cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Lunnon
Toponymy
Til 1889, the name "Lunnon" offeecially anerly applee'd tae the Ceety o Lunnon but syne then it haes referred tae the Coonty o Lunnon, an nou Greater Lunnon an aa.
Prehistory
Twa recent discoveries indicate probable vera auld settlements near the Thames in the Lunnon area. In 1999, the remains o a Bronze Age bridge war foond on the foreshore north o Vauxhall Bridge. This brig aither gaed athort the Thames, or gaed tae a nou lost island in the burn. Dendrology datit the timbers tae 1500 BC. In 2010 the foundations o a lairge timmer structur, datit tae 4500 BC, war foond on the Thames foreshore, sooth o Vauxhall Bridge. The function o the mesolithic structur is nae kent. Baith structures are on South Bank, at a naitural crossin pynt whaur the River Effra flows intae the River Thames.
Roman Lunnon
Tho thare is evidence o scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major dounset wis foondit bi the Romans efter the invasion o 43 AD. This anerly lastit til aroond 61, whan the Iceni tribe led bi Queen Boudica stormed it, burning it tae the grund. The next, heivy planned, incarnation o Londinium prospered an superseded Colchester as the caipital o the Roman province o Britannia in 100. At its hicht in the 2nt century, Roman Lunnon haed a population o aroond 60,000.
Anglo-Saxon Lunnon (an Viking period)
Wi the collapse o Roman rule in the early 5t century, Lunnon ceased tae be a caipital an the walled ceety o Londinium wis effectively abandoned, awtho Roman civilisation continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields area until aroond 450. Frae aroond 500, an Anglo-Saxon dounset kent as Lundenwic developed in the same area, slichtly tae the wast o the auld Roman ceety. By aboot 680, it haed revived sufficiently tae become a major port, awtho thare is little evidence o lairge-scale production o goods. Frae the 820s the toun declined acause o repeatit Viking invasions. Thare three recordit Viking assaults on Lunnon; twa o whilk wis wun tae in 851 an 886 AD, tho thay war defeatit in the attack o 994 AD.
The Vikings established Denlaw ower a fair feck o the eastren an northren pairt o Ingland wi its mairch gaun frae aboot Lunnon tae Chester. It wis an area o political an geographical control imposed bi the Viking incursions that wis formally agreed tae bi the Dens warlord, Guthrum an wast-Saxon keeng, Alfred the Great in 886 AD. Denlaw lastit in mony pairts o Ingland for centuries tae come. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recordit that Lunnon wis "refounded" by Alfred the Great in 886. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment o Lundenwic an a revival o life an tred wiin the auld Roman walls. Lunnon then grew slowly until aboot 950, efter whilk activity increased dramatically.
Bi the 11t century, Lunnon wis ayont aw comparison the lairgest toun in Ingland. Wastmeenster Abbey, rebiggit in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, wis ane o the grandest kirks in Europe. Winchester haed aforehaun been the caipital o Anglo-Saxon Ingland, but frae this time on, Lunnon becam the main forum for furren traders an the base for defence in time o war. In the view o Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, an it was rapidly developing the dignity an the political self-consciousness appropriate tae a national capital."
Middle Ages
Follaein his victory in the Battle o Hastings, William, Duke o Normandy, wis crowned Keeng o Ingland in the newly finished Wastmeenster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William biggit the Touer o Lunnon, the first o the mony Norman castles in Ingland tae be rebuilt in stone, in the sootheastren corner o the ceety, tae intimidate the native indwallers. In 1097, William II began the biggin o Wastmeenster Hall, close bi the abbey o the same name. The hall becam the basis o a new Pailace o Wastmeenster.
During the 12t century, the institutions o central government, whilk haed hitherto accompanied the ryal Inglis court as it moved aroond the kintra, grew in size an sophistication an becam increasingly fixed in ane place. In maist cases this wis Wastmeenster, awtho the ryal treasury, haein been moved frae Winchester, came tae rest in the Tower. While the Ceety o Wastmeenster developed intae a true caipital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the ceety o Lunnon, remained Ingland's lairgest ceety an principal commercial centre, an it flourished unner its ain unique admeenistration, the Corporation o Lunnon. In 1100, its population wis aroond 18,000; by 1300 it haed grown tae nearly 100,000.
Air modren
During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift tae Protestantism, wi much o Lunnon passin frae kirk tae private ainership. The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed an undressed frae Lunnon tae the nearby shores o the Law Kintras whaur it wis considered indispensable. But the tentacles o English maritime enterprise hardly extendit beyond the seas o north-wast Europe. The commercial route tae Italy an the Mediterranean Sea normally lay throu Antwerp an ower the Alps; ony ships passing throu the Strait o Gibraltar tae or frae England war likely tae be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-openin o the Netherlands tae English shipping in Januar 1565 thare at ance ensued a strang outburst o commercial activity. The Royal Exchange wis foondit. Mercantilism grew an monopoly trading companies sic as the East Indie Company war established, wi tred expanding tae the New World. Lunnon becam the principal North Sea port, wi migrants arrivin frae England an abroad. The population rose frae an estimatit 50,000 in 1530 tae aboot 225,000 in 1605.
In the 16t century, William Shakespeare an his contemporaries lived in Lunnon at a time o hostility tae the development o the theatre. By the end o the Tudor period in 1603, Lunnon wis still vera compact. Thare wis an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, throu the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605. Lunnon wis plagued by disease in the early 17t century, culminatin in the Great Plague o 1665–1666, whilk killt up tae 100,000 bodies, or a fift o the population.
The Great Fire o Lunnon broke oot in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the ceety an quickly swept throu the widden biggins. Rebiggin teuk ower ten year an wis supervised by Robert Hooke  as Surveyor o Lunnon. In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral wis completit. During the Georgian era new destricts sic as Mayfair war formed in the wast; an new brigs ower the Thames encouraged development in South Lunnon. In the east, the Port o Lunnon expanded downstream.
In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House an it wis enlairged ower the next 75 year. During the 18t century, Lunnon wis dogged by crime an the Bow Street Runners war established in 1750 as a professional police force. In tot, mair nor 200 offences war punishable by death, includin petty theft. Most childer born in the ceety died afore reakin thair third birthday. The coffeehouse became a popular place tae debate ideas, wi growin literacy an the development o the prentin press makkin news widely available; an Fleet Street became the centre o the British press.
Accordin tae Samuel Johnson:
"Ye cannae fin a man, at aw intellectual, wha is willin tae leave Lunnon. Naw, Sir, whan a man is fauchelt Lunnon, he is tired o life; for there in Lunnon aw that life can afford."
- Samuel Johnson, 1777
Late modren an contemporary
Lunnon wis the warld's lairgest ceety frae aboot 1831 tae 1925. Lunnon's overcrowded conditions led tae cholera epidemics, claimin 14,000 lifes in 1848, an 6,000 in 1866. risin traffic congestion led tae the creation o the warld's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board o Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the caipital an some surroondin counties; it wis abolished in 1889 when the Lunnon County cooncil wis creatit oot o those areas o the counties surroondin the caipital. Lunnon wis bombed bi the Germans during the First World War while during the Seicont World War the Blitz an ither bombin bi the German Luftwaffe killed ower 30,000 Lunnoners an destroyed lairge tracts o housing an ither biggins athort the ceety. Immediately efter the war, the 1948 Simmer Olympics war held at the oreeginal Wembley Stadium, at a time when Lunnon haed barely recovered frae the war.
In 1951, the Festeeval o Britain wis held on the Sooth Bank. The Great Smog o 1952 led tae the Clean Air Act 1956, that endit the "pea soup fogs" for whilk Lunnon haed been notorious. Frae the 1940s onwart, Lunnon became hame tae numerous immigrants, lairgely frae Commonweel countries lik Jamaica, Indie, Bangladesh an Pakistan, makkin Lunnon ane o the maist diverse ceeties in Europe.
Primarily stairtin in the mid-1960s, Lunnon becam a centre for the warldwide youth cultur, exemplified bi the Swinging Lunnon subculture associatit wi the Keeng's Road, Chelsea an Carnaby Street. The role o trendsetter wis revived in the punk era. In 1965 Lunnon's political boundaries wis expandit tae tak intae accoont the growthe o the urban area an a new Greater Lunnon cooncil wis creatit. Throu The Troubles in Northren Ireland, Lunnon wis subjectit tae bombin attacks bi the Provisional IRA. Racial inequality wis hielichtit bi the 1981 Brixton riot.
Greater Lunnon's population declined steadily in the decades efter the Seicont World War, frae an estimatit peak o 8.6 million in 1939 tae aroond 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for Lunnon moved downstream tae Felixstowe an Tilbury, wi the Lunnon Docklands area becomin a focus for regeneration, includin the Canary Wharf development. This wis borne oot o Lunnon's ever-increasin role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s. The Thames Barrier wis completit in the 1980s tae pertect Lunnon against tidal surges frae the North Sea.
The Greater Lunnon cooncil wis abolished in 1986, whilk left Lunnon as the anerly lairge metropolis in the warld wioot a central admeenistration. In 2000, Lunnon-wide govrenment wis restored, wi the creation o the Greater Lunnon Authority. tae celebrate the stairt o the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, Lunnon Eye an Millennium Bridge war biggit. On 6 Julie 2005 Lunnon wis awairdit the 2012 Simmer Olympics, makkin Lunnon the first ceety tae stage the Olympic Gemmes three times. The naxt day (7 Julie 2005) Lunnon's tube network wis hit bi major bomb attacks. In Februar 2015, Greater Lunnon's population wis estimatit tae be 8.6 million, the heichest level syne 1939.
Local government
The admeenistration o Lunnon is formed o twa tiers—a ceety-wide, strategic tier an a local tier. ceety-wide admeenistration is coordinatit bi the Greater Lunnon Authority (GLA), while local admeenistration is carried oot by 33 smawer authorities. The GLA consists o twa electit components; the Mayor o Lunnon, wha haes executive powers, an the Lunnon Assembly, whilk scrutinises the mayor's decisions an can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals ilka year. The headquarters o the GLA is City Hall, Southwark; the mayor is Sadiq Khan. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the Lunnon Plan, whilk daed it's maist recent revision in 2011. The local authorities are the cooncils o the 32 Lunnon boroughs an the City o Lunnon Corporation. Thay are responsible for maist local services, sic as local planning, schuils, social services, local roads an refuse collection. Certaint functions, sic as waste management, are providit throu jynt arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by Lunnon cooncils an the GLA amountit tae juist ower £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs an £7.4 billion for the GLA).
Policing in Greater Lunnon, except the City o Lunnon, is providit bi the Metropolitan Police Force, overseen bi the Mayor throu the Mayor's Office for Policing an Crime (MOPAC). The ceety o Lunnon haes its ain police force – the City o Lunnon Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail an Lunnon Unnergrund services.
The Lunnon Fire Brigade is the statutory fire an rescue service for Greater Lunnon. It is run bi the Lunnon Fire an Emergency Planning Authority an is the third lairgest fire service in the warld. National Health Service ambulance services are providit bi the Lunnon Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the lairgest free-at-the-pynt-o-uise emergency ambulance service in the warld. The Lunnon Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction wi the LAS whaur required. Her Majesty's Coastguard an the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, whilk is unner the jurisdiction o the Port o Lunnon Authority frae Teddington Lock tae the sea.
National government
Lunnon is the seat o the Govrenment o the Unitit Kinrick. Mony govrenment departments are based close tae the Pailace o Wastmeenster, parteecularly alang Whitehall, includin the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is eften referred tae as the "Mother o Parliaments" (awtho this sobriquet wis first applied tae England itself by John Bright) acause it haes been the model for maist ither parliamentary systems. Thare are 73 Members o Parliament (MPs) frae Lunnon, who correspond tae local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As o Juin 2017, 49 are frae the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, an 3 are Liberal Democrat.
Scope
Greater Lunnon is the tap-level administrative subdiveesion coverin Lunnon. The wee, ancient City o Lunnon at its core ance contained the hale dounset, but as the urban area grew the City Corporation resistit attemps tae amalgamate it wi its suburbs, causin "Lunnon" tae be defined in a nummer weys for different purposes. Forty per cent o Greater Lunnon is covered bi the Lunnon post toun, wiin whilk 'Lunnon' forms pairt o postal addresses.
The Lunnon telephone area code (020) covers a lairger area, seemilar in size tae Greater Lunnon, awtho some outer destricts are omeetit an some places juist ootside are included. The Greater Lunnon boundary haes been aligned tae the M25 motorway in places.
Outward urban expansion is nou preventit bi the Metropolitan Green Belt, awtho the biggit-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, resultin in a separately defined Greater Lunnon Urban area. Beyond this is the vast Lunnon commuter belt. Greater Lunnon is split for some purposes intae Inner Lunnon an Outer Lunnon. The ceety is split bi the River Thames intae North an South, wi an informal central Lunnon area in its interior. The coordinates o the nominal centre o Lunnon, tradeetionally considered tae be the oreeginal Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction o Trafalgar squerr an Whitehall, are approximately 51.50722°N, -0.1275°W.
Status
Athin Lunnon, baith the City o Lunnon an the City o Westminster hae ceety status an baith the ceety o Lunnon an the remainder o Greater Lunnon is the ceremonial counties. The area o Greater Lunnon haes incorporatit area that war ance pairt o the historic counties o Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex an Hertfordshire. Lunnon's status as the caipital o England, an later the Unitit Kinrick, haes never been grantit or confirmed offeecially—by statute or in written form.
Maria Cristina o Savoy
Blessed Maria Cristina o Savoy (Maria Cristina Carlotta Giuseppa Gaetana Efisia; 14 November 1812 – 21 Januar 1836) wis the first wife o Ferdinand II o the Twa Sicilies. She died aa a result o childbirth. On 10 Julie 1872 she wis declared tae be a "Servant o God" on 6 Mey 1937.
Lunnon
Status
Its poseetion wis formed throu constitutional convention, makkin its status as de facto caipital a pairt o the UK's unwritten constitution. The caipital o Ingland wis moved tae Lunnon frae Winchester as the Pailace o Wastmeenster developed in the 12t an 13t centuries tae become the permanent location o the royal court, an sicweys the political caipital o the naition. Mair recently, Greater Lunnon haes been defined as a region o England an in this context is kent as Lunnon.
Topography
Greater Lunnon encompasses a tot area o 1583 km2, an area that haed a population o 7,172,036 in 2001 an a population density o 4542 PD/km2. The extendit area kent as the Lunnon Metropolitan Region or the Lunnon Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a tot area o 8382 km2 haes a population o 13,709,000 an a population density o 1510 PD/km2. Modern Lunnon stauns on the Thames, its primary geographical featur, a navigable river whilk crosses the ceety frae the sooth-wast tae the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surroondit by gently rolling hills includin Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, an Primrose Hill. The Thames wis ance a fair bit broader, shallaer burn wi extensive marshlands; at heich tide, its shores reakit five times thair present width.
Syne the Victorian era the Thames haes been extensively embanked, an mony o its Lunnon tributaries nou flow unnerground. The Thames is a tidal river, an Lunnon is vulnerable tae flooding. The threat haes increased ower time acause o a slaw but continuous rise in heich watter level bi the slow 'tilting' o Britain (up in the north an doun in the sooth) caused by post-glacial rebound.
In 1974, a decade o work began on the construction o the Thames Barrier athort the Thames at Woolwich tae deal wi this threat. While the barrier is expectit tae function as designed til aboot 2070, concepts for its future enlairgement or redesign is awready bein discussed.
Climate
Lunnon haes a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb ), seemilar tae aw o soothren Britain. Maugre its reputation as bein a rainy ceety, Lunnon receives less precipitation (601 mm in a year), than Roum, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Naples an even Sydney in Australie. Temperature extremes for aw sites in the Lunnon area range frae 38.1 °C at Kew during August 2003 doun tae -16.1 °C at Northolt during Januar 1962.
Simmers are generally warm an whiles het, Lunnon's average Julie heich is 24 °C. On average, Lunnon will see 31 days abuin 25 °C ilka year, an 4.2 days abuin 30.0 °C ilka year. Throu the 2003 European heat wave thare war 14 consecutive days abuin 30 °C an 2 consecutive days whaur temperatures reakit 38 °C, leadin tae hunners o heat relatit daiths. Winters are generally cuil an damp wi little temperature variation. Snowfall daes occur frae time tae time, an can cause traivel disruption whan this happens. Spring an hairst are mixed seasons an can be leesome. As a lairge ceety, Lunnon haes a considerable urban heat island effect, makkin the centre o Lunnon at times 5 C-change warmer than the suburbs an outskirts. The effect o this can be seen ablo whan comparin Lunnon Heathrow that is locatit 15 mile wast o Lunnon wi the Lunnon Weather Centre that is locatit in the centre o Lunnon.
destricts
Lunnon's vast urban area is aften descrievit uisin a set o destrict names, lik Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Wembley an Whitechapel. Thay are aither informal designations, reflect the names o villages that hae been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units sic as parishes or umwhile boroughs.
Siclike names hae remained in uise throu tradeetion, ilk o thaim referrin tae a local area wi its ain distinctive character, but wioot official boundaries. Syne 1965 Greater Lunnon haes been dividit intae 32 Lunnon boroughs in addition tae the ancient ceety o Lunnon. The ceety o Lunnon is the main financial destrict, an Canary Wharf haes recently developed intae a new financial an commercial hub in the Docklands tae the east.
The West End is Lunnon's main entertainment an shoppin destrict, attracting tourists. West Lunnon includes expensive residential areas whaur properties can sell for tens o millions o pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington an Chelsea is ower £2 million wi a seimilarly heich outlay in maist o central Lunnon.
The East End is the area closest tae the oreeginal Port o Lunnon, kent for its heich immigrant population, as weel as for bein ane o the puirest areas in Lunnon. The surroondin East Lunnon area saw a fair bit o Lunnon's early industrial development; nou, brownfield sites throughout the area are bein redeveloped as pairt o the Thames Gateway includin the Lunnon Riverside an Lower Lea Valley, that wis developed intae the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics an Paralympics.
Architecture
Lunnon's biggins are ower diverse tae be characterised by ony parteecular architectural style, partly acause o thair varyin ages. Mony grand houses an public biggins, sic as the National Gallery, are biggit frae Portland stone. Some areas o the ceety, parteecularly those juist wast o the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed biggins. Few structures in central Lunnon pre-date the Great Fire o 1666, thir bein a few trace Roman remains, the Tower o Lunnon an a few scattered Tudor survivors in the ceety. Faur oot is, for insample, the Tudor period Hampton Court Palace, England's auldest surviving Tudor palace, biggit by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c. 1515. Wren's late 17t-century kirks an the financial institutions o the 18t an 19t centuries lik the Royal Exchange an the Bank o England, tae the early 20t century Old Bailey an the 1960s Barbican Estate form pairt o the varied architectural heritage. The disuised, but suin tae be rejuvenated, 1939 Battersea Power Station bi the burn in the sooth-wast is a local laundmerk, while some railway termini are excellent insamples o Victorian architecture, maist notably St. Pancras an Paddington. The density o Lunnon varies, wi heich employment density in the central area, heich residential densities in inner Lunnon an laicher densities in Outer Lunnon.
The Monument in the ceety o Lunnon provides views o the surroondin areas while commemoratin the Great Fire o Lunnon, whilk originatit fae a biggin naurhaun. Marble Arch an Wellington Arch, at the north an sooth ends o Park Lane respectively, hae royal connections, as dae the Albert Memorial an Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar squerr, ane o the focal pynts o the ceety centre. Older biggins are mainly brick biggit, maist commonly the yellae Lunnon stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, eften decoratit wi carvings an white plaster mouldings.
In the dense airts, maist o the concentration is via medium- an heich-rise biggins. Lunnon's skyscrapers lik 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower an One Canada squerr are maistly in the twa financial destricts, the City o Lunnon an Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restrictit at certaint sites if it wad obstruct pertectit views o St Paul's Cathedral an ither historic biggins. Housomeiver, thare a nummer o verra heich skyscrapers in central Lunnon (see Tall biggins in Lunnon), includin the 72-storey Shard Lunnon Bridge, the heichest biggin in the European Union.
Other notable modern biggins include City Hall in Southwark wi its distinctive oval shape, an the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross. What wis formerly the Millennium Dome, bi the Thames tae the east o Canary Wharf, is nou an entertainment venue cried The O2 Arena.
Natural history
Amphibians are common in the caipital, includin smooth newts livin bi the Tate Modern, an common frogs, common toads, palmate newts an great crestit newts, housamiver, native reptiles lik slow-worms, common lizards, grass snakes an adders, are maistly anly seen in outer Lunnon. Amang ither indwallers o Lunnon are 10,000 tods, sae that thare are nou 16 tods for every squerr mile (2.6 squerr kilometres) o Lunnon. Thir urban tods are noticeably bolder than thair kintra cousins, sharin the pavement (sidewalk) wi pedestrians an raisin cubs in people's backyards. Tods hae even sneaked intae the Houses o Parliament, whaur ane wis foond asleep on a filing cabinet. Anither broke intae the grunds o Buckingham Palace, reportedly killin some o Queen Elizabeth II's prized pink flamingos. Generally, housamiver, tods an ceety folk appear tae get alang. A survey in 2001 bi the Lunnon-based Mammal Society foond that 80 percent o Lunnoners liked haein them aroond.
Other mammals foond in Greater Lunnon are hedgehogs, rats, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, an squirrels, In wilder areas o Outer Lunnon, sic as Epping Forest, a wide variety o mammals are foond includin hare, brock, field, bank an watter laund-moose, wid moose, yellae-neck moose, mowdiwarp, shrew, an wheasel, in addition tae tod, squirrel an hurcheon. A deid otter wis foond at The Highway, in Wapping, aboot a mile frae the Tower Bridge, that wad suggest that thay hae begun tae muive back efter bein absence a hunner year frae the ceety. Ten o England's eighteen species o bats hae been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, nathusius an common pipistrelles, noctule, serotine, barbastelle, daubenton's, brown Long-eared, natterer's an leisler's.
Amang the strange sights seen in Lunnon hae been a whale in the Thames, while The BBC Twa programme "Natural World: Unnatural History o Lunnon", shaws pigeons uisin the Lunnon Unnergrund tae get aroond the ceety, a seal that taks fish frae fishmongers athoot Billingsgate Fish Market, an tods that will "sit" gif thay're gien sausages.
Herds o red an fallow deer roam freely wiin hantle o Richmond an Bushy Park. A cull takes place ilk November an Februar tae ensure nummers can be sustained. Epping Forest is kent for its fallow deer an aa, whilk can frequently be seen in herds tae the north o the Forest. A rare population o melanistic, black fallow deer is forby maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, that escaped frae deer parks at the turn o the twentieth century, are foond in the wid. While Lunnoners are accustomed tae wildlife sic as birds an tods sharin the ceety, mair recently urban deer hae becomin a regular featur, an hale herds o fallow an white tailed deer come intae residential airts at nicht tae tak advantage o the Lunnon's green spaces. Thare are in Lunnon mony muntjak deer an aa, but acause thay are shy it is less common tae see them.
Demography
Houiver, Lunnon's continuous urban area extends ayont the borders o Greater Lunnon an wis home tae 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area haes a population o atween 12 an 14 million dependin on the definition uised. Accordin tae Eurostat, Lunnon is the maist populous ceety an metropolitan area o the European Union an the seicont maist populous in Europe (or third if Istanbul is included). in the period 1991–2001 a net 726,000 immigrants arrived in Lunnon.
The region covers an area o 1579 km2. The population density is 5177 PD/km2, mair nor ten times that o ony ither British region. In terms o population, Lunnon is the 19t mucklemaist ceety an the 18t mucklemaist metropolitan region in the warld. As o 2014, Lunnon haes the mucklemaist nummer o billionaires (British Pound Sterling) in the warld, wi 72 residing in the ceety. Lunnon ranks as ane o the maist expensive ceeties in the warld, alongside Tokyo an Moscow.
Ethnic groups
Accordin tae the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent o the 8,173,941 indwallers o Lunnon war White, wi 44.9 per cent White British, 2.2 per cent White Irish, 0.1 per cent gypsy/Irish traveller an 12.1 per cent classifee'd as Other White.
15.6 per cent o Lunnon's population are o Black an mixed-Black strynd. 13.3 per cent are o fou Black strynd, wi thaim that's o mixed-Black heritage comprisin 2.3 per cent. Black Africans accoont for 7.0 per cent o Lunnon's population, wi 4.2 per cent as Black Caribbean an 2.1 per cent as "Other Black". 5.0 per cent are o mixed race.
athort Lunnon, Black an Asian childer outnumber White British childer by aboot sax tae fower in state schuils. Altogether at the 2011 census, o Lunnon's 1,624,768 population aged 0 tae 15, 46.4 per cent war White, 19.8 per cent war Asian, 19 per cent war Black, 10.8 per cent war Mixed an 4 per cent representit anither ethnic group. In Januar 2005, a survey o Lunnon's ethnic an religious diversity claimed that thare war mair nor 300 leids spoken in Lunnon an mair nor 50 non-indigenous communities wi a population o mair nor 10,000. figurs frae the Office for National Statistics shaw that,, Lunnon's furren-born population wis 2,650,000 (33 per cent), up frae 1,630,000 in 1997.
The 2011 census shawed that 36.7 per cent o Greater Lunnon's population war born athoot the UK. The table tae the right shows the 30 maist common countries o birth o Lunnon residents in 2011, the date o the last published UK Census. A portion o the German-born population are as lik as tae be British nationals born tae parents servin in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Estimates produced bi the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five mucklemaist furren-born groups bidin in Lunnon in the period Julie 2009 tae Juin 2010 war those born in Indie, Poland, the Republic o Ireland, Bangladesh an Nigerie.
Releegion
Accordin tae the 2011 Census, the mucklemaist releegious groupins are Christians (48.4 per cent), follaed bi those o no releegion (20.7 per cent), Muslims (12.4 per cent), nae reponse (8.5 per cent), Hindus (5.0 per cent), Jews (1.8 per cent), Sikhs (1.5 per cent), Buddhists (1.0 per cent) an ither (0.6 per cent).
Lunnon haes tradeetionally been Christian, an haes a hantle o kirks, parteecularly in the Ceety o Lunnon. The well-kent St Paul's Cathedral in the Ceety an Southwark Cathedral sooth o the river are Anglican admeenistrative centres, while the Archbishop o Canterbury, principal bishop o the Krik o Ingland an warldwide Anglican Communion, haes his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the Lunnon Borough o Lambeth.
Important national an royal ceremonies are shared atween St Paul's an Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is nae tae be confused wi nearby Westminster Cathedral, that is the mucklemaist Roman Catholic cathedral in England an Wales. Despite the prevalence o Anglican kirks, observance is verra laich wiin the Anglican denomination. Kirk attendance continues on a lang, slaw, steady decline, accordin tae Kirk o Ingland statistics.
The majority o Breetish Jews live in Lunnon, wi signeeficant Jewish commonties in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon an Edgware in North Lunnon. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the Ceety o Lunnon is affiliatit tae Lunnon's heestoric Sephardic Jewish commonty. It is the anly synagogue in Europe that haes held regular services continuously for ower 300 year. Stanmore an Canons Pairk Synagogue haes the mucklemaist membership o ony single Orthodox synagogue in the whole o Europe, owertakin Ilford synagogue (in Lunnon an aa) in 1998. The commonity set up the unnon Jewish Forum in 2006 in response tae the growin signeeficance o devolved Lunnon Govrenment.
Accent
Thare are mony accents that are tradeetionally thocht on as Lunnon accents. The maist weel kent o the Lunnon accents lang syne acquired the Cockney label, that is haurd baith in Lunnon itself, an athort the wider South East England region mair generally. The accent o a 21st-century 'Lunnoner' varies widely; what is becomin mair an mair common amongst the unner-30s houiver is some fusion o Cockney wi a whole array o 'ethnic' accents, in parteecular Caribbean, that form an accent labelled Multicultural Lunnon English (MLE). The ither widely heard an spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, that can aften be haurd in the media an mony o ither traditional professions an ayont this area, tho this accent isnae leemitit tae Lunnon an South East England, an can be haurd selectively atouer the hale UK amang certaint social groupins.
Economy
Lunnon generates aboot 20 per cent o the UK's GDP (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy o the Lunnon metropolitan area—the lairgest in Europe—generates aboot 30 per cent o the UK's GDP (or an estimatit $669 billion in 2005). Lunnon is ane o the pre-eminent financial centres o the warld an vies wi New York ceety as the maist important location for international finance.
Lunnon's lairgest industry is finance, an its financial exports mak it a lairge contributor tae the UK's balance o payments. Aroond 325,000 fowk wis employed in financial services in Lunnon til mid-2007. Lunnon haes ower 480 owerseas banks, mair nor ony ither ceety in the warld. Ower 85 percent (3.2 million) o the employed population o greater Lunnon works in the services industries. Acause o its prominent global role, Lunnon's economy haed been affectit bi the Late-2000s financial crisis. Housamiver, by 2010 the ceety haes recovered; pit in place new regulatory powers, proceedit tae regain lost ground an re-established Lunnon's economic parity wi New York. The City o Lunnon is home tae the Bank o England, Lunnon Stock Exchange, an Lloyd's o Lunnon insurance mercat.
Ower hauf o the UK's tap 100 listit companies (the FTSE 100) an ower 100 o Europe's 500 lairgest companies hae thair headquarters in central Lunnon. Ower 70 per cent o the FTSE 100 are athin Lunnon's metropolitan area, an 75 per cent o Fortune 500 companies hae offices in Lunnon.
Alang wi professional services, media companies are concentratit in Lunnon an the media distribution industry is Lunnon's seicont maist competitive sector. The BBC is a significant employer, while ither broadcasters hae heidquarters aroond the ceety an aa. Mony naitional newspapers are editit in Lunnon. Lunnon is a major retail centre an in 2010 haed the heichest non-food retail sales o ony ceety in the warld, wi a tot spend o aroond £64.2 billion. The Port o Lunnon is the seicont-lairgest in the Unitit Kinrick, handlin 45 million tonnes o cargo ilka year.
Lunnon haes five major business destricts: the ceety, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington an Lambeth & Southwark. One wey tae get an idea o thair relative importance is tae leuk at relative amounts o office space: Greater Lunnon haed 27 million m2 o office space in 2001, an the ceety conteens the maist space, wi 8 million m2 o office space. Lunnon haes some o the heichest real estate prices in the warld.
A growin nummer o technology companies are based in Lunnon notably in East Lunnon Tech ceety, forby kent as Silicon Roundabout. In Aprile 2014, the ceety wis amang the first tae receive a geoTLD.
In Februar 2014 Lunnon wis ranked as the European ceety o the Future in the 2014/15 leet by FDi Magazine.
Lunnon haes the heichest property prices o ony European ceety accordin tae the Office for National Statistics an the European Office o Statistics. On average the price per squerr metre in central Lunnon is €24,252 (Aprile 2014). This is higher than the property prices in ither G8 European caipital ceeties; Berlin €3,306, Rome €6,188 an Paris €11,229.
The gas an electricity distribution networks that manage an operate the touers, cables an pressure systems that deliver energy tae consumers athort the ceety are managed by National Grid plc, SGN an UK Power Networks.
Tourism
Lunnon is a popular centre for tourism, ane o its prime industries, employin the equivalent o 350,000 fou-time workers in 2003, while annual expenditure by tourists is aroond £15 billion. Lunnon attracks ower 14 million international visitors a year; that gars it Europe's maist visitit ceety. Lunnon attracts 27 million overnicht-stay visitors every year. In 2010 the ten maist-visitit attractions in Lunnon war:
Housing crisis
Thousans o faimlies athoot hames fin thairsels stuck in emergency accommodation for at least twa year. A growthe in the nummer o UK households haes led tae the homeless charity Shelter statin: "This growth is a result o people livin langer, mair fowk livin on thair lanesomes or in weeer hoosehauds, an net migration."
Transport
Transport is ane o the fower main area o policy administered bi the Mayor o Lunnon, houiver the mayor's financial control disnae extend tae the langer distance rail network that enters Lunnon. In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines, that nou form the Lunnon Overground network, adding tae the existin responsibility for the Lunnon Unnergrund, trams an buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for Lunnon (TfL) an is ane o the priceymaist in the warld.
The lines that formed the Lunnon Unnergrund, as weel as trams an buses, became pairt o an integratit transport system in 1933 when the Lunnon Passenger Transport Board or Lunnon Transport wis creatit. Transport for Lunnon is nou the statutory corporation responsible for maist aspects o the transport system in Greater Lunnon, an is run by a board an a commissioner appyntit bi the Mayor o Lunnon.
Aviation
Lunnon is a major international air transport hub wi the lairgest ceety airspace in the warld. Aicht airports uise the wird Lunnon in thair name, but maist traffic passes throu sax o thir. Lunnon Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West Lunnon, is the busiest airport in the warld for international traffic, an is the major hub o the naition's banner carrier, British Airways. In Mairch 2008 its fift terminal wis opened. Thare war plans for a third runway an a sixth terminal houiver thir war cancelled bi the Coalition Government on 12 Mey 2010.
Similar traffic, wi some cheap short-haul flights, is forbye handled at Gatwick Airport, sooth o Lunnon in West Sussex.
Stanstit Airport, north east o Lunnon in Essex, is a local UK hub an Luton Airport tae the north o Lunnon in Bedfordshire, caters maistly for cheap short-haul flights. Lunnon ceety Airport, the weeest an maist central airport, in Newham, East Lunnon, is focused on business travellers, wi a mixtur o fou service short-haul schedult flichts an considerable business jet traffic. Lunnon Southend Airport, east o Lunnon in Essex, is a smawer, regional airport that mainly caters for cheap short-haul flights.
The Airports Commission is due tae report in Summer 2015 on future expansion o airport capacity.
Underground an DLR
The Lunnon Unnergrund, commonly referred tae as the Tube, is the auldest an seicont langest metro system in the warld. The system serves 270 stations an wis formed frae several private companies, includin the warld's first unnerground electric line, the City an South Lunnon Railway. It dates frae 1863.
Ower three million journeys is made ilk a day on the Underground network, ower 1 billion ilk a year. An investment programme is attemptin tae reduce congestion an impruive reliability, includin £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent afore the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway, that opened in 1987, is a seicont, mair local metro system uisin smawer an lighter tram-teep vehicles that serve Docklands an Greenwich.
Suburban
Thare are 366 railway stations in the Lunnon Travelcard Zones on an extensive abuin-ground suburban railway network. South Lunnon, parteecularly, haes a heich concentration o railways as it haes fewer Underground lines. Maist rail lines terminate aroond the centre o Lunnon, running intae eighteen terminal stations, cep for the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north an Brighton in the sooth via Luton an Gatwick airports. Lunnon haes Britain's busiest station by nummer o passengers – Waterloo, wi ower 184 million people uisin the interchange station complex (whilk includes Waterloo East station) ilka year. Clapham Junction is the busiest station in Europe bi the nummer o trains passing.
Wi the need for mair rail capacity in Lunnon, Crossrail is due tae open in 2018. It will be a new railway line runnin east tae wast throu Lunnon an intae the Home Counties wi a branch tae Heathrow Airport. It is Europe's biggest construction project, wi a £15 billion projectit cost.
Inter-city an international
Lunnon is the centre o the National Rail network, wi 70 percent o rail journeys stairtin or endin in Lunnon. Lik suburban rail services, regional an inter-ceety trains depart frae several termini aroon the ceety centre, linkin Lunnon wi the rest o Britain includin Cambridge, Bristol, Cardiff, Exeter, Birmingham, Holyhead, Sheffield, Southampton, Leeds, Manchester, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Edinburgh an Glasgow.
Some international railway services tae Continental Europe wis operatit during the 20t century as boat trains, lik the Admiraal de Ruijter tae Amsterdam an the Night Ferry tae Paris an Brussels. The openin o the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connectit Lunnon directly tae the continental rail network, allouin Eurostar services tae begin. Syne 2007, heich-speed trains link St. Pancras International wi Lille, Paris, Brussels an European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link an the Channel Tunnel. The first heich-speed domestic trains stairtit in Juin 2009 linking Kent tae Lunnon. Thare plans for a seicont heich speed line linkin Lunnon tae the Midlands, North West England, an Yorkshire.
Gerhard Schröder
Gerhard Fritz Kurt Schröder (born 7 Aprile 1944) is a German politeecian, an wis Chancellor o Germany frae 1998 til 2005. As a memmer o the Social Democratic Pairty o Germany (SPD), he led a coalition govrenment o the SPD an the Greens. Afore becomin a fu-time politeecian, he wis a lawyer, an afore becomin Chancellor he serrt as Prime Meenister o Lawer Saxony (1990–1998). Follaein the 2005 federal election, that his pairty lost, efter three weeks o negotiations he stuid doun as Chancellor in favour o Angela Merkel o the rival Christian Democratic Union. He is the noo the chairman o the buird o Nord Stream AG, efter haein been hired as a global manager bi investment baunk Rothschild.
Lunnon
Freight
Awtho rail freight levels are far doun compared tae thair heicht, significant quantities o cargo are forby carried intae an oot o Lunnon by rail; chiefly biggin materials an landfill waste. As a major hub o the British railway network, Lunnon's tracks forby cairy lairge amounts o freight for the ither regions, sic as container freight frae the Channel Tunnel an English Channel ports, an nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield.
Buses an trams
Lunnon's bus network is ane o the lairgest in the warld, runnin 24 oor a day, wi aboot 8,500 buses, mair nor 700 bus routes an aroond 19,500 bus stops. In 2013, the network haed mair nor 2 billion commuter trips per annum, mair nor the Underground. Aroond £850 million is taen in revenue ilk a year. Lunnon haes the lairgest wheelchair accessible network in the warld an, frae the 3rd quarter o 2007, becam mair accessible tae hearin- an sicht- impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements wis introduced. The distinctive reid double-decker buses is a international recognised trademark o Lunnon transport alang wi black cabs an the Tube.
Lunnon haes a modern tram network, kent as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South Lunnon. The network haes 39 stops an fower routes, an carried 28 million bodies in 2013. Syne Juin 2008 Transport for Lunnon haes completely owned Tramlink, an it plans tae spend £54m by 2015 on maintenance, renewals, upgrades an capacity enhancements.
Cable car
Lunnon's first an anly cable car, kent as the Emirates Air Line, opened in Juin 2012. Crossin the River Thames, linking Greenwich Peninsula an the Royal Docks in the east o the ceety, the cable car is integratit wi Lunnon's Oyster Card ticketing system.
Cycling
Cycling is an increasingly popular wey tae get aroond Lunnon. The launch o a cycle hire scheme in Julie 2010 haes been successfu an generally weel received. The Lunnon Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision.
Port an river boats
Frae bein the lairgest port in the warld, the Port o Lunnon is nou anly the seicont-lairgest in the Unitit Kinrick, handling 45 million tonnes o cargo each year. Most o this actually passes throu the Port o Tilbury, ootside the boundary o Greater Lunnon.
Lunnon haes frequent river boat services on the Thames kent as Thames Clippers. Thir run up tae every 20 minutes atween Embankment Pier an North Greenwich Pier. The Woolwich Ferry, wi 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North an South Circular Roads. Other operators run baith commuter an tourist boat services in Lunnon.
Tautovo, Chuvashie
Tautovo (Таутово; Тавӑт, Tavăt) is a landwart locality (a veelage) in Alikovsky Destrict o Chuvashie, (Roushie), locatit 10 km frae the destrict's admeenistrative centre o Alikovo. The veelage is the admeenistrative centre o Tautovskoye Landwart Dounset, ane o the municipal formations o Alikovsky Destrict.
Lunnon
Roads
Awtho the majority o journeys involvin central Lunnon are made bi public transport, car traivel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (aroond the ceety centre), the North an South Circular roads (in the suburbs), an the outer orbital motorway (the M25, athoot the biggit-up area) encircle the ceety an are intersectit by a nummer o busy radial routes—but verra few motorways penetrate intae inner Lunnon. A plan for a comprehensive network o motorways atouer the ceety (the Ringways Plan) wis prepared in the 1960s but wis maistly cancelt in the air 1970s. The M25 is the langest ring-road motorway in the warld at 121.5 mi long. The A1 an M1 connect Lunnon tae Leeds, an Newcastle an Edinburgh.
Nigel Waterson
Nigel Christopher Waterson (born 12 October 1950) is an Inglis politeecian, an a member o the Unitit Kinrick pairlament at Wastmeinster, representin the Conservative Pairty. He represents the Eastbourne consteetuency in the Hoose o Commons.
Lunnon
Roads
Lunnon is notorious for its traffic congestion, wi the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the kintra. The average speed o a car in the rush oor is 10.6 mi/h.
In 2003, a congestion charge wis introduced tae reduce traffic volumes in the ceety centre. Wi a few exceptions, motorists are required tae pey £10 a day tae drive wiin a defined zone encompassing a fair bit o central Lunnon. Motorists wha is resident o the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced saison pass. Lunnon government initially expectit the Congestion Charge Zone tae increase daily peak period Underground an bus users by 20,000 people, reduce road traffic bi 10 tae 15 per cent, increase traffic speeds by 10 tae 15 per cent, an reduce queues by 20 tae 30 per cent. Ower the course o several years, the average nummer o cars enterin the centre o Lunnon on a weekday wis reduced frae 195,000 tae 125,000 cars – a 35-per-cent reduction o vehicles driven a day.
Tertiary eddication
A nummer o warld-leadin education institutions are based in Lunnon. In the 2014/15 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College Lunnon is ranked jynt 2nt in the warld (alongside The University o Cambridge), University College Lunnon (UCL) is ranked 5t, an Keeng's College Lunnon (KCL) is ranked 16t. The Lunnon School o Economics haes been describit as the warld's leadin social science institution for baith teaching an research. The Lunnon Business School is considert ane o the warld's leadin business schuils an in 2015 its MBA programme wis ranked seicont best in the warld bi the Financial Times.
Wi 120,000 students in Lunnon, the federal University o Lunnon is the lairgest contact teaching varsity in the UK. It includes fower lairge multi-faculty varsities – Keeng's College Lunnon, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway an UCL – an a nummer o smawer an mair specialised institutions includin Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute o Art, Goldsmiths, Guildhall School o Music an Drama, the Institute o Education, the Lunnon Business School, the Lunnon School o Economics, the Lunnon School o Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy o Music, the Central School o Speech an Drama, the Royal Veterinary College an the School o Oriental an African Studies. Members o the University o Lunnon hae thair ain admissions procedures, an some awaird thair ain degrees.