cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Pertempuran Salamis
Latarbelakang
Bandar-negeri Yunani, Athens dan Eretria telah menyokong Pemberontakan Ionia yang gagal bagi menentang Empayar Parsi Darius I pada 499-494 SM, yang diketuai oleh satrap dari Miletus, Aristagoras. Empayar Parsi masih agak muda, dan terdedah kepada pemberontakan di kalangan rakyatnya. Selain itu, Darius adalah pengguling takhta, dan telah menghabiskan banyak masa pemadamkan pemberontakan menentang pemerintahannya. Pemberontakan Ionia mengancam integriti empayar, dan Darius itu berikrar untuk menghukum mereka yang terlibat (terutamanya mereka yang belum menjadi sebahagian daripada empayarnya). Darius juga melihat peluang ini bagi meluaskan empayarnya ke dalam dunia Greece Purba yang berpecah-pecah. Ekspedisi awal di bawah Mardonius, dalam 492 SM, untuk mendapatkan tanah menghampiri ke Greece berakhir dengan penaklukan semula Thrace dan Macedon dipaksa untuk menjadi sebuah kerajaan takluk Parsi.
Pada tahun 491 SM, Darius menghantar wakil kepada semua bandar-negeri Yunani, meminta hadiah 'bumi dan air' sebagai tanda penyerahan mereka kepada beliau. Setelah membuktikan kuasanya pada tahun lalu, sebahagian besar bandar-bandar Yunani melakukannya. Di Athens, bagaimanapun, dutanya telah dibicarakan dan kemudian dihukum bunuh; di Sparta, mereka hanya dibuang ke dalam telaga. Ini bererti bahawa Sparta juga kini berperang dengan Parsi.
Darius itu membentuk satu pasukan petugas amfibia bawah Datis dan Artaphernes pada 490 SM, yang menyerang pulau Naxos, sebelum menerima penyerahan Kepulauan Cycladic yang lain. Pasukan petugas itu kemudian berpindah Eretria, yang dikepung dan dimusnahkan. Akhirnya, ia bergerak untuk menyerang Athens, mendarat di teluk Marathon, di mana ia bertemu dengan tentera Athens yang jauh lebih kecil. Dalam Pertempuran Marathon berikutnya, penduduk Athens mencapai kemenangan yang luar biasa, yang mengakibatkan pengunduran tentera Parsi kembali ke Asia.
<! Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece. Since this was to be a full scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription. Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC). These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any contemporary state. By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army which Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.
The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians. However, the Athenians did not have the manpower to fight on land and sea; and therefore combatting the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but made the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta. Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.
Initially the 'congress' agreed to defend the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance. However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through the pass by the modern village of Sarantaporo, and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, the Greeks retreated. Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. A second strategy was therefore adopted by the allies. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress. However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, whilst the women and children of Athens had been evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.
Mesyuarat Ketua-Ketua Kerajaan Komanwel
Mesyuarat Ketua-Ketua Kerajaan Komanwel (Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, disingkatkan kepada CHOGM) adalah sidang kemuncak dwitahunan yang disertai semua ketua-ketua kerajaan dari negara-negara Komanwel. Setiap dua tahun, mesyuarat ini akan dikendalikan oleh negara ahli yang berbeza, biasanya dipengerusikan oleh Perdana Menteri atau Presiden. Biasanya Ratu Elizabeth II yang menjadi Ketua Kerajaan Komanwel akan merasmikan mesyuarat tersebut. Sejak 1944 hingga 1971, mesyuarat ini yang dikenali sebagai Persidangan Perdana Menteri Komanwel diadakan di London. kecuali pada 1966 mesyuarat ini telah diadakan di Lagos. CHOGM yang pertama diadakan pada 1971.
Pertempuran Salamis
Prelude
The Allied fleet now sailed from Artemisium to Salamis to assist with the final evacuation of Athens. En route Themistocles left inscriptions addressed to the Ionian Greek crews of the Persian fleet on all springs of water that they might stop at, asking them to defect to the Allied cause. <!Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities that had not surrendered, Plataea and Thespiae, before marching on the now evacuated city of Athens. The Allies (mostly Peloponnesian) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolishing the single road that led through it, and building a wall across it.
This strategy was flawed, however, unless the Allied fleet was able to prevent the Persian fleet from transporting troops across the Saronic Gulf. In a council-of-war called once the evacuation of Athens was complete, the Corinthian naval commander Adeimantus argued that the fleet should assemble off the coast of the Isthmus in order to achieve such a blockade. However, Themistocles argued in favour of an offensive strategy, aimed at decisively destroying the Persians' naval superiority. He drew on the lessons of Artemisium, pointing out that "battle in close conditions works to our advantage". He eventually won through, and the Allied navy remained off the coast of Salamis.
The time-line for Salamis is difficult to establish with any certainty. Herodotus presents the battle as though it occurred directly after the capture of Athens, but nowhere explicitly states as much. If Thermopylae/Artemisium occurred in September, then this may be the case, but it is probably more likely that the Persians spent two or three weeks capturing Athens, refitting the fleet, and resupplying. Clearly though, at some point after capturing Athens, Xerxes held a council of war with the Persian fleet; Herodotus says this occurred at Phalerum. Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus and commander of its naval squadron in Xerxes's fleet, tried to convince him to wait for the Allies to surrender believing that battle in the straits of Salamis was an unnecessary risk. Nevertheless, Xerxes and his chief advisor Mardonius pressed for an attack.
It is difficult to explain exactly what eventually brought about the battle, assuming that neither side simply attacked without forethought. Clearly though, at some point just before the battle, new information began to reach Xerxes of rifts in the allied command; the Peloponnesians wished to evacuate from Salamis while they still could. This alleged rift amongst the Allies may have simply been a ruse, in order to lure the Persians to battle. Alternatively, this change in attitude amongst the Allies (who had waited patiently off the coast of Salamis for at least a week while Athens was captured) may have been in response to Persian offensive maneuvers. Possibly, a Persian army had been sent to march against the Isthmus in order to test the nerve of the fleet.
Either way, when Xerxes received this news, he ordered his fleet to go out on patrol off the coast Salamis, blocking the southern exit. Then, at dusk, he ordered them to withdraw, possibly in order to tempt the Allies into a hasty evacuation. That evening Themistocles now attempted what appears to have been a spectacularly successful use of disinformation. He sent a servant, Sicinnus, to Xerxes, with a message proclaiming that Themistocles was "on the king's side and prefers that your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes". Themistocles claimed that the Allied command was in-fighting, that the Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate that very night, and that to gain victory all the Persians need to do was to block the straits. In performing this subterfuge, Themistocles seems to have been trying to bring about exactly the opposite; to lure the Persian fleet into the Straits. This was exactly the kind of news that Xerxes wanted to hear; that the Athenians might be willing to submit to him, and that he would be able to destroy the rest of the Allied fleet. Xerxes evidently took the bait, and the Persian fleet was sent out that evening to effect this block. Xerxes ordered a throne to be set up on the slopes of Mount Aigaleo (overlooking the straits), in order to watch the battle from a clear vantage point, and so as to record the names of commanders who performed particularly well.
According to Herodotus, the Allies spent the evening heatedly debating their course of action. The Peloponnesians were in favour of evacuating, and at this point Themistocles attempted his ruse with Xerxes. It was only when Aristides, the exiled Athenian general arrived that night, followed by some deserters from the Persians, with news of the deployment of the Persian fleet, that the Peloponnesians accepted that they could not escape, and so would fight.
However, Peloponnesians may have been party to Themistocles's stratagem, so serenely did they accept that they would now have to fight at Salamis. The Allied navy was thus able to prepare properly for battle the forthcoming day, whilst the Persians spent the night fruitlessly at sea, searching for the alleged Greek evacuation. The next morning, the Persians sailed into the straits to attack the Greek fleet; it is not clear when, why or how this decision was made, but it is clear that they did take the battle to the Allies.
The Greek fleet
Herodotus reports that there were 378 triremes in the Allied fleet, and then breaks the numbers down by city state (as indicated in the table). However, his numbers for the individual contingents only add up to 371. He does not explicitly say that all 378 fought at Salamis ("All of these came to the war providing triremes...The total number of ships...was three hundred and seventy-eight"), and he also says that the Aeginetans "had other manned ships, but they guarded their own land with these and fought at Salamis with the thirty most seaworthy". Thus it has been supposed that the difference between the numbers is accounted for a garrison of 12 ships left at Aegina. According to Herodotus, two more ships defected from the Persians to the Greeks, one before Artemisium and one before Salamis, so the total complement at Salamis would have been 373 (or 380).
According to the Athenian playwright Aeschylus, who actually fought at Salamis, the Greek fleet numbered 310 triremes (the difference being the number of Athenian ships). Ctesias claims that the Athenian fleet numbered only 110 triremes, which ties in with Aeschylus's numbers. According to Hyperides, the Greek fleet numbered only 220. The fleet was effectively under the command of Themistocles, but nominally led by the Spartan nobleman Eurybiades, as had been agreed at the congress in 481 BC. Although Themistocles had tried to claim leadership of the fleet, the other city states with navies objected, and so Sparta (which had no naval tradition) was given command of the fleet as a compromise.
Plain numbers represent triremes; those indicated in parentheses are penteconters (fifty-oared galleys)
The Persian fleet
According to Herodotus, the Persian fleet initially numbered 1,207 triremes. However, by his reckoning they lost approximately a third of these ships in a storm off the coast of Magnesia, 200 more in a storm off the coast of Euboea, and at least 50 ships to Allied action at the Battle of Artemisium. Herodotus claims that these losses were replaced in full, but only mentions 120 ships from the Greeks of Thrace and nearby islands as reinforcements. Aeschylus, who fought at Salamis, also claims that he faced 1,207 warships there, of which 207 were "fast ships". Diodorus and Lysias independently claim there were 1,200 ships in the Persian fleet assembled at Doriskos in the spring of 480 BC. The number of 1,207 (for the outset only) is also given by Ephorus, while his teacher Isocrates claims there were 1,300 at Doriskos and 1,200 at Salamis. Ctesias gives another number, 1,000 ships, while Plato, speaking in general terms refers to 1,000 ships and more.
The number 1,207 appears very early in the historical record (472 BC), and the Greeks appear to have genuinely believed they faced that many ships. Because of the consistency in the ancient sources, some modern historians are inclined to accept 1,207 as the size of the initial Persian fleet; others reject this number, with 1,207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad, and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean. However, very few appear to accept that there were this many ships at Salamis: most favour a number in the range 600-800. This is also the range given by adding the approximate number of Persian ships after Artemisium (~550) to the reinforcements (120) quantified by Herodotus.
Strategic and tactical considerations
The overall Persian strategy for the invasion of 480 BC was to overwhelm the Greeks with a massive invasion force, and complete the conquest of Greece in a single campaigning season. Conversely, the Greeks sought to make the best use of their numbers by defending restricted locations and to keep the Persians in the field for as long as possible. Xerxes had obviously not anticipated such resistance, or he would have arrived earlier in the campaigning season (and not waited 4 days at Thermopylae for the Greeks to disperse). Time was now of the essence for the Persians – the huge invasion force could not be reasonably supported indefinitely, nor probably did Xerxes wish to be at the fringe of his empire for so long. Thermopylae had shown that a frontal assault against a well defended Greek position was useless; with the Allies now dug in across the Isthmus, there was little chance of conquering the rest of Greece by land. However, as equally demonstrated by Thermopylae, if the Greeks could be outflanked, their smaller numbers of troops could be destroyed. Such an outflanking of the Isthmus required the use of the Persian navy, and thus the destruction of the Allied navy. Therefore, if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season. Conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by crippling the Persian fleet, the Greeks could effectively thwart the invasion.
The Persians were at a significant tactical advantage, outnumbering the Allies, but also having "better sailing" ships. The "better sailing" that Herodotus mentions was probably due to the superior seamanship of the crews; most of the Athenian ships (and therefore the majority of the fleet) were newly built as according to Themistocles' request to the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes in 483 BC, and had inexperienced crews. It is important to note that despite the inexperienced crew on part of the Athenians, these newly constructed triremes would ultimately prove crucial in the forthcoming conflict with Persia. The most common naval tactics in the Mediterranean area at the time were ramming (triremes being equipped with a ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines (which essentially turned a sea battle into a land one). The Persians and Asiatic Greeks had by this time begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous. It is not entirely clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side. This maneuver would have required skilled sailing, and therefore the Persians would have been more likely to employ it; the Allies however, developed tactics specifically to counter this.
There has been much debate as to the nature of the Allied fleet compared to the Persian fleet. Much of this centres on the suggestion, from Herodotus, that the Allied ships were heavier, and by implication less maneuverable. The source of this heaviness is uncertain; possibly the Allied ships were bulkier in construction, or that the ships were water-logged since they had not been dried out in the winter (though there is no real evidence for either suggestion). Another suggestion is that the heaviness was caused by the weight of fully armored hoplite marines (20 fully armored hoplites would have weighed 2 tons). This 'heaviness', whatever its cause, would further reduce the likelihood of them employing the diekplous. It is therefore probable that the Allies had extra marines on board if their ships were less maneuverable, since boarding would then be the main tactic available to them (at the cost of making the ships even heavier). Indeed, Herodotus refers to the Greeks capturing ships at Artemisium, rather than sinking them. It has been suggested that the weight of the Allied ships may also have made them more stable in the winds off the coast of Salamis, and made them less susceptible to ramming (or rather, less liable to sustain damage when rammed).
Tactically speaking then, a battle in the open sea, where their superior seamanship and numbers could count was preferable for the Persians. For the Greeks, the only realistic hope of a decisive victory was to draw the Persians into a constricted area, where their numbers would count for little. The battle at Artemisium had seen attempts to negate the Persian advantage in numbers, but ultimately the Allies may have realised that they needed an even more constricted channel in order to defeat the Persians. Therefore, by sailing into the Straits of Salamis to attack the Greeks, the Persians were playing into the Allies' hands. It seems probable that the Persians would not have attempted this unless the Persians were confident of the collapse of the Allied navy, and thus Themistocles's subterfuge appears to have played a key role in tipping the balance in the favor of the Greeks. Salamis was, for the Persians, an unnecessary battle and a strategic mistake.
The battle
The actual battle of Salamis is not well described by the ancient sources, and it is unlikely that anyone (other than perhaps Xerxes) involved in the battle had a clear idea what was happening across the width of the straits. What follows is more of a discussion than a definitive account.
Dispositions
In the Allied fleet, the Athenians were on the left, and on the right were probably the Spartans (although Diodorus says it was the Megareans and Aeginetians); the other contingents were in the center. The Allied fleet probably formed into two ranks, since the straits would have been too narrow for a single line of ships. Herodotus has the Allied fleet in a line running north-south, probably with the northern flank off the coast of modern-day Saint George's Islet (Ayios Georgis), and the southern flank off the coast of Cape Vavari (part of Salamis). Diodorus suggests the Allied fleet was aligned east-west, spanning the straits between Salamis and Mount Aigaleos; however, it was perhaps unlikely that the Allies would have rested one of their flanks against Persian occupied territory.
It seems relatively certain that the Persian fleet was sent out to block the exit from the Straits the evening before the battle. Herodotus clearly believed that the Persian fleet actually entered the Straits at nightfall, planning to catch the Allies as they fled. However, modern historians have greatly debated this point, with some pointing out the difficulties of maneuvering in this confined space by night, and others accepting Herodotus's version. There are thus two possibilities; that during the night the Persians simply blocked the exit to the Straits, and then entered the straits in daylight; or that they entered the straits and positioned themselves for battle during the night. Regardless of when they attempted it, it seems likely that the Persians pivoted their fleet off the tip of Cape Vavari, so that from an initial east-west alignment (blocking the exit), they came round to a north-south alignment (see diagram). The Persian fleet seems to have been formed into three ranks of ships (according to Aeschylus); with the powerful Phoenician fleet on the right flank next to Mount Aigaleos, the Ionian contingent on the left flank and the other contingents in the centre.
Diodorus says that the Egyptian fleet was sent to circumnavigate Salamis, and block the northern exit from the Straits. If Xerxes wanted to trap the Allies completely, this maneuver would have made sense (especially if he was not expecting the Allies to fight). However, Herodotus does not mention this (and possibly alludes to the Egyptian presence in the main battle), leading some modern historians to dismiss it; though again, others accept it as a possibility. Xerxes had also positioned around 400 troops on the island known as Psyttaleia, in the middle of the exit from the straits, in order to kill or capture any Greeks who ended up there (as a result of shipwreck or grounding).
The opening phase
Regardless of what time they entered the straits, the Persians did not move to attack the Allies until daylight. Since they were not planning to flee after all, the Allies would have been able to spend the night preparing for battle, and after a speech by Themistocles, the marines boarded and the ships made ready to sail. According to Herodotus, this was dawn, and as the Allies "were putting out to sea the barbarians immediately attacked them". If the Persians only entered the straits at dawn, then the Allies would have had the time to take up their station in a more orderly fashion.
Aeschylus claims that as the Persians approached (possibly implying that they were not already in the Straits at dawn), they heard the Greeks singing their battle hymn (paean) before they saw the Allied fleet:
Ὦ παῖδες Ἑλλήνων ἴτε, ἐλευθεροῦτε πατρίδ', ἐλευθεροῦτε δὲ παῖδας, γυναῖκας, θεῶν τέ πατρῴων ἕδη, θήκας τε προγόνων: νῦν ὑπὲρ πάντων ἁγών.
Forward, sons of the Greeks, Liberate the fatherland, Liberate your children, your women, The altars of the gods of your fathers, And the graves of your ancestors: Now is the fight for everything.
Herodotus recounts that, according to the Athenians, as the battle began the Corinthians hoisted their sails and began sailing away from the battle, northwards up the straits. However, he also says that other Greeks denied this story. If this did in fact occur, one possible interpretation is that these ships had been a decoy sent to reconnoitre the northern exit from the straits, in case the arrival of the encircling Egyptian detachment was imminent (if indeed this also occurred). Another possibility (not exclusive with the former) is that the departure of the Corinthians triggered the final approach of the Persians, suggesting as it did that the Allied fleet was disintegrating. At any rate, if they indeed ever left, the Corinthians soon returned to the battle.
The main battle
The details of the rest of the battle are generally sketchy, and no one involved would have had a view of the entire battlefield. Triremes were generally armed with a large ram at the front, with which it was possible to sink an enemy ship, or at least disable it by shearing off the banks of oars on one side. If the initial ramming was not successful, marines boarded the enemy ship and something similar to a land battle ensued. Both sides had marines on their ships for this eventuality; the Greeks with fully armed hoplites; the Persians probably with more lightly armed infantry.
Herodotus recounts that Artemisia, the Queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent, found herself pursued by the ship of Ameinias of Pallene. In her desire to escape, she attacked and rammed another Persian vessel, thereby convincing the Athenian captain that the ship was an ally; Ameinias accordingly abandoned the chase. However, Xerxes, looking on, thought that she had successfully attacked an Allied ship, and seeing the poor performance of his other captains commented that "My men have become women, and my women men".
The Persian fleet began to retreat towards Phalerum, but according to Herodotus, the Aeginetans ambushed them as they tried to leave the Straits. The remaining Persian ships limped back to the harbour of Phalerum and the shelter of the Persian army. The Athenian general Aristides then took a detachment of men across to Psyttaleia to slaughter the garrison that Xerxes had left there. The exact Persian casualties are not mentioned by Herodotus. However, he claims that the next year, the Persian fleet numbered 300 triremes. The number of losses then depends on the number of ships the Persian had to begin with; something in the range of 200–300 seems likely, based on the above estimates for the size of the Persian fleet. According to Herodotus, the Persians suffered many more casualties than the Greeks because most Persians did not know how to swim. Xerxes, sitting on Mount Aigaleos on his throne, witnessed the carnage. Some ship-wrecked Phoenician captains tried to blame the Ionians for cowardice before the end of the battle. Xerxes, in a foul mood, and having just witnessed an Ionian ship capture an Aeginetan ship, had the Phoenicians beheaded for slandering "more noble men". According to Diodorus, Xerxes "put to death those Phoenicians who were chiefly responsible for beginning the flight, and threatened to visit upon the rest the punishment they deserved", causing the Phoenicians to sail to Asia when night fell.
Aftermath
The following year, 479 BC, Mardonius recaptured Athens (the Allied army still preferring to guard the Isthmus). However, the Allies, under Spartan leadership, eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle, and marched on Attica. Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea (which had been razed the previous year). There, at the Battle of Plataea, the Greek army won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army and ending the invasion of Greece; whilst at the near-simultaneous Battle of Mycale the Allied fleet destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet.
Significance
The Battle of Salamis marked the turning point in the Greco-Persian wars. After Salamis, the Peloponnesus, and by extension Greece as an entity, was safe from conquest; and the Persians suffered a major blow to their prestige and morale (as well as severe material losses). At the following battles of Plataea and Mycale, the threat of conquest was removed, and the Allies were able to go on the counter-offensive. The Greek victory allowed Macedon to revolt against Persian rule; and over the next 30 years, Thrace, the Aegean Islands and finally Ionia would be removed from Persian control by the Allies, or by the Athenian-dominated successor, the Delian League. Salamis started a decisive swing in the balance of power toward the Greeks, which would culminate in an eventual Greek victory, severely reducing Persian power in the Aegean.
Like the Battles of Marathon and Thermopylae, Salamis has gained something of a 'legendary' status (unlike, for instance, the more decisive Battle of Plataea), perhaps because of the desperate circumstances and the unlikely odds. A significant number of historians have stated that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history (though the same is often stated of Marathon). In a more extreme form of this argument, some historians argue that if the Greeks had lost at Salamis, the ensuing conquest of Greece by the Persians would have effectively stifled the growth of Western Civilization as we know it. This view is based on the premise that much of modern Western society, such as philosophy, science, personal freedom and democracy are rooted in the legacy of Ancient Greece. Thus, this school of thought argues that, given the domination of much of modern history by Western Civilization, Persian domination of Greece might have changed the whole trajectory of human history. It is also worth mentioning that the celebrated blossoming of hugely influential Athenian culture occurred only after the Persian wars were won.
Militarily, it is difficult to draw many lessons from Salamis, because of the uncertainty about what actually happened. Once again the Allies chose their ground well in order to negate Persian numbers, but this time (unlike Thermopylae) had to rely on the Persians launching an unnecessary attack for their position to count. Since it brought about that attack, perhaps the most important military lesson is to be found in the use of deception by Themistocles to bring about the desired response from the enemy.
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Perfileman Arab
thumb|Ini adalah peta lama [[Timur Tengah pada tahun 1803 dan mempunyai nilai yang besar dalam sejarah Timur Tengah.]] Perfileman Arab, sinema Arab, atau pawagam Arab (السينما العربية) merujuk kepada industri filem dunia Arab yang bergantung pada kebanyakan pengeluarannya pada perfileman Mesir. thumb|[[T. E. Lawrence|T E Lawrence dan Pemberontakan Arab 1916–1918, sebuah adegan (mungkin set set untuk perwakilan pawagam), menunjukkan sekumpulan askar, tempatan dan India, di Wejh, sebuah pelabuhan di pantai Laut Merah di utara Yenbo, 1913 (Pertama Perang Dunia, Pra-1914)]]
Gambar keseluruhan
Tiada penerangan tunggal tentang perfileman Arab kerana ia termasuk filem dari pelbagai negara dan budaya dunia Arab dan oleh itu tidak mempunyai satu bentuk, struktur, atau gaya.
Pada permulaannya, perfileman Arab kebanyakannya adalah tiruan pawagam Barat. Walau bagaimanapun, ia telah dan terus berubah dan berkembang secara berterusan, kerana setiap negara di rantau ini mempunyai ciri unik dan jenama pawagam yang boleh dikenal pasti.
Pilibanga
Pilibanga ialah sebuah bandar dan perbandaran dalam daerah Hanumangarh di negeri Rajasthan, India.
Sejarah Hong Kong
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Pilibanga
Demografik 2001
Menurut bancian India pada tahun 2001, Pilibanga memiliki bilangan penduduk seramai 33,607. Dari jumlah tersebut, kaum lelaki membentuk 53% dari jumlah keseluruhan populasi dan wanita seramai 47%.
Sekolah Kebangsaan Nibong
Sekolah Kebangsaan Nibong merupakan sebuah Sekolah Kebangsaan yang terletak di Kampung Nibong, Kuala Berang , Terengganu Darul Iman, Malaysia.
Sejarah Hong Kong
Zaman Prasejarah
Penemuan arkeologi mencadangkan aktiviti manusia di Hong Kong bermula lebih 30,000 tahun yang lalu. Alat batu orang-orang pra-sejarah pada zaman batu lama telah digali di Sai Kung dalam Wong Tei Tung. Alat-alat batu yang ditemui di Sai Kung mungkin dari alat batu yang membuat alasan. Ukiran agama di pulau-pulau terpencil dan kawasan pantai juga telah dijumpai, mungkin berhubungan dengan Che rakyat dalam Neolitik. Penemuan terbaru yang berasal dari Paleolitik mencadangkan bahawa Wong Tei Tung (黃地峒) merupakan salah satu penempatan yang paling kuno di Hong Kong.
Zaman Kemaharajaan China (221 SM – 1911)
Wilayah ini dimasukkan ke dalam China semasa Dinasti Qin (221 SM - 206 SM), dan kawasan itu tegas disatukan di bawah Nanyue (203 SM - 111 SM) Bukti arkeologi menunjukkan bahawa penduduk meningkat sejak Dinasti Han (206 SM - 220). Dalam tahun 1950-an, kubur di Lei Cheng Uk dari dinasti Han Timur (25 - 220) telah digali dan ahli arkeologi mula menyiasat kemungkinan bahawa pengeluaran garam berkembang di Hong Kong kira-kira 2000 tahun yang lalu, walaupun keterangan muktamad belum dijumpai.
Sekolah Kebangsaan Nibong
Pada 2018, Sekolah Kebangsaan Nibong memiliki jumlah keseluruhan murid seramai 52 orang. Ia mempunyai seramai 11 orang guru.Januari 2018
Sejarah Hong Kong
Zaman Kemaharajaan China (221 SM – 1911)
Semasa Dinasti Tang, wilayah Guangdong berkembang sebagai pusat perdagangan antarabangsa. Rantau''Tuen Mun "dalam apa yang kini Hong Kong [New Wilayah]] berkhidmat sebagai pelabuhan, pengkalan tentera laut, pusat pengeluaran garam dan kemudian, asas untuk eksploitasi mutiara. Pulau Lantau juga garam pusat pengeluaran, di mana penyeludup garam rusuhan berlaku terhadap kerajaan.
Pada 1276 semasa Mongol pencerobohan, Dinasti Song Selatan mahkamah berpindah ke Fujian, kemudian ke Pulau Lantau dan kemudiannya ke hari ini Kowloon City. Maharaja Huaizong-Song, maharaja terakhir Dinasti Song, telah ditabalkan di Mui Wo di Pulau Lantau pada Mei 10, 1278 pada usia 8. Acara ini memperingati oleh Sung Wong Toi di Kowloon. Selepas kekalahan di Battle Yamen pada 19 Mac, 1279, maharaja kanak-kanak yang membunuh diri dengan lemas dengan pegawai-pegawai di Gunung Ya (moden Pekan Yamen di Guangdong). Lembah Tung Chung, yang dinamakan selepas seorang wira yang memberikan hidupnya untuk maharaja, adalah dipercayai telah salah satu lokasi bagi mahkamah. Hau Wong, seorang pegawai maharaja masih disembah di Hong Kong hari ini.
Pada zaman Mongol, Hong Kong menyaksikan peningkatan penduduk pertama sebagai orang pelarian China memasuki kawasan tersebut. Sebab utama bagi mereka untuk memasuki Hong Kong adalah kerana peperangan dan kebuluran, dan beberapa kumpulan walaupun pergi ke sana untuk mencari pekerjaan. Lima suku Hau (侯), Tang (邓), Pang (彭) dan Liu (廖) dan Man (文) mata tingkat (Tempatan, 本地人) dari Wilayah Persekutuan, Fujian dan Jiangxi di China. Walaupun pembangunan imigresen dan cahaya pertanian, kawasan berbukit dan agak tandus. Orang-orang terpaksa bergantung kepada perdagangan garam, mutiara dan perikanan untuk menghasilkan pendapatan. Beberapa suku membina kampung-kampung berdinding untuk melindungi diri daripada ancaman penyamun, puak-puak saingan dan binatang buas. Lanun Cina yang terkenal Cheung Po Tsai menjadi legenda di Hong Kong.
Dinasti terakhir di China, Dinasti Qing, juga yang terakhir berhubungan dengan Hong Kong. Sebagai kota kara ketenteraan dan pelabuhan perdagangan, wilayah Hong Kong akan mendapat perhatian dunia.
Zaman Pendudukan Jepun (1940an)
Hong Kong telah diduduki oleh Jepun dari 25 Disember 1941 hingga 15 Ogos 1945. Tempoh tersebut, dipanggil '3 tahun 8 bulan 'dihentikan ekonomi. British, Kanada, India dan Hong Kong Angkatan Relawan Pertahanan menentang pencerobohan Jepun yang diperintahkan oleh Takashi Sakai yang bermula pada 8 Disember 1941, lapan jam selepas serangan ke atas Pearl Harbor. Jepun mencapai keunggulan udara pada hari pertama peperangan dan angkatan pertahanan telah mengatasi kaunter. British dan India berundur dari Gin peminum Line dan akibatnya dari Kowloon di bawah pengeboman berat udara dan tembakan yg raya meriam. Pertempuran sengit terus di Hong Kong Island; satu-satunya takungan telah hilang. Winnipeg Grenadiers Kanada berjuang di Wong Nai Chong Gap yang penting yang dapat mengawal laluan di antara pusat bandar dan bahagian selatan pulau yang terpencil.
Pada 25 Disember 1941 - yang telah turun dalam sejarah sebagai "Black Natal" kepada penduduk tempatan - pegawai kolonial British yang diketuai oleh [Gabenor [Hong Kong]], Mark Aitchison Young, menyerah kalah pada orang di ibu pejabat Jepun di tingkat tiga Peninsula Hotel. Isogai Rensuke menjadi gabenor pertama Jepun Hong Kong.
Jiwa Taiko
Jiwa Taiko merupakan sebuah filem aksi romantik Malaysia yang ditayangkan pada 14 Jun 2012 di Malaysia. Dibintangi Remy Ishak, Bront Palarae, Nadiya Nisaa dan Diana Danielle. Ini merupakan filem aksi kedua arahan Osman Ali selepas Anak Halal pada tahun 2007.
Sejarah Hong Kong
Zaman Pendudukan Jepun (1940an)
Menjelang penghujung peperangan pada tahun 1945, Hong Kong telah dibebaskan oleh tentera British dan Cina bersama. Penduduk Hong Kong telah merosot kepada 600,000; kurang daripada separuh penduduk pra-peperangan 1.6 juta disebabkan oleh kekurangan makanan dan emigrasi. revolusi komunis di China pada tahun 1949 membawa kepada peningkatan populasi lain di Hong Kong. Beribu-ribu pelarian berhijrah dari tanah besar China ke Hong Kong, dan membuat yang penting [entrepot]] sehingga Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (PBB) mengarahkan [sekatan perdagangan]] di tanah besar China disebabkan oleh Perang Korea. Lebih banyak orang-orang pelarian datang semasa Great Leap Forward.
Jiwa Taiko
Sinopsis
Filem Jiwa Taiko mengisahkan perjalanan kehidupan empat anak muda iaitu Firman (Remy Ishak), Trisya (Diana Danielle), Freez (Fizz Fairuz) dan Lara (Nadiya Nisaa) yang dipertemukan di sebuah kelab milik Kak Pora (Mislina Mustaffa).
Sejarah Hong Kong
1950an
Kemahiran dan modal yang dibawa oleh orang-orang pelarian Tanah Besar China, terutamanya dari Shanghai, bersama-sama dengan kolam besar buruh murah telah membantu memulihkan ekonomi. Pada masa yang sama, banyak syarikat-syarikat asing memindahkan pejabat mereka dari Shanghai ke Hong Kong. Menikmati pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pernah berlaku sebelum ini, Hong Kong akan mengubah dari wilayah entrepot perdagangan salah satu industri dan pembuatan. Awal pusat-pusat perindustrian, di mana kebanyakan pekerja menghabiskan sebahagian besar hari-hari mereka, ternyata apa-apa yang boleh dihasilkan dengan ruang kecil dari butang, bunga-bunga tiruan, payung, tekstil, Enamelware, kasut ke plastik.
Jiwa Taiko
Sinopsis
Masing-masing punya cerita tersendiri seperti Firman yang cuba membina kehidupan baru selepas keluar daripada penjara, manakala Trisya mahu dicintai, Freez pula hanya memikirkan kegembiraan dan Lara, jiwa bebasnya ingin terus berdikari.
Sejarah Hong Kong
1950an
Kem setinggan besar yang dibangunkan di seluruh wilayah menyediakan rumah untuk bilangan besar-besaran dan berkembang pendatang. Kem-kem, menimbulkan bahaya kebakaran dan kesihatan, yang membawa kepada bencana seperti Shek Kip Mei api. Gabenor Alexander Cermin maklum balas dengan "pelbagai bangunan tingkat" rancangan ini sebagai suatu ukuran. Ia adalah permulaan bangunan tinggi. Syarat-syarat dalam perumahan awam yang sangat asas dengan beberapa keluarga berkongsi kemudahan memasak perkauman. Aspek kehidupan yang lain akan berubah apabila tradisional Kantonis opera memberi laluan kepada panggung wayang skrin besar. industri pelancongan bermula dirasmikan. North Point dikenali sebagai ""Shanghai Kecil"''(小 上海), kerana dalam minda ramai orang, ia telah menjadi pengganti Shanghai yang diserahkan di China.
1960s
Industri pembuatan membuka satu dekad baru yang menggunakan bahagian-bahagian besar penduduk. Tempoh yang dianggap sebagai titik perubahan bagi ekonomi Hong Kong. Perniagaan pembinaan juga akan dirombak dengan terperinci garis panduan baru untuk kali pertama sejak Perang Dunia II. Manakala Hong Kong bermula dengan rendah KDNK, ia akan menggunakan industri tekstil sebagai asas untuk meningkatkan ekonomi. Revolusi budaya China meletakkan Hong Kong di atas pentas politik yang baru. Acara-acara seperti rusuhan 1967 memenuhi jalan-jalan dengan bom buatan rumah dan huru-hara. Pelupusan pakar-pakar bom daripada pihak polis dan tentera British meredakan sebanyak 8,000 bom buatan rumah. Satu dalam setiap lapan bom adalah tulen.
Jiwa Taiko
Sinopsis
Segala rasa dikongsi dengan Kak Pora yang begitu memahami naluri anak muda, malah di kelab Wira Cinta itu juga mereka mempelajari teknik persilatan dan di situlah mereka menyelami erti persahabatan serta kasih sejati.
Sejarah Hong Kong
1960s
Nilai kekeluargaan dan tradisi Cina seperti tidak pernah terdahulunya apabila orang menghabiskan lebih banyak masa di kilang-kilang daripada di rumah. Ciri-ciri lain zaman ini termasuk masalah kekurangan air, waktu kerja yang panjang ditambah pula dengan gaji yang sangat rendah. Selsema Hong Kong pada tahun 1968 menjangkiti 15% daripada penduduk. Amidst all the struggle, "Made in Hong Kong" went from a label that marked cheap low-grade products to a label that marked high-quality products.
Hong Kong di Sukan Asia 2014
Hong Kong telah menyertai Sukan Asia 2014 di Incheon, [Korea Selatan]] dari 19 September hingga 4 Oktober 2014.
Sejarah Hong Kong
1970an
1970-an menyaksikan lanjutan pendidikan kerajaan subsidi dari enam tahun hingga sembilan tahun dan persediaan sistem taman negara Hong Kong.
Pembukaan pasaran tanah besar China dan kenaikan gaji mendorong utara banyak pengeluar. Hong Kong disatukan kedudukannya sebagai pusat perdagangan dan pelancongan di rantau Asia Tenggara. Tinggi jangka hayat, celik huruf, pendapatan per kapita dan lain-lain langkah-langkah sosio-ekonomi membuktikan pencapaian Hong Kong dalam tempoh empat dekad terakhir abad ke-20. Pendapatan yang lebih tinggi juga membawa kepada pengenalan yang pertama [swasta perumahan estet]] dengan Taikoo Shing. Tempoh yang menyaksikan ledakan di kediaman meningkat tinggi, banyak rumah rakyat menjadi sebahagian daripada latar langit dan pemandangan di Hong Kong.
Pada tahun 1974, Murray McLehose mengasaskan ICAC, Suruhanjaya Bebas Menentang Rasuah, untuk memerangi rasuah dalam pasukan polis. Sejauh mana rasuah begitu meluas bahawa petisyen besar-besaran polis mengambil tempat menentang pendakwaan. Walaupun pembangkang awal untuk ICAC oleh pasukan polis, Hong Kong telah berjaya dalam usaha-usaha anti-rasuah, akhirnya menjadi salah satu daripada kurangnya masyarakat rasuah di dunia.
1980an
Pada tahun 1982, Perdana Menteri British, Margaret Thatcher, berharap bahawa itu keterbukaan yang semakin meningkat kerajaan PRC dan reformasi ekonomi di tanah besar akan membenarkan penerusan pemerintahan British. Mesyuarat yang terhasil membawa kepada menandatangani Deklarasi Bersama China-British dan cadangan Satu Negara, Dua Sistem konsep oleh Deng Xiaoping. Berita politik menguasai media, manakala hartanah mengambil hairannya pukulan ke atas utama. Kewangan dunia juga akan bingung dengan serangan panik, yang membawa kepada gelombang perubahan dasar dan Sabtu Hitam. Sementara itu, Hong Kong kini diiktiraf sebagai salah satu wakil-wakil kaya daripada di timur jauh. Pada masa yang sama, amaran pada tahun 1997 penyarahan membangkitkan statistik hijrah ke paras yang bersejarah. Ramai yang akan meninggalkan Hong Kong untuk Amerika Syarikat, Kanada, United Kingdom, Australia, dan mana-mana destinasi lain tidak dengan pengaruh komunis.
Pawagam Hong Kong menikmati satu jangka paling utama yang akan meletakkan ia di atas peta antarabangsa. Antara nama besar termasuk Jackie Chan dan Chow Yun-lemak. Dunia muzik juga menyaksikan sebuah kumpulan baru kantopop bintang seperti Anita Mui dan Leslie Cheung. Tetapi segala-galanya seolah-olah dibayangi oleh ketidakpastian masa hadapan.
1990an
Pada 4 April 1990, Undang-undang Asas Hong Kong secara rasmi diterima sebagai perlembagaan mini Hong Kong SAR selepas penyerahan. Blok pro-Beijing mengalu-alukan Undang-undang Asas, memanggil sistem undang-undang yang paling demokratik pernah wujud di RRC. Blok pro-demokrasi mengkritiknya sebagai tidak cukup demokratik. Pada bulan Julai 1992, Chris Patten telah dilantik sebagai Gabenor Hong Kong British terakhir. Patten telah menjadi Pengerusi Parti Konservatif di UK hingga dia kalah tempat duduk parlimen dalam pilihan raya umum terdahulunya pada tahun itu. Hubungan dengan kerajaan PRC di Beijing menjadi semakin tegang, apabila Patten telah memperkenalkan pembaharuan demokrasi yang telah meningkatkan bilangan ahli-ahli yang dipilih dalam Dewan Perundangan. Ini menyebabkan kegusaran yang besar ke RRC, yang menyaksikan ini sebagai pelanggaran Undang-Undang Asas. Pada 1 Julai 1997 di Hong Kong telah diserahkan kepada Republik Rakyat China oleh United Kingdom. Majlis Undangan lama, yang dipilih di bawah pembaharuan Chris Patten, telah digantikan oleh Majlis Sementara Undangan yang dipilih oleh jawatankuasa pemilihan yang ahli-ahli yang dilantik oleh kerajaan RRC. Tung Chee Hwa, yang dipilih pada bulan Disember oleh jawatankuasa pemilihan dengan ahli-ahli yang dilantik oleh kerajaan PRC, mengambil alih tugas sebagai Ketua Eksekutif Hong Kong pertama.
2000-an
Alaf baru menandakan satu siri peristiwa-peristiwa. Sebahagian besar penduduk yang sebelum ini menentang penyerahan mendapati dirinya hidup dengan pelarasan. Perkara 23 menjadi kontroversi, dan membawa kepada perarakan di bahagian yang berlainan di Hong Kong dengan seramai 750,000 orang daripada jumlah penduduk kira-kira 6,800,000 pada bila-bila masa. Kerajaan juga diuruskan dengan wabak SARS pada tahun 2003. Krisis kesihatan selanjutnya, Pandemik Selsema Burung (H5N1) mendapat momentum dari lewat tahun 90an, dan membawa kepada pelupusan berjuta-juta ayam dan ternakan lain. Penyembelihan meletakkan Hong Kong di pusat perhatian global. Pada masa yang sama, ekonomi cuba untuk menyesuaikan fiskal. Dalam masa yang singkat, iklim politik yang dipanaskan dan jawatan Ketua Eksekutif akan dicabar budaya, politik dan pengurusan. Disneyland Hong Kong juga telah dilancarkan dalam tempoh ini.