of being one of the least accurate quarterbacks in the league. His rapid improvement surprised even some people at ESPN, who thought he would never play this well. The Bills also won 13 games that year and made it to the AFC Championship game, where they lost to Patrick Mahomes and the Kansas City Chiefs.
Lingolsheim
Lingolsheim is a commune. It is in Grand Est in the Bas-Rhin department in northeast France. It is a suburb of Strasbourg.
Australian gold rushes
The gold rush finished at the end of the 1850s, but gold was still found throughout Australia up until the 1890s.
Before the gold rush
Gold had been found in Australia before the 1851 gold rush. At first people would not believe the stories. A convict who found gold near Bathurst in 1823 was given 150 lashes with a whip as it was believed he must have stolen it. The explorer Count Paul Strzelecki found gold in the Australian Alps in 1839. The government kept it a secret as they did not want to lose control of the convicts if they went rushing off to search for gold. Gold was also found at:
Gold rushes in New South Wales
The first gold rush was in New South Wales. There were many others during the next 30 years.
Pre-ejaculate
Pre-ejaculate (also known as pre-ejaculatory fluid, pre-seminal fluid or Cowper's fluid, and pre-cum) is a clear, colorless, fluid that comes from a penis when a man feels sexual arousal. Pre-ejaculate functions as a lubricant.
Nick Diaz
Nickolas Robert Diaz born August 2, 1983 is an American professional mixed martial artist who competes in the middleweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship UFC. Former Strikeforce, WEC and IFC welterweight champion.
Altorf
Altorf (Altdorf; Alsatian: Àldorf) is a commune. It is in Grand Est in the Bas-Rhin department in northeast France.
Survivor (song)
"Survivor," Destiny's Child's signature song, is an R&B song written by American singer-songwriter Beyoncé Knowles, Anthony Dent, and Mathew Knowles for Destiny's Child's third studio album Survivor (2001). It was produced by Beyoncé and Dent, and was released as the album's first single in early 2001. The song reached number one in Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and entered the top 10 of the majority of the charts it appeared on, making it one of Destiny's Child most successful single releases. The song also won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
Delocalized electron
In chemistry, a delocalized electron is an electron in a molecule, ion or solid metal that is not associated with a single atom or a covalent bond. The term delocalization is general and can have slightly different meanings in different fields.
Ignat Kaneff
He was also involved in the car trade. He became a General Motors dealer, becoming successful enough to be invited by the president of the company to dinner in Detroit. He was the owner of six golf courses and a large construction company in Canada.
Kaneff died on 12 July 2020, aged 93.