cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
My Boys
My Boys is an American television sitcom. Its first episode came out on November 28, 2006, on TBS. The show is about a sports columnist in Chicago, Illinois, played by Jordana Spiro, and the men in her life, including her brother and her best friend. The show was canceled by TBS on September 14, 2010 after four seasons.
Gabriele Patriarca
Gabriele Patriarca (10 July 1916 – 2 September 1988) was an Italian informalist painter and member of the art movement Scuola Romana.
Port Washington (town), Wisconsin
Port Washington is a town in Ozaukee County in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. At the 2000 census, 1,631 people lived here.
Mulgi
Mulgi may be:
Min Aung Hlaing
Min Aung Hlaing (မအေလိုး မင်းအောင်လှိုင်; born 3 July 1956) is a Burmese army general. He is the 13th Prime Minister of Myanmar since 2021. He is also the Chairman of the State Administration Council since 2 February 2021. He has been accused of corruption many times during his military career.
In February 2021, he removed the elected government led by de facto leader Aung San Suu Kyi from power in a coup d'état on 1 February 2021.
He was Joint Chief of Staff of the Ministry of Defence from 2010 to 2011. He is also a member of the National Defence and Security Council (NDSC) chaired by the president of Myanmar. He was promoted to four-star General in 2011 and five-star General in 2013.
2020 election
In November 2020, Min Aung Hlaing questioned if the results of the 2020 election were reliable. On 5 November, his military rank was promoted to be equal to that of Vice President of Myanmar. After voting in the 2020 election, Min Aung Hlaing said he would accept the election results. He lost the election and called the election a fraud.
On 27 January 2021, Min Aung Hlaing said he was thinking about a coup d'état and remove the Constitution, if allegations of voter fraud during last year’s election were not investigated. These comments sparked concern about another potential coup in the country. The next day, the Union Election Commission said there was no claims to voter fraud. On 29 January, the military said they would protest the election results.
2021 military coup and national's ruler
On 1 February, Min Aung Hlaing led the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, one day before the democratically-elected members of parliament were scheduled to be sworn in as members of the Assembly of the Union. The following day, he created the State Administration Council as the country's interim ruling body. He also removed Aung San Suu Kyi from power and made himself State Leader of Myanmar.
Six months after the coup, on 1 August 2021, Min Aung Hlaing replaced SAC with a caretaker government and established himself as the country's prime minister. However, he has not been recognized by the international community as legal leader of the country.
Personal life
Min Aung Hlaing is married to Kyu Kyu Hla, a retired lecturer. He has 3 children, including son Aung Pyae Sone and daughter Khin Thiri Thet Mon.
Puducherry
Puducherry or Pondicherry may mean:
Siege of Mariupol
The Red Cross said the siege is "apocalyptic", and Ukrainian authorities have accused Russia of causing a major humanitarian crisis in the city, with city officials reporting that over 2,000 civilians have been killed.
The siege ended on 16 May 2022 after what Western media outlets called the "evacuation" of the remaining Ukrainian personnel from the Azovstal Iron and Steel Works; the Russian Ministry of Defense claimed that the Ukrainians had "surrendered".
Aftermath: the theater building that was bombed, is now behind tall screens, so that the general public can not see the damaged building; Media showed (in 2023) a picture of that building; The picture was taken above the screen.
David Steel (Royal Navy officer)
Vice Admiral Sir David George Steel, (born 6 April 1961) is a retired senior Royal Navy officer. He was Second Sea Lord between 2012 and 2015. He became Governor of Gibraltar on 11 June 2020.
Dative case
In grammar, the dative case is the grammatical case used to show the object of an action (the thing the verb acts on).
For example, "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this example, Jacob is the dative as he is being given the drink, he is what the verb ("gave") is acting upon.
Johnny Doughboy
Johnny Doughboy is a 1942 American musical comedy movie directed by John H. Auer and starring Jane Withers, Henry Wilcoxon, William Demarest, Ruth Donnelly, Etta McDaniel, Bobby Breen. It was distributed by Republic Pictures and was nominated for an Academy Award in 1943.
Lagny-sur-Marne
The commune is in the eastern suburbs of Paris, 26.1 km from the center.
Andrew Brooks
Andrew Ira Brooks (February 10, 1969January 23, 2021) was an American immunologist, academic, and businessman. He was an associate research professor at Rutgers University. He created the first FDA-approved rapid saliva test for COVID-19 diagnosis.
Brooks died on January 23, 2021 from a heart attack in New York City, aged 51.
Titus Buberník
Titus Buberník (12 October 1933 – 27 March 2022) was a Slovak football midfielder. He played for the Czechoslovakia national team in 23 matches and scored 5 goals between 1958 until 1963. He was born in Pusté Úľany, Czechoslovakia.
Buberník died on 27 March 2022 at the age of 88.
Sochaux
Sochaux is a commune. It is in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in the Doubs department in east France, near Montbéliard.
Economy
Sochaux is the site of a large industrial facility of the French car manufacturer PSA Peugeot Citroën. As of late 2005, about 16,000 people are employed there. The Peugeot automobile museum is located here.
Sport
The FC Sochaux-Montbéliard football club is in the commune.
Strike Up the Band (movie)
Strike Up the Band is a 1940 American musical movie directed by Busby Berkeley and starring Judy Garland, Mickey Rooney, Paul Whiteman and Orchestra, June Preisser, William Tracy, Margaret Early, Ann Shoemaker, Francis Pierlot, Virginia Brissac, George Lessey. It was distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and won an Academy Award in 1941 and was nominated for 3 others.
G Men
G Men is a 1935 American crime drama movie directed by William Keighley and starring James Cagney, Margaret Lindsay, Ann Dvorak, Robert Armstrong, Barton MacLane, Lloyd Nolan, William Harrigan, Russell Hopton, Edward Pawley. It was distributed by Warner Bros. and was nominated for an Academy Award in 1936.
Mahamane Ousmane
Mahamane Ousmane (born 20 January 1950) is a Nigerien politician. He was the first democratically elected and fourth President of Niger from 16 April 1993 until he was removed from power in a military coup d'état on 27 January 1996.
He has continued to run for president in each election since he was removed from office, and he was president of the National Assembly from December 1999 to May 2009.
Since April 2020, he is the president of the Democratic and Republican Renewal (RDR Tchanji), the opposition party of Niger.
Kjersti Døvigen
Kjersti Døvigen (27 June 1943 – 1 February 2021) was a Norwegian actress. She was born in Oslo, Norway. She acted in Elskere (1963), Douglas (1970), The Last Fleksnes (1974), Lasse & Geir (1976), Bør Børson II (1976) and Life and Death (1980).
Tamara Rylova
Tamara Nikolayevna Rylova (Тамара Николаевна Рылова; 1 October 1931 – 1 February 2021) was a Russian speed skater. He was born in Vologda, Soviet Union. He won a bronze medal at the 1960 Summer Olympics.
Rylova died on 1 February 2021 in Moscow, aged 89.
Ndam language
Ndam, also known as Dam or Ndamm, is an East Chadic language spoken by around 6,500 people in southwestern Chad. It is spoken mainly in the Tandjilé and Lai Prefectures. There are two dialects of the language: Ndam Dik (northern), and Ndam-Ndam (southern).
Objective, Burma!
Objective, Burma! is a 1945 American World War II action movie directed by Raoul Walsh and starring Errol Flynn, James Brown, William Prince, George Tobias, Henry Hull, Warner Anderson. It was distributed by Warner Bros. and was nominated for three Academy Awards in 1946.
Beledweyne
Beledweyne (Beledweyne, بلد وين, Belet Uen) is a city in central Somalia. It is located in the Beledweyne District, it is the capital of the Hiran region.
The city is in the Shebelle Valley riverine near the Ethiopian border, 210 miles (345 km) north of Mogadishu. In 2019, Safiya Jimale became the first female mayor in Somalia.
Pontiac's War
Pontiac's War (also known as Pontiac's Conspiracy or Pontiac's Rebellion) was an uprising of Native American tribes against English rule in America. A few tribes, mainly from the Great Lakes region, the Illinois Country, and Ohio Country started it in 1763. The cause of the war was that these tribes did not like British politics in the region. Warriors from other tribes joined the uprising to help get rid of the English soldiers and settlers. The war is named after the Odawa leader Pontiac, the most prominent of many native leaders in the conflict.
Peter T. Fay
Peter Thorp Fay (January 18, 1929 – January 31, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician. He was a Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit from 1981 until his death. He was nominated for the Court of Appeals by President Ronald Reagan. Fay was also the United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida from 1970 to 1976. He was nominated by for the District Court by President Gerald Ford. He was born in Rochester, New York.
Pontiac's War
The British were one of the winners of the French and Indian War, which lasted from 1754 to 1763. As a result, large amounts of land in the region that were controlled by the French were now controlled by the English. French and English politics were very different.
Peter T. Fay
Fay died on January 31, 2021 in Miami, Florida at the age of 92.
Pontiac's War
The war began in May 1763 when Native Americans attacked many British forts and settlements. They attacked because they had been offended by the policies of Jeffrey Amherst, a British General. Eight forts were destroyed, and hundreds of colonists were killed or taken. Many people fled from the region. Hostilities came to an end after British Army expeditions in 1764 led to peace negotiations over the next two years. Native Americans were unable to drive away the British, but the uprising made the British government change the policies that started the conflict.
Warfare on the North American frontier was brutal. Prisoners were often killed, and civilians were often targeted. Other atrocities were widespread. Native Americans and British settlers had very little in common. In this conflict, this fact showed as ruthlessness and treachery. Contrary to popular belief, the British government did not issue the Royal Proclamation of 1763 in reaction to Pontiac's War. Because of the conflict, the Proclamation's Indian clauses were applied more often, though. This was unpopular with British colonists, and may have been one of the things that helped start the American Revolution.
Naming the conflict
The conflict is named after its most famous participant, the Odawa leader Pontiac. Other names include "Pontiac's War", "Pontiac's Rebellion", and "Pontiac's Uprising". An early name for the war was the "Kiyasuta and Pontiac War". "Kiyasuta" is a different spelling for Guyasuta, an important Seneca/Mingo leader. The war became widely known as "Pontiac's Conspiracy" after Francis Parkman published a book named The Conspiracy of Pontiac in 1851. This important book has been the definitive account of the war for nearly 100 years, and is still made.
Origins
In the decades before Pontiac's rebellion, there were a number of wars in Europe which also had an influence on the French and Indian Wars in North America. The largest of these wars was the Seven Years' War. In this war, France lost New France in North America to Great Britain. The Shawnee and Lenape had also fought in this war. The Treaty of Easton was signed in 1758, and brought peace with these tribes. In the treaty, the British promised not to settle further beyond the ridge of the Alleghenies. This line was confirmed in 1763, but few people respected it. Most fighting in the North American theater of the war, generally referred to as the French and Indian War in the United States, came to an end after British General Jeffrey Amherst captured Montreal, the last important French settlement, in 1760.
British troops then occupied the various forts in the Ohio Country and Great Lakes region previously held by the French. Even before the war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris (1763), the British Crown began to implement changes in order to administer its vastly expanded North American territory. The politics of the French and the English was different, though. The French had made alliaces with certain Native American tribes, and traded with them. After the war, these Native American tribes were conquered people. Before long, Native Americans who had been allies of the defeated French were more and more dissatisfied with the British occupation and the new policies imposed by the victors.
Tribes involved
Today, it is difficult to say who exactly took part in the rebellion. At the time, the region was known as "pays d'en haut" ("upper country"), but its borders were not defined exactly. Until the Paris peace treaty of 1763, it was claimed by France. Native Americans from many different tribes lived there. At the time, a "tribe" was a group of people who spoke the same language, or a group of people who belonged to the same family. It was not a political unit. No chief spoke for an entire tribe, and no tribe acted in unison. For example, Ottawas did not go to war as a tribe: some Ottawa leaders chose to do so, while other Ottawa leaders denounced the war and stayed clear of the conflict.
There were three basic groups of tribes. The first group was composed of tribes of the Great Lakes region: Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi, who spoke Algonquian languages; and the Huron, who spoke an Iroquoian language. They had long been allied with French habitants. They lived among them, they traded with them, and marriages between French settlers and Native Americans were common. Great Lakes Native Americans were alarmed to learn that they were under British sovereignty after the French loss of North America. When a British garrison took possession of Fort Detroit from the French in 1760, local Native Americans cautioned them that "this country was given by God to the Indians." The second group was made of the tribes from eastern Illinois Country: It included the Miami, Wea, Kickapoo, Mascouten, and Piankashaw. Like the Great Lakes tribes, these people had a long history of close trading and other relations with the French. Throughout the war, the British were unable to project military power into the Illinois Country, which was on the remote western edge of the conflict. The Illinois tribes were the last to come to terms with the British.
The third group was made of tribes of the Ohio Country: Delawares (Lenape), Shawnee, Wyandot, and Mingo. These people had migrated to the Ohio valley earlier in the century from the mid-Atlantic and other eastern areas. They did this to escape British, French, and Iroquois domination in the New York and Pennsylvania area. Unlike the Great Lakes and Illinois Country tribes, Ohio Native Americans had no great attachment to the French regime. They had fought as French allies in the previous war in an effort to drive away the British. They made a separate peace with the British with the understanding that the British Army would withdraw from the Ohio Country. But after the departure of the French, the British strengthened their forts in the region rather than abandoning them, and so the Ohioans went to war in 1763 in another attempt to drive out the British.
Bernard Darniche
Bernard Darniche (born 28 March 1942) is a French former rally driver. He won the European Rally Championship in 1976 and 1977 and the French Rally Championship in 1976 and 1978. He also holds the record for most victories in the Tour de Corse which he won six times (1970, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979 and 1981).
Pontiac's War
Tribes involved
Outside the pays d'en haut, most warriors of the influential Iroquois Confederacy did not participate in Pontiac's War because of their alliance with the British, known as the Covenant Chain. However, the westernmost Iroquois nation, the Seneca tribe, had become disaffected with the alliance. As early as 1761, the Seneca began to send out war messages to the Great Lakes and Ohio Country tribes, urging them to unite in an attempt to drive out the British. When the war finally came in 1763, many Seneca were quick to take action.
Love, Simon
Love, Simon is a 2018 American romantic comedy drama movie directed by Greg Berlanti. It stars Nick Robinson, Josh Duhamel, and Jennifer Garner.
Samantha Smith
Samantha Reed Smith (June 29, 1972 – August 25, 1985) was an American schoolgirl, peace activist, and child actress. She became famous during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Love, Simon
Love, Simon premiered at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 27, 2018. It was released in the United States on March 16, 2018, by 20th Century Fox.
Pontiac's War
Amherst's policies
In February 1761, Amherst took the decision to offer fewer gifts to the Native Americans. With the French, the giving of gifts had been common, and part of the relationship between French and Native Americans. Therefore, Amherst's decision led to more resentment towards the English. Following a Native American custom the exchange of gifts had an important symbolic meaning: the French gave presents (such as guns, knives, tobacco, and clothing) to village chiefs, who in turn redistributed these gifts to their people. By this process, the village chiefs gained stature among their people, and were able to maintain the alliance with the French. Amherst, however, considered this process to be a form of bribery that was no longer necessary, especially since he was under pressure to cut expenses after the war with France. Many Native Americans regarded this change in policy as an insult and an indication that the British looked upon them as conquered people rather than as allies.
Samantha Smith
In 1982, Smith wrote a letter to Soviet Leader Yuri Andropov, and received a personal reply with a personal invitation to visit the Soviet Union, which she accepted.
Love, Simon
A television series titled Love, Victor, set in the same universe as the movie.
Samantha Smith
Smith became a "Goodwill Ambassador" between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, becoming America's Youngest Ambassador.
Maureen Colquhoun
Maureen Morfydd Colquhoun ((12 August 1928 – 2 February 2021) was a British economist and Labour Party politician. She was born in London. She was a Member of parliament from 1974 to 1979. Colquhoun was Britain's first openly lesbian MP.
Colquhoun died on 2 February 2021, aged 92.
Samantha Smith
Smith died on August 25, 1985 in the Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808 plane crash near Auburn, Maine at the age of 13.
Kundri Sankurha
Kundri Sankurha is a village in Jamui district in Bihar state, India. At the 2011 census, the population of 5,734 in 1,142 houses. The village is 15 km from Jamui.
Pontiac's War
Amherst's policies
Amherst also began to restrict the amount of ammunition and gunpowder that traders could sell to Native Americans. The French had always made these goods available. Amherst, however, did not trust the Native Americans, particularly after the "Cherokee Rebellion" of 1761. In this rebellion Cherokee warriors took up arms against their former British allies. The Cherokee war effort had collapsed because of a shortage of gunpowder. Amherst therefore hoped that future uprisings could be prevented by restricting the supply of gunpowder. This created resentment and hardship: Native American men needed gunpowder and ammunition, because it helped them with hunting. With gunpowder and ammunition, they had more game for their families and skins for the fur trade. Many Native Americans began to believe that the British were disarming them before starting war against them. Sir William Johnson, the Superintendent of the Indian Department, tried to warn Amherst of the dangers of cutting back on gifts and gunpowder, but he was not successful.
Land and religion
Land was also an issue in the coming of the war. With the French, there were relatively few colonists. Most of the colonists were farmers, who also traded fur during the hunting season. In contrast, there were many British colonists. The British colonists wanted to clear the land of the trees and occupy it. Shawnees and Delawares in the Ohio Country had been displaced by British colonists in the east: This was the main reason for their involvement in the war. On the other hand, Native Americans in the Great Lakes region and the Illinois Country had not been greatly affected by white settlement. They were aware of the experiences of tribes in the east, though. Historian Gregory Dowd argues that most Native Americans involved in Pontiac's Rebellion were not immediately threatened with displacement by white settlers. Dowd argues that historians have therefore overemphasized British colonial expansion as a cause of the war. He believes that the presence, attitude, and policies of the British Army, which the Native Americans found threatening and insulting, were more important factors.
Another factor that led to the outbreak of the war was a religious awakening of the Native Americans in the region in the 1760s. Food shortages and epidemics, as well as discontent with the British fed the movement. The most influential person in this phenomenon was Neolin, known as the "Delaware Prophet". Neolin said, Native Americans should steer clear of the trade goods, alcohol, and weapons of the whites. Merging elements from Christianity into traditional religious beliefs, Neolin told listeners that the Master of Life was displeased with the Native Americans for taking up the bad habits of the white men, and that the British posed a threat to their very existence. "If you suffer the English among you," Neolin said, "you are dead men. Sickness, smallpox, and their poison [alcohol] will destroy you entirely." It was a powerful message for a people whose world was being changed by forces that seemed beyond their control.
Planning the war
Although fighting in Pontiac's Rebellion began in 1763, rumors reached British officials as early as 1761. According to these rumors, discontented Native Americans were planning an attack. Senecas of the Ohio Country (Mingos) circulated messages ("war belts" made of wampum) which called for the tribes to form a confederacy and drive away the British. The Mingos, led by Guyasuta and Tahaiadoris, were concerned about being surrounded by British forts. Similar war belts originated from Detroit and the Illinois Country. The Native Americans were not unified, however, and in June 1761, Native Americans at Detroit informed the British commander of the Seneca plot. After William Johnson held a large council with the tribes at Detroit in September 1761, peace was maintained, but war belts continued to circulate. Violence finally erupted after the Native Americans learned in early 1763 that the French would give the pays d'en haut to the British. The war began at Fort Detroit under the leadership of Pontiac. It quickly spread throughout the region. Eight British forts were taken; others, including Fort Detroit and Fort Pitt, were unsuccessfully besieged. Francis Parkman's The Conspiracy of Pontiac portrayed these attacks as a coordinated operation planned by Pontiac. Parkman's interpretation remains well known. Other historians have since argued that there is no clear evidence that the attacks were part of a master plan or overall "conspiracy". The most common view among scholars today is that, rather than being planned in advance, the uprising spread as word of Pontiac's actions at Detroit traveled throughout the pays d'en haut, inspiring already discontented Native Americans to join the revolt. The attacks on British forts did not happen at the same time: most Ohio Native Americans did not enter the war until nearly a month after the beginning of Pontiac's siege at Detroit.
Parkman also believed that Pontiac's War had been secretly instigated by French colonists who were stirring up the Native Americans in order to make trouble for the British. This belief was widely held by British officials at the time, but historians have found no evidence of official French involvement in the uprising. (The rumor of French instigation arose in part because French war belts from the Seven Years' War were still in circulation in some Native villages.) Rather than the French stirring up the Native Americans, some historians now argue that the Native Americans were trying to stir up the French. Pontiac and other native leaders frequently spoke about the fact that French power was about to return. When this happened, the Franco-Native alliance would be revived; Pontiac even flew a French flag in his village. All of this was apparently intended to inspire the French to rejoin the struggle against the British. Although some French colonists and traders supported the uprising, the war was initiated and conducted by Native Americans who had Native—not French—objectives.
Historian Richard Middleton (2007) argues that Pontiac's vision, courage, persistence, and organizational abilities allowed him to activate a remarkable coalition of Indian nations prepared to fight successfully against the British. The idea to gain independence for all Native Americans west of the Allegheny Mountains did not originate with Pontiac, but with two Seneca leaders, Tahaiadoris and Guyasuta. By February 1763 Pontiac appeared to embrace the idea. At an emergency council meeting, Pontiac clarified his military support of the broad Seneca plan and worked to motivate other nations to join the military operation that he helped lead. This was in direct contradiction to traditional Indian leadership and tribal structure. He achieved this coordination through the distribution of war belts: first to the northern Ojibwa and Ottawa near Michilimackinac; and then after the failure to seize Detroit by stratagem, to the Mingo (Seneca) on the upper Allegheny River, the Ohio Delaware near Fort Pitt, and the more westerly Miami, Kickapoo, Piankashaw and Wea peoples.
Siege of Fort Detroit
On April 27, 1763, Pontiac spoke at a council on the banks of the Ecorse River, in what is now Lincoln Park, Michigan, about 10 miles (15 km) southwest of Detroit. Using the teachings of Neolin, Pontiac convinced a number of Ottawas, Ojibwas, Potawatomis, and Hurons to join him in an attempt to seize Fort Detroit. On May 1, Pontiac visited the fort with 50 Ottawas in order to assess the strength of the garrison. According to a French chronicler, in a second council Pontiac proclaimed: It is important for us, my brothers, that we exterminate from our lands this nation which seeks only to destroy us. You see as well as I that we can no longer supply our needs, as we have done from our brothers, the French.... Therefore, my brothers, we must all swear their destruction and wait no longer. Nothing prevents us; they are few in numbers, and we can accomplish it. Hoping to take the stronghold by surprise, on May 7 Pontiac entered Fort Detroit with about 300 men carrying concealed weapons. The British had learned of Pontiac's plan, however, and were armed and ready. As his tactic had not worked, Pontiac withdrew after a brief council. Two days later, he started a siege of the fort. Pontiac and his allies killed all of the British soldiers and settlers they could find outside of the fort, including women and children. One of the soldiers was ritually cannibalized, as was the custom in some Great Lakes Native cultures. The violence was directed at the British; French colonists were generally left alone. Eventually more than 900 soldiers from a half-dozen tribes joined the siege. Meanwhile, on May 28, a British supply from Fort Niagara led by Lieutenant Abraham Cuyler was ambushed and defeated at Point Pelee.
After receiving reinforcements, the British attempted to make a surprise attack on Pontiac's encampment. But Pontiac was ready and waiting, and defeated them at the Battle of Bloody Run on July 31, 1763. Nevertheless, the situation at Fort Detroit remained a stalemate. Pontiac's influence among his followers began to fade. Groups of Native Americans began to abandon the siege, some of them making peace with the British before departing. On October 31, 1763, finally convinced that the French in Illinois would not come to his aid at Detroit, Pontiac lifted the siege and removed to the Maumee River, where he continued his efforts to rally resistance against the British.
Small forts taken
Before other British outposts had learned about Pontiac's siege at Detroit, Native Americans captured five small forts in a series of attacks between May 16 and June 2. The first to be taken was Fort Sandusky, a small blockhouse on the shore of Lake Erie. It had been built in 1761 by order of General Amherst, despite the objections of local Wyandots, who in 1762 warned the commander that they would soon burn it down. On May 16, 1763, a group of Wyandots gained entry under the pretense of holding a council, the same stratagem that had failed in Detroit nine days earlier. They seized the commander and killed the other 15 soldiers, as well as British traders at the fort. These were among the first of about 100 traders who were killed in the early stages of the war. The dead were ritually scalped and the fort—as the Wyandots had warned a year earlier—was burned to the ground.
Fort St. Joseph (the site of present-day Niles, Michigan) was captured on May 25, 1763, by the same method as at Sandusky. Potawatomis seized the commander and killed most of the 15-man garrison. Fort Miami (on the site of present Fort Wayne, Indiana) was the third fort to fall. On May 27, 1763, the commander was lured out of the fort by his Native mistress and shot dead by Miami Native Americans. The nine-man garrison surrendered after the fort was surrounded.
In the Illinois Country,, Kickapoos, and Mascoutens took Fort Ouiatenon (about 5 mi west of present Lafayette, Indiana) on June 1, 1763. They lured soldiers outside for a council, and took the 20-man garrison captive without bloodshed. The Native Americans around Fort Ouiatenon had good relations with the British garrison, but emissaries from Pontiac at Detroit had convinced them to strike. The warriors apologized to the commander for taking the fort, saying that "they were obliged to do it by the other Nations." In contrast with other forts, the Natives did not kill the British captives at Ouiatenon.
The fifth fort to fall, Fort Michilimackinac (present Mackinaw City, Michigan), was the largest fort taken by surprise. On June 2, 1763, local Ojibwas staged a game of stickball (a forerunner of lacrosse) with visiting Sauks. The soldiers watched the game, as they had done on previous occasions. The ball was hit through the open gate of the fort; the teams rushed in and were given weapons which Native women had smuggled into the fort. The warriors killed about 15 of the 35-man garrison in the struggle; later they killed five more in ritual torture.
Three forts in the Ohio Country were taken in a second wave of attacks in mid-June. Iroquois Senecas took Fort Venango (near the site of the present Franklin, Pennsylvania) around June 16, 1763. They killed the entire 12-man garrison, keeping the commander alive to write down the grievances of the Senecas. After that, they ritually burned him at the stake. Possibly the same Seneca warriors attacked Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of Waterford, Pennsylvania) on June 18, but most of the 12-man garrison escaped to Fort Pitt.
On June 19, 1763, about 250 Ottawa, Ojibwa, Wyandot, and Seneca warriors surrounded Fort Presque Isle (on the site of Erie, Pennsylvania), the eighth and final fort to fall. After holding out for two days, the garrison of about 30 to 60 men surrendered, on the condition that they could return to Fort Pitt. The warriors killed most of the soldiers after they came out of the fort.
Siege of Fort Pitt
Colonists in western Pennsylvania fled to the safety of Fort Pitt after the outbreak of the war. Nearly 550 people crowded inside, including more than 200 women and children. Simeon Ecuyer, the Swiss-born British officer in command, wrote: "We are so crowded in the fort that I fear disease...; the smallpox is among us." Fort Pitt was attacked on June 22, 1763, primarily by Delawares. The fort was too strong to be taken by force. A siege was organized, which lasted during the month of July. In the meantime, war parties raided deep into Pennsylvania, taking prisoners and killing unknown numbers of settlers in scattered farms.Too strong to be taken by force, the fort was kept under siege throughout July. Meanwhile, Delaware and Shawnee war parties raided deep into Pennsylvania, taking captives and killing unknown numbers of settlers in scattered farms. Two smaller strongholds that linked Fort Pitt to the east, Fort Bedford and Fort Ligonier, were fired upon throughout the conflict, but were never taken.
Before the war, Amherst did not believe that the Native Americans would offer any effective resistance to British rule. During that summer, he was convinced of the contrary. He ordered  to "immediately ... put to death" captured enemy Native American warriors. To Colonel Henry Bouquet at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, who was preparing to lead an expedition to relieve Fort Pitt, Amherst wrote on about June 29, 1763: "Could it not be contrived to send the smallpox among the disaffected tribes of Indians? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them." Bouquet responded to Amherst (summer of 1763):
''P.S. I will try to inocculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands, taking care however not to get the disease myself. As it is pity to oppose good men against them, I wish we could make use of the Spaniard's Method, and hunt them with English Dogs. Supported by Rangers, and some Light Horse, who would I think effectively extirpate or remove that Vermine.''
Amherst replied:
''P.S. You will Do well to try to Innoculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race. I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, but England is at too great a Distance to think of that at present.''
Officers at the besieged Fort Pitt had already attempted to do what Amherst and Bouquet were discussing. During a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24, 1763, Ecuyer gave Delaware representatives, Turtleheart and Mamaltee, two blankets and a handkerchief that had been exposed to smallpox, hoping to spread the disease to the Native Americans in order to "extirpate" them from the territory. William Trent, the militia commander, left records that showed the purpose of giving the blankets was "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians." Turtleheart and Killbuck would later represent the Delaware at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768.
On July 22, Trent writes, "Gray Eyes, Wingenum, Turtle's Heart and Mamaultee, came over the River told us their Chiefs were in Council, that they waited for Custaluga who they expected that Day". There are eyewitness reports that outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases had plagued the Ohio Native Americans in the years before the siege of Fort Pitt. Colonists also caught smallpox from Native Americans at a peace conference in 1759 which then led to an epidemic in Charleston and the surrounding areas in South Carolina.
Historians cannot agree how much damage the attempt to spread smallpox at Fort Pitt caused. Historian Francis Jennings concluded that the attempt was "unquestionably successful and effective" and inflicted great damage to the Native Americans. Historian Michael McConnell writes that, "Ironically, British efforts to use pestilence as a weapon may not have been either necessary or particularly effective", noting that smallpox was already entering the territory by several means, and Native Americans were familiar with the disease and good at isolating the infected. Historians widely agree that smallpox devastated the Native American population. It is estimated that 400,000–500,000 (possibly up to 1.5 million) Native Americans died during and years after the Pontiac's War, mostly from smallpox,
Bushy Run and Devil's Hole
On August 1, 1763, most of the Native Americans broke off the siege at Fort Pitt in order to intercept 500 British troops marching to the fort under Colonel Bouquet. On August 5, these two forces met at the Battle of Bushy Run. Although his force suffered heavy casualties, Bouquet fought off the attack and relieved Fort Pitt on August 20, bringing the siege to an end. His victory at Bushy Run was celebrated in the British colonies—church bells rang through the night in Philadelphia—and praised by King George.
This victory was soon followed by a costly defeat. Fort Niagara, one of the most important western forts, was not assaulted, but on September 14, 1763, at least 300 Senecas, Ottawas, and Ojibwas attacked a supply train along the Niagara Falls portage. Two companies sent from Fort Niagara to rescue the supply train were also defeated. More than 70 soldiers and teamsters were killed in these actions, which Anglo-Americans called the "Devil's Hole Massacre", the deadliest engagement for British soldiers during the war.
Paxton Boys
The Paxton Boys then set their sights on other Native Americans living within eastern Pennsylvania, many of whom fled to Philadelphia for protection. Several hundred Paxtonians marched on Philadelphia in January 1764, where the presence of British troops and Philadelphia militia prevented them from committing more violence. Benjamin Franklin, who had helped organize the local militia, negotiated with the Paxton leaders and brought an end to the immediate crisis. Franklin published a scathing indictment of the Paxton Boys. "If an Indian injures me," he asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all Indians?" One leader of the Paxton Boys was Lazarus Stewart who would be killed in the Wyoming Massacre of 1778.
Mire language
Mire, or Mulgi, is an East Chadic language spoken by around 5,000 people in southwestern Chad. It is mainly spoken in Tandjile Prefecture and Lai Prefecture. Most speakers speak Ndam or Kimré as a second language.
Joshua Hamidu
Lieutenant General Joshua Mahamadu Hamidu (1936 – 2 February 2021) was a Ghanaian soldier, politician and diplomat. He was the Chief of Defence Staff from 1978 to 1979. He was the Ghanaian High Commissioner to Zambia in 1978 for a short time. He was also High Commissioner to Zambia from 2003 to 2005.
Claudette Bradshaw
Claudette Bradshaw, (April 8, 1949 – March 26, 2022) was a Canadian politician and activist. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) for the riding of Moncton—Riverview—Dieppe, New Brunswick from 1997 until 2006. She was a member of the Liberal Party of Canada. Bradshaw was Minister of Labour from 1998 until 2004. She was born in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada.
Joshua Hamidu
Hamidu died on 2 February 2021 at an Accra hospital.
Pontiac's War
British response, 1764–1766
In spring and summer of 11764, there were more Native American raids on frontier settlements that usual. The hardest hit colony that year was Virginia. In July, four Delaware Indian soldiers killed and scalped a school teacher and ten children in what is now Franklin County, Pennsylvania. Incidents such as these prompted the Pennsylvania Assembly, with the approval of Governor Penn, to reintroduce the scalp bounties offered during the French and Indian War: money was paid for every Native killed above the age of ten, including women.
The Board of Trade held General Amherst responsible for the uprising. As a consequence, he was recalled to London in August 1763. Major General Thomas Gage replaced him. In 1764, Gage sent two expeditions into the west to crush the rebellion, rescue British prisoners, and arrest the Native Americans responsible for the war. According to historian Fred Anderson, Gage's campaign, which had been designed by Amherst, prolonged the war for more than a year because it focused on punishing the Native Americans rather than ending the war. Gage's one significant departure from Amherst's plan was to allow William Johnson to conduct a peace treaty at Niagara, giving those Native Americans who were ready to "bury the hatchet" a chance to do so.
Fort Niagara treaty
From July to August 1764, Johnson negotiated a treaty at Fort Niagara. About 2,000 Native Americans were present, primarily Iroquois. Although most Iroquois had stayed out of the war, Senecas from the Genesee River valley had taken up arms against the British, and Johnson worked to bring them back into the Covenant Chain alliance. As restitution for the Devil's Hole ambush, the Senecas were compelled to cede the strategically important Niagara portage to the British. Johnson even convinced the Iroquois to send a war party against the Ohio Native Americans. This Iroquois expedition captured a number of Delawares and destroyed abandoned Delaware and Shawnee towns in the Susquehanna Valley, but otherwise the Iroquois did not contribute to the war effort as much as Johnson had desired.
Two expeditions
After they had secured the area around Fort Niagara, the British launched two military expeditions into the west. The first expedition, led by Colonel John Bradstreet, was to travel by boat across Lake Erie and reinforce Detroit. Bradstreet was to subdue the Native Americans around Detroit before marching south into the Ohio Country. The second expedition, commanded by Colonel Bouquet, was to march west from Fort Pitt and form a second front in the Ohio Country.
Bradstreet set out from Fort Schlosser in early August 1764 with about 1,200 soldiers and a large contingent of Native allies enlisted by Sir William Johnson. Bradstreet felt that he did not have enough troops to subdue enemy Native Americans by force. When strong winds on Lake Erie forced him to stop at Presque Isle on August 12, he decided to negotiate a treaty with a delegation of Ohio Native Americans led by Guyasuta instead. Bradstreet exceeded his authority by conducting a peace treaty rather than a simple truce, and by agreeing to halt Bouquet's expedition, which had not yet left Fort Pitt. Gage, Johnson, and Bouquet were outraged when they learned what Bradstreet had done. Gage rejected the treaty, believing that Bradstreet had been convinced to abandoning his offensive in the Ohio Country. Gage may have been correct: the Ohio Native Americans did not return prisoners as promised in a second meeting with Bradstreet in September, and some Shawnees were trying to enlist French aid in order to continue the war.
Bradstreet continued westward. He did not know yet that his unauthorized diplomacy was angering his superiors. He reached Fort Detroit on August 26, where he negotiated another treaty. In an attempt to discredit Pontiac, who was not present, Bradstreet chopped up a peace belt the Ottawa leader had sent to the meeting. According to historian Richard White, "such an act, roughly equivalent to a European ambassador's urinating on a proposed treaty, had shocked and offended the gathered Indians." Bradstreet also claimed that the Native Americans had accepted British sovereignty as a result of his negotiations, but Johnson believed that this had not been fully explained to the Native Americans and that further councils would be needed. Although Bradstreet had successfully reinforced and reoccupied British forts in the region, his diplomacy proved to be controversial and inconclusive.
Colonel Bouquet was delayed in Pennsylvania while mustering the militia. He finally set out from Fort Pitt on October 3, 1764, with 1,150 men. He marched to the Muskingum River in the Ohio Country, within striking distance of a number of native villages. Now that treaties had been negotiated at Fort Niagara and Fort Detroit, the Ohio Native Americans were isolated and, with some exceptions, ready to make peace. In a council which began on October 17, Bouquet demanded that the Ohio Native Americans return all captives, including those not yet returned from the French and Indian War. Guyasuta and other leaders reluctantly handed over more than 200 captives, many of whom had been adopted into Native families. Because not all of the captives were present, the Native Americans were compelled to surrender hostages as a guarantee that the other captives would be returned. The Ohio Native Americans agreed to attend a more formal peace conference with William Johnson, which was finalized in July 1765.
Treaty with Pontiac
The military conflict essentially ended with the 1764 expeditions. Some Native Americans still called for resistance in the Illinois Country, where British troops had yet to take possession of Fort de Chartres from the French. A Shawnee war chief named Charlot Kaské emerged as the most strident anti-British leader in the region, temporarily surpassing Pontiac in influence. Kaské traveled as far south as New Orleans in an effort to enlist French aid against the British.
In 1765, the British decided that the occupation of the Illinois Country could only be accomplished by diplomatic means. As Gage commented to one of his officers, he was determined to have "none our enemy" among the Indian peoples, and that included Pontiac, to whom he now sent a wampum belt suggesting peace talks. Pontiac had by now become less militant after hearing of Bouquet's truce with the Ohio country Native Americans. Johnson's deputy, George Croghan, travelled to the Illinois country in the summer of 1765. Even thogh he was injured along the way in an attack by Kickapoos and Mascoutens, he managed to meet and negotiate with Pontiac. While Charlot Kaské wanted to burn Croghan at the stake, Pontiac urged moderation and agreed to travel to New York, where he made a formal treaty with William Johnson at Fort Ontario on July 25, 1766. It was hardly a surrender: no lands were ceded, no prisoners returned, and no hostages were taken. Rather than accept British sovereignty, Kaské left British territory by crossing the Mississippi River with other French and Native refugees.
Claudette Bradshaw
Bradshaw died on March 26, 2022 from lung cancer in Moncton at the age of 72.
Pontiac's War
Legacy
The total loss of life resulting from Pontiac's War is unknown. About 400 British soldiers were killed in action and perhaps 50 were captured and tortured to death. George Croghan estimated that 2,000 settlers had been killed or captured, a figure sometimes repeated as 2,000 settlers killed. The violence compelled approximately 4,000 settlers from Pennsylvania and Virginia to flee from their homes. Native American losses went mostly unrecorded.
Jean Todt
Jean Todt (born 25 February 1946) is a French motor racing executive and former rally co-driver. He was Peugeot Talbot Sport's Director and then Scuderia Ferrari Formula 1 team principal.