cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Ku Klux Klan
Kemerosotan dan penumpasan
Although the Klan was being used more and more often as a mask for nonpolitical crimes, state and local governments seldom acted against it. In lynching cases, whites were almost never indicted by all-white coroner's juries, and even when there was an indictment, all-white trial juries were extremely unlikely to vote for conviction. In many states, there were fears that the use of black militiamen would ignite a race war. When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, the result was a backlash that lost him the upcoming election.
Meanwhile, many Democrats at the national level were questioning whether the Klan even existed, or was a creation of nervous Republican governors in the South. In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican senator John Scott convened a committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. Many Southern states had already passed anti-Klan legislation, and in February former Union general Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts (who was widely reviled by Southern whites) introduced federal legislation modeled on it. The tide was turned in favor of the bill by the governor of South Carolina's appeal for federal troops, and by reports of a riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi courthouse, which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.
In 1871 President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation, the Ku Klux Klan Act, which was used along with the 1870 Force Act to enforce the civil rights provisions of the constitution. Under the Klan Act, federal troops were used rather than state militias, and Klansmen were prosecuted in federal court, where juries were often predominantly black. Hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned, and habeas corpus was suspended in nine counties in South Carolina. These efforts were so successful that the Klan was destroyed in South Carolina and decimated throughout the rest of the country, where it had already been in decline for several years. Prosecutions were led by Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman. The tapering off of the federal government's actions under the Klan Act, ca. 1871–74, went along with the final extinction of the Klan, although in some areas similar activities, including intimidation and murder of black voters, continued under the auspices of local organizations such the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs. Even though the Klan no longer existed, it had achieved many of its goals, such as denying voting rights to Southern blacks.
In 1882, long after the end of the first Klan, the Supreme Court ruled in United States vs. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional, saying that Congress's power under the fourteenth amendment did not extend to private conspiracies. However, the Force Act and the Klan Act have been invoked in later civil rights conflicts, including the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner ; the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo; and Bray vs. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic, 1991, which became an issue in the 2005 debate on the confirmation of John G. Roberts, Jr.'s nomination to the Supreme Court.
Penubuhan
The founding of the second Ku Klux Klan in 1915 demonstrated the newfound power of modern mass media. The year saw three closely related events:
The Birth of a Nation includes extensive quotations from Woodrow Wilson's History of the American People, e.g., "The white men were roused by a mere instinct of self-preservation ... until at last there had sprung into existence a great Ku Klux Klan, a veritable empire of the South, to protect the Southern country." Wilson, on seeing the film in a special White House screening on February 18, 1915, exclaimed, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Wilson's family had sympathized with the Confederacy during the Civil War, and cared for wounded Confederate soldiers at a church. When he was a young man, his party had vigorously opposed Reconstruction, and as president he resegregated the federal government for the first time since Reconstruction. Given the film's strong Democratic partisan message and Wilson's documented views on race and the Klan, it is not unreasonable to interpret the statement as supporting the Klan, and the word "regret" as referring to the film's depiction of Radical Republican Reconstruction. Later correspondence with the film's director, D.W. Griffith, confirms Wilson's enthusiasm about the film. Wilson's remarks were widely reported and immediately became controversial. Wilson tried to remain aloof from the controversy, but finally, on April 30, he issued a non-denial denial. His endorsement of the film greatly enhanced its popularity and influence, and helped Griffith to defend it against legal attack by the NAACP; the film, in turn, was a major factor leading to the creation of the second Klan in the same year.
In the same year, an important event in the coalescence of the second Klan was the lynching of Leo Frank, a Jewish factory manager. In sensationalistic newspaper accounts, Frank was accused of fantastic sexual crimes and of the murder of a Mary Phagan, a girl employed at his factory. He was convicted of murder after a questionable trial in Georgia (the judge asked that Frank and his counsel not be present when the verdict was announced due to the violent mob of people surrounding the court house). His appeals failed (Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes dissented, condemning the intimidation of the jury as failing to provide due process of law). The governor then commuted his sentence to life imprisonment, but a mob calling itself the Knights of Mary Phagan kidnapped Frank from the prison farm and lynched him. Ironically, much of the evidence in the murder actually pointed to the factory's black janitor, Jim Conley, who the prosecution claimed only helped Frank to dispose of the body.
For many southerners who believed Frank to be guilty, there was a strong resonance between the Frank trial and The Birth of a Nation, because they saw an analogy between Mary Phagan and the film's character Flora, a young virgin who throws herself off a cliff to avoid being raped by the black character Gus, described as "a renegade, a product of the vicious doctrines spread by the carpetbaggers."
The Frank trial was used skillfully by Georgia politician and publisher Thomas E. Watson, the editor for The Jeffersonian magazine at the time and later a leader in the reorganization of the Klan who was later elected to the U.S. Senate. The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 at a meeting led by William J. Simmons on top of Stone Mountain, and attended by aging members of the original Klan, along with members of the Knights of Mary Phagan.
Keahlian
Historians in recent years have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were unanimously hostile and often ridiculed the Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana shows the stereotype was false: Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominately as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.
The Klan was successful in recruiting throughout the country and in Canada, but the membership turned over rapidly. Since the Klan was a secret society, it is difficult to determine accurate membership numbers.
This Klan was operated as a profit-making venture by its leaders, and participated in the boom in fraternal organizations at the time. Organizers signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and bought KKK costumes. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses and perhaps a ceremonial presentation of a Bible to a local Protestant minister. He left town with all the money. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations, occasionally bringing in speakers. The state and national officials had little or no control over the locals and rarely or never attempted to forge them into political activist groups.
Kegiatan
In keeping with its origins in the Leo Frank lynching, the reorganized Klan had a new anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, and anti-immigrant slant. This was consistent with the new Klan's greater success at recruiting in the U.S. Midwest than in the South. As in the Nazi party's propaganda in Germany, recruiters made effective use of the idea that prospective members' problems were caused by Blacks or by Jewish bankers, or by other such groups.
It differed from the first Klan. The first Klan was Democratic and Southern, but this Klan, while it still boasted members from the Democratic Party, was to a greater degree Republican and was influential throughout the United States, with major political influence on politicians in several states.
In the 1920s and 1930s a faction of the Klan called the Black Legion was very active in the Midwestern U.S. Rather than wearing white robes, the Legion wore black uniforms reminiscent of pirates. The Black Legion was the most violent and zealous faction of the Klan, and were notable for targeting and assassinating communists and socialists.
Pengaruh politik
The second Ku Klux Klan rose to great prominence and spread from the South into the Midwest region and Northern states and even into Canada. At its peak, Klan membership exceeded 4 million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, as high as 40% in some areas. Most of the membership resided in Midwestern states.
Klan delegates played a significant role at the pathsetting 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City, often called the "Klanbake Convention" as a result. The convention initially pitted Klan-backed candidate William McAdoo against New York Governor Al Smith, who drew the opposition of the group because of his Catholic faith. After days of stalemates and rioting, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise. Klan delegates defeated a Democratic Party platform plank that would have condemned their organization. On July 4, 1924, thousands of Klansmen converged on a nearby field in New Jersey where they participated in cross burnings, burned effigies of Smith, and celebrated their defeat of the platform plank.
There is also evidence that in certain states, such as Alabama, the KKK was not a mere hate group and showed a genuine desire for political and social reform. Because of the elite conservative political structure in Alabama, the state's Klansmen were among the foremost advocates of better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other "progressive" political measures. In many ways these progressive political goals, which benefited ordinary and lower class white people in the state, were the result of the Klan offering these same people their first chance to install their own political champions into office.
By 1925 the Klan was a powerful political force in the state, as powerful figures like J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK membership against the power of the "Big Mule" industrialists and Black Belt planters who had long dominated the state. Black was elected Senator in 1926 and became a leading supporter of the New Deal. Appointed to the Supreme Court in 1937, revelation that he was a former Klansman shocked the country but he stayed on the Court. In 1926 Bibb Graves, a former chapter head, won the governor's office with KKK members' support. He led one of the most progressive administrations in the state's history, pushing for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation.
However, as a result of these political victories, KKK vigilantes, thinking they enjoyed governmental protection, launched a wave of physical terror across Alabama in 1927, targeting both blacks and whites. The Klan not only targeted people for violating racial norms but also for perceived moral lapses. In Birmingham, the Klan raided local brothels and roadhouses. In Troy, Alabama, the Klan reported to parents the names of teenagers they caught making out in cars. One local Klan group even "kidnapped a white divorcee and stripped her to her waist, tied her to a tree, and whipped her savagely." The conservative elite counterattacked. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser, began a series of editorials and articles attacking the Klan for their "racial and religious intolerance." Hall ended up winning a Pulitzer Prize for his crusade. Other newspapers also kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan as violent and un-American. Sheriffs cracked down on Klan violence. The counterattack worked; the state voted for Catholic Al Smith for president in 1928, and the Klan's official membership in Alabama plunged to under six thousand by 1930.
At the peak of the Klan's political power, a number of highly notable political figures in the U.S. and Canada joined the Klan or flirted with membership. The list includes two Supreme Court justices and, according to evidence which is in some cases contested, possibly two presidents.
Kemerosotan
The second Klan collapsed partly as a result of the backlash to their actions and partly as a result of a scandal involving Republican David Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of Indiana and fourteen other states, who was convicted of the rape and murder of Madge Oberholtzer in a sensational trial (she was bitten so many times that one man who saw her described her condition as having been "chewed by a cannibal"). According to historian Leonard Moore, at the heart of the backlash to the Klan's actions and the resulting scandals was a leadership failure which caused the organization's collapse:
Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were disinterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.
As a result of these scandals, the Klan fell out of public favor in the 1930s and withdrew from political activity. Grand Wizard Hiram Evans sold the organization in 1939 to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician, but they were unable to staunch the exodus of members. The Klan's image was further damaged by Colescott's association with Nazi-sympathizer organizations, the Klan's involvement with the 1943 Detroit Race Riot, and efforts to disrupt the American war effort during World War II. In 1944 the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott was forced to dissolve the organization in 1944. The name Ku Klux Klan then began to be used by a number of independent groups. The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time. (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)
Pertubuhan-pertubuhan Ku Klux Klan yang kemudian
While people had always fought back against the Klan, after World War II the Klan's foes began to gain an upper hand.
Folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan after World War II and provided information on the Klan to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided Klan information, including secret code words, to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in a series of four episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy intended to strip away the Klan's mystique and the trivialization of the Klan's rituals and code words likely did have a negative impact on Klan recruiting and membership. Kennedy eventually wrote a book based on his experiences, which became a bestseller during the 1950s and further damaged the Klan. In a 1958 North Carolina incident, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and then held a nighttime rally nearby, only to find themselves surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed.
A new focus of the postwar Klan was to resist the civil rights movement of the 1960s. In 1963, two Klan members carried out the bombing of a church in Alabama that had been used as a meeting place for civil rights organizers. Four young girls were killed, and outrage over the bombing helped to build momentum for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Klan used threats, intimidation, and murder to disrupt voter registration drives in the South, and to prevent registered black voters from voting. The Klan was involved in the 1964 murders of civil rights workers Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner in Mississippi, and also murdered Viola Liuzzo, a Southern-raised white mother of five who was visiting the South from her home in Detroit to attend a civil rights march.
In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt the Klan. COINTELPRO occupied a curiously ambiguous position in the civil rights movement, since it used its tactics of infiltration, disinformation, and violence against violent far-left and far-right groups such as the Klan and the Weathermen, but simultaneously against peaceful organizations such as Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference. This ambivalence was shown dramatically in the case of the murder of Liuzzo, who was shot on the road by four Klansmen in a car, of whom one was an FBI informant. After she was murdered, the FBI spread false rumors that she was a communist, and that she had abandoned her children in order to have sex with black civil rights workers. Regardless of the FBI's ambivalence, Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the Klan in 1979, reported that COINTELPRO's efforts had been highly successful in disrupting the Klan. Rival Klan factions both accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants, and one leader, Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was in fact later revealed to have been working for the FBI.
Once the century-long struggle over black voting rights in the South had ended, the Klans shifted their focus to other issues, including affirmative action, immigration, and especially busing ordered by the courts in order to desegregate schools. In 1971, Klansmen used bombs to destroy ten school buses in Pontiac, Michigan, and charismatic Klansman David Duke was active in South Boston during the school busing crisis of 1974. Duke also made efforts to update its image, urging Klansmen to "get out of the cow pasture and into hotel meeting rooms." Duke was leader of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan from 1974 until he resigned from the Klan in 1978. In 1980, he formed the National Association for the Advancement of White People, a white nationalist political organization. He was elected to the Louisiana State House of Representatives in 1989 as a Republican, even though the party threw its support to a different Republican candidate.
In this period, resistance to the Klan became more common. Thompson reported that in his brief membership in the Klan, his truck was shot at, he was yelled at by black children, and a Klan rally that he attended turned into a riot when black soldiers on an adjacent military base taunted the Klansmen. Attempts by the Klan to march were often met with counterprotests, and violence sometimes ensued.
Klan activity has also been diverted into other racist groups and movements, such as Christian Identity, neo-Nazi groups, and racist subgroups of the skinheads.
Kesatria Ku Klux Klan
"Knights of the Ku Klux Klan" has been part of the title of at least ten organizations patterned on the original KKK. The most prominent of these was the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Inc., which was founded in November 1915 by William J. Simmons and disbanded in 1944 by James Colescott. At its peak this fraternal organisation had around three to five million members.
In 2005 the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (Knights Party) is headed by National Director Pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas. It is the biggest Klan organization in America today. It refers to itself as the "sixth era Klan" and continues to be a racist group.
Robb's group in the past produced such Klan stars as David Duke, but it is now continuing a long, slow decline. In 1991 Thom Robb said that he foresaw imminent respectability for the Klan: "You take Exxon. They had an identity thing to overcome after that oil spill. Well, the Klan has an image problem to overcome, also."
Ku Klux Klan pada hari ini
Today the only known former member of the Klan to hold a Federal office in the United States is Democratic Senator Robert Byrd, who says he "deeply regrets" joining the Klan over half a century ago, when he was about 24 years old. Byrd is currently serving his eighth six-year term in the Senate, which ends on January 3, 2007.
Some of the larger KKK organizations currently in operation include: There is a vast number of smaller organizations.
As of 2005, there were an estimated 3,000 Klan members, divided among 158 chapters of a variety of splinter organizations, about two-thirds of which were in former Confederate states. The other third are primarily in the Midwest region.
In a July 2005 incident, a Hispanic man's house was burned down in Hamilton, Ohio, after accusations that he sexually assaulted a nine-year-old white girl. Klan members in Klan robes showed up afterward to distribute pamphlets. In May 2006, a Ku Klux Klan group led an anti-immigration march in Russellville, Alabama.
Perbendaharaan kata Ku Klux Klan
Membership in the Klan is secret, and the Klan, like many fraternal organizations, has signs members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.
Duku
Duku boleh membawa bebeapa erti, antaranya adalah:-
Ku Klux Klan
Perbendaharaan kata Ku Klux Klan
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words beginning with "KL" including:
Kuygun tretiy
Kuygun tretiy merupakan sebuah kampung yang terletak di kawasan Wilayah Atyrau di barat Kazakhstan.
Bahasa-bahasa Niger-Congo
Bahasa Niger-Congo merupakan salah satu Keluarga-keluarga bahasa yang terbesar di dunia dan merupakan terbesar dari segi geografi, terbanyak dari segi jumlah penutur, dan jumlah bahasa yang berbeza di Afrika. Mereka mungkin merupakan rumpun bahasa yang terbesar di dunia dalam hal bahasa yang khas, walaupun soalan ini diperumit oleh kekaburan tentang apa yang merupakan bahasa yang berbeza. Sebahagian besar bahasa pribumi yang paling banyak dituturkan di Subsaharan Afrika merupakan ahli keluarga kumpulan ini. Bahasa Niger-Congo yang paling banyak digunakan oleh penutur asli adalah Yoruba, Igbo, Fula dan Shona. Yang paling banyak digunakan penutur ialah Swahili.
Pokok Ara Akar
Pokok Ara Akar atau nama sainsnya Ficus binnendykii tergolong dalam keluarga pokok Ara, dan merupakan pokok asal di Asia tenggara dan selatan sehingga utara Australia. Buahnya merupakan sumber makanan burung. Ia ada dicatat dalam kamus bahasa Melayu / Inggeris R. J. Wilkinson (1903).
Penanaman
Di kawasan tropika, pokok Ara Akar terseragam besar dan indah bagi taman dan keadaan lain seperti tepi jalan. Ia sering ditanam bagi tujuan ini. Pokok Ara Akar popular sebagai pokok dalam rumah Di kawasan serdahana, disebabkan ketahanannya kepada keadaan kurang elok; ia terbaik di bawah pancaran matahari terik, tetapi tahan di tempat teduh. Ia perlu disiram jumlah serdahana pada musim panas, dan hanya perlu dielakkan daripada kering semasa musim sejuk. Ia sensitif kepada sejuk dan perlu dilindungi daripada angin sejuk yang kuat. Apabila ditanam dalam rumah, ia mampu tumbuh besar dan perlu dicantas atau dipindahkan.
Daunnya sensitif kepada pertukaran cahaya. Apabila dialih, ia mungkin menggugurkan daunnya dan diganti dengan daun baru apabila menyesuaikan diri dengan cahaya.
Ancaman Akar
Perkhidmatan Perhutanan Amerika Syarikat dalam Helaian Fakta ST-251 menyatakan mengenai pokok Ara "Akarnya tumbuh dengan pantas menguasai taman, menyelit di bawah dan mengangkat pejalan kaki, lambo, dan laluan kereta." Mereka memutuskan bahawa dalam bentuk pokok, ia terlalu besar bagi tanaman kediaman, dengan itu dalam kawasan tersebut spesies ini hanya digunakan sebagai pagar atau halangan pandangan yang perlu dicantas..
Drambon
Drambon ialah komun di jabatan Côte-d'Or di timur Perancis.
Châtenay, Ain
thumb|Dewan bandar Châtenay.
Châtenay ialah komun di jabatan Ain dan di kawasan Rhône-Alpes di timur Perancis.
Presles, Val-d'Oise
Presles ialah komun di jabatan Val-d'Oise di Île-de-France, utara Perancis.
Misaeng: Incomplete Life
Misaeng: Incomplete Life ialah sebuah drama Korea Selatan tahun 2014 berdasarkan webtoon dengan tajuk yang sama oleh Yoon Tae-ho. Drama ini disiarkan menerusi saluran tvN bermula 17 Oktober sehingga 20 Disember 2014 pada hari Jumaat fan Sabtu pukul 8:30 malam sebanyak 20 episod.
Kzyloba
Kzyloba merupakan sebuah kampung yang terletak di kawasan Wilayah Atyrau di barat Kazakhstan.
BMP-1
BMP-1 adalah kenderaan afimbia Soviet Kenderaan tempur infantri bertrek. BMP bererti Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty (Боевая Машина Пехоты), bererti "kenderaan tempur infantri") . The BMP-1 was the world's first mass-produced infantry fighting vehicle (IFV). Ia dikenali sebagai M-1967, BMP dan BMP-76PB oleh NATO selebum nama sebenarnya diketahui.
Ia merupakan reka bentuk revolusi yang menggabungkan ciri-ciri pengangkut tentera berperisai ("armored personnel carrier - APC") dan kereta kebal ringan. Pemimpin tentera Soviet melihat pertempuran masa hadapan dilakukan dengan senjata nuklear, kimia dan biologi, di mana ifantri yang terdedah akan terbunuh atau lumpuh oleh agen radiasi, atau kimia, atau boilogi. Kenderaan seperti BMP akan membenarkan infatri untuk beroperasi dengan selamat dalam berperisai dari radiasi dalam kawasan tercemar dan berjuang seiring di kawasan tidak tercemar. Ia akan meningkatkan pergerakan kumpulan infantri, memberikan tembakan sokongan bagi mereka, dan juga berjuang di sisi mereka kereta kebal utama.
BMP-1 pertama kali diuji dalam pertempuran pada tahun Perang Yom Kippur 1973 di mana ia digunakan oleh pasukan Mesir dan Syria. Berdasarkan pelajaran yang dipelajari dari pertikaian ini dan pengalaman awal dalam Perperangan Soviet di Afghanistan, versi dengan peningkatan kualiti tempur, BMP-2 dibangunkan. Ia diterima dalam perkhidmatan pada Ogos 1980.
Pada tahun 1987, BMP-3, kenderaan direka semula dengan radikal bersama sistem senjata baru, mula berkhidmat dengan Tentera Soviet.
Pembangunan
Taktik infantri bermotor/mekanikal pada tempoh 1950-an adalah sama dengan kaedah Perang Dunia Kedua di mana APC digunakan sebagai "teksi tempur "; digunakan bagi mengangkut tentera pejalan kaki ke medan tempur di mana mereka turun dan bertempur ketika APC memberikan tembakan pemendam dari persenjataan yang dibawanya.
APC yang digunakan pada masa itu hanya memberikan sedikit atau tiada perlindungan dari kesan senjata nuclear atau kimia kerana ia terbuka di bahagian atas atau tidak boleh ditutup cukup kedap. Tambahan lagi, tentera terpaksa turun untuk menggunakan senjata mereka.
Keperluan bagi BMP mula dilakar pada akhir 1950-an. Keperluan tersebut memberi penekanan pada kepantasan, persenjataan yang baik, dan keupayaan bagi kesemua ahli skuad bagi menembak dari dalam kenderaan. Persenjataan perlu memberikan sokongan langsong bagi tentera yang turun untuk menyerang dan mampu memusnahkan kenderaan berperisai ringan setanding dengannya. Kenderaan tersebut perlu mampu melindungi anggotanya dari tembakan mesingan.50 kaliber dan kaliber 20–23 mm meriam autu diseluruh lenkongan hadapan dan juga dari serpihan peluru meriam ringan dari jarak antara 500 m dan 800 m.
Kuasa tembak terdiri daripada gabungan inovatif meriam 73 mm 2A28 Grom dan pelancar peluru berpandu anti-kereta kebal (“anti tank wire guided missile - ATGM”) yang baru dibangunkan 9S428 bagi 9M14 Malyutka (AT-3A Sagger A) ATGMs. Meriam itu bertujuan bertempur dengan kenderaan perisai musuh dan titik tembakan sehingga jarak 700 m, sementara pelancar peluru berpandu bertujuan bagi digunakan terhadap sasaran yang sejauh 500 m hingga 3000 m.
Keperluan dikeluarkan kepada biro rekabentuk berlainan antara 1959 dan 1960. Terdapat persoalan samaada BMP perlu bertrek atau beroda, dengan itu sejumlah tatarajah ujian dicuba termasuk rekabentuk kacukan beroda/bertrek.
Ob'yekt 764 betrek dipilih kerana rekabentuk enjin di hadapan memberikan cara mudah dan pantas bagi keluar, masuk memalui dua pintu belakang. Prototaip keluaran asal, yang dibina pada tahun 1965, dinamakan BMP. Small scale production began in 1966.
Model
Sejumlah besar variasi BMP-1 telah dihasilkan. Yang paling terkenal adalah variasi IFV berasaskan BMP-1 adalah: BMP-2, MLI-84 dan Boragh.
Casa Cuba
Casa Cuba merupakan sebuah galeri mengenai negara Cuba dan terletak di Bukit Peringgit, Melaka, Malaysia. Galeri ini telah dibina pada Jun 2007 di sebuah kediaman bekas pegawai kanan kerajaan Inggeris. Satu inisiatif Kedutaan Besar Cuba di Melaka, galeri ini mempamerkan pelbagai bentuk seni oleh seniman Cuba, seperti lukisan, litograf dan seramik.
BMP-1
Sejarah pengeluaran
BMP-1 di bawah lessen oleh Czechoslovakia, Poland,, Romania (MLI-84) dan India. Sejak 1986 People's Republic of China telah menghasilkan salinan tidak berlesennya sendiri dikenali Jenis 86 (“Type 86”) (WZ 501). Jumlah Jenis 86 IFV dan kenderaan berasaskannya sekitar 3,000 Ia masih dalam perkhidmatan dengan People's Liberation Army. Sejak 1997, Iran menghasilkan BMP-1 yang diubahsuai sendiri, Boragh, ia menyerupai versi WZ 503 China.
274 Polish BWP-1s were built by the Wojskowe Zakłady Motoryzacyjne Nr. 5 (WZM Nr. 5) (Military Motorization Plant No. 5) in Poznań until 1988 (1406 were bought from the Soviet Union). It still produces spare parts for the BWP-1 and UTD-20 diesel engines. Its design bureau has developed a modernization package for the BWP-1. It built several prototypes of different turrets including unmanned ones. There was also one prototype with the original turret.
Permodenan
Pada pertengahan 1970-an, selepas menganalisa kegunaan AFV ringan ketika Perperangan Yom Kippur, Perperangan Saudara Angolan dan perperangan Vietnam, program pemodenan bermula yang menghasilkan BMP-1P (Ob'yekt 765Sp4). Perubahan utama adalan penukaran pelancar 9S428 ATGM dan 9M14M Malyutka ATGM yang kurang berkesan dengan pelancar 9P135M atau 9P135M-1 ATGM yang lebih boleh diharap, jarak lebih jauh dan lebih berkuasa. Ia terletak pada tenggekan pin khas pada bumbung turet, yang mampu menembak SACLOS 9M113 berpandu dan 9M113M Konkurs-M ATGMs, yang meningkatkan perobekan perisai kepada 670 mm dan memiliki jarak tambahan 4000 m. Pelancar 9P135M-1 turut mampu menembak 9M111 and 9M111-2 Fagot ATGMs. Pintu pengisi Malyutka biasanya dipetri tutup dan braket tenggekan dibuang. Peluru berpandu baru agak sukar digunakan kerana jurutembak perlu berdiri pada pintu terbukanya bagi menggunakan senjata, mendedahkan dirinya kepada tembakan musuh. Ia adalah mungkin bagi menanggalkan pelancar 9P135M(1) ATGM dari turet dan menggunakannya atas tanah. BMP-1P dilengkapi dengan penutup perlindungan senjata neutron dan sistem peredam kebakaran baru sebagai perlindungan terhadap napalm. BMP-1P berikutnya dilengkapi dengan jujukan enam pelancar bom tangan asap 902V "Tucha" 81 mm kaliber di belakang turet. Sesetengah BMP-1 turut dilengkapi dengan bajak periuk api seluas trek KMT-10. BMP-1P menggantikan BMP-1 dalam pengeluaran pada tahun 1979 dan banyak BMP-1 telah dipertingkatkan kepada piwaian baru semasa 1980-an.
Model BMP-1PG menambah pelancar bom tangan automatik 30 mm AGS-17 "Plamya" disebelah kiri turet, dengan 290 bom tangan. Sesetengah BMP-1 memiliki tambahan AGS-17 semasa pembaikian utama (Ob'yekt 765Sp8).
BMP-1D bukan afimbia (dikenali sebagai 'variasi Afghan'), dibina pada tahun 1982 bagi unit penyerbu di Afghanistan. Ia memiliki kepingan perisai keluli gelek ("appliqué ") setebal 5 mm pada sisinya dengan liang tembakan dan juga kepingan perisai di bawah kerusi komander dan pemandu sebagai perlindungan tambahan bagi periuk api. Ia turut memiliki skirt perisai keluli besar dipasang di sisi badan melindungi sistem gantungan. Liang tembakan ditambah pada bahagian atas ruang tentera dan kotak simpanan turut dipasang pada bumbung sesetengah kenderaan. Pelancar 9S428 ATGM juga sering dialih dan diganti dengan pelancar bom tangan automatik AGS-17.
Berdasarkan pengalaman tempur di Afghanistan, BMP-2 versi baru dengan keupayaan tempur yang dipertingkatkan telah diperkenalkan pada tahun 1980. Ia memiliki turet dua orang dilengkapi dengan senjata meriam automatik 30 mm 2A42 pelbagai guna dan pelancar 9P135M-1 ATGM berupaya melancarkan peluru berpandu SACLOS 9M113 Konkurs dan 9M113M Konkurs-M dan juga 9M111 dan 9M111-2 Fagot ATGMs.
Rancangan pemodenan berikut termasuk memasang turet BMD-2 IFV pada BMP-1 tetapi ia tidak pernah melepasi tahap reka bentuk. Cadangan baru bagi memodenkan BMP-1 termasuk memasang turet baru dilengkapi senjata meriam automatik 25 to 30 mm, atau stesyen senjata seorang TKB-799 Kliver dengan sistem kawalan komputer, dilengkapi dengan pod peluru berpandu (yang boleh dilengkapi dengan samaada empat 9M133 Kornet (AT-14 Spriggan) atau 9M133F Kornet ATGMs atau 9K38 Igla (SA-18 Grouse) SAMs), meriam automatik dua tujuan 30 mm 2A72 dan mesingan koaxial 7.62 mm PKTM (BMP-1M).
Gambaran
BMP-1 merupakan kenderaan bertrek afimbia sepenuhnya, dengan rangka enjin hadapan dibangunkan khusus untuk itu, badan keluli dipetri dengan hadapan cerun tajam dengan permukaan jelas bersegi, turret kon pendek, rata, terletak di tengah dan ruang tentera di bahagian belakang.
Stesen pemandu
thumb|kanan|Dua orang Tentera Bulgari mengendali stesen pemandu dan juru tembak ketika Tentera US menduduki kedudukan komander bagi BMP-1 IFV Bulgaria.
Pemandu duduk di hadapan sebelah kanan badan. Dia memiliki tiga periskop TNPO-170 blok penglihatan bagi memberikan penglihatan ketika memandu dalam keadaan tertutup. Blok tenag penglihatan pemandu boleh digantikan dengan peranti teropong pandang malam aktif TVNO-2 bagi kegunaan waktu malam dan keadaan kabur atau bersama periskop lanjutan TNPO-350B apabila berenang dengan pelindung ditegakkan. BMP merupakan kenderaan berperisai Soviet pertama yang menggunakan sistem stering yoke mudah.
Stesen komander
Stesen komander terletak di belakang stesen pemandu dan dilengkapi dengan lampu sorot infra boleh alih OU-3GA2 atau OU-3GK dengan jarak berkesan sekitar 400 m. Dwi mod (siang/malam) TKN-3B 5x/4.2x peranti penglihatan berkembar pembesar dipasangkan dengan lampu sorot infra. Dua periskop penglihatan turut dilengkapi dengan sistem pemanas dan pencuci. Stesen komander dilengkapi dengan set radio R-123M.
Turet
thumb|kiri|Stesyen jututembak pada turet latihan BMP-1 di Muzium Kereta Kebal Parola, Finland, 14 Julai 2006. Lihat penyimpanan peluru.
BMP-1 memiliki turet berbentuk kon dilengkapi dengan sistem penyingkir asap dan pacuan putaran eletrik dangan sistem sokongan manual. Meriam utama memiliki zon mati di atas pintu komander (antara kedudukan jam 10:00 dan 11:00), di mana meriam perlu diangkat bagi melepasi lampu carian infra merah bagi mengelak belanggar dengannya. Ketika meriam mengadap kebelakang ia menghalang pintu ruang tentera dari dibuka. Ketinggian turet yang rendah menjadikan laras meriam kurang dari enam kaki dari tanah, oleh itu ia tidak boleh ditembak di atas kepala tentera yang mara di hadapannya. Sebaliknya, profil rendah turet menyukarkan ia menjadi sasaran. Turet yang sama digunakan pada BMD-1.
Stesen jurutembak
Stetsyen jurutembak terletak di sebelah kiri meriam utama. Jurutembak memiliki empat hari kegunaan penglihatan periskop monokular penajam imej 6x/6.7x pembesaran dwimod (siang/malam) 1PN22M1, blok penglihatan periskop, pencari jarak optik dan kampu sorot putih atau infra boleh alih OU-3GK. Penglihatan 1PN22M1 memiliki jarak maksima 400 m pada malam hari, 900 m dengan kegunaan lampu sorot infra merah. Pembidik ditanda "stadiametrik" dengan gambaran saiz kereta kebal setinggi 2.7 m pada jarak berbeza.
Pembidik asal digantikan dengan 1PN22M2, yang memiliki skala tambahan bagi peluru OG-15V HE-Frag yang digunakan oleh Ob'yekt 765Sp3, dihasilkan sejak Julai 1974. Pembidik baru memiliki dua skala siang bagi dua projektil - satu dari 200 to 1600 m dan satu untuk 400 to 1300 m.
Persenjataan
thumb|kiri|Perincian turet BMP-1 di Pengkalan Udara Bolling, 1 Oktober 1986
Meriam laras licin 2A28 'Grom menambak projektil PG-15V sama seperti meriam tanpa anjal ringan SPG-9 infantri tetapi dengan caj penujah lebih kecil. Kepala peledak PG15V HEAT mampu menembusi 280 to 350 mm perisai keluli - lebih dari mencukupi bagi menembusi perisai hadapan MBT NATO tahun 1970-an, terutama M60A1 US, Chieftain British atau Leopard 1 Jerman. Peluru PG-9 dimodenkan mampu menembusi sehingga 400 mm perisai keluli. Meriam ini tidak mampu menembusi perisai hadapan MBT NATO moden seperti M1A1 Abrams US, Challenger 2 British, atau Leopard 2 Jerman, tetapi ia didakwa mampu menembusi perisai sisi kereta kebal tersebut di sesetengah tempat. Dalam keadaan medan pertempuran ia memiliki jarak maksima 500 m.
Mesingan koaxial 7.62 mm PKT dipasang disebelah kanan persenjataan utama bagi mana BMP-1 membawa 2,000 biji peluru.
Meriam 2A28 'Grom' dan mesingan koaxial PKT tidak boleh ditembak dengan tepat ketika kenderaan bergerak dipermukaan kasar kerana turet tidak distabilkan.
Di pasang pada penutup pangkal meriam ("mantlet"), pelancar 9S428 ATGM mampu melancarkan 9M14 Malyutka, (NATO: AT-3A Sagger A); 9M14M Malyutka-M (NATO: AT-3B Sagger B) dan 9M14P Malyutka-P (NATO: AT-3C Sagger C), kesemuanya bertujuan untuk digunakan bagi menentang kereta kebal utama musuh ("MBT") dan kenderaan tempur berperisai )"AFV") lain pada jarak dari 500 to 3000 m. ATGM ini mampu menembusi sehingga 560 mm perisai keluli (piwaian NATO pada masa itu).
BMP-1 membawa 5 ATGM (satu pada rel pelancar, dua dalam turet, dan dua dalam kenderaan). Setiap 9M14M seberat 10.9 kg, 9M14P dengan kawalan separa automatik adalah 11.4 kg. Peluru berpandu ini hanya boleh digunakan pada waktu siang kerana ia kekurangan sistem pandang malam. Selain kelebihan kekebalan dari gangguan dan peralatan kawalan mudah, ATGM kendalian wayar dibebani oleh kelemahan seperti: perbandingan kelajuan penerbangan agak perlahan, lewat tindak balas, tidak upaya mengisi semula peluru berpandu sehinggalah yang sebelumnya telah mengenai sasaran dan jarak minima yang jauh (500 m). Kejaraan mengunakan ATGM ketika kenderaan sedang bergerak memerlukan jurutembak yang amat mahir.
BMP-1 yang tidak dimodenkan kepada piwaian BMP-1P yang kini dalam perkhidmatan dengan Russia kini boleh menggunakan 9M14-2 Malyutka-2 (NATO: AT-3D Sagger D) ATGMs (dibangunkan pada 1995), yang samaada memiliki dwi peledak-bentuk ("tandem shaped-charge") atau kepala peledak thermobarik letupan berkuasa tinggi.
BMP-1 merupakan ancaman kepada APC NATO, AFV ringan, malah MBT masanya, melalui kegunaan meriam utamanya atau ATGM. Bagaimanapun, perlu disedari bahawa tumpuan kuat pada persenjataan anti kereta kebalnya tidak memberikan kuasa tembak mencukupi terhadap kenderaan tidak berperisai musuh, kedudukan kubu ringan dan tentera pejalan kaki, terutama semasa pertempuran di kawasan bergunung, (kebanyakannya akibat sudut dongakan cetek meriam utama). Kemunculan BMP-2 yang lebih berjaya dilengkapi dengan 30 mm 2A42 meriam automatik dua kegunaan menyelesaikan masalah ini.
Ruang tentera
thumb|kanan|Kedudukan liang tembakan BMP-1 dan sudut tembakan.
Ruang tentera terletak di bahagian belakang kenderaan mampu membawa sehingga lapan orang. Terdapat empat liang tembakan pada setiap sisi dan satu liang tembakan dibahagian pintu belakang sebelah kiri; gabungan hos penyingkir asap dan pelantun kelongsong untuk dipasangkan pada senjata pada setiap stesen.
thumb|kiri|BMP-1 dengan lapan penumpang Tentera akan duduk di dua kerusi panjang di tengah sepanjang kenderaan dan mengadap ke sisi. Bateri kenderaan, peralatan eletrik dan tangki bahanapi 330 l terletak antara kerusi panjang, dengan ruang penyimpanan di bawah. Terdapat empat pintu besar berbentuk D di siling yang boleh dibuka dari ruang tentera. Pintu belakang kedap udara turut memiliki tangki bahan api.
Ruang di dalam ruang tentera terhad. Hanya sedikit ruang bagi peralatan peribadi, mendorong ia disimpan di luar ketika beroperasi, kadang kala menghadkan pusingan turet ke belakang. Tempat duduk juga sempit, terutama bagi tentera berpakaian tempur lengkap, mendorong sesetengah tentera mengurangkan muatan kepada tujuh.
Ekonomi campuran
Ekonomi campuran adalah sistem ekonomi yang menggabungkan lebih dari satu aspek sistem ekonomi. Lazimnya, ekonomi campuran mengandungi unsur kapitalisme dan sosialisme.
BMP-1
Pergerakan
Enjin disel empat lenjang enam silinder 300 kuasa kuda (224 kW) UTD-20 terletak ditengah badan hadapan, di belakang transmisi, dengan sistem penyejuk di sebelah kanan dan radiator di atas. Enjin memancu kotak gear manual dengan lima gear ke hadapan dan satu gear undur. Tangki minyak memiliki kapasiti maksima sebanyak 462 liter. Enjin disel memiliki reka bentuk pelbagai minyak dan mampu menggunakan DL (musim panas) atau DZ (musim sejuk). Ia juga mampu menggunakan minyak tanah TS-1.
BMP-1 memiliki kelajuan atas jalan 65 km/h, yang berkurangan kepada 45 km/h di luar jalan.
Ekonomi campuran
Tiada satu definisi untuk ekonomi campuran tetapi aspek penting adalah darjah kebebasan ekonomi persendirian (termasuk pemilikan industri secara persendirian) bercampur aduk dengan ekonomi terancang (termasuk campur tangan untuk kebajikan sosial, pemuliharaan alam sekitar, atau pemilikan aset atau sumber pengeluaran oleh negara).
BMP-1
Pergerakan
BMP-1 mampu memanjat halangan menegak setinggi 0.7 m, dan merentasi parit selebar 2.5 m. Ia mampu dipandu pada kecerunan 25° dan memanjat cerun 35°.
Ekonomi campuran
Dari segi praktiknya, banyak negara daripada Amerika Syarikat kepada Cuba mengamalkan sistem ekonomi yang boleh ditakrifkan sebagai ekonomi campuran.
BMP-1
Pergerakan
Sproket pemanduan adalah di hadapan dengan enam roda jalan, menggunakan gantungan batang torsion. BMP-1 memiliki tekanan tanah (0.6 kg/cm²) dan mampu merentas muka bumi bersalji dan berpaya. Ia memiliki jarak, kelajuan luar jalan dan keupayaan merentas desa yang diperlukan bagi menyaingi MBT yang bergerak pantas.
Keupayaan afimbia
thumb|kiri|Dua Marin US menurunkan bilah pemangkas ("trim vane") dibahagian hadapan BMP-1 Iraq yang ditawan semasa [[Perang Teluk|Operasi Desert Storm ("Ribut Gurun "), 17 March 1991]]
BMP-1 merupakan kenderaan afimbia, menujah dirinya dalam air dengan menggunakan treknya, dibantu oleh bunga hidrodinamik pada bahagian atas penutup roda. Kelajuan berenang adalah 8 km/h. Bentuk badan dan sesetengah ciri (roda jalan berongga dan roda jalan dilengkapi dengan ruang udara) membantu pelampungan. BMP-1 mampu mengatasi halangan air dengan kelajuan arus 1.2 m sesaat dan ombak sehingga ketinggian 0.25 m. Keadaan lebih mencabar memerlukan sokongan jurutera.
Sebelum masuk ke dalam air bilah pemangkas dibahagian hadapan perlu didirikan bagi menghalang air melitupi hadapan. Semasa ia dalam kedudukan di darat, ia berfungsi sebagai perisai tambahan hadapan. Pintu bahagian tentera belakang perlu ditutup ketat sebelum memasuki air.
BMP-1 mampu menyeberangi halangan air seperti sungai dan tasik tetapi bukan untuk operasi pendaratan dari laut.
Perlindungan perisai
Perisai kenderaan ini adalah keluli golek dipetri dengan ketebalan berbeza antara 6 mm pada bahagian badan atas dan 33 mm pada bukaan meriam utama. Spesifikasi asal memerlukan perlindungan terhadap peluru perobek perisai 23 milimeter sepanjang sudut hadapan ditembak dari jarak 500 m dan bagi perlindungan dari peluru perobek perisai 7.62 milimeter sepanjang sudut sisi dan belakang dari jarak 75 m.
Sudut perisai BMP-1 yang tajam mampu menahan serpihan peluru artileri, senjata ringan dan mesingan berat kaliber 50 (12.7 mm), peluru AP dan API melampau 60° dari sudut hadapan dari semua jarak. Sudut tajam perisai bahagian hadapan meningkatkan kemungkinan melantun, dan bilah pemangkas dalam kedudukan bergerak menawarkan perlindungan tambahan. Bagi kebanyakan contoh perisai hadapan kebal kepada tembakan dari meriam Oerlikon 20 mm KAD atau meriam automatik HS820 dari jarak melampaui 100 meter, tetapi kualiti perisai jauh berbeza bergantung kepada negara atau kilang.
Perisai bahagian sisi, belakang dan atas melindungi BMP-1 dari tembakan senjata kecil 7.62 mm dari kebanyakan jarak termasuk juga serpihan peluru artileri kecil tetapi tidak melindungi kenderaan dari tembakan mesingan berat 12.7 mm dari jarak dekat atau serpihan besar peluru artileri. Sungguhpun begitu, ujian darat menunjukkan pintu belakang yang diisi pasir dalam tangki minyaknya mampu menahan peluru 12.7 mm piwaian. Di Afghanistan dan Chechnya peluru perobek perisai 7.62 mm ditembak dari mesingan serbaguna pada jarak sekitar 30 – 50 m kadang kala mampu menembusi pintu belakang dan bukaan. Semasa Perakg Teluk Parsi Pertama perlindungan perisai BMP-1 terbukti lemah kepada peluru perobek perisai meriam automatik 25 mm M242 Bushmaster M2/M3 Bradley US. Semasa pertempuran sengit di Chechnya, tiada perobekan perisai hadapan turet BMP-1/BMD-1 disedari kerana turut itu merupakan sasaran kecil dan memiliki perisai hadapan tebal berbanding bahagian lain kenderaan.