cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Feudalism
Characteristics
Under feudalism, taxes were not paid with money. Instead, they were paid in services (like free labor) and products (like crops). A serf had to pay taxes of grain to their vassal. A vassal had to pay taxes of grain to their lord. They had to use the lord’s granaries to grind the grain. A vassal also had to give other taxes and gifts to their lord. When a vassal killed animals for food, they gave part of the meat to their lord. When a vassal fished on the lord’s land, they gave some of the fish to the lord.
In return, the lords promised to give their vassals protection, peace, and safety.
Nobles
Nobles owned and governed manors. Each manor had its own church, village, mill, wine press, and pasture lands. Lords allowed many people to live and work on their manors. These people got food and housing, but did not get paid in money.
Manors were given from one generation to another. When a noble died, his firstborn son got everything his father owned.
Villeins and serfs
Villeins were in a poorer social class. They had more freedom than slaves, but they were not completely free. A villein was legally tied to their lord or his manor. They could not move or marry unless the lord approved. They could not leave the manor without their lord’s permission. They also had to work for their lord. In return, villeins were allowed to live in small houses on the manor, with floors made of earth and a thatched roof. On the walls of their houses, villeins hung meats, tools, and dried vegetables.
Some villeins tried to escape from their lords’ manors. However, outside the manor, their options were limited. They could run away to another town and live quietly, without being noticed. A villein could become a free man this way. A villein could also move up in society if they helped the Catholic Church. However, they could not do this without special permission. Some escaped villeins also joined bands of outlaws.
Serfs were in the lowest social class. They were farmers or workers who did not own any land. Like villeins, serfs worked on a lord’s land. In exchange, they were allowed to live on the manor and grow crops there. Serfs had little more freedom than slaves. They could not be sold away from the land, but were always sold with the land.
Rights
Villeins and serfs did have some rights. They could grow and sell grain and vegetables. The lord had to give them land to grow crops. The lord had also had a duty to protect them. Villeins and serfs did not need to serve in levy (an army created through conscription). They did not have to pay state taxes. However, they usually paid 10% of their income to their lord. Most serfs and vassals also paid another 10% of their income to the Catholic Church. This was called a tithe.
Marxism
According to Karl Marx, feudalism was the stage of society before capitalism and after slavery. Feudalism eventually ended because of fighting between lords and serfs. Capitalism appeared next. Marx said that people were no better off under capitalism than they had been under feudalism. Instead of the lords exploiting the serfs, now it was the bourgeoisie exploiting the proletariat.
HTC
HTC Corporation is a manufacturer of smartphones in Taiwan. It used to be called High Tech Computer Corporation and now is called HTC by lots of people. The company first made smartphones based on Microsoft's Windows Mobile operating system, but in 2009 it started to make smartphones based on Android operating system.
Germaringen
Germaringen is a municipality in Ostallgäu in Bavaria in Germany.
Änis Ben-Hatira
Änis Ben-Hatira (born 18 July 1988 ) is a German football player. He plays for Hertha BSC and the Tunisia national football team.
After playing for the Germany national youth football team, he was called up by the Tunisia national football team. He made his debut against Peru in a friendly match.
2011–12 Bundesliga
The 2011–12 Bundesliga was the 49th season of the Fußball-Bundesliga, Germany's top football league. The season started on August 5, 2011 and ended on May 5, 2012. The defending champions were Borussia Dortmund.
League table
Below are the top 5, and the lowest 5 teams in the 2011/12 season. As you can see, Borussia Dortmund, Bayern Munich, Schalke 04, Borussia Mönchengladbach and Bayer Leverkusen all did well in the league and were allowed to play in either the UEFA Champions League, or the UEFA Europa League.
2021–22 UEFA Champions League qualifying phase and play-off round
The 2021–22 UEFA Champions League qualifying phase and play-off round began on 22 June and ended on 25 August 2021.
2011–12 Bundesliga
Relegation play-off
Fortuna Düsseldorf won the relegation play-off match against Hertha BSC and moved to the Fußball-Bundesliga for the 2012/13 season. Hertha BSC was sent to the 2. Bundesliga.
Top goalscorers
Source: bundesliga.de
2021–22 UEFA Champions League qualifying phase and play-off round
A total of 54 teams competed in the qualifying system of the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League, which includes the qualifying phase and the play-off round, with 43 teams in Champions Path and 11 teams in League Path. The six winners in the play-off round (four from Champions Path, two from League Path) advanced to the group stage, to join the 26 teams that enter in the group stage.
Times are CEST (UTC+2), as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).
Champions Path
The Champions Path includes all league champions which do not qualify directly for the group stage, and consists of the following rounds:
All teams eliminated from the Champions Path enter either the Europa League or the Europa Conference League:
Below are the participating teams of the Champions Path (with their 2021 UEFA club coefficients), grouped by their starting rounds.
League Path
The League Path includes all league non-champions which do not qualify directly for the group stage, and consists of the following rounds:
All teams eliminated from the League Path enter the Europa League:
Below are the participating teams of the League Path (with their 2021 UEFA club coefficients), grouped by their starting rounds.
Format
In the draws for each round, teams are seeded based on their UEFA club coefficients at the beginning of the season, with the teams divided into seeded and unseeded pots containing the same number of teams. A seeded team is drawn against an unseeded team, with the order of legs (or the administrative "home" team in the preliminary round matches) in each tie decided by draw. As the identity of the winners of the previous round is not known at the time of the draws, the seeding is carried out under the assumption that the team with the higher coefficient of an undecided tie advances to this round, which means if the team with the lower coefficient is to advance, it simply takes the seeding of its opponent. Prior to the draws, UEFA may form "groups" in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee, but they are purely for convenience of the draw and do not resemble any real groupings in the sense of the competition. Teams from associations with political conflicts as decided by UEFA may not be drawn into the same tie. After the draws, the order of legs of a tie may be reversed by UEFA due to scheduling or venue conflicts.
Schedule
The schedule of the competition is as follows (all draws are held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland).
Preliminary round
<section begin=PR /> The draw for the preliminary round was held on 8 June 2021, 12:00 CEST. <section end=PR />
Seeding
A total of four teams played in the preliminary round. Seeding of teams was based on their 2021 UEFA club coefficients, with two seeded teams and two unseeded teams in the semi-finals. The first team drawn in each tie in the semi-finals, and also the final (between the two winners of the semi-finals, whose identity was not known at the time of draw), would be the "home" team for administrative purposes.
Summary
The winner of the preliminary round final advanced to the first qualifying round. The losers of the semi-finals and final were transferred to the Europa Conference League Champions Path second qualifying round.
First qualifying round
<section begin=Q1 /> The draw for the first qualifying round was held on 15 June 2021, 12:00 CEST. <section end=Q1 />
Seeding
A total of 32 teams played in the first qualifying round: 31 teams which entered in this round, and 1 winner of the preliminary round. Seeding of teams was based on their 2021 UEFA club coefficients. For the winner of the preliminary round, whose identity was not known at the time of draw, the club coefficient of the highest-ranked remaining team was used. Prior to the draw, UEFA formed four groups of four seeded teams and four unseeded teams in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee. The first team drawn in each tie would be the home team of the first leg.
Summary
<section begin=Q1 /> The first legs were played on 6 and 7 July, and the second legs were played on 13 and 14 July 2021.
The winners of the ties advanced to the Champions Path second qualifying round. The losers were transferred to the Europa Conference League Champions Path second qualifying round.
Notes <section end=Q1 />
Matches
Slovan Bratislava won 3–2 on aggregate.
Malmö FF won 2–1 on aggregate.
Legia Warsaw won 5–2 on aggregate.
Alashkert won 3–2 on aggregate.
HJK won 7–1 on aggregate.
CFR Cluj won 4–3 on aggregate.
Mura won 6–0 on aggregate.
Sheriff Tiraspol won 5–0 on aggregate.
Neftçi Baku won 4–2 on aggregate.
Kairat won 3–1 on aggregate.
Ludogorets Razgrad won 2–0 on aggregate.
Ferencváros won 6–1 on aggregate.
Žalgiris won 5–2 on aggregate.
Flora won 5–0 on aggregate.
Dinamo Zagreb won 5–2 on aggregate.
Second qualifying round
<section begin=Q2 /> The draw for the second qualifying round was held on 16 June 2021, 12:00 CEST. <section end=Q2 />
Seeding
A total of 26 teams played in the second qualifying round. They were divided into two paths:
Seeding of teams was based on their 2021 UEFA club coefficients. For the winners of the first qualifying round, whose identity was not known at the time of draw, the club coefficient of the highest-ranked remaining team in each tie was used. Prior to the draw, UEFA formed three groups in the Champions Path, two of three seeded teams and three unseeded teams, and one of four seeded teams and four unseeded teams, in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee, while in the League Path there were three seeded teams and three unseeded teams. The first team drawn in each tie would be the home team of the first leg.
Summary
<section begin=Q2 /> The first legs were played on 20 and 21 July, and the second legs were played on 27 and 28 July 2021.
The winners of the ties advanced to the third qualifying round of their respective path. The Champions Path losers were transferred to the Europa League Champions Path third qualifying round, while the League Path losers were transferred to the Europa League Main Path third qualifying round.
Champions Path
Dinamo Zagreb won 3–0 on aggregate.
Young Boys won 3–2 on aggregate.
Legia Warsaw won 3–1 on aggregate.
Sheriff Tiraspol won 4–1 on aggregate.
Olympiacos won 2–0 on aggregate.
Red Star Belgrade won 6–2 on aggregate.
CFR Cluj won 4–1 on aggregate.
Ferencváros won 5–1 on aggregate.
Ludogorets Razgrad won 3–1 on aggregate.
League Path
Sparta Prague won 3–2 on aggregate.
Midtjylland won 3–2 on aggregate.
PSV Eindhoven won 7–2 on aggregate.
Seeding
A total of 20 teams played in the third qualifying round. They were divided into two paths: Seeding of teams was based on their 2021 UEFA club coefficients. For the winners of the second qualifying round, whose identity was not known at the time of draw, the club coefficient of the highest-ranked remaining team in each tie was used. Prior to the draw, UEFA formed two groups in the Champions Path, of three seeded teams and three unseeded teams, in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee, while in the League Path there were four seeded teams and four unseeded teams. Due to political reasons, teams from Ukraine and Russia in the League Path could not be drawn against each other, thus Shakhtar Donetsk and Spartak Moscow could not be drawn against each other. The first team drawn in each tie would be the home team of the first leg.
Summary
<section begin=Q3 /> The first legs were played on 3 and 4 August, and the second legs were played on 10 August 2021.
The winners of the ties advanced to the play-off round of their respective path. The Champions Path losers were transferred to the Europa League play-off round, while the League Path losers were transferred to the Europa League group stage.
Champions Path
Dinamo Zagreb won 2–1 on aggregate.
''3–3 on aggregate. Ludogorets Razgrad won 4–1 on penalties.''
Sheriff Tiraspol won 2–1 on aggregate.
Malmö FF won 4–2 on aggregate.
League Path
PSV Eindhoven won 4–0 on aggregate.
Shakhtar Donetsk won 4–2 on aggregate.
Monaco won 5–1 on aggregate.
Play-off round
<section begin=PO /> The draw for the play-off round was held on 2 August 2021, 12:00 CEST. <section end=PO />
Seeding
A total of 12 teams played in the play-off round. They were divided into two paths: Seeding of teams was based on their 2021 UEFA club coefficients. For the winners of the third qualifying round, whose identity was not known at the time of draw, the club coefficient of the highest-ranked remaining team in each tie was used. In the Champions Path there were four seeded teams and four unseeded teams, and in the League Path there were two seeded teams and two unseeded teams. The first team drawn in each tie would be the home team of the first leg.
Summary
<section begin=PO /> The first legs were played on 17 and 18 August, and the second legs were played on 24 and 25 August 2021.
The winners of the ties advanced to the group stage. The losers were transferred to the Europa League group stage.
Champions Path
Red Bull Salzburg won 4–2 on aggregate.
Young Boys won 6–4 on aggregate.
Malmö FF won 3–2 on aggregate.
League Path
Shakhtar Donetsk won 3–2 on aggregate.
Benfica won 2–1 on aggregate.
Bubblegum
Bubble gum is a popular type of candy that is not eaten, but instead chewed. Before being chewed bubble gum is hard. When it is chewed it is soft. It is called bubble gum, because once soft a person could create a bubble with the gum by blowing air into it. Bubble gum comes in many flavors.
Bubble gum is made with organic latex, a milky fluid produced by a variety of seed plants. Latex is also the principle component of rubber. It has water and sugar in it as well.
Ruben Studdard
Ruben Studdard (born September 12, 1978) is an African-American singer. He won season 2 of American Idol. His runner up is Clay Aiken.
Bubblegum
Bubble gum was invented in 1928 by Mr. Walter Diemer when he was doing something else. He only had pink food coloring. That is why most bubble gum is pink. His gum was called Dubble Bubble, which was the first bubble gum ever made. Bazooka was the second made bubble gum. Thomas Adams made a kind of bubble gum called Black Jack.
Ruben Studdard
Compilation albums
Ruben has songs on an album that put together from songs on other albums
Tages-Anzeiger
Tages-Anzeiger was first published on March 2, 1893. It wanted to reach a large readership, and also targeted women. It also wanted to be seen as independent of political parties. In 1931, Adolf Hitler published an article, "Was wollen wir Nationalsozialisten", in 1933, Benito Mussolini published seven articles. Winston Churchill also published articles.
Hopferau
Hopferau is a municipality in Ostallgäu in Bavaria in Germany.
Cesena
Cesena is a city in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Forlì-Cesena. About 95,000 people live in Cesena.
Sibley-Monroe checklist 1
The Sibley-Monroe checklist was a landmark document in the study of birds conducted by Charles Sibley and Burt Monroe during the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s. It drew on extensive DNA-DNA hybridisation studies to reassess the relationships between modern birds.
There are 9,994 species on the checklist.
Rangeland
A rangeland is like a pasture. A rangeland can be used for animals to graze on or for whatever the rancher wants.
Waihi Beach
Waihi Beach is a coastal town on the western end of Bay of Plenty in New Zealand. It is 10 kilometres to the east of the town Waihi at the foot of Coromandel Peninsula. It has a primary school that opened in 1924.
Wolfgang Pauli
Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (25 April 1900 in Vienna – 15 December 1958 in Zurich) was an Austrian-American-Swiss theoretical physicist known for his work on spin theory, and for the discovery of the pauli exclusion principle, which is important for the structure of matter and the whole of chemistry. He was given the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1945.
Pauli was of Jewish descent.
Görisried
Görisried is a municipality in Ostallgäu in Bavaria in Germany.
Halblech
Halblech is a municipality in Ostallgäu in Bavaria in Germany.
Securitas depot robbery
The Securitas depot robbery was the largest cash robbery in British history. It took place on 21-22 February 2006. Several men kidnapped and threatened the family of the manager, tied up 14 staff members and stole over £53 million in banknotes from a Securitas depot in Tonbridge, Kent, England.
Collectivity of Saint Martin
Demographics
The French part of the island has a land area of 53.2 km2. At the 2011 census, the population in the French part of the island was 36,286 (up from only 8,072 inhabitants at the 1982 census), which means a population density of 682 PD/km2 in 2011.
Politics and government
Saint Martin was for many years a French commune. It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas région and overseas département of France. Because of this, it is in the European Union. In 2003 the population of the French part voted for a split from Guadeloupe. They wanted to make a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 9, 2007, the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both the French part of Saint Martin and neighbouring Saint-Barthélemy. The new took effect when the law was published in the Official Journal.
Saint Martin remains governed as it was when a commune within Guadeloupe—by a mayor and a municipal council elected by the European citizens living on the French side of the island. As is the case in metropolitan France since the promulgation of the Maastricht Treaty, nationals of any member state of the European Union are allowed to vote at the municipal elections. Nationals from countries not part of the European Union, which represent a large part of the population on the French side of the island, are not allowed to vote in the elections. In 2003, the people of the French part of the island voted to separate from Guadeloupe. In 2007, the French Parliament voted to make Saint Martin a overseas collectivity (COM) of France. The new status took effect on 15 July 2007, once the local assemblies were elected,
Saint Martin remains part of the European Union. The official currency in Saint Martin is the euro (though the United States dollar is also widely accepted).
Great Train Robbery (1963)
The Great Train Robbery was a £2.6 million train robbery that took place on 8 August 1963 at Bridego Railway Bridge, Ledburn, Buckinghamshire. The gang was led by Bruce Reynolds (1931–2013). Other members of the gang included Buster Edwards (1931–1994), Brian Field (1934–1979), Charlie Wilson (1932–1990), Ronnie Biggs (1929–2013), and Gordon Goody (1930–2016).
Union of South Africa
The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the modern-day Republic of South Africa. It was formed on 31 May 1910 when the British Cape Colony and the Natal Colony unified with the defeated Boer republics of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State. The provinces of the union were called, respectively, as the Cape Province, the Natal Province, the Transvaal Province, and the Orange Free State Province. Following World War I, the former German colony of German South West Africa was put under administration of the Union of South Africa as a League of Nations mandate and was treated as if it were another province.
The Union of South Africa came to an end on 31 May 1961, when a new constitution came into effect, transforming the Union of South Africa into a republic, under the name 'Republic of South Africa'.
Monocotyledon
You can recognize a monocot by its leaves: they have long parallel veins running down the leaf. In contrast, dicot plant leaves have a complex netted vein pattern on their leaves.
Monocots usually have a fibrous root system.
2000 NFL season
The 2000 NFL season was the 81st regular season of the National Football League. The season ended with Super Bowl XXXV when the Baltimore Ravens beat the New York Giants, 34–7, at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida.
Promenade concert
The word Promenade Concert today usually refers to one of the concerts in the series started by Henry Wood in 1895, known today as the BBC Proms. However, before these concerts started there had for many years been promenade concerts in the parks of London. These concerts took place in the leisure gardens (parks) where people could walk about while listening to the music (French se promener = to walk).
Irsee
Irsee is a village and municipality in Ostallgäu in Bavaria in Germany.
Promenade concert
People had to pay to go into the leisure gardens. There were lots of entertainments there, e.g. fireworks, dancing, acrobatics and music. The music was played by orchestras. Sometimes these orchestras played in bandstands, sometimes in proper buildings.
2000 NFL Draft
The 2000 NFL Draft was the yearly player selection by the National Football League teams. It was held April 15–16, 2000, at the Theater at Madison Square Garden in New York City, New York.
Promenade concert
Vauxhall Gardens and Ranelagh Gardens were the most famous of these gardens. The composer George Frideric Handel had his music played there in the 18th century. The gardens were very fashionable until the 19th century. Aristocratic people, royalty and ordinary people all mixed there. Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks was performed in Vauxhall Gardens to celebrate the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The composer Dr Thomas Arne was appointed composer of Vauxhall Gardens in 1745. It was here that many of his songs became popular, including Rule Britannia. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Joseph Haydn performed in Ranelagh Gardens on their visits to London. In the 19th century concerts of classical music became very popular. The conductor Louis Antoine Jullien conducted many concerts. His orchestra were even joined by the bands of the Royal Artillery or drummers from the French National Guard. Concerts were also given in Crystal Palace, the huge glass building which was built for the Great Exhibition in 1851.
2000 NFL Draft
Courtney Brown was the first player picked in the draft.
Promenade concert
Many English composers had their music played in these parks. The music was often long songs (ballads), or drinking songs. Sometimes choirs sang choruses from oratorios by Handel. Later in the 19th century the programmes included more music by famous composers such as Brahms, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana and Wagner.
Döbeln
Döbeln is a town in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It is part of the rural district Mittelsachsen. Döbeln is on both banks of the river Freiberger Mulde.
Promenade concert
In 1895 Henry Wood started his series of promenade concerts. He wanted to educate audiences so that they liked good music. This series of concerts continues today in the Royal Albert Hall as the BBC Proms.
2000 NFL Draft
The draft was famous for the pick of Michigan quarterback Tom Brady at the 199th pick in the sixth round by the New England Patriots.
Kaltental
Kaltental is a market town and municipality of Ostallgäu in Bavaria, Germany.
2000 NFL Draft
As of the 2022 NFL season, Brady is the only active player from this draft.
Trades
In the explanations below, (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2000 Draft, while (PD) indicates trades completed pre-draft.
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Cyclone Jal
Cyclone Jal was a severe cyclonic storm that formed in the South China Sea on October 31, 2010. It then hit Thailand and Malaysia. It then went on to hit India. The storm hit the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and parts of Kerala. Some of its moisture traveled to the states Rajasthan and Gujarat.
There were 118 deaths caused by the cyclone. Thousands were displaced.
Morgan County
Morgan County can be any of the following counties in the United States:
Hay
Hay is grass and other plants that have been cut, dried and collected. It can then be stored in piles (called hay stacks), or tied into blocks called bales. Bales can be round or box shaped (usually called square bales).
Hay is mostly used to feed animals. Some animals that eat hay are horses, cattle, goats, donkeys, and rabbits. Hay is fed when there is not enough pasture or rangeland on which an animal can graze or they can't graze year round. Farmers and ranchers often need to use hay in the winter when grass is not available.
Hay is different than straw. Hay is made from leafy grass and other plants (such as alfalfa) and is good for feeding animals. Straw comes from the stems of cereal grains, and is not very nutritious. Straw is normally used for bedding to keep animals warm and dry.
Markkleeberg
Markkleeberg is a town in the Leipzig district, in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It is on the river Pleiße and about 7 km south of Leipzig.
Ancient Greek wrestling
Greek wrestling was a grappling combat sport practiced by the Ancient Greeks. A wrestler's objective (aim, goal) was to throw his opponent to the ground from a standing position. A point (or fall) was scored when a wrestler's back or shoulders touched the ground. Three points were needed to win a match. Holds were restricted to the upper body. Unlike modern wrestling, there were no weight divisions or time limits. As a result, the sport was dominated by large strong men and boys who could defeat smaller but more skillful opponents.
Each city had a place for wrestling, called a palaestra. Some large cities had several palaestrae. Wrestlers trained and competed in the nude. The sport was the first added to the Ancient Olympic Games that was not a footrace. Two ancient Greek wrestlers that are remembered today are Leontiskos of Messene and Milo of Croton. Leontiskos is infamous for winning the Olympics after breaking his opponent's fingers, and Milo is famous for winning five Olympic championships. Wrestling was a popular subject for Greek sculpture, painting, and literature.
Background
Greek wrestling was known to the ancients as orthe pale ("upright (or erect) wrestling"). Legend says that Theseus of Athens invented wrestling. The wrestler's objective (aim) was to throw his opponent to the ground from a standing position. Holds were restricted to the upper body and pinning an opponent to the ground was unknown. Wrestling on the ground was permitted only in the sports known to the Greeks as kato pale ("ground wrestling") and pankration.
A point was scored for a fall. A fall occurred when a wrestler's back or shoulders touched the ground. Three points were required to win a match. Wrestling was less rough than the pankration and required less space. As a result, it was the most popular sport among Greek athletes. It was an event in the pentathlon (and could be the deciding event) but it was a separate event as well, with the same techniques. Wrestling was mentioned numerous times in Greek literature, especially poetry.
The remains of a papyrus wrestling manual from the 2nd century AD reveal that the Greeks were familiar with headlocks, joint locks, shoulder holds, and other techniques used by modern wrestlers. Because there were no time limits to matches, some would end in draws. A wrestler could submit under a chokehold and "tap out". Wrestlers were sometimes killed in contest, but their opponents were never held responsible for homicide.
Palaestra
Wrestling was taught and practiced in a building called the palaestra. There were many of these wrestling schools across Greece. The first palaestras were built about the 6th century BC. They were privately owned, but by the 5th century BC palaestras were being built at the public expense. Palaestras were built until the end of the Age of the Roman Empire. The ancient Greek scholar Plutarch writes that only wrestling and the pankration were taught and practiced in the palaestra. Boxing and other sports were taught and practiced in gymnasiums.
The palaestra consisted of a square or rectangular yard open to the sky. This yard was used for training and practice. The yard was surrounded by colonnades. During rainy weather, wrestling and the pankration were practiced under the colonnades. Rooms adjoining the colonnades were used for lectures, bathing, dressing and undressing, game playing, socializing, and the storage of equipment and olive oil. Gay sex was rampant in the palaestra, despite official efforts to curb it.
Candlestick Park
Candlestick Park was an outdoor stadium in San Francisco, California. The stadium was the home of Major League Baseball's San Francisco Giants and the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League.
Ancient Greek wrestling
Outfit
Greek athletes were the few athletes in the ancient world who practiced and competed naked. Homer's wrestlers in Iliad wore loincloths, but shortly after the Age of Homer, Greek athletes started to strip. It is not known why. Pausanias says athletes wanted to imitate Orsippos of Megara, a runner who won a footrace at Olympia in 720 BC after losing his loincloth. Dionysios of Halikarnassos and Thucydides credited a Spartan with the custom.
Other legends say that a runner tripped on his loincloth and officials banned it as unsafe. Some say that athletes stripped to prove that they were males, or because they could run better in the nude. Other reasons have been given: athletes stripped for erotic reasons, or for cult reasons, or for good luck, or as a democratic equalizer. Some say they stripped because they were proud of their muscular bodies and their tans.
The Greeks called the penis a "dog". Athletes sometimes used a cord called a "dog leash" to tie off the foreskin of the penis. It is unknown if this custom had sexual or aesthetic meanings. It appears to have been a matter of personal preference. Tying the foreskin is sometimes a subject in vase painting.
Wrestler's equipment
The Greek wrestler carried three items to the palaestra: an oil flask, a scraper, and a sponge. The oil flask (aryballos) was a ceramic container with a wide lip and narrow mouth that held a wrestler's daily allotment of olive oil. These containers took a variety of shapes. Some were fashioned to resemble birds, animals, or human body parts such as the head, foot, or penis. Most were simply globes without a resting base.
The scraper (strigil or stlengis) was a tool with a concave blade. It was made of bronze, silver, glass, or iron. It was used to scrape the accumulated olive oil and sweat (gloios) from an athlete's body. The gloios was sold for its alleged medicinal value. It was used to treat inflammations of the joints, the vulva and anus, for genital warts and syphilitic lesions, muscle sprains, and pains. Once the sweat and oil was removed, the wrestler bathed using a sponge (spongos).
Preparation
Heavy athletes—wrestlers, pankratiasts, and boxers—shared the same buildings, practiced the same exercises, used the same equipment (punching bags), and followed the same high-protein diets of meat. Wrestlers at Olympia once were given light boxing practice as a preparation for competition.
Competition
Wrestlers were paired by drawing lots (kleroi). These lots were about the size of a bean and marked with a letter. There were two lots for each letter. The lots were mixed in a pitcher. Each wrestler drew one lot and was paired with the wrestler who drew the same letter. If there was an odd number of wrestlers, the last letter would be marked on only one lot. The wrestler who drew it would not compete in the first round.
A match began in a position known as the "standing together" (systasis). The wrestlers would lean into each other until their foreheads touched. From this position, each would try to throw his opponent to the ground. A wrestler might lunge forward gripping his opponent's shoulders or wrapping his arms around his opponent's torso in a "bear hug". The two might avoid close contact during the initial struggle, with each fighting for a grip on his opponent's legs or arms. Eventually, one would find the grip he needed to throw his opponent. A wrestler might try to grip the hands, wrists, or arms of his opponent and throw him with a sudden twist (akrocheirismos), or come to close quarters and gain a hold on the body.
Rules and holds
The wrestler's objective (aim) was to score a fall on his opponent. Touching the back or shoulders to the ground was a fall. There was no defined wrestling space such as a ring or circle and there was no time limit. Holds were limited to the upper body and foot tripping was permitted.
There were no weight divisions in Greek wrestling; the sport was dominated by the large and strong. These men and boys could defeat a smaller but more skilled opponent simply by their size. Three falls were required for a win in formal competition. Five bouts were possible in a match. The ancients never awarded points for successful tactics, as in modern wrestling, and "pinning" or holding an opponent to the earth was unknown. Strangling or choking an opponent in order to force him to concede (admit) defeat was permitted.
Three classic moves in Greek wrestling were the "flying mare", the "body hold", and fancy foot trips. In the flying mare, the wrestler would grip his opponent's arm, throw him over his shoulder, and send him to the ground flat on his back. In the body hold, a wrestler would grip his opponent about the waist, lift him in the air, flip him, and drop him head first to the ground. Elaborate foot trips would send a wrestler crashing to the ground, but old school wrestlers who relied on sheer strength scorned fancy foot trips. Punching, kicking, and gouging soft body areas were not allowed. A point was scored if a wrestler tapped out because of a submission hold. It was possible for a match to last for five rounds.
Wrestling and the Ancient Olympic Games
Wrestling was an event in the ancient Olympic Games. It was added to the Olympic program in 708 BC. It was the first competition added to the Olympics that was not a footrace. Boys' wrestling was added to the Olympic program in 632 BC. Wrestlers prayed to Herakles for strength and Hermes for speed. The wrestling competition was held in the stadium, not the Palaestra at Olympia.
Wrestling, boxing, and the pankration (the contact sports), were held on the fourth day of the Olympic festival. There were no weight divisions in Greek wrestling. The sixteen Olympic wrestlers were heavyweights with muscles "the size of boulders" according to one witness. Fans gave wrestlers nicknames that fit their physiques such as "the bear" or "the lion".
The ancient coach Philostratus thought an even temperament and fine physique were important for a wrestler. He liked a wrestler with a straight back, a solid thigh turned outwards, and wrote that "narrow buttocks are weak, fat ones slow, but well-formed buttocks are an asset for everything."
Leontiskos was an Olympic wrestling champion in 456 and 452 BC. Although rules against breaking an opponent's fingers were made in the 6th century BC, Leontiskos won by using just this very tactic. Milo of Croton was another Olympic hero—the only wrestler to win five Olympic championships. He was defeated in his sixth attempt when he was forty. The Olympic wrestler Polydamas was killed when he tried to hold up the roof of a cave during an earthquake.
Wrestlers were praised for their physical beauty. The inscription on the monument to Theognetos of Aegina reads:
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Potential
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History
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Dani Oliva
Career
Dani Oliva was born in Toronto and raised in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada. Dani graduated from the University of Toronto. In 2017, Dani founded Oliva Law Group, P.C.
In December 2022, Venice Music, a music and technology company has appointed Dani Oliva as Vice President of Legal and Business Affairs.
Awards and honors
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Plot
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3rd season
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