cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Talento de Barrio (runut bunyi)
Talento de Barrio (Hood Talent) adalah album Daddy Yankee dan keenam dalam bahasa Sepanyol bantuan Talento de Barrio film.
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Ayer Hangat
Sejarah
Menjelang tahun 1992, Kerajaan Persekutuan telah membeli tanah seluas 18 ekar di Padang Ragut bernilai RM 900,000.00 sebagai tapak baru SMKAH. Bagaimanapun, projek yang bernilai RM 4.78 juta hasil pinjaman Bank Dunia telah tergendala kerana masalah setinggan di tapak projek tersebut. Bagi menampung bilangan pelajar yang semakin bertambah, Jabatan Pendidikan Kedah telah membina sebuah lagi bangunan mengandungi tiga bilik darjah dan siap pada akhir tahun 1993.
Tender projek SMKAH telah dikeluarkan pada 12 Mei 1994. Projek mula dilaksanakan pada 19 Disember 1994 oleh Kontraktor Konsortium Indera Sdn. Bhd. Dari Perlis. Alhamdulillah, bangunan sekolah baru dapat diduduki sepenuhnya pada akhir tahun 1996.
==Visi
Talento de Barrio (runut bunyi)
Track listing
Talento de Barrio: Edición Especial (©2008) Disc 1 - CD
Disc 2 - DVD
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Ayer Hangat
Pencapaian
27 Disember 2011 - 1 dari 34 pelajar dari sekolah-sekolah dari Pulau Langkawi mendapat 8A didalam peperiksaan Penilaian Menengah Rendah
Pengetua Sekolah
En Nor Azman Bin Hamid
Talento de Barrio (runut bunyi)
Track listing
Talento de Barrio: Edición Deluxe (©2008)
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Ayer Hangat
Lagu Sekolah
BERWATAK KEMAS DAN BERADAB
ITU WAWASAN KAMI
SATU AZAM SATU CITA
SATU HASRAT MENEMPA JAYA
ISTIQAMAH JADI PEGANGAN
DISIPLIN TERAS DIRI
KEBERANIAN TERTANAM DI JIWA
Rtyně nad Bílinou
Rtyně nad Bílinou merupakan sebuah kampung dan kawasan perbandaran yang terletak di daerah Teplice, wilayah Ústí nad Labem, Republik Czech.
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Ayer Hangat
Lagu Sekolah
KEYAKINAN DI HATI
Probopass
Probopass (ダイノーズ) ialah spesies Pokémon kompas. Ia berevolusi daripada Nosepass apabila dinaikkan tahap di Mt. Coronet (Gunung Coronet). Ia menyerupai pukao, topi patung moai di Pulau Easter.
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Ayer Hangat
Lagu Sekolah
RUKUN NEGARA KAMI JUNJUNG
MEMBELA NUSA BANGSA TERCINTA
Rujukan
Utusan 27 Dis 2011 - 34 pelajar Langkawi dapat 8A dalam Penilaian Menengah Rendah
Forges-sur-Meuse
ialah komun di jabatan Meuse di timur-laut Perancis.
Kampung Banggul Sekupang
Kampung Banggul Sekupang merupakan sebuah kampung yang terletak di Pasir Mas, dalam Kelantan, iaitu sebuah negeri di Malaysia.
Kelantan merupakan sebuah negeri di utara Malaysia, dengan keluasan lebih kurang 14,922 km². Ia terletak di timur laut Semenanjung Malaysia, berhadapan dengan Laut China Selatan, dan bersempadan dengan Provinsi Narathiwat, Thailand. Kelantan ialah sebuah negeri agraria (pertanian) yang mempunyai banyak kawasan tanaman padi dan perkampungan nelayan.
Poskod
Poskod yang digunakan di Kampung Banggul Sekupang, Pasir Mas, Kelantan ialah 17010.
Terbuka Wanita Pattaya 2008
Terbuka Wanita Pattaya 2008 merupakan kejohanan Aras IV dalam Jelajah WTA 2008 yang berlangsung dari Februari 2 hingga Februari 10 di Dusit Thani Pattaya, Pattaya City. The tournament was won by Polish teenager Agnieszka Radwańska who garnered her second WTA Tour title. The total prize pot was US$170,000 dimana juara menerima $26,650, dan naib juara US$13,825.
Among those who played were 2008 Australian Open quarter-finalist Agnieszka Radwańska, Jill Craybas and world no. 57 Casey Dellacqua. The local challenge was led by Lertcheewakarn Noppawan and Tamarine Tanasugarn.
Perseorangan wanita
🇵🇱 Agnieszka Radwańska tewaskan 🇺🇸 Jill Craybas, 6-2, 1-6, 7-6(4)
Beregu wanita
Chan Yung-jan / Chuang Chia-jung tewaskan  Hsieh Su-wei / 🇺🇸 Vania King, 6-4, 6-3
Wittmar
merupakan sebuah munisipaliti terletak di daerah Wolfenbüttel, Niedersachsen, Jerman.
Baddeckenstedt (Samtgemeinde)
Baddeckenstedt  merupakan sebuah munisipaliti terletak di daerah Wolfenbüttel, Niedersachsen, Jerman.
Lapangan Terbang Isisford
Lapangan Terbang Isisford adalah sebuah lapangan terbang yang terletak di bandar Isisford, Australia.
Lapangan Terbang Isisford terletak pada kedudukan Latitud S24* 15.5000', Longitud E144* 25.5000' pada ketinggian 211.53 meter dari aras laut..
Rancamanyar
Rancamanyar merupakan sebuah desa yang terletak dalam (daerah) kecamatan Baleendah, Kabupaten Bandung, Provinsi Jawa Barat, Indonesia.
Abdi-Ashirta
thumb|400px Abdi-Ashirta (kurun ke-14 sebelum masihi) merupakan pemerintah kerajaan Amurru, satu kerajaan baru di selatan yang kini Syria moden. Abdi-Ashirta memerintah Amurru, yang kini dikenali sebagai wilayah Syria. Amurru dan merupakan negeri lindungan Amenhotep III (memerintah.1391–1353 sebelum masihi.) dan bertelingkah dengan Raja Rib-Hadda dari Byblos. Anak dan pengganti Abdi-Ashirta adalah Aziru.
Baddeckenstedt
merupakan sebuah munisipaliti terletak di daerah Wolfenbüttel, Niedersachsen, Jerman.
Rancamanyar
Poskod
Poskod yang digunakan di Rancamanyar adalah 40375. Terdapat 8 buah desa di dalam daerah kecamatan Baleendah.
Abdi-Ashirta
Abdi-Ashirta membentuk perikatan bersama Hittites, bersama Suppiluliumas I menentang empayar Mitannis, negara pakatan Mesir. Abdi-Ashirta dan Amurru contoh unggul masalah politik Mesir yang akan timbul semasa pemerintahan Akhenaten (memerintah 1353–1335 sebelum masihi.) dan semasa Tempoh Ramessid (1307–1070 sebelum masihi).
Rib-Hadda mengadu dengan keras pada Akhenaten—dalam surat Amarna—mengenai cubaan Abdi-Ashirta bagi memperluaskan kerajaannya dengan menceroboh kerajaannya. Kematian Abdi-Ashirta disebut dalam EA 101 oleh Rib-Hadda dalam suratnya pada Akhenaten. Malangnya bagi Rib-Hadda, Abdi-Ashirta digantikan oleh anak lelakinya—Aziru— yang juga berkebolehan dan kemudiannya menawan, menyingkir dan kemungkinannya membunuh Rib-Hadda dalam proses tersebut. Aziru kemudian berpaling tadah pada pihak Hittite yang menyebabkan Mesir kehilangan kawalan pada sempadan utaranya jajahan Amurru yang dikawal oleh Aziru.
Kutawaringin, Mande
Kutawaringin merupakan sebuah desa yang terletak dalam (daerah) kecamatan Mande, Kabupaten Cianjur, Provinsi Jawa Barat, Indonesia.
Poskod
Poskod yang digunakan di Kutawaringin adalah 43292. Terdapat buah desa di dalam daerah kecamatan Mande.
Tormenta Tropical, Vol. 1
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Tormenta Tropical, Vol. 1 is an album of Daddy Yankee's Puerto Rican singer.
Lapangan Terbang Surat Thani
Lapangan Terbang Surat Thani adalah sebuah lapangan terbang yang terletak di bandar Surat Thani, Thailand.
Lapangan Terbang Surat Thani terletak pada kedudukan Latitud N09* 08.1667', Longitud E99* 08.3500' pada ketinggian 6.10 meter dari aras laut..
Bureta
Bureta merupakan sebuah kawasan perbandaran yang terletak di wilayah Zaragoza, Aragon, Sepanyol
Kampung Kuala Berok
Kampung Kuala Berok merupakan sebuah kampung yang terletak di Jeniang, dalam negeri Kedah Darul Aman, iaitu negeri di utara di Malaysia, dan yang bersempadan dengan negara Thailand di timur lautnya, dan bersempadan dengan negeri Perak di tenggara, Pulau Pinang di barat daya dan Perlis di bahagian utara.
Negeri Kedah merupakan sebuah negeri yang terkenal sebagai sebuah negeri pertanian yang maju di Malaysia, terutamanya sebagai pengeluar padi terbesar, menghasilkan 70% pengeluaran hasil padi.2017. Salah satu makanan tradisi istimewanya adalah laksa Kedah.
Poskod
Poskod yang digunakan di Kampung Kuala Berok, Jeniang, Kedah adalah 08320.
De Havilland Sea Vixen
de Havilland DH.110 Sea Vixen merupakan sebuah pesawat pejuang versi dua tempat duduk yang digunakan oleh Cabang Udara Armada (komponen udara bagi Tentera Laut Diraja) pada tahun 1950-an hingga 1960-an. Pesawat ini telah direka oleh de Havilland. Dibangunkan berdasarkan jet pejuang generasi terdahulu, Sea Vixen diperanankan untuk mempertahankan armada kapal pengangkut pesawat. Setelah de Havilland menjadi sebahagian daripada kumpulan Hawker Siddeley, pesawat ini kemudian dikenali dengan Hawker Siddeley Sea Vixen.
Ústrašín
Ústrašín merupakan sebuah kampung dan kawasan perbandaran yang terletak di daerah Pelhřimov, wilayah Vysočina, Republik Czech.
Oderwald
merupakan sebuah munisipaliti terletak di daerah Wolfenbüttel, Niedersachsen, Jerman.
Jordan Pickford
Jordan Lee Pickford (lahir 7 Mac 1994) adalah seorang pemain bola sepak profesional Inggeris yang bermain sebagai  penjaga gol untuk kelab  Everton dan  pasukan kebangsaan England.
Pickford sebelum ini pernah bermain untuk akademi, simpanan, dan pasukan senior Sunderland di samping beberapa pinjaman di  Darlington,  Alfreton Town,  Burton Albion,  Carlisle United,  Bradford City dan  Preston North End. Dia menyertai Everton dengan bayaran sebanyak £ 25 juta pada bulan Jun 2017.
Foucaucourt-sur-Thabas
ialah komun di jabatan Meuse di timur-laut Perancis.
Aliando
Muhammad Ali Syarief, lebih dikenal sebagai Aliando Syarief merupakan pelakon, model, dan penyanyi berkarayatan Indonesia. Beliau mempunyai seorang ibu dari Tengku Resi yang juga berprofesi sebagai pelakon
Jordan Pickford
Pickford pernah mewakili England di bawah 16 tahun,  bawah 17 tahun,  bawah-18,  bawah-19,  bawah-20 dan  bawah-21. Dia membuat penampilan sulung untuk pasukan kebangsaan England pada November 2017 dalam perlawanan persahabatan menentang  Jerman. Dia adalah penjaga gawang utama England di Piala Dunia FIFA 2018, di mana skuad England tersebut mara ke separuh akhir buat kali pertama sejak tahun 1990.
Aliando
Kehidupan awal
Ia merupakan anak kedua dari tiga bersaudara. Ayahnya yang bernama Syarief Afif Alkatiri berketurunan Bahrain, sedangkan ibunya yang bernama Tengku Resi Revado berketurunan Minangkabau. Ia memiliki satu kakak kandung bernama Alya Avivah Syarief yang merupakan seorang pengusaha dan mantan pelakon, serta adik tiri bernama Alwiyah Al-Haddad dari pernikahan kedua sang ibu.
Pautan luar
[[Kategori:Pelakon lelaki Indonesia
Lapangan Terbang Hamilton Island
Lapangan Terbang Great Barrier Reef atau Lapangan Terbang Hamilton Island secara peribadinya dimiliki untuk kegunaan aerodrome awam dan lapangan terbang utama bagi Kumpulan Whitsunday Islands, dan lapangan terbang Hamilton Island. Lapangan terbang ini terbina di atas reclaimed land dan disebabkan oleh status pelancongan pulau, ia dihuni oleh kebanyakan pesawat kos rendah Jetstar Airways, serta Virgin Australia dan Qantas. Lapangan Terbang Hamilton Island mengendalikan penerbangan secara terus daripada Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane dan Cairns. Lapangan terbang ini turut mempunyai pad pelancaran untuk pesawat persiaran ke Great Barrier Reef dan Whitehaven Beach. Pesawat persendirian turut menggunakan Lapangan Terbang Great Barrier Reef, termasuk juga helikopter yang dioperasikan penduduk tempata dan pesawat ringan.
Lapangan terbang ini mula dibina pada 1980-an, lapangan terbang ini dalam situasi teruk pada September 2001 dengan penutupan Ansett Australia, yang beroperasi dengan begitu banyak daripada pesawat lain dengan penerbangan ke Cairns, Townsville, Brisbane, Gold Coast, Queensland, Sydney, Melbourne dan Adelaide.
Warna dalam budaya Cina
Warna dalam budaya Cina merujuk kepada pelbagai warna yang dikategorikan sebagai bersifat bertuah atau bersifat malang.
Lapangan Terbang Hamilton Island
Pada akhir 30 Jun 2011 lapangan terbang ini menguruskan 457,641 penumpang menjadikannya lapangan terbang ke-19 tersibuk di Australia.
Warna dalam budaya Cina
Merah
Angpau (sampul merah) ialah hadiah berbentuk wang yang diberikan dalam masyarakat Cina semasa perayaan atau peristiwa khas. Warna merah melambangkan nasib baik. Justera, warna merah dilarang sama sekali dalam upacara pengebumian kerana ia melambangkan kebahagiaan.
Lapangan Terbang Hamilton Island
Operasi
*Perjalanan Sydney termasuk daripada Julai 2009
Warna dalam budaya Cina
Kuning/Emas
Warna kuning juga dilihatkan sebagai warna bertuah dan kekadang dipasangkan dengan warna merah sebagai ganti untuk warna emas atas alasan yang nyata. Ia juga merupakan warna untuk gubah dan pakaian maharaja. Bagaimanapun, warna kuning juga digunakan sebagai warna perkabungan dalam kalangan penganut agama Buddha Cina, khususnya untuk sami yang meninggal dunia.
Hijau
Warna hijau umumnya dikaitkan dengan "kesihatan, kemakmuran, dan keharmonian". Bagaimanapun, topi hijau dikaitkan dengan kecurangan dan juga merupakan ungkapan untuk lelaki dayus. Ini telah mengakibatkan perasaan yang tidak senang  dalam kalangan biskop Katolik yang mempunyai topi hijau pada bahagian atas jata kegerejaan mereka.
Putih/Perak
Berbeza dengan perlambangan ketulenan, kesucian, dan kebersihan Barat, warna putih dikaitkan dengan kematian dalam budaya Cina dan terutamanya digunakan dalam upacara pengebumian. Warna putih kekadang digantikan dengan warna perak, dengan wang perak seringnya diberikan kepada orang yang sudah meninggal dunia dalam bentuk wang kertas sembahyang.
Burgdorf, Wolfenbüttel
Burgdorf merupakan sebuah munisipaliti terletak di daerah Wolfenbüttel, Niedersachsen, Jerman.
Warna dalam budaya Cina
Hitam
Warna hitam ialah warna neutral yang digunakan untuk pakaian sehari-hari. Bagaimanapun, ia juga digunakan semasa upacara pengebumian untuk melambangkan perkabungan, suatu perkembangan yang mungkin dipengaruhi oleh amalan Barat, dengan reben hitam biasanya digantung pada gambar orang yang sudah meninggal dunia..
Biru atau biru gelap
Warna biru dan warna biru gelap juga merupakan warna yang digunakan untuk peristiwa muram seperti upacara pengebumian dan kematian.
Kelantan FA musim 2014
Liga Super
Pusingan 2
Piala FA
Kelantan mara ke pusingan suku akhir
Kelantan mara ke pusingan separuh akhir dengan aggregat 6-5
Piala Malaysia
Kelantan muncul naib juara Kumpulan C dan mara ke pusingan suku akhir
Schladen (Samtgemeinde)
Schladen  merupakan sebuah munisipaliti terletak di daerah Wolfenbüttel, Niedersachsen, Jerman.
Bijuesca
thumb|Bijuesca Bijuesca merupakan sebuah kawasan perbandaran yang terletak di wilayah Zaragoza, Aragon, Sepanyol
Teleskop Angkasa Hubble
thumb|right|450px|Exploded view of the Hubble Telescope. Click for a larger image.
Teleskop Angkasa Hubble (HST) adalah sebuah teleskop mengelilingi Bumi, dinamakan selepas ahli astronomi Edwin Hubble pada penemuannya pada galaksi di luar Bima Sakti dan ciptaan Peraturan Hubblenya, yang mengira kadar angkasa berkembang. Kedudukannya di luar atmosfera Bumi membenarkannya untuk mengambil gambar optikal tajam pada objek yang sangat malap, dan semenjak pelancarannya pada 1990, beliau menjadi salah satu alat terpenting dalam sejarah astronomi. Beliau telah menjadi bertanggungjawab pada banyak cerapan dan telah menolong ahli astronomi mencapai kefahaman lebih baik pada banyak masalah asas dalam astrofizik. Ultra Deep Field Hubble (paling sensitif) adalah gambar optikal astronomi yang terdalam yang diambilkan.
Dari konsep asalnya pada 1946 sehingga pelancarannya, projek membina sebuah teleskop angkasa telah dibeset oleh penangguhan dan masalah kewangan. Selanjutnya selepas pelancarannya, beliau mendapati bahawa cermin utama mengalami aberasi bersfera. Walau bagaimanapun, selepas misi perkhidmatan pada 1993, teleskop telah diperbaikikan ke rancangan berkualiti dan menjadi alat kajian penting dan juga sebuah boon perhubungan awam untuk astronomi. HST adalah sebahagian siri Pencerapan Awam, dengan Balai Cerap Compton Gamma, Balai Cerap Chandra X-ray, dan Teleskop Angkasa Spitzer.
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Proposals and precursors
The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946, when astronomer Lyman Spitzer wrote a paper entitled Astronomical advantages of an extra-terrestrial observatory. In it, he discussed the two main advantages that a space-based observatory would have over ground-based telescopes: first, the angular resolution (smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished) would be limited only by diffraction, rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere which causes stars to twinkle and is known to astronomers as seeing. At that time ground-based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0.5–1.0 arcseconds, compared to a theoretical diffraction-limited resolution of about 0.1 arcsec for a telescope with a mirror 2.5 m in diameter. The second major advantage would be that a space-based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light, which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere.
Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for a space telescope to be developed. In 1962 a report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space telescope as part of the space program, and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining the scientific objectives for a large space telescope.
Space-based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II, as scientists made use of the developments in rocket technology that had taken place. The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946. An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the UK as part of the Ariel space program, and 1966 saw National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's (NASA) launch of the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) mission. OAO-1's battery failed after three days, terminating the mission. It was followed by OAO-2, which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972, well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year.
The OAO missions demonstrated the important role space-based observations could play in astronomy, and 1968 saw the development by NASA of firm plans for a space-based reflecting telescope with a mirror 3 m in diameter, known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope (LST), with a launch slated for 1979. These plans emphasised the need for manned maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life, and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable Space Shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available. <!---
The quest for funding
The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal. In 1970 NASA established two committees, one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project, and the other to determine the science goals of the mission. Once these had been established, the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument, which would be far more costly than any Earth-based telescope. The US Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages, which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope. In 1974, public spending cuts instigated by Gerald Ford led to Congress cutting all funding for the telescope project.
In response to this, a nationwide lobbying effort was co-ordinated among astronomers. Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person, and large scale letter-writing campaigns were organised. The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasising the need for a space telescope, and eventually the Senate agreed to a budget half that originally refused by Congress.
Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)
The mirror and optical systems of the telescope were the most crucial part, and were designed to exacting specifications. Telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but because the Space Telescope was to be used for observations ranging from ultraviolet to near-infrared with ten times better resolution than the best previous telescopes, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 1/20 of the wavelength of visible light, or about 30 nanometres.
Perkin-Elmer intended to use extremely sophisticated computer-controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape, but in case their cutting-edge technology ran into difficulties, Kodak was commissioned to construct a back-up mirror using traditional mirror-polishing techniques (the Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the Smithsonian Institution. ). Construction of the Perkin-Elmer mirror began in 1979, using ultra-low expansion glass. To keep the mirror's weight to a minimum it consisted of inch-thick top and bottom plates sandwiching a honeycomb lattice.
Mirror polishing began in 1979 and continued until May 1981. NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin-Elmer's managerial structure, and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget. To save money, NASA halted work on the back-up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984. The mirror was completed by the end of 1981 with the addition of a reflective coating of aluminum 75 nm thick and a protective coating of magnesium fluoride 25 nm thick, which increased the mirror's reflectivity in ultraviolet light.
However, doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin-Elmer's competence on a project of this importance as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate. In response to a schedule described as "unsettled and changing daily", NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985. Perkin-Elmer's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter, and at times delays reached one day for each day of work. NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until first March and then September 1986. By this time the total project budget had risen to US$1.175 billion. --->
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Challenger disaster
In early 1986, the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible, but the Challenger disaster brought the U.S. space program to a halt, grounding the Space Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years. All telescope parts had to be kept in clean rooms until a launch could be rescheduled, a costly situation which pushed the overall costs of the project still higher.
Eventually, following the resumption of Shuttle flights in 1988, the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990. In preparation for its final launch, dust which had accumulated on the mirror since its completion had to be removed with jets of nitrogen, and all systems were tested extensively to ensure they were fully functional. Finally, on 24 April 1990, shuttle mission STS-31 saw Discovery launch the telescope successfully into its planned orbit.
From its original total cost estimate of about 400 million dollars, the telescope had by now cost over US$2 billion to construct. Hubble's cumulative costs up to this day are estimated to be several times higher still, with U.S. expenditure estimated at between 4.5 and 6 billion USD and Europe's financial contribution at 593 million Euros (1999 estimate).
Instruments
When launched, the HST carried five scientific instruments: the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC), Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS), High Speed Photometer (HSP), Faint Object Camera (FOC) and the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS). WF/PC was a high-resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations. It was built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained four CCD chips, three of which were "wide field" chips while the fourth was the "planetary camera" (PC). The PC took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification.
The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet. It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center in conjunction with Ball Aerospace, and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90,000. Also optimised for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS, both of which were also capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instrument on Hubble. Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon-counting digicons as their detectors. FOC was constructed by ESA, while the Martin Marietta corporation built the FOS.
The final instrument was the HSP, designed and built at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It was optimised for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness. It could take up to 100,000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2% or better.
HST's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.
Flawed mirror
Within weeks of the launch of the telescope, the images returned showed that there was a serious problem with the optical system. Although the first images appeared to be sharper than ground-based images, the telescope failed to achieve a final sharp focus, and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected. Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond, instead of having a point spread function concentrated within a circle 0.1 arcsec in diameter as had been specified in the design criteria.
Analysis of the flawed images showed that the cause of the problem was that the primary mirror had been ground to the wrong shape. Although it was probably the most accurately figured mirror ever made, with variations from the prescribed curve of no more than 1/20 of the wavelength of light, it was too flat at the edges. The mirror was barely 2 micrometres out from the required shape, but the difference was catastrophic, introducing severe spherical aberration, a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its centre. The aberration meant that images from the Space Telescope were only marginally better than the best images obtainable from the ground.
Origin of the problem
Working backwards from images of point sources, astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror was −1.0139, instead of the intended −1.00229. The same number was also derived by analysing the null correctors (instruments which accurately measure the curvature of a polished surface) used by Perkin-Elmer to figure the mirror, as well as by analysing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror.
A commission headed by Lew Allen, director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was established to determine how the error could have arisen. The Allen Commission found that the null corrector used by Perkin-Elmer had been incorrectly calibrated, as a spot on a metering scale where an end cap had worn away was wrongly believed to be a valid scale. The null corrector had then been wrongly spaced by 1.3 mm.
During the polishing of the mirror, Perkin-Elmer had analysed its surface with two other null correctors, both of which (correctly) indicated that the mirror was suffering from spherical aberration. These tests were specifically designed to eliminate the possibility of major optical aberrations. Against written quality guidelines, the company ignored these test results as it believed that the two null correctors were less accurate than the primary device which was reporting that the mirror was perfectly figured.
Design of a solution
The flaw meant that Hubble could obtain data about as good as that achievable with a large ground-based telescope on a night of good seeing, but at a vastly greater cost. NASA and the telescope became the butt of many jokes, and the project was popularly regarded as a white elephant. However, the design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions, and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem which could be applied at the first servicing mission, scheduled for 1993.
While Kodak had ground a back-up mirror for Hubble, it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit, or bring the telescope temporarily back to Earth for a refit. Instead, the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense, to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission, effectively acting as "spectacles" to correct the spherical aberration.
Because of the way the instruments were designed, two different sets of correctors were required. The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) included four relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate CCD chips making up the camera, and so the relay mirrors on the replacement Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 could be figured to correct the aberration. However, the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces which could be figured in this way, and so required an external correction device.
Sungai Acheh
Politik
Kawasan Dewan Undangan Negeri Pulau Pinang Sungai Acheh diwakili oleh seorang Ahli Dewan Undangan Negeri iaitu Zulkifli Ibrahim dari Parti Perikatan Nasional (PPBM). Kawasan ini dimandatkan dengan mengembalikan seorang Ahli Dewan Undangan Negeri (ADUN) kepada Dewan Undangan Negeri Pulau Pinang di bawah sistem pengundian pemenang undi terbanyak. Pada PRU 2018, jumlah pengundi berdaftar ialah seramai 20,018 orang dan kebanyakannya pengundi beretnik Melayu (67.52%).
Teleskop Angkasa Hubble
COSTAR
The system designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC, FOS and GHRS was called the "Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement" (COSTAR) and consisted essentially of two mirrors in the light path, one of which would be figured to correct the aberration. To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope, one of the other instruments had to be removed, and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed. COSTAR was built by Ball Aerospace.
During the first three years of the Hubble mission, before the optical corrections could be fitted, the telescope still carried out a large number of observations. Spectroscopic observations in particular were not too badly affected by the aberration, but many imaging projects were cancelled as the space telescope no longer gave decisive advantages over ground-based observations. Despite the setbacks, the first three years saw numerous scientific advances as astronomers worked to optimise the results obtained using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution.
Servicing mission 1
The telescope had always been designed so that it could be regularly serviced, but after the problems with the mirror came to light, the first servicing mission assumed a much greater importance, as the astronauts would have to carry out extensive work on the telescope to install the corrective optics. The seven astronauts selected for the mission were trained intensively in the use of the hundred or so specialised tools which would need to be used. The mission (STS-61) Endeavour took place in December 1993, and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over a total of 10 days.
Most importantly, the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package, and WFPC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2), with its internal optical correction system. In addition, the solar arrays and their drive electronics were replaced, as well as four of the gyroscopes used in the telescope pointing system, two electrical control units and other electrical components, and two magnetometers. The onboard computers were upgraded, and finally, the telescope's orbit was boosted, having been slowly decaying for three years due to drag in the tenuous upper atmosphere.
On January 13, 1994, NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first of many much sharper images. The mission had been one of the most complex ever undertaken, involving five lengthy periods of extravehicular activity, and its resounding success was an enormous boon for NASA, as well as for the astronomers who now had a fully capable space telescope.
Subsequent servicing missions
Subsequent servicing missions were less dramatic, but each gave the space telescope new capabilities. Servicing Mission 2 Discovery (STS-82) in February 1997 replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder, repaired thermal insulation and again boosted Hubble's orbit. NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument, but shortly after it was installed, an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle. This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4.5 years to about 2 years.
Servicing Mission 3A Discovery (STS-103) took place in December 1999, replaced all six gyroscopes (one had failed and rendered the telescope unusable just weeks before the mission), replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer, installed a Voltage/temperature Improvement Kit (VIK) to prevent battery overcharging, and replaced thermal insulation blankets. The new computer was based on a radiation hardened Intel 486 and permits some computing tasks that were previously performed by computers on the ground to be handled on board the spacecraft.
Servicing Mission 3B Columbia (STS-109) in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument, with the FOC being replaced with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), and also saw the revival of NICMOS, which had run out of coolant in 1999. A new cooling system was installed which reduced the instrument's temperature enough for it to be usable again, although it was not as cold as its original design called for.
The mission replaced the solar arrays for a third time, with the new arrays being smaller but generating more power. The new arrays were derived from those built for the Iridium comsat system and were only two-thirds the size of the old arrays, resulting in less drag against the tenuous reaches of the upper atmosphere, while providing 30% more power. The additional power allowed all instruments on board the Hubble to be run simultaneously, and reduced a vibration problem that occurred when the old, less rigid arrays entered and left direct sunlight. Hubble's Power Distribution Unit was also replaced in order to correct a problem with sticky relays, a procedure that required the complete electrical power down of the spacecraft for the first time since it was launched.
The completion of this servicing mission considerably enhanced Hubble's capabilities. The two instruments primarily affected by the mission, ACS and NICMOS, together imaged the Hubble Ultra Deep Field in 2003 to 2004.
Important discoveries
Hubble has helped to resolve some long-standing problems in astronomy, as well as turning up results that have required whole new theories to explain them. Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before, and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant, the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding, which is also related to its age. Before the launch of Hubble, estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50%, but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of 10%, which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble's launch using other techniques.
While Hubble helped to refine the age of the universe, it also cast doubt on its future. Astronomers from the High-z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used the telescope to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that, far from decelerating under the influence of gravity, the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating. This acceleration was later measured more accurately by other ground-based and space-based telescopes which confirmed Hubble's finding, but the cause of this acceleration is currently very poorly understood.
The collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was very fortuitously timed for astronomers, coming just a few months after Servicing Mission 1 had restored Hubble's optical performance. Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979, and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter, an event believed to occur once every few centuries. It has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris.
Other major discoveries made using Hubble data include proto-planetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around sun-like stars; and the optical counterparts of the still-mysterious gamma-ray bursts.
A unique legacy of Hubble is Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field images, which utilized Hubble's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky which are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths. The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away, and have generated a wealth of scientific papers, providing a new window on the early Universe.
Impact on astronomy
Many objective measures show the enormous impact of Hubble data on astronomy. Over 4,000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings. Looking at papers several years after their publication, about one-third of all astronomy papers have no citations, while only 2% of papers based on Hubble data have no citations. On average, a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non-Hubble data. Of the 200 papers published each year which receive the most citations, about 10% are based on Hubble data.
Although the HST has clearly had a significant impact on astronomical research, the financial cost of this impact has been very large. A study on the relative impacts on astronomy of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a 4 m ground-based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope, the HST cost about 100 times as much to build and maintain. Even before Hubble's launch, ground-based speckle imaging could provide higher resolution images of bright objects than Hubble can achieve and more recently the development of adaptive optics has extended the high-resolution imaging capabilities of ground-based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects. Ground-based imaging can be done at much lower cost, and this has been a key consideration in the debate about the future of space telescopes (see below).
Using the telescope
Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually, with time allocated for a 'cycle' lasting approximately one year. Proposals are divided into several categories; 'general observer' proposals are the most common, covering routine observations. 'Snapshot observations' are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time, including the overheads of acquiring the target and so on; snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule which cannot be filled by regular GO programs.
Astronomers may make 'Target of Opportunity' proposals, in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle. In addition, up to 10% of the telescope time is designated Director's Discretionary (DD) Time. Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year, and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae. Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to the production of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field, and in the first four cycles of telescope time, observations carried out by amateur astronomers (discussed below).
Observation scheduling
Because Hubble orbits in the upper atmosphere, its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable. The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means that Hubble's predicted position for six week's time could be in error by up to 4,000 km. Observation schedules are typically finalised only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed.
Amateur observations
The first director of the STScI, Riccardo Giacconi, announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his Director Discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope. The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle, but excited great interest among amateur astronomers.
Proposals for amateur time were stringently peer reviewed by a committee of leading amateur astronomers, and time was awarded only to proposals with genuine scientific merit which did not duplicate proposals made by professionals and which required the unique capabilities of the space telescope. In total, 13 amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope, with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997. One such study was Transition Comets — UV Search for OH Emissions in Asteroids. After that time, however, budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable, and no further amateur programs have been carried out.
Transmission to Earth
Hubble data are initially stored on the spacecraft. When launched, the storage facilities were old-fashioned reel-to-reel tape recorders, but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions 2 and 3A. From the onboard storage facilities, data are transferred to the ground via the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, a system of satellites designed so that satellites in low-Earth orbit can communicate with their mission control facilities during about 85% of their orbit. Data is transmitted to the TDRSS ground station and then on to the Goddard Space Flight Center for archiving.
Archive
All Hubble data are eventually made available via a public archive at http://archive.stsci.edu/hst. Data are usually proprietary—available only to the Principal Investigator (PI) and astronomers designated by the PI—for one year after being taken. The PI can apply to the director of the STScI to extend or reduce the proprietary period in some circumstances.
Observations made on Director's Discretionary Time are exempt from the proprietary period, and are released to the public immediately. Calibration data such as flat fields and dark frames are also publicly available straight away. All data in the archive are in the FITS format, which is suitable for astronomical analysis but not for public use. The Hubble Heritage Project processes and releases to the public a small selection of the most striking images in JPEG and TIFF formats.
Pipeline reduction
Astronomical data taken with CCDs must undergo several calibration steps before it is suitable for astronomical analysis. STScI has developed sophisticated software which automatically calibrates data when it is requested from the archive using the best calibration files available. This 'on-the-fly' processing means that large data requests can take a day or more to be processed and returned. The process by which data is calibrated automatically is known as 'pipeline reduction', and is increasingly common at major observatories.
Astronomers may if they wish retrieve the calibration files themselves and run the pipeline reduction software locally. This may be desirable when calibration files other than those selected automatically need to be used.
Data analysis
Hubble data can be analysed using many different packages, but STScI develops the custom-made STSDAS (Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System) software. The software contains all the programs needed to run pipeline reduction on raw data files, as well as many other astronomical image processing tools, tailored to the requirements of Hubble data. The software runs as a module of IRAF, a popular astronomical data reduction program.
Outreach activities
It has always been important for the Space Telescope to capture the public's imagination, given the considerable contribution of taxpayers to its construction and operational costs. After the difficult early years when the faulty mirror severely dented Hubble's reputation with the public, the first servicing mission allowed its rehabilitation as the corrected optics produced numerous remarkable images.
Several initiatives have helped to keep the public informed about Hubble activities. The Hubble Heritage Project was established to produce high-quality images for public consumption of the most interesting and striking objects observed. The Heritage Team is composed of amateur and professional astronomers, as well as people with backgrounds outside astronomy, and emphasises the artistic nature of Hubble images.