cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Lothal
Strukturar
Bygningane i byen, mellom anna ein lagerbygning med 64 rom nær hamna, låg litt høgare enn elvesletta rundt, og var omgjeven av ein bymur. Ein høgareliggjande del av byen ved varehuset har hus med private bad og eit omfattande avløpssystem. Den lågareliggande delen av byen husa handverkarar som gull- og koparsmedar og tilverkarar av skjel og perler.
Utanfor bymuren, i nordvest, låg ein gravplass. Det er identifisert 22 gravstader her, kvar forma som eit rektangel med nord-vest-orientering.
Transport
Lothal ligg seks kilometer søraust for jernbanestasjonen Lothal-Bhurkhi på jernbanelinja Ahmedabad-Bhavnagar. Han har også vegsamband med Ahmedabad (85 km), Bhavnagar, Rajkot og Dholka. Dei næraste byane er Dholka og Bagodara.
Arkeologi
Lothal blei funne i 1954 under ei arkeologisk utforsking byrja av Archaeological Survey of India etter delinga av Britisk India i 1947. Delinga medførte at dei fleste kjende indusdalstadene, mellom anna Harappa og Mohenjo-daro, gjekk til Pakistan. Lothal ligg 27 mil frå Mohenjo-daro.
<!-- The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati to be "the mound of the dead" is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi means the same. People in villages neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town and human remains. As recently as 1850, boats could sail up to the mound. In 1942, timber was shipped from Broach to Saragwala via the mound. A silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek.
Speculation suggests that owing to the comparatively small dimensions of the main city, Lothal was not a large settlement at all, and its "dock" was perhaps an irrigation tank. However, the ASI and other contemporary archaeologists assert that the city was a part of a major river system on the trade route of the ancient peoples from Sindh to Saurashtra in Gujarat. Cemeteries have been found which indicate that its people were probably of Dravidian, Proto-Australoid or Mediterranean physiques. Lothal provides with the largest collection of antiquities in the archaeology of modern India. It is essentially a single culture site—the Harappan culture in all its variances is evidenced. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which is believed to be autochthonous and pre-Harappan. Two sub-periods of Harappan culture are distinguished: the same period (between 2400 and 1900 BCE) is identical to the exuberant culture of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
After the core of the Indus civilisation had decayed in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, Lothal seems not only to have survived but to have thrived for many years. Its constant threats - tropical storms and floods - caused immense destruction, which destabilised the culture and ultimately caused its end. Topographical analysis also shows signs that at about the time of its demise, the region suffered from aridity or weakened monsoon rainfall. Thus the cause for the abandonment of the city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters, as suggested by environmental magnetic records. Lothal is based upon a mound that was a salt marsh inundated by tide. Remote sensing and topographical studies published by Indian scientists in the Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union in 2004 revealed an ancient, meandering river adjacent to Lothal, 30 kilometres (19 mi) in length according to satellite imagery— an ancient extension of the northern river channel bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo river. Small channel widths (10–300 m/30–1000 ft) when compared to the lower reaches (1.2–1.6 km/0.75–1.0 mi) suggest the presence of a strong tidal influence upon the city—tidal waters ingressed up to and beyond the city. Upstream elements of this river provided a suitable source of freshwater for the inhabitants.
History
Before the arrival of Harappan people (c. 2400 BCE), Lothal was a small village next to the river providing access to the mainland from the Gulf of Khambhat. The indigenous people maintained a prosperous economy, attested by the discovery of copper objects, beads and semi-precious stones. Ceramic wares were of fine clay and smooth, micaceous red surface. A new technique of firing pottery under partly oxidising and reducing conditions was improved by them—designated black-and-red ware, to the micaceous Red Ware. Harappans were attracted to Lothal for its sheltered harbour, rich cotton and rice-growing environment and bead-making industry. The beads and gems of Lothal were in great demand in the west. The settlers lived peacefully with the Red Ware people, who adopted their lifestyle, evidenced from the flourishing trade and changing working techniques. Harappans began producing the indigenous ceramic goods, adopting the manner from the natives.
Town planning
A flood destroyed village foundations and settlements (c. 2350 BCE). Harappans based around Lothal and from Sindh took this opportunity to expand their settlement and create a planned township on the lines of greater cities in the Indus valley. Lothal planners engaged themselves to protect the area from consistent floods. The town was divided into blocks of 1–2-metre-high (3–6 ft) platforms of sun-dried bricks, each serving 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls. The city was divided into a citadel, or acropolis and a lower town. The rulers of the town lived in the acropolis, which featured paved baths, underground and surface drains (built of kiln-fired bricks) and a potable water well. The lower town was subdivided into two sectors. A north-south arterial street was the main commercial area. It was flanked by shops of rich and ordinary merchants and craftsmen. The residential area was located to either side of the marketplace. The lower town was also periodically enlarged during Lothal's years of prosperity.
Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade. While the consensus view amongst archaeologists identifies this structure as a "dockyard," it has also been suggested that owing to small dimensions, this basin may have been an irrigation tank and canal. The dock was built on the eastern flank of the town, and is regarded by archaeologists as an engineering feat of the highest order. It was located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting, but provided access to ships in high tide as well. The warehouse was built close to the acropolis on a 3.5-metre-high (10.5 ft) podium of mud bricks. The rulers could thus supervise the activity on the dock and warehouse simultaneously. Facilitating the movement of cargo was a mud-brick wharf, 220 metres (720 ft) long, built on the western arm of the dock, with a ramp leading to the warehouse. There was an important public building opposite to the warehouse whose superstructure has completely disappeared. Throughout their time, the city had to brace itself through multiple floods and storms. Dock and city peripheral walls were maintained efficiently. The town's zealous rebuilding ensured the growth and prosperity of the trade. However, with rising prosperity, Lothal's people failed to upkeep their walls and dock facilities, possibly as a result of over-confidence in their systems. A flood of moderate intensity in 2050 BCE exposed some serious weaknesses in the structure, but the problems were not addressed properly.
Economy and urban culture
The uniform organisation of the town and its institutions give evidence that the Harappans were a very disciplined people. Commerce and administrative duties were performed according to standards laid out. Municipal administration was strict – the width of most streets remained the same over a long time, and no encroached structures were built. Householders possessed a sump, or collection chamber to deposit solid waste in order to prevent the clogging of city drains. Drains, manholes and cesspools kept the city clean and deposited the waste in the river, which was washed out during high tide. A new provincial style of Harappan art and painting was pioneered. The new approaches included realistic portrayals of animals in their natural surroundings. Metalware, gold and jewellery and tastefully decorated ornaments attest to the culture and prosperity of the people of Lothal.
Most of their equipment: metal tools, weights, measures, seals, earthenware and ornaments were of the uniform standard and quality found across the Indus civilization. Lothal was a major trade centre, importing en masse raw materials like copper, chert and semi-precious stones from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and mass distributing to inner villages and towns. It also produced large quantities of bronze celts, fish-hooks, chisels, spears and ornaments. Lothal exported its beads, gemstones, ivory and shells. The stone blade industry catered to domestic needs—fine chert was imported from the Sukkur valley or from Bijapur in modern Karnataka. Bhagatrav supplied semi-precious stones while chank shell came from Dholavira and Bet Dwarka. An intensive trade network gave the inhabitants great prosperity. The network stretched across the frontiers to Egypt, Bahrain and Sumer. One of the evidence of trade in Lothal is the discovery of typical Persian gulf seals, a circular button seal
Architectural development
While the wider debate over the end of Indus civilisation continues, archaeological evidence gathered by the ASI appears to point to natural catastrophes, specifically floods and storms as the source of Lothal's downfall. A powerful flood submerged the town and destroyed most of the houses, with the walls and platforms heavily damaged. The acropolis and was levelled (2000–1900 BCE), and inhabited by common tradesmen and newly built makeshift houses. The worst consequence was the shift in the course of the river, cutting off access to the ships and dock. The people built a new but shallow inlet to connect the flow channel to the dock for sluicing small ships into the basin. Large ships were moored away. Houses were rebuilt, yet without removal of flood debris, which made them poor-quality and susceptible to further damage. Public drains were replaced by soakage jars. The citizens did not undertake encroachments, and rebuilt public baths. However, with a poorly organised government, and no outside agency or central government, the public works could not be properly repaired or maintained. The heavily damaged warehouse was never repaired properly, and stocks were stored in wooden canopies, exposed to floods and fire. The economy of the city was transformed. Trade volumes reduced greatly, though not catastrophically, and resources were available in lesser quantities. Independent businesses caved, allowing a merchant-centric system of factories to develop where hundreds of craftsmen worked for the same supplier and financier. The bead factory had ten living rooms and a large workplace courtyard. The coppersmith's workshop had five furnaces and paved sinks to enable multiple artisans to work.
The declining prosperity of the town, paucity of resources and poor administration increased the woes of a people pressured by consistent floods and storms. Increased salinity of soil made the land inhospitable to life, including crops. This is evidenced in adjacent cities of Rangpur, Rojdi, Rupar and Harappa in Punjab, Mohenjo-daro and Chanhudaro in Sindh. A massive flood (c. 1900 BCE) completely destroyed the flagging township in a single stroke. Archaeological analysis shows that the basin and dock were sealed with silt and debris, and the buildings razed to the ground. The flood affected the entire region of Saurashtra, Sindh and south Gujarat, and affected the upper reaches of the Indus and Sutlej, where scores of villages and townships were washed away. The population fled to inner regions.
Later Harappan culture
Archaeological evidence shows that the site continued to be inhabited, albeit by a much smaller population devoid of urban influences. The few people who returned to Lothal could not reconstruct and repair their city, but surprisingly continued to stay and preserved religious traditions, living in poorly built houses and reed huts. That they were the Harappan peoples is evidenced by the analyses of their remains in the cemetery. While the trade and resources of the city were almost entirely gone, the people retained several Harappan ways in writing, pottery and utensils. About this time ASI archaeologists record a mass movement of refugees from Punjab and Sindh into Saurashtra and to the valley of Sarasvati (1900–1700 BCE). Hundreds of ill-equipped settlements have been attributed to this people as Late Harappans a completely de-urbanised culture characterised by rising illiteracy, less complex economy, unsophisticated administration and poverty. Though Indus seals went out of use, the system of weights with an 8.573 gram (0.3024 oz avoirdupois) unit was retained. Between 1700 and 1600 BCE, trade would revive again. In Lothal, Harappan ceramic works of bowls, dishes and jars were mass-produced. Merchants used local materials such as chalcedony instead of chert for stone blades. Truncated sandstone weights replaced hexahedron chert weights. The sophisticated painting style reduced itself to wavy lines, loops and fronds. Lothal was especially famous for its micro-beads. These were made by grinding materials, rolling them on to a string, baking it solid. Finally the baked roll was sawed into required shapes and sizes.
Civilization
The people of Lothal made significant and often unique contributions to human civilisation in the Indus era, in the fields of city planning, art, architecture, science, engineering and religion. Their work in metallurgy, seals, beads and jewellery was the basis of their prosperity.
Science and engineering
A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in the horizon in multiples of 40 degrees, up to 360 degrees. Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. Archaeologists consider this as evidence that the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks: an 8–12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument for measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation. Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilisation. The scale is 6 millimetres (0.2 inches) thick, 15 mm (0.6 inches) broad and the available length is 128 mm (5.0 inches), but only 27 graduations are visible over 46 mm (1.8 inches), the distance between graduation lines being 1.70 mm (0.067 inches) (the small size indicates use for fine purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the angula in the Arthashastra. The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing.
For their renowned draining system, Lothal engineers provided corbelled roofs, and an apron of kiln-fired bricks over the brick face of the platform where the sewerage entered the cesspool. Wooden screens inserted in grooves in the side drain walls held back solid waste. The well is built of radial bricks, 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) in diameter and 6.7 metres (22 ft) deep. It had an immaculate network of underground drains, silting chambers and cesspools, and inspection chambers for solid waste. The extent of drains provided archaeologists with many clues regarding the layout of streets, organisation of housing and baths. On average, the main sewer is 20–46 cm (7.8–18.1 inches) in depth, with outer dimensions of 86 × 68 × 33 cm (34 × 27 × 13 in). Lothal brick-makers used a logical approach in manufacture of bricks, designed with care in regards to thickness of structures. They were used as headers and stretchers in same and alternate layers. Archaeologists estimate that in most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0.5:0.25 on three sides, in dimensions which were integral multiples of large graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm (1.0 in).
Religion and disposal of the dead
The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, speculated to be the horned deity depicted on seals, which is also evidenced by the presence of private and public fire-altars where sacrifices of animals and cattle were apparently conducted. Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs that may indicate the practice of the Gavamayana sacrifice, associated with the ancient Vedic religion. Animal worship is also evidenced, but not the worship of the Mother Goddess that is evidenced in other Harappan cities—experts consider this a sign of the existence of diversity in religious traditions. However, it is believed that a sea goddess, perhaps cognate with the general Indus-era Mother Goddess, was worshipped. Today, the local villagers likewise worship a sea goddess, Vanuvati Sikotarimata, suggesting a connection with the ancient port's traditions and historical past as an access to the sea. But the archaeologists also discovered that the practice had been given up by 2000 BCE (determined by the difference in burial times of the carbon-dated remains). It is suggested that the practice occurred only on occasion. It is also considered that given the small number of graves discovered—only 17 in an estimated population of 15,000—the citizens of Lothal also practised cremation of the dead. Post-cremation burials have been noted in other Indus sites like Harappa, Mehi and Damb-Bhuti.
Metallurgy and jewellery
Lothal copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. The city imported ingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor. They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals. They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilisations at the time.
Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality found in the Gulf of Kutch and near the Kathiawar coast Gamesmen, beads, unguent vessels, chank shells, ladles and inlays were made for export and local consumption. Components of stringed musical instruments like the plectrum and the bridge were made of shell. An ivory workshop was operated under strict official supervision, and the domestication of elephants has been suggested. An ivory seal, and sawn pieces for boxes, combs, rods, inlays and ear-studs were found during excavations. Lothal produced a large quantity of gold ornaments—the most attractive item being microbeads of gold in five strands in necklaces, unique for being less than 0.25 millimetres (0.010 inches) in diameter. Cylindrical, globular and jasper beads of gold with edges at right angles resemble modern pendants used by women in Gujarat in plaits of hair. A large disc with holes recovered from a sacrificial altar is compared to the rukma worn by Vedic priests. Studs, cogwheel and heart-shaped ornaments of fainence and steatite were popular in Lothal. A ring of thin copper wire turned into double spirals resembles the gold-wire rings used by modern Hindus for weddings.
Art
The discovery of etched carnelian beads and non-etched barrel beads in Kish and Ur (modern Iraq), Jalalabad (Afghanistan) and Susa (Iran) attest to the popularity of the Indus bead industry across West Asia. The lapidaries select stones of variegated colours, producing beads of different shapes and sizes. The methods of Lothal bead-makers were so advanced that no improvements have been noted over 4,000 years—modern makers in the Khambhat area follow the same technique. Double-eye beads of agate and collared or gold-capped beads of jasper and carnelian beads are among those attributed as uniquely from Lothal. It was very famous for micro-cylindrical beads of steatite (chlorite). The Lothal excavation yielded 213 seals, third in volume amongst all Indus sites. Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings. There is a short inscription of intaglio in almost every seal. Stamp seals with copper rings inserted in a perforated button were used to sealing cargo, with impressions of packing materials like mats, twisted cloth and cords, a fact verified only at Lothal. Quantitative descriptions, seals of rulers and owners were stamped on goods. A unique seal found here is from Bahrain—circular, with motif of a dragon flanked by jumping gazelles.
Lothal offers two new types of potter work, a convex bowl with or without stud handle, and a small jar with flaring rim, both in the micaceous Red Ware period, not found in contemporary Indus cultures. Lothal artists introduced a new form of realistic painting. Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. On one large vessel, the artist depicts birds with fish in their beaks, resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of The Fox and the Crow in the Panchatantra. Artistic imagination is also suggested via careful portrayals—for example, several birds with legs aloft in the sky suggest flight, while half-opened wings suggest imminent flight. On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted – of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are suggested by the positioning of limbs and facial features—in a 15 × 5 cm (6 × 2 in) jar without overcrowding.
A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt). The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male with slit eyes, sharp nose and square-cut beard is reminiscent of Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari. In images of men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently marked. Terra-cotta models also identify the differences between species of dogs and bulls, including those of horses. Animal figures with wheels and a movable head may have been utilised as toys.
Excavated Lothal
On plan, Lothal stands 285 metres (935 ft) north-to-south and 228 metres (748 ft) east-to-west. At the height of its habitation, it covered a wider area since remains have been found 300 metres (1000 ft) south of the mound. Due to the fragile nature of unbaked bricks and frequent floods, the superstructures of all buildings have receded. Dwarfed walls, platforms, wells, drains, baths and paved floors are visible. But thanks to the loam deposited by persistent floods, the dock walls were preserved beyond the great deluge (c. 1900 BCE). The absence of standing high walls is attributed to erosion and brick robbery. The ancient nullah, the inlet channel and riverbed have been similarly covered up. The flood-damaged peripheral wall of mud-bricks is visible near the warehouse area. The remnants of the north-south sewer are burnt bricks in the cesspool. Cubical blocks of the warehouse on a high platform are also visible.
The ASI has covered the peripheral walls, the wharf and many houses of the early phase with earth to protect from natural phenomena, but the entire archaeological site is nevertheless facing grave concerns about necessary preservation. Salinity ingress and prolonged exposure to the rain and sun are gradually eating away the remains of the site. Heavy rain in the region has damaged the remains of the sun-dried mud brick constructions. Stagnant rain water has lathered the brick and mud work with layers of moss. Due to siltation, the dockyard's draft has been reduced by 3–4 metres (10–13 ft) and saline deposits are decaying the bricks. Officials blame the salinity on capillary action and point out that cracks are emerging and foundations weakening even as restoration work slowly progresses.
Dockyard
The dockyard was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships. It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary. The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft). Another assessment is that the basin could have served as an irrigation tank, for the estimated original dimensions of the "dock" are not large enough, by modern standards, to house ships and conduct much traffic.
The original height of the embankments was 4.26 metres (13.98 ft). (Now it is 3.35 metres (10.99 ft).) The main inlet is 12.8 metres (42.0 ft) wide, and another is provided on the opposite side. To counter the thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces. When the river changed its course in 2000 BCE, a smaller inlet, 7 metres (23 ft) wide was made in the longer arm, connected to the river by a 2 kilometre (3.2 mi) channel. At high tide a flow of 2.1–2.4 metres (6.9–7.9 ft) of water would have allowed ships to enter. Provision was made for the escape of excess water through the outlet channel, 96.5 metres (317 ft) wide and 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) high in the southern arm. The dock also possessed a lock-gate system—a wooden door could be lowered at the mouth of the outlet to retain a minimum column of water in the basin so as to ensure floatation at low tides. Central to the city's economy, the warehouse was originally built on sixty-four cubical blocks, 3.6 metres (11.8 ft) square, with 1.2-metre (3.9-ft) passages, and based on a 3.5-metre-high (11.5 ft) mud-brick podium. The pedestal was very high to provide maximum protection from floods. Brick-paved passages between blocks served as vents, and a direct ramp led to the dock to facilitate loading. The warehouse was located close to the acropolis, to allow tight supervision by ruling authorities. Despite elaborate precautions, the major floods that brought the city's decline destroyed all but twelve blocks, which became the makeshift storehouse.
Acropolis and lower town
Lothal's acropolis was the town centre, its political and commercial heart, measuring 127.4 metres (418 ft) east-to-west by 60.9 metres (200 ft) north-to-south. There were three streets and two lanes running east-west, and two streets running north-south. The four sides of the rectangular platform on which houses were built are formed by mud-brick structures of 12.2–24.4 metre (40–80 ft) thickness and 2.1–3.6 metres (6.9–11.8 ft) high. The baths were primarily located in the acropolis—mostly two-roomed houses with open courtyards. The bricks used for paving baths were polished to prevent seepage. The pavements were lime-plastered and edges were wainscoted (wooden panels) by thin walls. The ruler's residence is 43.92 square metres (472.8 sq ft) in area with a 1.8-square-meter-bath (19 sq ft) equipped with an outlet and inlet. The remains of this house give evidence to a sophisticated drainage system. The Lower town marketplace was on the main north-south street 6–8 metres (20–26 ft) wide. Built in straight rows on either side of the street are residences and workshops, although brick-built drains and early period housing has disappeared. The street maintained a uniform width and did not undergo encroachment during the reconstructive periods after deluges. There are multiple two-roomed shops and workplaces of coppersmiths and blacksmiths.
The bead factory, which performs a very important economic function, possesses a central courtyard and eleven rooms, a store and a guardhouse. There is a cinder dump, as well as a double-chambered circular kiln, with stoke-holes for fuel supply. Four flues are connected with each other, the upper chamber and the stoke hold. The mud plaster of the floors and walls are vitrified owing to intense heat during work. The remnants of raw materials such as reed, cow dung, sawdust and agate are found, giving archaeologists hints of how the kiln was operated. A large mud-brick building faces the factory, and its significance is noted by its plan. Four large rooms and a hall, with an overall measurement of 17.1 × 12.8 metres (56 × 42 ft). The hall has a large doorway and a raised floor in the southern corner of the building.
Coastal trade route
A coastal route existed linking sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast. -->
Puppe
Utviklingsstadium
Insektet byrjar livet som eit egg. Dette blir klekka ut til ein larve. Larven har munn og augo, fordøying, musklar og nervar. Åtferdsmessig lærer han av feil og erfaringar. Han kjem derimot ikkje i pubertet og har ingen kjønnsdelar. Ein dag oppsøker han ein stille stad og går inn i puppestadiet. Nokre nattsommarfuglar grev seg ned; dei gravlegg bokstaveleg talt seg sjølv. Larven skreller så av huda si som ein strømpe. Som puppe er han nærast som ein sigar å sjå til; uten munn, armar og føter, uten evne til å eta, sansa eller gå (nokre kokongar kan likevel vrikka). Mange pupper kapslar seg inn i ein kokong som vernar dei mot farar.
Innvendig går det meste av kroppsvevet i oppløysing. Makrofagar som har vore del av larven sitt immunforsvar byrjar i staden å fortæra kroppsvevet hans. Musklar, tarmar og ein del andre organ blir oppløyste ved at enzym frå fordøyingskjertlane til cellene bryt ned eigne cellestrukturar. Vevet fordøyer seg sjølv i ein prosess kalla «autolyse». Opnar ein puppa, inneheld han ein bleik, feitta masse og litt grønleg saft. Nokre mikroskopiske «øyer» av celler, kalla «imaginalskiver», er framleis i live. Medan puppen var i larvestadiet sitt, låg imaginalskivene spreidde omkring i larvekroppen uten nokon funksjon. Når tida er inne byrja dei å dela seg inne i puppen.
Nærs av den oppløyste blandinga av feitt og safter skapar imaginalskivene eit insekt som ikkje minner om verken larven eller kokongen. Insekt oppstår etter eit prinsipp som skil seg heilt frå dei fleste andre organismar. Dei aller fleste artar blir skapt ved ei gjenteken deling av celler frå den fyrste, befrukta eggcella, der veksten startar som eit midtpunkt og deretter veks i alle retningar. Insekt oppstår derimot nærast samla og samstundes, danna av eit par dusin imaginalskiver.
Typar av pupper
Pupepr der ein kan ana formene til det vaksne insektet blir kalla mumiepupper.
Ordsoge
Ordet «puppe» kjem av det latinske pupa som betyr 'dokke', og viser til til kor urørleg puppen er.
Hounslow
Hounslow  er ein by i Hounslow i London. Han ligg 17 km vest-sørvest for Charing Cross.
Gressittbreen
Gressittbreen er ein brei isbre, kring 9 km lang, som flyt i området mellom Daniels Range og Emlen Peaks i Usarp Mountains i Antarktis, og nordaust og ut i Rennickbreen like nord for Morozumi Range. Han vart kartlagt av US Geological Survey frå landmålingar og flyfoto tekne av U.S. Navy i 1960–63 og vart namngjeven av Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names etter biolog J. Linsley Gressitt, som var prosjektleiar som gjorde biologiske studiar, særleg i Rosshavet i seks somrar frå 1959–60 til 1965–66.
Kalýves
Kalýves (gresk Καλύβες) er ein distriktsby i periferieininga Khaniá i periferien Kreta i Hellas. Kalýves var hovudsete i den tidlegare kommunen Arméni, som frå 2011 inngår som ei kommunaleining i kommunen Apokóronas.
Lennart Carleson
Lennart Axel Edvard Carleson er ein svensk professor emeritus i matematikk ved KTH i Stockholm, Uppsala universitet og UCLA. Han høyrer til slekta Carleson og er ein av dei fremste matematikarane i Sverige.
Liv
Carleson voks opp i Degerfors og disputerte i 1950 med Arne Beurling som rettleier. Carleson har blant anna arbeidd innan fourieranalyse og dynamiske system, og oppnådde verdsry med beviset sitt for konvergens nesten overalt for Fourierrekkjer for L2-funksjonar.
På midten av 1960-talet bidrog Carleson til verkeleggjeringa av Mittag-Lefflers forskningsinstitutt i Djursholm. Danninga av instituttet hadde vorte utsett på grunn av finanskrisa på 1920-talet. Dei neste ti åra innbaud Carleson dei mest framståande matematikarane innan sine forskingsområde for at desse skulle kunne jobbe i ein harmonisk atmosfære og bidra til utdanning av skandinaviske matematikarar. Sidan den tida har instituttet levt vidare og er eit av dei fremste i verda.
Carleson er enno ein aktiv forskar og rettleiar så seint som i 1998 doktorandar. Carleson er (2006) busett i Brottby i Vallentuna kommun, nordaust for Stockholm.
Carleson er medlem av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien. Han vart utnemnd til æresdoktor ved Kungliga Tekniska högskolan i 1989.
Carleson vart tildelt Steeleprisen i 1984, Wolfprisen i 1992 og Sylvestermedaljen i 2003. Han vart 23. mars 2006 tildelt som første svenske den internasjonalen Abelprisen på 6 millionar norske kroner.
Gro-Anita Mykjåland
Gro-Anita Mykjåland  er ein norsk politikar som representerer Senterpartiet. Ho vart vald inn på Stortinget frå Aust-Agder fylke i 2021.
Mykjåland var ordførar i Iveland kommune frå 2011 til 2021.
Peter Bolstad
Peter Olsen Bolstad var ein norsk lærar og gardbrukar frå Hattfjelldal som valbolken 1916-18 representerte einmannskrinsen Nordre Helgeland og valbolken 1922-24 fylkeskrinsen Nordland på Stortinget, begge perioidane vald for Det norske Arbeidarparti.
Bolstad var son til ein gardbrukar. Sjølv tok han eksamen ved Tromsø seminar i 1895 og var sidan lærar i heimbygda Hattfjelldal til han døydde. Frå 1903 dreiv han også gardsbruket Svensklid. Han var varaordførar i heradet 1910-13 og ordførar 1913-16. Elles var han i to periodar formann i skulestyret i Hattfjelldal. Hausten 1915 vart Bolstad vald til å representere Nordre Helgeland på Stortinget i treårsbolken 1916-18, han var då medlem i Gasje- og pensjonskomiteen. Etter å ha vore ut av Tinget perioden 1919-21 kom han tilbake som stortingsmann frå nyår 1922, vart då vald til sekretær i Landbrukskomiteen. Bolstad døydde vinteren 1924 og vart erstatta av vararepresentanten Ramberg.
Norte de Santander-departementet
Norte de Santander er eit departement aust i Colombia som grensar til Venezuela og dessutan til nabodepartementa Boyacá, Santander og Cesar. Hovudstaden er Cúcuta. Andre byar er Ocaña, Pamplona og Villa del Rosario. I departementet finn ein òg nasjonalparkein Tamá.
Astrid Bergland
Astrid Bergland er ein norsk fysioterapeut og professor i fysioterapi/rehabilitering ved Høgskolen i Oslo og Akershus. Bergland var ferdigutdanna fysioteraput i 1972, tok dr.philos.-graden i 2002 og vart utnemnd til professor i 2007.
Ditlev Gothard Monrad
Ditlev Gothard Monrad var dansk teolog, biskop, politikar og minister. Monrad stod bak utforminga av Junigrunnlova av 1849 og var konseilpresident - statsminister - under krigen i 1864.
Dno
Dno (russisk Дно) er ein by i Pskov oblast i Russland med om lag 9 000 innbyggjarar. Han ligg 113 km aust for Pskov, der to jernbaner kryssar kvarandre: Pskov–Bologoje og St. Petersburg–Kiev.
Under den kalde krigen var han vertsby for den no nedlagde Dno flybase.
Sissel Chipman
Sissel Chipman er ein norsk barnebokforfattar.
Chipman er opphavleg frå Nøtterøy og bur no i Canada. Ho debuterte i 2002 med Drager spiser ikke joggesko, ei fantasybok for born og ungdom.
Sotkamo
Sotkamo er ein kommune i landskapet Kajanaland i Finland. Kommunen har i kring 10 700 ibuarar og eit areal på 2 951,9 km², av dette er 302,7 km² vatn.
Turisme og gruvedrift er hovudnæringar i kommunen. Ei av dei største nikkelgruvene i Europa ligg i Sotkamo. Landsbyen Vuokatti vest i kommunen er ein kjend vintersportstad som arrangerer verdscuprenn i nordiske greiner på ski.
Finsk språk er einerådande i Sotkamo.
Den økonomisk-politiske forfattaren Anders Chydenius, romanforfattaren Veikko Huovinen. skihopparen Veikko Kankkonen og friidretts-sprintaren Pirjo Häggman var/er frå Sotkamo.
Kristianstad
Kristianstad (uttalt ) er ein by i nordaustre del av Skåne län og administrasjonssenter i Kristianstads kommun. Kristianstad er den fjerde største tettstaden i Skåne, med 33 083 innbyggjarar (2005).
Kristianstad var fram til og med 1996 residensby i Kristianstads län, som vart tatt opp i Skåne län i 1997. Sidan i tillegg vart landstinget slått saman til Region Skåne, vart byen frå 1999 administrasjonenssete. Kristianstad har i løpet av dei siste dryge femten åra gått frå ein utprega garnisons- og forvaltningsby til ein utvikla handelsstad med eit stort nedslagsområde som omfattar nordaustre Skåne, vestre Blekinge og nordre Österlen.
Sirissar
Sirissar (Gryllidae) er ein insektfamilie i ordenen rettvenger.
Kristianstad
Historie
I 1612 avgjorde kong Christian IV å byggje ein ny sterkt befesta by i det nordaustlege Skåne, etter at den nærliggande byen Vä var vorten øydelagd av svenskane. Byen, som fekk namn etter sonen til kongen, den utvalde prinsen, skulle danne bolverk mot svenskane og utviklast til ein moderne handelsstad.
Gruendlerbreen
Gruendlerbreen er ein sidebre som drenerer nordsida av Malta Plateau nær Mount Hussey og flyt nord og ut i Trainerbreen i Victory Mountains i Victoria Land i Antarktis. Han vart kartlagt av US Geological Survey frå landmålingar og flyfoto tekne av U.S. Navy i 1960–64, og vart namngjeven av Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names etter James D. Gruendler, eit medlem av den glasiologiske gruppa til US Antarctic Research Program som drog til Roosevelt Island i 1967–68.
Kristianstad
Historie
Plasseringa på Allön var glimrande for ein festningsby. Herfrå kunne ein sjå landskapet til alle sider, og Helgeån danna seglveg for små fartøy og vareutveksling med omverda. Med i avgjersla var at Vä og Åhus sine borgarar skulle folkesetje den nye byen, samstundes som dei to nemnde byane mista sine byprivilegium.
Sirissar
Dei fleste artane finst i tropiske område. Dei er utbreidde i heile verda, men manglar på dei meir kjølige stadene. Ein art, hus-siriss (Acheta domestica), opptrer tilfeldig i Noreg.
Kristianstad
Historie
Pga Allöns mudra og ustabile grunn, viste dette seg å bli vanskeleg. Festningsverk og bygningar måtte fundamenterast ordentleg, fordi vasspegelen store delar av året stod over det normale. Store mengder stein vart difor frakta over til øya via ei bru. Likevel kunne ein ikkje unngå at det oppstod senkingar og utsklidingar av vollane.
Sirissar
Skildring
Kroppen er mellom 5 og 50 millimeter, og varierer mellom brunleg, brun-svart og mørk-grå på farge. Bakbeina er både større og kraftigare enn dei andre beina. Særleg låra er kraftige. Leggane har piggar eller tornar. Sirissar har to korte, men kjenslevare haletrådar (cerci). Antennene er trådforma, lange og rekk heilt bak på kroppen eller lengre.
Kristianstad
Festningsbyen
Planen for festningsbyen låg ferdig i 1614, utferdiga med inspirasjon frå stadsbyggingsideane i renessansen og med bastionar av jordvollar etter nederlandsk mønster, der det omliggande terrenget danna eit vollgravsystem. Den einaste tilkomsten for ålmenta gjekk frå sør via porttårn og bru. Gatenettet vart regelrett og inndelt i kvartal med plass til handelstorg og representative formål. Det einaste som braut symmetrien var den veldige Trefoldighetskyrkja.
Sirissar
Skildring
Nokre artar manglar venger, men der dei finst kan dei vera godt utvikla og rekk heilt bak på bakkroppen. Framvengene er fortjukka og blir folda slik at dei omsluttar kroppen, både på sida og ryggen.
Evolution av The Hollies
Evolution er det første av to album frå 1967 av den britiske popgruppa The Hollies. Albumet nådde 13. plassen på den britiske albumlista..
Kristianstad
Festningsbyen
I tillegg til kyrkja lét kongen òg oppføre ein større representativ bygning på ''Kongl. Maytts Platz'', som i dag inngår i lensmuseumet i byen. Vidare bygde han ein skule nær kyrkja og dessutan eit hospital med tilhøyrande kyrkjesal og tårnbygning. Resten av husa i byen forventa han at dei nye borgarane ville byggje. Byen skulle endå vere presentabel, så han bannlyste gemene hytter og tillét ikkje stråtak pga. brannfaren.
Sirissar
Skildring
Nymfene er normalt ganske like dei vaksne, men mindre.
Levevis
Sirissar lever av plantar og røter. Nokre av dei er rovdyr som også et andre mindre dyr.
Kristianstad
Festningsbyen
Helst såg han at det vart oppført steinhus, men godtok at kjøpmenn og borgarar frå Væ gjenoppførte bindingsverkshus med material frå den nedlagde byen. Dei fornemste byggegrunnane ved Store Torv, nær den påtenkte slottsbygningen, var berre for viktige personar, medan kjøpmenn heldt til omkring Vesle Torvet. Handverkarar blei vist til mindre representative bakgater.
Sirissar
Levevis
Hannar kan frambringa lyd eller song ved å gni framvengene mot kvarandre. Nokre ribbar ved basis av vengene lagar lyden.
Evolution av The Hollies
Bakgrunn
Som det førre albumet, For Certain Because, består dette albumet berre av songar skrivne av gruppemedlemmane Allan Clarke, Graham Nash og Tony Hicks. Ingen av songane vart gjevne ut på singlar eller EP-ar i Storbritannia, men «Carrie Anne» frå den amerikanske albumutgåva vart gjeven ut på singel i USA. Trommelagaren Bobby Elliott spelte berre på tre av songane på albumet på grunn av blindtarmbetennelse, og vart erstatta av Dougie Wright, Clem Cattini og Mitch Mitchell frå The Jimi Hendrix Experience.
Sirissar
Levevis
Paringa føregår i vegetasjonen. Hoa har ein kort eller litt lang og kraftig eggleggingsbrodd. Dei legg eggae i fuktig jord, einskildvis eller i grupper. Nokre artar lever i tre og legg egg i plantevev.
Sirissar går gjennom ufullstendig forvandling, det vil seia at overgangen frå nyklekt larve til det vaksne kjønnsmogne insektet går gradvis gjennom fleire nymfestadium. Utviklingstida frå egg, via nymfestadia til det vaksne stadiet kan vera nokre veker under gunstige forhold. Temperatur og talet på hamskift er avgjerande. Nokre har opptil 12 nymfestadium og skiftar ham mellom kvart av desse. Vekst skjer ved eit hamskifte. Sirissar manglar til liks med andre leddyr eit indre skjelett.
Som mat
Fleire stader er sirissar del av kosthaldet til menneske og blir rekna som god mat. Sirissar er ofte å sjå på marknadsplassar, kanskje særleg i Asia. Det er vanleg å frityrsteika dei til snøggmat.
Kristianstad
Festningsbyen
Av omsyn til avrenning vart det grave ein kanal tvers igjennom byen. Den 470 m lange brua ut til øya stod heilt ferdig i 1616, og det vart bygd nye vegar for å knyte den nye byen saman med resten av Skåne og Blekinge. Seglleia til Austersjøen blei forbetra ved graving av kanalar til munningen av Helgeån ved Åhus.
Evolution av The Hollies
Bakgrunn
Plateomslaget vart laga av The Fool, med eit psykedelisk foto av Karl Ferris, som skal ha vore den første til å ha teke eit psykedelisk fotografi for eit plateomslag.
I 1978 gav Parlophone ut stereoversjonen av Evolution, i lag med Butterfly og Confessions of the Mind.
Songen «Have You Ever Loved Somebody?» vart gjeven ut tidlegare (i spetember 1966) av både The Searchers og Paul og Barry Ryan på singlar. Han vart først gjeven ut av The Everly Brothers på albumet Two Yanks in England.
Innspeling
Evolution og singlane frå denne tida vart spelte inn i EMI sitt Abbey Road Studios på berre seks dagar i løpet av ein tre månadersperiode tidleg i 1967, samstundes som The Beatles spelte inn Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Den første innspelingsdagen var 11. januar då «When Your Lights Turned On», «Have You Ever Loved Somebody» og B-sida «All the World is Love» vart fullført. Dei byrja òg på singelen «On a Carousel». Denne songen vart ferdig den neste innspelingsdagen, 13. januar, i lag med albumsporet «Lullaby to Tim». To songar sungne på italiensk, «Non prego per me» og «Devi avere fiducia in me» (førstnemnte skriven av Lucio Battisti og Mogol), vart òg spelt inn den dagen for ein singel i Italia. Den neste innspelinga 22. februar vart nytta til ytterlegare to songar for ein singel i Italia, «We're Alive» og «Kill Me Quick». «The Games We Play» og Graham Gouldman-songen «Schoolgirl» vart òg påbyrja denne dagen. Størsteparten av albumet vart spelt inn 3., 8. og 17. mars. Dei gjorde eit nytt forsøk på «Schoolgirl» den 8. mars, men denne vart til slutt skrinlagd. Dei siste songane for albumet vart spelte inn i juni med «Carrie Anne».
Amerikansk versjon
Evolution var òg namnet på det første albumet The Hollies gav ut for det nye amerikanske selskapet deira, Epic Records. Med så mange amerikanske utgåver av britiske album, vart dette albumet miksa på nytt med mykje ekko og klang. I tilleg vart tre av songane på albumet fjerna og berre «Carrie Anne» vart lagt til.
Plateomslaget nytta det same biletet som den britiske utgåva, men med anna skrift.
Medverkande
The Hollies
Andre medverkande
Kristianstad
Svensk tid
Byen vart saman med Skåne overgjeve til Sverige ved freden i Roskilde 1658, men vart i ein kort periode erobra tilbake i 1676. Det siste forsøket på tilbake-erobring var i 1710, som berre varte éin månad.
Handelen med utanlandske hamner bidrog òg til å fremje byen sin eigne industriar med kledefabrikker, fargeri, garveri og tobakksframstilling. Utanfor byen låg eit stort teglverk og ein såpefabrikk. I byrjinga av 1800-talet vart føresetnadene for handel endra som følgje av Napolenskrigane. I tillegg hadde Helgeån, livsnerva til byen, danna eit nytt utløp mot Austersjøen så vassdjupna ved utskipingsstaden Åhus blei mindre. Ein måtte difor i staden bruke dei vanskelege landvegane til transport av varer, og Christianstads utenrikshandel skrumpa omsider inn til inkje.
Hans Peter Norløff
Hans Peter Norløff, også H.P. Norløff, var ein norsk kontormann frå Arendal som valbolken 1916-18 representerte einmannskrinsen Fredrikshald og partiet Høgre på Stortinget.
Hérémence
Hérémence er ein kommune i distriktet Hérens i kantonen Valais i Sveits. Kommunen har innbyggjarar ) og eit areal på . Kommunesenteret ligg 1237 meter over havet.
Kristianstad
Svensk tid
Inntil 1847 var Christianstad den viktigaste militærbyen i det sørlege Sverige. Ein brann la dette året det meste av byen sin sørlege del øyde, og same år miste byen statusen som festningsby. Vollanlegga vart første rive ned omkring hundreårsskiftet 1900 og erstatta med breie boulevardanlegg. I dag er bybiletet dominert av store og imponerande bygningar frå denne tida, til saman med 17-1800-talet kasernebyggerier.
Hans Peter Norløff
Norløff var son til ein skipshandlar. Sjølv arbeidde han i Saugbrugsforeningen i Halden frå 1883 til 1924, frå 1908 som kontorsjef. Åra 1925-39 var han overformyndar i Halden, styreformann i Fredrikshalds Sparebank frå 1936.
Norløff var bystyremedlem i Halden 1910-22, halve tida med i formannskapet. Frå 1916 til 1918 møtte han som byens representant på Stortinget, der han var medlem i Konstitusjonskomiteen. Han gav i 1935 ut sogeverket Saugbrugsforeningen gjennom 75 år 1859-1934 og i 1942 Slekten Wiel.