cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
तमिळनाडूचा इतिहास
Age of empires (600–1300)
Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing तमिळ. Both secular and religious literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic, Kamban's Ramavatharam, was written in the 13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poetess Auvaiyar who found great happiness in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the classical literature of the Sangam period were collected and systematised into several anthologies. Sanskrit was patronised by the priestly groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of Rajaraja Chola I, collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called Tirumurais. The hagiology of Saivism was standardised in Periyapuranam by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign of Kulothunga Chola II (1133–1150 CE). Jayamkondar's Kalingattupparani, a semi-historical account on the two invasions of Kalinga by Kulothunga Chola I was an early example of a biographical work.
Pallavas
The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the second century. It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who ruled over the Deccan. It was around 550 AD under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and Pallavamalla Nandivarman II. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule. Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty.
During the sixth and the seventh centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi. Pulakesi II (c.610–642) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya country and took Vatapi. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another 100 years until the demise of the Chalukyas around 750. The Chalukyas and Pallavas fought numerous battles and the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was occupied by Vikramaditya II during the reign of Nandivarman II. Nandivarman II had a very long reign (732–796). He led an expedition to the Ganga kingdom (south Mysore) in 760. Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts—against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas.
Pandyas
Pandya Kadungon (560–590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south. Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650–700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power. Pandya was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th century of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence.
The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the Rashtrakutas who had replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However the Pallavas found an able monarch in Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and the Chola allies defeated Srimara at the battle of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the river Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c. 848). From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.
Cholas
Around 850, out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.
The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son Rajendra Chola I. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago. Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia. During the reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably. The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials were selected through a system of popular elections. Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilient Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118 they also lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola III was the last Chola king. The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra’s reign (1279), the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom.
Pandya revival
After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan briefly revived the Pandya glory in 1251 and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons - the legitimate Sundara Pandya and the illegitimate Vira Pandya (who was favoured by the king) fought each other for the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate (which initially gave protection to the vanquished Sundara Pandyan).
Delhi Sultanate
Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji invaded and sacked Madurai in 1311. Pandyas and their descendants where confined to a small region around Thirunelveli for a few more years. Ravivarman Kulasekara (1299–1314), a Chera feudatory of Kulasekara Pandya, staked his claim to the Pandya throne. Ravivarman Kulasekhara, utilising the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the southern Tamil Nadu and brought the entire region from Kanyakumari to Kanchipuram, under the Chera kingdom. His inscription was found in Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1300–1650)
The fourteenth century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Harihara founded the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka. Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khilji army. Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayangara empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.
The Vijayanagar Empire declined in 1564 defeated by the  Deccan sultans in the battle of Talikota. The local Nayak governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur were the most prominent of them. Ragunatha Nayak (1600–1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks. Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Tarangambadi. This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631–1675) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers, which is representative of the religious architecture of this period.
In Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to break up. His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced. Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha Ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability. Rani Mangammal, a local ruler, tried to resist these invasions showing great courage.
Rule of Nizams and Nawabs
European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat. The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around 35 mi North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626. In 1639, Francis Day, one of the officers of the company, secured the rights over a three-mile (5 km) long strip of land a fishing village called Madraspatnam from the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakudu, the Nayak of Vandavasi. The East India Company built Fort St George and castle on an approximate five square kilometre sand strip. This was the start of the town of Madras. The coromandel coast was ruled by the Vijayanagara King (Aravidu Dynasty), Peda Venkata Raya, based in Chandragiri and Vellore Fort. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land.
In 1675, a column of Bijapur army came to Thanjavur to help Vijayaraghava and retrieved Vallam from the Madurai Nayak. However the same army subsequently killed Vijayaraghava Nayak and Ekoji managed to ascend the throne of Thanjavur kingdom. Thus began the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was Serfoji II (1798–1832 ). Serfoji devoted his life to the pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of learning. Serfoji's patronised art and literature and built the Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace. The incursion of the Muslim armies from the north forced a southward migration of Hindus from the central Deccan and the Andhra countries to seek shelter under the Nayak and the Maratha kings. The famous Carnatic music composer Tyagaraja (1767–1847), along with the Trinity of Carnatic music flourished in the Thanjavur district during this time. With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. The administration of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu was fragmented with hundreds of Poligars or Palayakkarars governing a few villages each. These local chieftains often fought amongst each other over territory. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.
Anglo-French conflicts
The French were relative newcomers to India. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 and in 1666 the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb’s permission to trade in India. The French soon setup trading posts in Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast. They occupied Karaikal in 1739 and Joseph François Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondicherry. In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the British and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two navies along the Coromandel coast. The French led by La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it. Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the British.
The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. Both the Nawab of the Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad positions were taken by rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. Chanda Sahib had been made Nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous incumbent, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took possession of it in 1751. The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However the large Arcot army assisted by the French was defeated by the British. The Treaty of Paris (1763) formally confirmed Mahommed Ali as the Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this action and the increased British influence that in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a firman (decree) recognising the British possessions in southern India.
British Government control
Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the British Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the Company. The Company's financial position was also bad and it had to apply for a loan from Parliament. Seizing this opportunity, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act) in 1773. The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position of the Governor General. Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.
The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the British. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799 and the Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 to 1818 put the Company in control of most of India. In a sign of the early resistance against the English control, the Palayakkarar chieftains of the old Madurai Kingdom, who had independent authority over their territories, ran into a conflict with the Company officials over tax collection. Kattabomman, a local Palayakkarar chieftain in the Tirunelveli district, rebelled against the taxes imposed by the Company administration in the 1790s. After the First Polygar War (1799–1802), he was captured and hanged in 1799. A year later, the Second Polygar War was fought by Dheeran Chinnamalai, by winning three wars against British after the fall of tipusultan kingdom at last he and his two brothers was illeagelly hanged and Dheeran Chinnamalai was the last Tamil king died in the war against Britishers and was put down by the Company after a long and expensive campaign. The end of the Polygar Wars gave the British complete control over a major portion of Tamil Nadu.
In 1798 Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquisitions in India, destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. In 1806 the soldiers of the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that the native soldiers should abandon all caste marks. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to Christianity, the soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed but 114 British officers were killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgrace.
End of Company rule
The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. In consequence of the war, the British Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the government to the Crown.
British rule (1850–1947)
In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years the government was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Britain as important. However, in due course the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy Ripon passed a resolution in 1882, which gave a greater and more real share in local government to the people. Further legislation such as the 1892 Indian councils Act and the 1909 "Minto-Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the Madras Legislative Council. The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. First elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921. Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876–1877. The government and several charitable institutions organised relief work in the city and the suburbs. Funds were also raised from Europeans in India and overseas for the famine relief. Humanitarians such as William Digby wrote angrily about the woeful failure of the British administration to act promptly and adequately in response to the wholesale suffering caused by the famine. When the famine finally ended with the return of the monsoon in 1878, between three and five million people had perished. In response to the devastating effects of the famine, the government organised a Famine Commission in 1880 to define the principles of disaster relief. The government also instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise effects of any future famines.
Independence struggle
The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against the British. The location of the French colony of Pondicherry, offered a place of refuge for the fugitives freedom fighters trying to flee the British Police. Aurobindo was one such living in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet Subramanya Bharathi was a contemporary of Aurobindo. Bharathi wrote numerous poems in Tamil extolling the revolutionary cause. He also published the journal India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathi were associated with other Tamil revolutionaries such as V.V.S.Aiyar and V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Netaji to fight the British occupation in India. Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a prominent leader in the INA.
In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements. During the 1920s, two movements focused mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won the local legislative elections held in 1921. The Justice Party was not focused on the Indian independence movement, rather on the local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-religious, anti-Brahimin reformist movement led by E.V. Ramasami Naicker. Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami Naicker with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.
Post Independence period
The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There was no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was the first Chief Minister. Madras Presidency was eventually reconstituted as Madras State. Following agitations for a separate Andhra state comprising the Telugu speaking regions of the Madras state by Potti Sriramalu, the Indian Government decided to partition the Madras state. In 1953 Rayalaseema and the coastal Andhra regions became the new state of Andhra Pradesh and the Bellary district became part of the Mysore state. In 1956 south Kanara district was transferred to Mysore, the Malabar coastal districts became part of the new state of Kerala, and the Madras state assumed its present shape. The Madras state was named Tamil Nadu (the land of the Tamils) in 1968.
Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of the Tamil political parties. They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of its support from Tamil Nadu following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an operative from Sri Lanka for the former Prime Minister's role in sending Indian peacekeepers to Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.
The east coast of Tamil Nadu was one of the areas affected by the Indian Ocean earthquake of 2004, during which almost 8000 people died in the disaster. The sixth most populous state in the Indian Union, Tamil Nadu was the seventh largest economy in 2005 among the states of India. The growing demands for skilled labour has caused increased number of educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. The widespread application of caste based affirmative action caused the state to have 69% of all educational and employment vacancies to be reserved to the backward castes. Such caste-based reservations have huge public support in Tamil Nadu, with no popular protests organised against its implementation.
Evolution of regional politics
The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilisation in the 1960s. This phase lasted until towards the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the Dravidian political parties and led to the advent of political alliances and coalition governments.
Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949 after splitting from Dravidar Kazhagam. DMK also decided to oppose the 'expansion of the Hindi culture' in Tamil Nadu and started the demand for a separate homeland for the Dravidians in the South. The demand was for an Independent state called Dravida Nadu (country of Dravidians) comprising Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala. The increased involvement of the Indian National Congress party in Madras during the late 1950s and the strong pan-Indian emotions whipped up by the Chinese invasion of India in 1962 led to the demand for Dravida Nadu losing some of its immediacy. Consequently in 1963, when the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of India, precluded secessionist parties from contesting elections, the DMK chose to formally drop its demand for an independent Dravidistan, focusing instead on securing greater functional autonomy within the framework of the Indian Constitution.
The Congress party, riding on the wave of public support stemming from the independence struggle, formed the first post-independence government in Tamil Nadu and continued to govern until 1967. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools. Affirmative action in employment and educational institutions were pioneered in Tamil Nadu based on the demands of the Dravidian movement. The leadership of the Dravidian movement had very capable authors and literati in Annadurai and Karunanidhi, who assiduously utilised the popular media of stage plays and movies to spread its political messages. MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one such stage and movie actor.
In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split into two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). Since then these two parties have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu. AIADMK, under MGR retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.
Several changes to the political balance in Tamil Nadu took place during the later half of the 1990s, eventually leading to the end of the duopoly of DMK and AIADMK in the politics of Tamil Nadu. In 1996, a split in the Congress party in Tamil Nadu eventuated in the formation of Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC). TMC aligned with the DMK, while another party Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), which split from DMK aligned with the AIADMK. These and several smaller political parties began to gain popular support. The first instance of a 'grand alliance' was during the 1996 elections for the National parliament, during which the AIADMK formed a large coalition of a number smaller parties to counter the electoral threat posed by the alliance between the DMK and TMC. Since then the formation of alliances of large number of political parties has become an electoral practice in Tamil Nadu. The electoral decline of Congress party at the national level, which started during the early 1990, forced the Congress to seek coalition partners from various states including Tamil Nadu. This paved the way for the Dravidian parties to be part of the Central Government.
संदर्भ
वर्ग:तमिळ इतिहास वर्ग:तमिळ भाषा
श्रीलंका महिला क्रिकेट संघाचा ऑस्ट्रेलिया दौरा, २०१९-२०
३रा सामना
वर्ग:इ.स. २०१९ मधील क्रिकेट
हेफेस्टियन
हेफेस्टियन (अंदाजे इ.स.पू. ३५६:पेला, मॅसिडोनिया - इ.स.पू. ३२४) हा अलेक्झांडर द ग्रेट याचा बालमित्र असून त्याच्या सैन्यातील एक प्रमुख सेनापतीही होता. बरेच ठीकाणी तो अलेक्झांडरचा प्रेमिक असल्याचेही सांगितले जाते.
रिगोबेर्ट साँग
रिगोबेर्ट सॉंग बहानाग (१ जुलै, इ.स. १९७६ - ) हा 🇨🇲 cameroonकडून आंतरराष्ट्रीय फुटबॉल खेळलेला खेळाडू आहे. १९९३ ते २०१०पर्यंत आंतरराष्ट्रीय स्तरावर खेळलेला सॉंग आता दूरचित्रवाणीवर खेळाचे समालोचन करतो. कॅमेरून राष्ट्रीय संघाचे प्रशिक्षक, अध्यक्ष पॉल बिया यांच्या सूचनेनुसार 28 फेब्रुवारी 2022 रोजी त्यांची नियुक्ती करण्यात आली.
हेफेस्टियन
वर्ग:अलेक्झांडर द ग्रेट वर्ग:ग्रीसचा इतिहास वर्ग:इ.स.पू. ३२४ मधील मृत्यू
रिगोबेर्ट साँग
वर्ग:कामेरूनचे फुटबॉल खेळाडू वर्ग:इ.स. १९७६ मधील जन्म वर्ग:पुरुष चरित्रलेख
जेरेमी न्जितप
वर्ग:कामेरूनचे फुटबॉल खेळाडू वर्ग:रिकामी पाने वर्ग:पुरुष चरित्रलेख
सातपेवाडी
सातपेवाडी हे भारतातील महाराष्ट्र राज्यातील सांगली जिल्ह्यातील वाळवा तालुक्यातील एक गाव आहे.
हवामान
येथील हवामान उष्ण व कोरडे आहे. येथे नोव्हेंबर ते फेब्रुवारी मध्य हा हिवाळा हंगाम असतो. हिवाळ्यात दिवसा तापमान २९ सेल्सियस पर्यंत वाढते आणि रात्री तापमान १७ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत खाली जाते. जून मध्य ते ऑक्टोबर हा पावसाळा हंगाम असतो. पावसाळ्यात दिवसा तापमान २८ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत वाढते आणि रात्री तापमान २२ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत खाली जाते. पावसाळ्यात मध्यम प्रमाणात पाऊस पडतो. वार्षिक पर्जन्यमान ७०० मिमी पर्यंत असते. फेब्रुवारी मध्य ते जून हा उन्हाळा मोसम असतो. उन्हाळ्यात दिवसा तापमान ३८ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत वाढते आणि रात्री तापमान २३ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत खाली जाते.
संदर्भ
वर्ग:वाळवा तालुक्यातील गावे वर्ग:सांगली जिल्ह्यातील गावे
यूटीसी+११:००
यूटीसी+११:०० ही यूटीसीच्या ११ तास पुढे चालणारी प्रमाणवेळ आहे. ही वेळ रशिया तसेच ओशनियामधील अनेक देशांमध्ये वापरली जाते.
ओशनिया
वर्ग:प्रमाणवेळा
सव्हाना स्टर्न
सव्हाना स्टर्न (मे २, इ.स. १९८६:मॉडेस्टो, कॅलिफोर्निया, अमेरिका - ) ही एक रतिअभिनेत्री आहे.
वर्ग:रतिअभिनेत्रींवरील अपूर्ण लेख वर्ग:इ.स. १९८६ मधील जन्म वर्ग:अमेरिकन रतिअभिनेत्री वर्ग:स्त्री चरित्रलेख
दानियेला हंटुचोवा
दानियेला हंटुचोवा (स्लोव्हाक: Daniela Hantuchová) ही एक स्लोव्हाक महिला टेनिस खेळाडू आहे. १९९९ सालापासून व्यावसायिक टेनिस खेळत असलेल्या हंटुचोवाने एकेरी क्रमवारीत पाचवा क्रमांक गाठला होता. चारही ग्रॅंडस्लॅम स्पर्धांची मिश्र दुहेरी अजिंक्यपदे पटकावण्याचा विक्रम करणारी ती जगातील केवळ पाचवी महिला टेनिसपटू आहे.
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:महिला टेनिस खेळाडू वर्ग:स्लोव्हाक टेनिस खेळाडू वर्ग:स्त्री चरित्रलेख
रोबेर्ट कुबिचा
वर्ग:पोलंडचे फॉर्म्युला वन चालक वर्ग:फॉर्म्युला वन चालक‎
स्टेफाने म्बिया
वर्ग:कामेरूनचे फुटबॉल खेळाडू वर्ग:रिकामी पाने वर्ग:पुरुष चरित्रलेख
यूटीसी+११:३०
यूटीसी+११:३० ही यूटीसी पासून ११  तास ३०  मिनिटे पुढे असणारी प्रमाणवेळ आहे. ऑस्ट्रेलिया देशाचे नॉरफोक द्वीप येथे ही प्रमाणवेळ पाळली जाते.
वर्ग:प्रमाणवेळा
भास्कर दत्तात्रय कुलकर्णी
त्याचे मित्र आणि सहकाऱ्यांमध्ये ते बी. डी म्हणून ओळखले जातत.
वर्ग:इ.स. १९४९ मधील जन्म वर्ग:शांतिस्वरूप भटनागर पुरस्कार विजेते वर्ग:मराठी शास्त्रज्ञ वर्ग:पुरुष चरित्रलेख
१९२० (चित्रपट)
१९२० हा २००८ साली प्रदर्शित झालेला एक हिंदी भयपट आहे. विक्रम भट्टचे दिग्दर्शन असलेल्या ह्या चित्रपटाचे कथानक शीर्षकाप्रमाणे इ.स. १९२०मध्ये घडते. १९२० अनपेक्षितपणे तिकिट खिडकीवर यशस्वी ठरला तसेच टीकाकारांच्या देखील पसंतीस उतरला.
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:हिंदी भाषेमधील चित्रपट
क्रायस्लर बिल्डिंग
संदर्भ आणि नोंदी
वर्ग:अमेरिकेतील उंच इमारती व वास्तू वर्ग:जगातील गगनचुंबी इमारती वर्ग:न्यू यॉर्क शहरामधील इमारती व वास्तू
तैवान
तैवान किंवा चीनचे प्रजासत्ताक हेअधिकृतपणे रिपब्लिक ऑफ चायना (ROC) म्हणून ओळखले जाते, हे पूर्व आशियामध्ये स्थित एक बेट राष्ट्र आहे. हे पश्चिम पॅसिफिक महासागरात, मुख्य भूप्रदेश चीनच्या आग्नेय किनाऱ्याजवळ स्थित आहे. तैवानचे क्षेत्रफळ अंदाजे ३६,१९० चौरस किलोमीटर (१३,९७४ चौरस मैल) आहे आणि त्याची लोकसंख्या २३ दशलक्षाहून अधिक आहे.
तैवानचा इतिहास हजारो वर्षांपूर्वीचा आहे, स्थलांतर आणि वसाहतीकरणाच्या विविध लाटांच्या आधी बेटावर स्थानिक लोक राहत होते. १७व्या शतकात, डच आणि स्पॅनिश लोकांनी तैवानमध्ये वसाहती स्थापन केल्या, त्यानंतर चिनी इमिग्रेशन आणि चिनी प्रशासनाची स्थापना झाली. तैवान १९व्या शतकाच्या उत्तरार्धात जपानी राजवटीत आले आणि दुसरे महायुद्ध संपेपर्यंत जपानी वसाहत राहिले.
युद्धानंतर, प्रजासत्ताक चीनने तैवानचा ताबा घेतला. तथापि, १९४९ मध्ये, चिनी गृहयुद्धामुळे कम्युनिस्टांनी मुख्य भूभागावर पीपल्स रिपब्लिक ऑफ चायना (पीआरसी) ची स्थापना केली, तर आरओसी सरकारने तैवानकडे माघार घेतली. तेव्हापासून, तैवानने स्वतःचे सरकार, अर्थव्यवस्था आणि सैन्यासह एक स्वतंत्र राजकीय अस्तित्व म्हणून कार्य केले आहे, जरी ते सार्वभौम राज्य म्हणून सर्वत्र मान्यताप्राप्त नाही.
तैवान हे तिची दोलायमान लोकशाही, उच्च राहणीमान, प्रगत तंत्रज्ञान क्षेत्र आणि गतिमान अर्थव्यवस्थेसाठी ओळखले जाते. हे तंत्रज्ञान, उत्पादन आणि आंतरराष्ट्रीय व्यापार या क्षेत्रातील एक प्रमुख जागतिक खेळाडू म्हणून विकसित झाले आहे. सेमीकंडक्टर, इलेक्ट्रॉनिक्स आणि माहिती तंत्रज्ञान यासारख्या उद्योगांमधील नामांकित कंपन्यांचे देश हे देश आहे.
तैवानचा सांस्कृतिक वारसा हा स्वदेशी परंपरा, चिनी प्रभाव आणि शतकानुशतके बेटाशी संवाद साधलेल्या इतर संस्कृतींच्या प्रभावांचे मिश्रण आहे. या बेटावर पारंपारिक कला, संगीत, पाककृती आणि उत्सवांसह समृद्ध सांस्कृतिक दृश्य आहे.
जागतिक स्तरावर त्याची उपलब्धी आणि योगदान असूनही, चीनसोबतच्या राजकीय वादामुळे तैवानला जटिल आंतरराष्ट्रीय संबंधांचा सामना करावा लागतो. PRC तैवानला त्याच्या प्रदेशाचा एक भाग मानते आणि आवश्यक असल्यास सक्तीने अंतिम पुनर्मिलन करण्याचा प्रयत्न करते. तथापि, तैवान आपली स्वायत्तता आणि आंतरराष्ट्रीय मान्यता टिकवून ठेवण्यासाठी स्वतःचे सरकार, सैन्य आणि आंतरराष्ट्रीय संबंध राखतो.
अलिकडच्या वर्षांत, तैवानने COVID-19 साथीच्या रोगाला मिळालेल्या यशस्वी प्रतिसादाबद्दल लक्ष वेधले आहे, ज्याची पारदर्शकता, कार्यक्षमता आणि प्रभावी प्रतिबंधात्मक उपायांसाठी प्रशंसा केली गेली आहे.
एकंदरीत, तैवान हा एक समृद्ध इतिहास, दोलायमान संस्कृती आणि जागतिक अर्थव्यवस्थेत लक्षणीय उपस्थिती असलेला एक अनोखा आणि गतिशील देश आहे, त्याच्या राजकीय स्थितीची सतत गुंतागुंत असूनही.
धर्म
सुरुवातीला तैवान मधील लोक हे निसर्गपूजक होते. इ.स. १६२४ मध्ये सर्वप्रथम डचांनी मिशनरींद्वारे प्रोटेस्टंट ख्रिश्चन धर्माचा प्रचार सुरू केला. त्यानंतर आलेल्या स्पॅनिश लोकांनी कॅथोलiक ख्रिश्चन धर्माची स्थानिक लोकांना ओळख करून दिली. त्यानंतर आलेल्या जपानी लोकांनी शिंटो तर चिनी लोकांनी बौद्ध धर्म आणि ताओ मताचा प्रचार आणि प्रसार केला.
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:पूर्व आशिया वर्ग:अमान्य देश
पोर्तो व्हेल्हो
पोर्तो व्हेल्हो (Porto Velho) ही ब्राझील देशाच्या रोन्द्योनिया राज्याची राजधानी व सर्वात मोठे शहर आहे. ब्राझीलच्या पश्चिम भागात रोन्द्योनिया व अमेझोनास राज्यांच्या सीमेवर वसलेल्या पोर्तो व्हेल्होची लोकसंख्या २०१४ साली ४.२६ लाख इतकी होती. पोर्तो व्हेल्हो शहर मादेईरा ह्या ॲमेझॉन नदीच्या उपनदीच्या काठावर स्थित आहे.
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:ब्राझीलमधील शहरे
आडिवली (शहापूर)
आडिवली हे भारतातील महाराष्ट्र राज्यातील ठाणे जिल्ह्यातील शहापूर तालुक्यातील एक गाव आहे.
संदर्भ
वर्ग:शहापूर तालुक्यातील गावे वर्ग:ठाणे जिल्ह्यातील गावे
थेउनिस डि ब्रुइन
थेउनिस बूइसेन डि ब्रुइन (११ ऑक्टोबर, इ.स. १९९२:प्रिटोरिया, दक्षिण आफ्रिका - ) हा undefinedकडून आंतरराष्ट्रीय क्रिकेट खेळणारा खेळाडू आहे.
वर्ग:दक्षिण आफ्रिकेचे कसोटी क्रिकेट खेळाडू वर्ग:दक्षिण आफ्रिकेचे एकदिवसीय क्रिकेट खेळाडू वर्ग:पुरुष चरित्रलेख
केरळ राज्यातील खाद्यसंस्कृती
खाद्य संस्कृती[संपादन]
केरळा त शाकाहारी व मांसाहारी दोन्ही अन्न प्रकारांचा समावेश होतो.मासे,कोंबडी आणि अन्य मांसप्रकार येथे खाल्ले जातात.मसाल्यांच्या पदार्थांचा वापर अन्न प्रक्रियेत मोठ्या प्रमाणावर केला जातो.भात हा अन्नाचा महत्त्वाचा घटक असून दिवसाच्या कोणत्याही वेली ते खाला जातो.न्यःरीचे मुख्य पदार्थ तांदळापासून केले जातात ज्यामध्ये इडली, पुत्तू,अप्पम,इडीअप्पम ,वडा यांचा समावेश होतो.चटणी, कडल, पायसम, चिकन करी, माशांची आमटी,रस्सम यासारख्या पदार्थांचा आस्वाद या जोडीने घेतला जातो.सध्या हा शाकाहारी भोजनाचा प्रकार असून ते केळीच्या पानावर वाढले जाते. या जेवणाच्या शेवटी गोड खीर म्हणजे पायसम खाल्ली जाते.मधल्या वेळच्या खाण्याच्या चटकदार पदार्थात केळ्याचे वेफर्स यासारखे पदार्थ येतात.मांसाहारी पदार्थांमध्येही येथे वैविध्य आढळते.चहासोबत केळीपासून तयार केलेली भजी आस्वादाने खाल्ली जातात. चहाचे मळे उत्तम प्रतीचे आहेत.
वर्ग :भारतीय खाद्यसंस्कृती */राज्यानुसार खाद्यपदार्थ
कौतखेडे
कौतखेडे हे भारताच्या महाराष्ट्र राज्यातील नाशिक जिल्ह्यातील येवला तालुक्यातील एक गाव आहे.
हवामान
येथे मार्चच्या मध्यापासून जूनच्या पूर्वार्धापर्यंत उन्हाळा असतो. उन्हाळ्यात हवामान सामान्यतः उष्ण असून तापमान ३७ ते ३९ सेल्सीअसपर्यंत असते.जून महिन्याच्या मध्यापासून पावसास सुरुवात होऊन ऑक्टोबरच्या मध्यापर्यंत पावसाळा असतो. सर्वसाधारण नोव्हेंबर ते फेब्रुवारी या काळात थंडी असते.वार्षिक सर्वसाधारण हवामान उष्ण व विषम असते.वार्षिक पर्जन्यमान १००० मि.मी.पर्यंत असते.
संदर्भ
वर्ग:येवला तालुक्यातील गावे वर्ग:नाशिक जिल्ह्यातील गावे
आदि पर्व
आदि पर्व हे महाभारतातील पहीले आणि सर्वांत मोठे पर्व आहे. या पर्वात मुख्यत्वे भारतवर्षाचे वर्णन असून त्यावर राज्य करणाय्रा राजांचे व त्यांच्या राज्यातील घडामोडीचे वर्णन आले आहे. नावाप्रमाणेच आदि पर्वात सर्व बाह्य घडामोडी उघड पडतात.
मुख्य पर्वांची यादी
महाभारतात १८ प्रमुख पर्व आहेत. ते पुढीलप्रमाणे:
वर्ग:महाभारत वर्ग:महाभारतातील पर्व
पारसोडी (झरी जामणी)
पारसोडी हे भारतातील महाराष्ट्र राज्यातील यवतमाळ जिल्ह्यातील झरी जामणी तालुक्यातील एक गाव आहे.
संदर्भ
वर्ग:झरी जामणी तालुक्यातील गावे वर्ग:यवतमाळ जिल्ह्यातील गावे
आंतरराष्ट्रीय लघु चित्रपट महोत्सव
आंतरराष्ट्रीय लघुचित्रपट महोत्सव,पुणे या लघुचित्रपट महोत्सवाची सुरुवात २०१६ मध्ये झाली, पहिला आंतरराष्ट्रीय लघुचित्रपट महोत्सव १५ ऑगस्ट २०१६ ला पुणे म.न.पा येथे संपन्न झाला. पहिल्या महोत्सवा-दरम्यान 34 शॉर्ट फिल्मचे स्क्रिनिंग केले गेले व विजेत्याना बक्षीस देण्यात आले. सप्टेंबर २०१७ मध्ये दुसरा आंतरराष्ट्रीय लघुचित्रपट महोत्सव,पुणे हा गंजपेठ सावित्रबाई ऑडिटोरियम येथे पार पडला. २०१८ मध्ये आंतरराष्ट्रीय लघुचित्रपट महोत्सव,पुणे सप्टेंबर २०१८ मध्ये विजय टॉकीज येथे प्रायोजित आहे. या वर्षी ११११ लघुचित्रपट प्रदर्शित करून विश्वविक्रम नोंदवला जाणार आहे. आंतरराष्ट्रीय लघु चित्रपट महोत्सव पुणे चे आयोजन शिवस्वराज्य प्रतिष्ठान महाराष्ट्र व अमोल भगत मीडिया यांच्या मार्फत केले जाते. वर्ग:चित्रपट उद्योग
यूटीसी+१२:००
यूटीसी+१२:०० ही यूटीसीच्या १२ तास पुढे चालणारी प्रमाणवेळ आहे. ही वेळ रशिया तसेच ओशनियामधील अनेक देशांमध्ये वापरली जाते.
ओशनिया
वर्ग:प्रमाणवेळा
बहासा इंडोनेशिया
बहासा इंडोनेशिया (इंडोनेशियन भाषा) ही इंडोनेशियाची अधिकृत भाषा आहे. खरंतर ही मलाय भाषेची एक बोली आहे जिला इंडोनेशियन भाषा म्हणून १९४५ मध्ये स्वातंत्र्याच्या जाहीरनाम्यात अधिकृतरीत्या स्वीकारले गेले. त्याआधीही १९२८ पासून "इंडोनेशियन युवक प्रतिष्ठान"नुसार त्यास अधिकृत भाषेचा दर्जा दिला होता.
इंडोनेशिया हा जगातील लोकसंख्येच्या दृष्टीने ४था मोठा देश आहे. आणि या देशातील एकूण लोकसंख्येपैकी सहज बहासा बोलणारी जनता जवळ जवळ १००% आहे. त्यामुळे "बहासा इंडोनेशियन" ही जगातील सर्वात जास्त बोलल्या जाणाऱ्या भाषांपैकी एक गणली जाते. बरीचशी इंडोनेशियन जनता बहासा इंडोनेशिया बरोबरच इतर स्थानिक बोलीभाषेतही पारंगत असते. मात्र सगळे दस्तऐवज, शिक्षण, पत्रकारिता आणि अधिकृत संभाषणाच्या इतर माध्यमात बहासा इंडोनेशिया हीच भाषा कटाक्षाने वापरण्यात येते. पूर्व तिमोर या नुकत्याच स्वतंत्र झालेल्या देशातही बहासा इंडोनेशिया ही इंग्रजीबरोबरच दुसरी राष्ट्रभाषा आहे. बऱ्याच जुन्या इंग्लिश भाषा दस्तऐवजांमध्ये अजूनही ह्या भाषेचा उल्लेख केवळ "बहासा" असा केलेला आढळेल.
वर्ग:भाषा भाषा
Malaiische Sprache
ए.के. अँटनी
'''ए.के. ॲंटनी''' हे ऑक्टोबर इ.स. २००६ पासून भारताचे संरक्षणमंत्री होते. ते काँग्रेस पक्षाच्या कार्यकारिणीचे सदस्य आहेत.ते इ.स. १९७७ ते इ.स. १९७८, १९९५ ते इ.स. १९९६ आणि इ.स. २००१ ते २००४ या काळात केरळ राज्याचे मुख्यमंत्री होते.
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:भारतीय संरक्षणमंत्री वर्ग:केरळचे मुख्यमंत्री वर्ग:भारतीय नास्तिक वर्ग:ख्रिश्चन व्यक्ती
वेस्ट इंडीज क्रिकेट संघाचा बांगलादेश दौरा, २०१८-१९
वेस्ट इंडीज क्रिकेट संघ १८ नोव्हेंबर २०१८ ते २२ डिसेंबर २०१८ दरम्यान २ कसोटी सामने, ३ आंतरराष्ट्रीय एकदिवसीय सामने व ३ ट्वेंटी२० सामने खेळण्यासाठी बांगलादेशच्या दौऱ्यावर जाणार् आहे. डिसेंबर २०१२ नंतर पहिल्यांदाच वेस्ट इंडीज बांगलादेशच्या दौऱ्यावर जाणार आहे. जुलै २०१८ मध्ये सामन्यांचे वेळापत्रक जाहीर झाले. सिलहट आंतरराष्ट्रीय क्रिकेट स्टेडियमवर पहिला वहिला एकदिवसीय सामना खेळविण्यात येईल.
दौऱ्यापुर्वी, वेस्ट इंडीज कर्णधार जेसन होल्डरला खांद्याला दुखापत झाल्यामुळे त्याच्याजागी क्रेग ब्रेथवेटला कर्णधार नेमण्यात आले.
संदर्भ आणि नोंदी
वर्ग:इ.स. २०१८ मधील क्रिकेट वर्ग:वेस्ट इंडीज क्रिकेट संघाचे बांगलादेश दौरे वर्ग:बांगलादेशमधील क्रिकेट
नीलिमा जोगळेकर
निलीमा जोगळेकर (जन्म १ जुलै १९६१) भारतीय क्रिकेट खेळाडू आहे.त्या संघाच्या विकेटकीपर आणि मधल्या फळीतील फलंदाज होत्या.
वर्ग:भारताच्या महिला क्रिकेट खेळाडू वर्ग:इ.स. १९६१ मधील जन्म वर्ग:स्त्री चरित्रलेख
सोव्हिएत संघ
सोव्हिएत संघ हा एक भूतपूर्व देश आहे. सोव्हिएत संघाची स्थापना ३० डिसेंबर १९२२ रोजी झाली व २६ डिसेंबर १९९१ रोजी त्याचे १५ देशांमध्ये विघटन झाले. सोव्हिएत संघ हा जगातील सर्वात विशाल देश होता. या देशाने आशिया खंडाचा १/३ भाग आणि युरोप खंडाचा १/२ भाग व्यापला होता. या देशाच्या सीमा पूर्वेला पॅसिफिक महासागरापर्यंत, पश्चिमेला पोलंड आणि बाल्टिक समुद्रापर्यंत, उत्तरेला आर्क्टिक महासागरापर्यंत आणि दक्षिणेला काळा समुद्र, इराण, अफगाणिस्तान, भारत आणि चीन या देशांच्या उत्तर सीमांपर्यंत होत्या. हा देश पूर्व-पश्चिम सुमारे ६,२१५ मैल आणि उत्तर-दक्षिण सुमारे ३,११० मैल पसरलेला होता. पृथ्वीवरील भूपृष्ठाच्या १/६ भागात सोवियेत संघ पसरलेला होता.
भूरचना आणि वनस्प्तीच्या दृष्टीने सोवियेत संघाचे चार भाग पडत. अती उत्तरेच्या फिनलंडच्या सीमेपासून आर्क्टिक समुद्राच्या किनाऱ्याने बेरिंग समुद्रापर्यंत पसरलेला टुंड्राचा बर्फाच्छादित प्रदेश ज्यात मुख्यत्वे पाणथळ भाग, दलदलीचा प्रदेश, शेवाळे आणि खुरटी झुडपे यांचे साम्राज्य होते. या भागात मनुष्य वसाहत कमी होती. टुंड्रा प्रदेशाच्या दक्षिणेला तैगाचा अणकुचीदार वृक्षांचा, जंगलाचा प्रदेश होता. हा प्रदेश जगातील सगळ्यात मोठा, सलग अरण्यमय म्हणून ओळखला जात असे. सोवियेत संघातील महत्त्वाची शहरे मॉस्को (उच्चार मस्क्वा), क्यीव (उच्चार कीएव) या भागात होते.
तैगाच्या दक्षिणेस एल्म, ओक या झाडांसह लाकडाची विपुल संपत्तीचा, सुपीक जमिनीचा प्रदेश होता. जगातील सगळ्यात मोठा, सलग, लागवडीखालचा प्रदेश अशी याची ओळख. विविध प्रकारचे कारखने, उद्योग धंदे या भागात होते. या सुपीक भागाच्या दक्षिणेला कोरड्या हवामानाचा, वाळवंटी प्रदेश होता. या भागात अनेक्दा अवर्षण, दुष्काळ असे. येथील प्रमुख पीके तंबाखू, चहा, ऊस, अंजीर, अक्रोड, बांबू, लवंग, निलगीरी ही होती. सोवियेत संघ खूप मोठा देश होता तरी एकूण उपलब्ध क्षेत्राच्या केवळ १/३ जागा लागवडी योग्य होती.
सोवियेत संघातल्या लहान मोठ्या सर्व नद्या धरून त्यांची एकूण संख्या एक लाखाच्यावर होती. जगातील सर्वात मोठ्या ९ नद्यांपैकी ओब, येनिसी, लेना व अमूर या ४ मोठ्या नद्या सोवियेत संघात होत्या. मस्क्वा नदीवर वसलेल्या मॉस्कोच्या परिसरातील नद्या ५ समुद्रांशी जोडल्या होत्या. पश्चिमेकडील द्विना नदीद्वारे बाल्टिक समुद्र, द्नीपर व डॉन या नद्यांद्वारे काळा समुद्र आणि अझोव समुद्र, वोल्गा नदीने कास्पियन समुद्र तर उत्तरेकडील नद्यांद्वारे श्वेत समुद्र जोडला गेल्याने दळणवळण अतिशय सुलभ झाले होते.
विशाल आणि विस्तृत पर्वतरांगाही सोवियेत संघाला लाभल्या होत्या. देशाच्या नैऋत्येला कार्पेशियन पर्वतरांगा, पूर्व सैबेरियातील व्हर्कोयान्स्क आणि स्तानवोईच्या पर्वतरांगा, दक्षिणेला कॉकेशस पर्वतरांगा, अफगाणिस्तान, भारत आणि चीन या देशांच्या सीमांना लागूनच पामीर, तिआनशान आणि अलताई पर्वतरांगा तर युरोपीय आणि आशियाई सोवियेत संघाचे विभाजन करणाऱ्या उरल पर्वतरांगा अशा समृद्ध पर्वतरांगा सोवियेत संघास लाभल्या होत्या.
१५ घटक गणराज्ये, २० स्वायत्त गणराज्ये, ८ स्वायत्त प्रदेश व काही छोटे राष्ट्रीय गट मिळून सोवियेत संघ हा देश ओळखला जात होता. त्यातील रशिया राज्य सगळ्यात मोठे होते, सोवियेत संघाच्या सुमारे ७४ % भूभाग रशियाने व्यापला होता. सोवियेत संघात सुमारे १८० राष्ट्रीय गटाचे व सुमारे १२५ भाषा व बोली भाषा बोलणारे लोक होते. देशाचा मुख्य धर्म ऑर्थोडोक्स ख्रिश्चन हा होता. तीन गटात मोडणारे स्लाव वंशाचे लोक (१) ग्रेट रशियन्स - रशियात राहणारे, (२) लिटल रशियन्स - युक्रेन मध्ये राहणारे, (३) व्हाईट रशियन्स - बेलोरशियात राहणारे असे प्रमुख लोक राहत.
गणराज्ये
सोव्हिएत संघामध्ये एकूण १५ संघीय गणराज्ये होती. १९९१ साली सोव्हिएत संघाचे विघटन झाल्यानंतर ह्या १५ गणराज्यांचे रूपांतर १५ स्वतंत्र देशांमध्ये झाले.
बाह्य दुवे
* वर्ग:भूतपूर्व देश
अनामिका (२००८ चित्रपट)
अनामिका हा २००८ साली प्रदर्शित झालेला एक हिंदी चित्रपट आहे.
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:हिंदी भाषेमधील चित्रपट
२०१० राष्ट्रकुल खेळामधील नेमबाजी - पुरूष ५० मीटर पिस्तूल जोडी
बाह्य दुवे
वर्ग:२०१० राष्ट्रकुल खेळामधील नेमबाजी
लाडेगाव (वाळवा)
लाडेगाव हे भारतातील महाराष्ट्र राज्यातील सांगली जिल्ह्यातील वाळवा तालुक्यातील एक गाव आहे.
हवामान
येथील हवामान उष्ण व कोरडे आहे. येथे नोव्हेंबर ते फेब्रुवारी मध्य हा हिवाळा हंगाम असतो. हिवाळ्यात दिवसा तापमान २९ सेल्सियस पर्यंत वाढते आणि रात्री तापमान १७ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत खाली जाते. जून मध्य ते ऑक्टोबर हा पावसाळा हंगाम असतो. पावसाळ्यात दिवसा तापमान २८ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत वाढते आणि रात्री तापमान २२ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत खाली जाते. पावसाळ्यात मध्यम प्रमाणात पाऊस पडतो. वार्षिक पर्जन्यमान ७०० मिमी पर्यंत असते. फेब्रुवारी मध्य ते जून हा उन्हाळा मोसम असतो. उन्हाळ्यात दिवसा तापमान ३८ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत वाढते आणि रात्री तापमान २३ अंश सेल्सियस पर्यंत खाली जाते.
संदर्भ
वर्ग:वाळवा तालुक्यातील गावे वर्ग:सांगली जिल्ह्यातील गावे