cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
ទស្សនវិជ្ជា
សនិទាននិយម និង ពិសោធន៍និយម
Empiricism, in contrast to rationalism, downplays or dismisses the ability of reason alone to yield knowledge of the world, preferring to base any knowledge we have on our senses. This dates back to the concept of tabula rasa (unscribed tablet) implicit in Aristotle's On the Soul, described more explicitly in Avicenna's The Book of Healing, and demonstrated in Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan as a thought experiment. Modern empiricism was notably expounded by Francis Bacon, John Locke in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1689, and David Hume.
During this era, religious ideas played a mixed role in the struggles that preoccupied secular philosophy. Bishop Berkeley's famous idealist refutation of key tenets of Isaac Newton is a case of an Enlightenment philosopher who drew substantially from religious ideas. Other influential religious thinkers of the time include Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, Thomas Reid, and Jonathan Edwards. Other major writers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke, took a rather different path.
ទីអង្គុយជាផ្លូវការ (ព្រះសង្ឃ)
ឯកសារយោង
ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:ទំនៀមទម្លាប់ខ្មែរ
ទស្សនវិជ្ជា
សង្ស័យនិយម
Skepticism is a philosophical attitude that, in its most extreme form, questions the possibility of obtaining any sort of knowledge. It was first articulated by Pyrrho, who believed that everything could be doubted except appearances. Sextus Empiricus (2nd century AD), skepticism's most prominent advocate, describes it as an "'ability to place in antithesis, in any manner whatever, appearances and judgments, and thus ... to come first of all to a suspension of judgment and then to mental tranquility.'"
Skepticism so conceived is not merely the use of doubt, but is the use of doubt for a particular end: a calmness of the soul, or ataraxia. Skepticism poses itself as a challenge to dogmatism, whose adherents think they have found the truth.
Skepticism was revived in the early modern period by Michel de Montaigne and Blaise Pascal. Its most extreme exponent, however, was David Hume. Hume argued that there are only two kinds of reasoning: what he called probable and demonstrative (cf. Hume's fork). Neither of these two forms of reasoning can lead us to a reasonable belief in the continued existence of an external world. Demonstrative reasoning cannot do this, because demonstration (that is, deductive reasoning from well-founded premises) alone cannot establish the uniformity of nature (as captured by scientific laws and principles, for example). Such reason alone cannot establish that the future will resemble the past. We have certain beliefs about the world (that the sun will rise tomorrow, for example), but these beliefs are the product of habit and custom, and do not depend on any sort of logical inferences from what is already given certain. But probable reasoning (inductive reasoning), which aims to take us from the observed to the unobserved, cannot do this either: it also depends on the uniformity of nature, and this supposed uniformity cannot be proved, without circularity, by any appeal to uniformity. The best that either sort of reasoning can accomplish is conditional truth: if certain assumptions are true, then certain conclusions follow. So nothing about the world can be established with certainty. Hume concludes that there is no solution to the skeptical argument—except, in effect, to ignore it.
Even if these matters were resolved in every case, we would have in turn to justify our standard of justification, leading to an infinite regress (hence the term regress skepticism).
Many philosophers have questioned the value of such skeptical arguments. The question of whether we can achieve knowledge of the external world is based on how high a standard we set for the justification of such knowledge. If our standard is absolute certainty, then we cannot progress beyond the existence of mental sensations. We cannot even deduce the existence of a coherent or continuing "I" that experiences these sensations, much less the existence of an external world. On the other hand, if our standard is too low, then we admit follies and illusions into our body of knowledge. This argument against absolute skepticism asserts that the practical philosopher must move beyond solipsism, and accept a standard for knowledge that is high but not absolute.
ឩត្តមគតិនិយម
thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]] Idealism is the epistemological doctrine that nothing can be directly known outside of the minds of thinking beings. Or in an alternative stronger form, it is the metaphysical doctrine that nothing exists apart from minds and the "contents" of minds. In modern Western philosophy, the epistemological doctrine begins as a core tenet of Descartes—that what is in the mind is known more reliably than what is known through the senses. The first prominent modern Western idealist in the metaphysical sense was George Berkeley. Berkeley argued that there is no deep distinction between mental states, such as feeling pain, and the ideas about so-called "external" things, that appear to us through the senses. There is no real distinction, in this view, between certain sensations of heat and light that we experience, which lead us to believe in the external existence of a fire, and the fire itself. Those sensations are all there is to fire. Berkeley expressed this with the Latin formula esse est percipi: "to be is to be perceived". In this view the opinion, "strangely prevailing upon men", that houses, mountains, and rivers have an existence independent of their perception by a thinking being is false.
Forms of idealism were prevalent in philosophy from the 18th century to the early 20th century. Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood, since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his Critique of Pure Reason (1781–1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Kant's intention with this work was to look at what we know and then consider what must be true about it, as a logical consequence of the way we know it. One major theme was that there are fundamental features of reality that escape our direct knowledge because of the natural limits of the human faculties. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a conceptual or categorical framework on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained that things-in-themselves existed independently of our perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Indeed, Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.
The most notable work of this German idealism was G. W. F. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the "Hegelian dialectic". Philosophers in the Hegelian tradition include Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach, who coined the term projection as pertaining to our inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels; and the British idealists, notably T. H. Green, J. M. E. McTaggart and F. H. Bradley.
Few 20th century philosophers have embraced idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kant's "Copernican Turn" also remains an important philosophical concept today.
មនោនិយម​និងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម
ប្រតិបត្តិនិយម និង ឧករណ៍និយម Pragmatism and Instrumentalismthumb|[[William James]] Pragmatism was founded in the spirit of finding a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. The truth of a statement should be judged by the effect it has on our actions, and truth should be seen as what the whole of scientific enquiry ultimately agrees on. This should probably be seen as a guiding principle more than a definition of what it means for something to be true, though the details of how this principle should be interpreted have been subject to discussion since Charles S. Peirce first conceived it. Peirce's maxim of pragmatism is as follows: "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conceptions of the object." Like postmodern neo-pragmatist Richard Rorty, many are convinced that pragmatism asserts that the truth of beliefs does not consist in their correspondence with reality, but in their usefulness and efficacy.
The late 19th-century American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James were its co-founders, and it was later developed by John Dewey as instrumentalism. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualised final truth as something only established by the future, final settlement of all opinion. Critics have accused pragmatism of falling victim to a simple fallacy: because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is the basis for its truth. Thinkers in the pragmatist tradition have included John Dewey, George Santayana, W. V. O. Quine and C. I. Lewis. Pragmatism has more recently been taken in new directions by Richard Rorty, John Lachs, Donald Davidson, Susan Haack, and Hilary Putnam.
បាតុភូតវិទ្យា
Edmund Husserl's phenomenology was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general. An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called intentionality.
In the first part of his two-volume work, the Logical Investigations (1901), he launched an extended attack on psychologism. In the second part, he began to develop the technique of descriptive phenomenology, with the aim of showing how objective judgments are indeed grounded in conscious experience—not, however, in the first-person experience of particular individuals, but in the properties essential to any experiences of the kind in question.
He also attempted to identify the essential properties of any act of meaning. He developed the method further in Ideas (1913) as transcendental phenomenology, proposing to ground actual experience, and thus all fields of human knowledge, in the structure of consciousness of an ideal, or transcendental, ego. Later, he attempted to reconcile his transcendental standpoint with an acknowledgement of the intersubjective life-world in which real individual subjects interact. Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses.
Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as Martin Heidegger (formerly Husserl's research assistant), Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Indeed, through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism.
អត្ថិភាពនិយម
thumb|[[Søren Kierkegaard]] Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.
The main target of Kierkegaard's writings was the idealist philosophical system of Hegel which, he thought, ignored or excluded the inner subjective life of living human beings. Kierkegaard, conversely, held that "truth is subjectivity", arguing that what is most important to an actual human being are questions dealing with an individual's inner relationship to existence. In particular, Kierkegaard, a Christian, believed that the truth of religious faith was a subjective question, and one to be wrestled with passionately.
Sartre became the best-known proponent of existentialism, exploring it not only in theoretical works such as Being and Nothingness, but also in plays and novels. Sartre, along with Simone de Beauvoir, represented an avowedly atheistic branch of existentialism, which is now more closely associated with their ideas of nausea, contingency, bad faith, and the absurd than with Kierkegaard's spiritual angst. Nevertheless, the focus on the individual human being, responsible before the universe for the authenticity of his or her existence, is common to all these thinkers.
រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម និង ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម
thumb|[[Ferdinand de Saussure]] Inaugurated by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the discourses they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man.
Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by poststructuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines, while the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible.
Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early '70s, encompassing thinkers as diverse as Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes and Jacques Lacan. Post-structuralism came to predominate over the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze and even Roland Barthes; it incorporated a critique of structuralism's limitations.
ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ
The term analytic philosophy roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logics and clarity of meaning above all other criteria. Some have held that philosophical problems arise through misuse of language or because of misunderstandings of the logic of our language, while some maintain that there are genuine philosophical problems and that philosophy is continuous with science. Michael Dummett in his Origins of Analytical Philosophy makes the case for counting Gottlob Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic as the first analytic work, on the grounds that in that book Frege took the linguistic turn, analyzing philosophical problems through language. Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, beginning with their rejection of British idealism, their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid on the legitimacy of analysis. Russell's classic works The Principles of Mathematics, On Denoting and Principia Mathematica with Alfred North Whitehead, aside from greatly promoting the use of mathematical logic in philosophy, set the ground for much of the research program in the early stages of the analytic tradition, emphasizing such problems as: the reference of proper names, whether 'existence' is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, the discussions on the foundations of mathematics; as well as exploring issues of ontological commitment and even metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind, persistence and change, which Russell tackled often with the aid of mathematical logic. Russell and Moore's philosophy, in the beginning of the 20th century, developed as a critique of Hegel and his British followers in particular, and of grand systems of speculative philosophy in general, though by no means all analytic philosophers reject the philosophy of Hegel (see Charles Taylor) nor speculative philosophy. Some schools in the group include logical positivism, and ordinary language both markedly influenced by Russell and Wittgenstein's development of Logical Atomism the former positively and the latter negatively.
In 1921, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who studied under Russell at Cambridge, published his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he understood most of the problems of philosophy as mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by investigating and then minding the logical structure of language. Years later, he reversed a number of the positions he set out in the Tractatus, in for example his second major work, Philosophical Investigations (1953). Investigations was influential in the development of "ordinary language philosophy," which was promoted by Gilbert Ryle, J.L. Austin, and a few others. In the United States, meanwhile, the philosophy of W.V.O. Quine was having a major influence, with such classics as Two Dogmas of Empiricism. In that paper Quine criticizes the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of analyticity is unattainable. He argued for holism, the thesis that language, including scientific language, is a set of interconnected sentences, none of which can be verified on its own, rather, the sentences in the language depend on each other for their meaning and truth conditions. A consequence of Quine's approach is that language as a whole has only a thin relation to experience. Some sentences that refer directly to experience might be modified by sense impressions, but as the whole of language is theory-laden, for the whole language to be modified, more than this is required. However, most of the linguistic structure can in principle be revised, even logic, in order to better model the world. Notable students of Quine include Donald Davidson and Daniel Dennett. The former devised a program for giving a semantics to natural language and thereby answer the philosophical conundrum "what is meaning?". A crucial part of the program was the use of Alfred Tarski's semantic theory of truth. Dummett, among others, argued that truth conditions should be dispensed within the theory of meaning, and replaced by assertibility conditions. Some propositions, on this view, are neither true nor false, and thus such a theory of meaning entails a rejection of the law of the excluded middle. This, for Dummett, entails antirealism, as Russell himself pointed out in his An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth.
By the 1970s there was a renewed interest in many traditional philosophical problems by the younger generations of analytic philosophers. David Lewis, Saul Kripke, Derek Parfit and others took an interest in traditional metaphysical problems, which they began exploring by the use of logic and philosophy of language. Among those problems some distinguished ones were: free will, essentialism, the nature of personal identity, identity over time, the nature of the mind, the nature of causal laws, space-time, the properties of material beings, modality, etc. In those universities where analytic philosophy has spread, these problems are still being discussed passionately. Analytic philosophers are also interested in the methodology of analytic philosophy itself, with Timothy Williamson, Wykeham Professor of Logic at Oxford, publishing recently a book entitled The Philosophy of Philosophy. Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: Timothy Williamson, David Lewis, John Searle, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Michael Dummett, Peter van Inwagen and Saul Kripke. Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls and Anarchy, State and Utopia by Robert Nozick, analytic political philosophy acquired respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics, with Roger Scruton, Nelson Goodman, Arthur Danto and others developing the subject to its current shape.
ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស និង ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ
right|thumb|[[Thomas Hobbes]]
From ancient times, and well beyond them, the roots of justification for political authority were inescapably tied to outlooks on human nature. In The Republic, Plato presented the argument that the ideal society would be run by a council of philosopher-kings, since those best at philosophy are best able to realize the good. Even Plato, however, required philosophers to make their way in the world for many years before beginning their rule at the age of fifty. For Aristotle, humans are political animals (i.e. social animals), and governments are set up to pursue good for the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (polis) was the highest form of community, it has the purpose of pursuing the highest good. Aristotle viewed political power as the result of natural inequalities in skill and virtue. Because of these differences, he favored an aristocracy of the able and virtuous. For Aristotle, the person cannot be complete unless he or she lives in a community. His The Nicomachean Ethics and The Politics are meant to be read in that order. The first book addresses virtues (or "excellences") in the person as a citizen; the second addresses the proper form of government to ensure that citizens will be virtuous, and therefore complete. Both books deal with the essential role of justice in civic life.
Nicolas of Cusa rekindled Platonic thought in the early 15th century. He promoted democracy in Medieval Europe, both in his writings and in his organization of the Council of Florence. Unlike Aristotle and the Hobbesian tradition to follow, Cusa saw human beings as equal and divine (that is, made in God's image), so democracy would be the only just form of government. Cusa's views are credited by some as sparking the Italian Renaissance, which gave rise to the notion of "Nation-States".
Later, Niccolò Machiavelli rejected the views of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as unrealistic. The ideal sovereign is not the embodiment of the moral virtues; rather the sovereign does whatever is successful and necessary, rather than what is morally praiseworthy. Thomas Hobbes also contested many elements of Aristotle's views. For Hobbes, human nature is essentially anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. Moreover, Hobbes argued, though people may have natural inequalities, these are trivial, since no particular talents or virtues that people may have will make them safe from harm inflicted by others. For these reasons, Hobbes concluded that the state arises from a common agreement to raise the community out of the state of nature. This can only be done by the establishment of a sovereign, in which (or whom) is vested complete control over the community, and is able to inspire awe and terror in its subjects.
thumb|left|[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] Many in the Enlightenment were unsatisfied with existing doctrines in political philosophy, which seemed to marginalize or neglect the possibility of a democratic state. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was among those who attempted to overturn these doctrines: he responded to Hobbes by claiming that a human is by nature a kind of "noble savage", and that society and social contracts corrupt this nature. Another critic was John Locke. In Second Treatise on Government he agreed with Hobbes that the nation-state was an efficient tool for raising humanity out of a deplorable state, but he argued that the sovereign might become an abominable institution compared to the relatively benign unmodulated state of nature.
Following the doctrine of the fact-value distinction, due in part to the influence of David Hume and his student Adam Smith, appeals to human nature for political justification were weakened. Nevertheless, many political philosophers, especially moral realists, still make use of some essential human nature as a basis for their arguments.
Marxism is derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their idea that capitalism is based on exploitation of workers and causes alienation of people from their human nature, the historical materialism, their view of social classes, etc., have influenced many fields of study, such as sociology, economics, and politics. Marxism inspired the Marxist school of communism, which brought a huge impact on the history of the 20th century.
Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn
thumb|[[Jeremy Bentham]] One debate that has commanded the attention of ethicists in the modern era has been between consequentialism (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by their consequences) and deontology (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by consideration of agents' duties, the rights of those whom the action concerns, or both).
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are famous for propagating utilitarianism, which is the idea that the fundamental moral rule is to strive toward the "greatest happiness for the greatest number". However, in promoting this idea they also necessarily promoted the broader doctrine of consequentialism.
Adopting a position opposed to consequentialism, Immanuel Kant argued that moral principles were simply products of reason. Kant believed that the incorporation of consequences into moral deliberation was a deep mistake, since it denies the necessity of practical maxims in governing the working of the will. According to Kant, reason requires that we conform our actions to the categorical imperative, which is an absolute duty. An important 20th-century deontologist, W.D. Ross, argued for weaker forms of duties called prima facie duties.
More recent works have emphasized the role of character in ethics, a movement known as the aretaic turn (that is, the turn towards virtues). One strain of this movement followed the work of Bernard Williams. Williams noted that rigid forms of consequentialism and deontology demanded that people behave impartially. This, Williams argued, requires that people abandon their personal projects, and hence their personal integrity, in order to be considered moral.
G.E.M. Anscombe, in an influential paper, "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958), revived virtue ethics as an alternative to what was seen as the entrenched positions of Kantianism and consequentialism. Aretaic perspectives have been inspired in part by research of ancient conceptions of virtue. For example, Aristotle's ethics demands that people follow the Aristotelian mean, or balance between two vices; and Confucian ethics argues that virtue consists largely in striving for harmony with other people. Virtue ethics in general has since gained many adherents, and has been defended by such philosophers as Philippa Foot, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Rosalind Hursthouse.
Applied philosophy
The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. The applied study of philosophy yields applications such as those in ethics—applied ethics in particular—and political philosophy. The political and economic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Zi, Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taimiyyah, Niccolò Machiavelli, Gottfried Leibniz, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr. and others—all of these have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions.
In the field of philosophy of education, progressive education as championed by John Dewey has had a profound impact on educational practices in the United States in the 20th century. Descendants of this movement include the current efforts in philosophy for children, which are part of philosophy education. Carl von Clausewitz's political philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, international politics, and military strategy in the 20th century, especially in the years around World War II. Logic has become crucially important in mathematics, linguistics, psychology, computer science, and computer engineering.
Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence, and justified belief (important in law, economics, decision theory, and a number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. As such, philosophy has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. Deep ecology and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of music, literature, the plastic arts, and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.
Often philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not sufficiently well understood to be its own branch of knowledge. What were once philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields such as psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics, for example.
The New York Times reported an increase in philosophy majors at United States universities in 2008.
ទស្សនវិជ្ជា
ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាហិណ្ឌូបង្កើតបានជាផ្នែកសំខាន់មួយនៃវប្បធម៍នៃតំបន់អាស៊ីខាងត្បូងនិងជាលើកដំបូងនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា Dharmic ដែលមានឥទ្ធិពលពាសពេញទ្វីបអាស៊ី។ ភាពចម្រុះយ៉ាងខ្លាំងក្នុងការគិតនិងការអនុវត្តន៍នៃសាសនាហិណ្ឌូត្រូវបីបាច់ដោយសាកលវិទ្យាល័យសេរីរបស់ខ្លួន ពែរ្សបុរាណ (ផឺសៀរ) ទស្សនវិជ្ជាពែអាចឆ្លុះបញ្ចាំងត្រឡប់មកវិញដូចជានៅឆ្ងាយដូចប្រពៃណីទស្សនវិទូអ៊ីរ៉ង់និងគំនិតចាស់ដោយមានឫសឥណ្ឌូអ៊ីរ៉ង់បុរាណរបស់ពួកគេ។ ទាំងនេះត្រូវបានរងឥទ្ធិពលគួរឱ្យកត់សម្គាល់ដោយការបង្រៀន Zarathustra នេះ។ ទូទាំងប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តអ៊ីរ៉ង់ហើយដោយសារតែឥទ្ធិពលនយោបាយនិងសង្គមគួរឱ្យកត់សម្គាល់ដូចជាម៉ាសេដូនីអារ៉ាប់និងឈ្លានពានរបស់ម៉ុងហ្គោលនៃ Persia, វិសាលគមធំទូលាយមួយនៃការគិតរបស់សាលារៀនក្រោកឡើង។ ទាំងនេះបានប្រកាន់ភាពខុសគ្នានៃទស្សនៈលើសំណួរទស្សនវិជ្ជាមួយដែលលាតសន្ធឹងពីអ៊ីរ៉ង់និងភាគច្រើនជាប្រពៃណីដែលមានឥទ្ធិពលចាស់ Zoroastrianism ដល់សាលារៀនលេចឡើងនៅក្នុងសម័យមុនអ៊ីស្លាមចុង, ដូចជាម៉ានិចនិង Mazdakism ព្រមទាំងសាលារៀនអ៊ីស្លាមនានាក្រោយ។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាអ៊ីរ៉ង់បន្ទាប់ពីការលុកលុយអារ៉ាប់ពែរ្សត្រូវបានកំណត់ដោយអន្តរកម្មផ្សេងគ្នាជាមួយទស្សនវិជ្ជាអ៊ីរ៉ង់ចាស់, ទស្សនវិជ្ជាក្រិចនិងជាមួយការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃទស្សនៈអ៊ីស្លាម។ សាលាបំភ្លឺនិង theosophy ហួសពីត្រូវបានចាត់ទុកថាជាប្រពៃណីពីរនាក់នៃសម័យចម្បងរបស់ទស្សនវិជ្ជានៅពែរ្សនោះ។ Zoroastrianism ត្រូវបានគេកំណត់ថាជាផ្នែកមួយនៃព្រឹត្តិការណ៍ដើមសំខាន់នៅក្នុងការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃទស្សនៈនេះ។ [13] សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦[កែប្រែ​កូដ] អឺរ៉ុប[កែប្រែ​កូដ] មជ្ឈិម
ប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាមជ្ឈិមសម័យនៅអឺរ៉ុបភាគខាងលិចត្រូវបានបែងចែកជាប្រពៃណីនេះទៅជារយៈពេលសំខាន់ពីរនៅក្នុងរយៈពេលខាងលិចបន្ទាប់ពីការកឡាទីនដើមជ្ឈឹមវ័យរហូតដល់សតវត្សទី 12 នៅពេលដែលការប្រព្រឹត្ដរបស់អារីស្តូតនិងផ្លាតូត្រូវបានអភិរក្សនិងការដាំដុះ; និង "យុគសម័យមាស" [ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង] នៃទី 12, ទី 13 និងសតវត្សទី 14 នៅឡាទីនភាគខាងលិចដែលបានធ្វើជាសាក្សីចំណុចខ្ពស់បំផុតនៃការងើបឡើងវិញនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ, និងការអភិវឌ្ឍយ៉ាងសំខាន់នៅក្នុងវាលនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃសាសនាតក្កនិងបរមត្ថនេះ។
បញ្ហាមួយចំនួនដែលបានពិភាក្សានៅទូទាំងរយៈពេលនេះគឺជាទំនាក់ទំនងនៃសេចក្ដីជំនឿវែកញែកអត្ថិភាពនិងសាមគ្គីភាពរបស់ព្រះជាម្ចាស់វត្ថុនៃទេវវិទ្យានិងបរមត្ថ, បញ្ហានៃចំណេះដឹងនៃសាកលវិទ្យាល័យនិងរបស់បុគ្គល។
ទស្សនវិទូពីមជ្ឈឹមវ័យរួមមានទស្សនវិទូពួកគ្រីស្ទាន Augustine នៃហីពប៉ូ, Boethius, Anselm, លោក Gilbert នៃ Poitiers, លោក Peter Abelard, លោក Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, លោក Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, លោក William នៃ Ockham និងលោក Jean Buridan; ទស្សនវិទូសាសន៍យូដា Maimonides និង Gersonides; និងទស្សនវិទូម៉ូស្លីម Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen, អាវីសេនណា, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer និង Averroes ។ ប្រពៃណីយុគកណ្ដាលនៃ Scholasticism បន្តមានការរីកចំរើននៅចុងសតវត្សទី 17 ក្នុងតួលេខដូចជាហ្វ្រាន់ស៊ីស្កូនិងលោកយ៉ូហានជារបស់កីឡាករ Suarez ផ្លូវថូម៉ាស។
Aquinas ជាឪពុករបស់ Thomism គឺមានឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងខ្លាំងនៅក្នុងកាតូលិកអឺរ៉ុបបានដាក់ការគូសបញ្ជាក់យ៉ាងខ្លាំងទៅលើអំណះអំណាងហេតុផលនិងជាផ្នែកមួយនៃការលើកដំបូងដើម្បីប្រើការបកប្រែថ្មីនៃការសរសេរជំនឿនិង epistemological របស់អារីស្តូត។ ការងាររបស់គាត់គឺជាការចាកចេញពីការគិត Neoplatonic សំខាន់និង Augustinian ដែលបានគ្របដណ្តប់ច្រើននៃដើម Scholasticism ។
សម័យបុនភព ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ( "កើត") គឺជាសម័យកាលមួយនៃការផ្លាស់ប្តូររវាងមជ្ឈឹមវ័យនិងគំនិតសម័យទំនើប, [16] ដែលនៅក្នុងការងើបឡើងវិញនៃអត្ថបទបុរាណដែលបានជួយផ្លាស់ប្តូរផលប្រយោជន៍ទស្សនវិជ្ជាឆ្ងាយពីការសិក្សាបច្ចេកទេសក្នុងការតក្ក metaphysics និងទ្រឹស្ដីឆ្ពោះទៅរកការសាកសួរសម្រាំងចូលទៅក្នុងសីលធម៍, philology និងរៀបចំធ្វើកិច្ចការជំនួញ។ [17] [18] ការសិក្សាពីបុរាណនិងសិល្បៈមនុស្សទូទៅដូចជាប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនិងអក្សរសាស្រ្ត, ការរីករាយការចាប់អារម្មណ៍សិក្សាមួយដែលរហូតមកដែលមិនស្គាល់ក្នុងពិភពគ្រីស្ទ, ទំនោរសំដៅដល់ថាជាមនុស្សម្នាក់។ [19] [20 ] កម្មការិនីចាប់អារម្មណ៍ medieval នៅក្នុង metaphysics និងតក្ក humanistic តាមពីក្រោយក្នុងការធ្វើបុរសម្នាក់ Petrarch និងគុណសម្បត្តិរបស់គាត់ផ្តោតអារម្មណ៍នៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា។ [21] [22] ការសិក្សានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណផងដែរការអភិវឌ្ឍនៅក្នុងវិធីថ្មីពីរ។ នៅលើដៃមួយ, ការសិក្សារបស់អារីស្តូតនេះត្រូវបានផ្លាស់ប្តូរតាមរយៈឥទ្ធិពលនៃ Averroism នេះ។ ការខ្វែងគំនិតគ្នារវាង Averroist របស់អារីស្តូតនេះ, និងអារីស្តូតកាតូលិកគ្រិស្តអូស្សូដក់ជាច្រើនទៀតដូចជាការ Albertus Magnus និងលោក Thomas Aquinas នេះនៅទីបំផុតបានរួមចំណែកដល់ការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃ "របស់អារីស្តូត humanistic" បានបង្កើតនៅក្នុងក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ដូចឧទាហរណ៍បញ្ជាក់នៅក្នុងការគិតរបស់លោក Pietro Pomponazzi និង Giacomo Zabarella នេះ។ ទីពីរ, ជាការជំនួសទៅអារីស្តូតបានសិក្សារបស់លោកផ្លាតូនិង Neoplatonists បានក្លាយជារឿងធម្មតា។ នេះត្រូវបានជួយដោយការប្រព្រឹត្ដដែលសង្កេតឃើញនៃការមិនត្រូវបានគេកាលពីមុនគេស្គាល់ផងដែរនោះនៅអឺរ៉ុបខាងលិច។ Platonists ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance គួរឱ្យកត់សម្គាល់រួមមានលោក Nicholas នៃ Cusa ហើយក្រោយមក Marsilio Ficino និងលោក Giovanni Pico ល្លា Mirandola ។ [22]
ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ចាប់អារម្មណ៍ជាថ្មីផងដែរនៅក្នុងទ្រឹស្តីប្រឆាំងរបស់អារីស្តូតនៃធម្មជាតិចាត់ទុកថាជាសរីរាង្គមួយដែលរស់នៅទាំងមូលទូលំទូលាយដោយឯករាជ្យនៃទ្រឹស្ដីដូចនៅក្នុងការងាររបស់នីកូឡានៃ Cusa, លោក Nicholas លោក Copernicus, ការងារលោក Bruno, Telesius និង Tommaso Campanella នេះ [23] ចលនាបែបនេះ។ ក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជាធម្មជាតិ dovetailed ជាមួយនឹងការរស់ឡើងវិញនៃការចាប់អារម្មណ៍ក្នុងការ occult, វេទមន្ត, hermeticism និងហោរាសាស្ដ្រដែលត្រូវបានគេគិតថាដើម្បីទទួលបានវិធីដែលបានលាក់នៃការដឹងនិងគ្រូធម្មជាតិ (ឧទា, ក្នុង Marsilio Ficino និងលោក Giovanni Pico ល្លា Mirandola នេះ) ។ [24]
ចលនាថ្មីទាំងនេះនៅក្នុងការអភិវឌ្ឍដែលមានស្រាប់ជាមួយនឹងទស្សនវិជ្ជាការបម្លែងខាងសាសនានិងនយោបាយដែលមានទំហំធំនៅអឺរ៉ុប: ការធ្វើកំណែទម្រង់និងការធ្លាក់ចុះនៃសក្ដិភូមិនេះ។ បើទោះបីជាទ្រឹស្ដីរបស់ពួកប្រូតេស្ដង់កំណែទម្រង់នេះបានបង្ហាញការចាប់អារម្មណ៍ដោយផ្ទាល់តិចតួចនៅក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជា, ការបំផ្លិចបំផ្លាញរបស់ពួកគេនៃគ្រឹះប្រពៃណីនៃសិទ្ធិអំណាចខាងសាសនានិងបញ្ញាចុះសំរុងគ្នាជាមួយនឹងការរស់ឡើងវិញនៃ fideism និងសង្ស័យអ្នកគិតដូចជាកម្មវិធីអាហារូបករណ៍ Erasmus, Montaigne, និងហ្វ្រាន់ស៊ីស្កូ Sanches បានទេ។ [25] [26 ] [27] ទន្ទឹមនឹងនេះដែរ, កណ្តាលបន្តិចម្តងនៃអំណាចនយោបាយនៅក្នុងប្រទេសរដ្ឋត្រូវបានបន្ទរដោយការកើតនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានយោបាយមិនទាក់ទងនឹងសាសនាដែលនៅក្នុងការប្រព្រឹត្ដរបស់ Niccolo Machiavelli (ជាញឹកញាប់បានរៀបរាប់ថាជាអ្នកគិតនយោបាយដំបូងទំនើបឬចំណុចរបត់សំខាន់មួយឆ្ពោះទៅរកសម័យទំនើប គិតនយោបាយ [28]), លោក Thomas បន្ថែម, កម្មវិធីអាហារូបករណ៍ Erasmus, យូស្ទូស Lipsius, លោក Jean Bodin, និង Hugo Grotius ។ [29] [30 អាស៊ីខាងកើត [កែប្រែកូដ] ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: លទ្ធិខុងជឺថ្មី ទស្សនវិជ្ជាចិនពាក់កណ្តាលត្រូវបានកំណត់ជាចម្បងអធិរាជការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃដោយលទ្ធិខុងជឺបាន។ ក្នុងអំឡុងពេលរាជវង្សថាំងព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនាមកពីប្រទេសនេប៉ាល់ផងដែរបានក្លាយជាវិន័យទស្សនវិជ្ជានិងសាសនាលេចធ្លោ។ (វាគួរតែត្រូវបានកត់សម្គាល់ថាទស្សនវិជ្ជានិងសាសនាត្រូវបានគេបានសម្គាល់យ៉ាងច្បាស់នៅភាគខាងលិចខណៈពេលដែលគំនិតទាំងនេះត្រូវបានបន្តជាច្រើនទៀតនៅភាគខាងកើតដោយសារតែការ, ឧទាហរណ៍, គំនិតទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា) ។ ស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី 19 [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: នៅសតវត្សរ៍ទី 19 ទស្សនវិជ្ជា ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទំនើបក្រោយមកជាធម្មតាត្រូវបានចាត់ទុកថាជាការចាប់ផ្តើមបន្ទាប់ពីទស្សនវិជ្ជារបស់អេម៉ាញូអែ Kant នៅដើមនៃសតវត្សទី 19 ។ [31] ទស្សនៈវិជ្ជាអាឡឺម៉ង់បានធ្វើលំហាត់ប្រាណមានឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងទូលំទូលាយនៅក្នុងសតវត្សនេះដោយសារមួយផ្នែកទៅនឹងឥទ្ធិពលនៃប្រព័ន្ធសាកលវិទ្យាល័យអាឡឺម៉ង់។ [32] អាឡឺម៉ង់ គំនិតនិយមដូចជាយ៉ូហាន Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel និងលោក Friedrich Wilhelm លោកយ៉ូសែប Schelling, ផ្លាស់ប្តូរការងាររបស់ Kant ដោយរក្សាបាននូវថាពិភពលោកត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើងដោយមានដំណើរការសមហេតុផលឬចិត្តដូចនិងជាបែបនេះគឺ knowable ទាំងស្រុង។ [33] លោក Arthur Schopenhauer បានកំណត់អត្តសញ្ញាណនៃដំណើរការពិភពលោក constituting នេះជាឆន្ទៈមិនសមហេតុផលដើម្បីរស់នៅបានមានឥទ្ធិពលនៅពេលក្រោយ 19th- និងគំនិតដើមសតវត្សទី 20 ដូចជាមូលនិធិ Friedrich Nietzsche ការងាររបស់ Freud បាននិងតែ Sigmund ។
Gottlob Frege និង Henry Sidgwick ការងារដែលនៅតក្កនិងសីលធម៍, រៀងគ្នាបានផ្តល់ឧបករណ៍សម្រាប់ទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគដំបូង។ លោក Charles Sanders Peirce និងលោក William លោក James ដែលបានបង្កើតអនុវត្តជាក់ស្តែង។ Soren Kierkegaard និងមូលនិធិ Friedrich Nietzsche ដែលបានដាក់មូលដ្ឋានសម្រាប់ទ្រឹស្តីទស្សននិងក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធ។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី 20 [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសហសម័យ នៅក្នុងសតវត្សទីចុងក្រោយដែលជាទស្សនវិជ្ជាមួយដែលបានក្លាយទៅជាកាន់តែខ្លាំងឡើងនៅក្នុងការអនុវត្តវិន័យដែលមានជំនាញវិជ្ជាជីវៈសាកលវិទ្យាល័យ, ដូចជាវិញ្ញាសាសិក្សាផ្សេងទៀត។ ដូច្នោះហើយវាបានក្លាយទៅជាតិចទូទៅនិងជាពិសេសជាច្រើនទៀត។ នៅក្នុងទិដ្ឋភាពនៃប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តថ្មីដែលលេចធ្លោមួយ: "។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបានក្លាយជាវិន័យរៀបចំខ្ពស់, បានធ្វើឡើងដោយអ្នកជំនាញជាចម្បងសម្រាប់អ្នកជំនាញផ្សេងទៀតចំនួននៃទស្សនវិទូបានផ្ទុះទំហំនៃការបោះពុម្ពផ្សាយនេះបានកើនឡើងនិងការ subfields នៃការស៊ើបអង្កេតទស្សនវិជ្ជាធ្ងន់ធ្ងរបានគុណ។ មិនតែប៉ុណ្ណោះគឺជាវាលធំទូលាយនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានាពេលបច្ចុប្បន្ននេះនៅឆ្ងាយពេកទៅនឹងត្រូវបានធំទូលាយដោយមានចិត្ដគំនិតតែមួយឱប, អ្វីមួយដែលស្រដៀងគ្នានេះដែរគឺជាការពិតសូម្បីតែការ subfields ឯកទេសខ្ពស់ជាច្រើន "។ [35]
នៅក្នុងពិភពលោកនិយាយភាសាអង់គ្លេស, ទស្សនវិជ្ជានៅសាលាវិភាគបានក្លាយជាច្រើននៃការលេចធ្លោសតវត្សរ៍ទី 20 ។ នៅក្នុងពាក់កណ្តាលទីមួយនៃសតវត្សរ៍នេះវាជាសាលារៀនស្អិតរមួត, រាងយ៉ាងខ្លាំងដោយ positivism ឡូជីខល, រួបរួមដោយសញ្ញាណថាបញ្ហាទស្សនវិជ្ជាអាចនិងគួរត្រូវបានដោះស្រាយដោយយកចិត្តទុកដាក់ក្នុងការតក្កនិងភាសា។ ការងារត្រួសត្រាយផ្លូវរបស់លោក Bertrand រ័សុលគឺជាគំរូសម្រាប់ការអភិវឌ្ឍដំបូងនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគមួយផ្លាស់ប្តូរពីការបដិសេធនៃមនោគមនិយមលេចធ្លោនៅចុងទស្សនវិជ្ជារបស់អង់គ្លេសសតវត្សទី 19 ដើម្បី empiricism neo-Humean បានពង្រឹងដោយធនធានស្មារតីនៃតក្កគណិតវិទ្យាទំនើបនេះ។ [36 ] [37] [38] នៅក្នុងពាក់កណ្តាលសតវត្សរ៍ទី 20 ចូលទៅក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគបាំងគ្នាធំមួយនៃទស្សនៈទស្សនវិជ្ជារប៉ាត់រប៉ាយ, រួបរួមតែរលុងដោយបន្ទាត់ប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនៃការប្តេជ្ញាចិត្តនិងមានឥទ្ធិពលលើខ្លួនឯងបានកំណត់ភាពច្បាស់លាស់និងមានការយកចិត្តទុកដាក់ខ្ពស់។ នេះជាការផ្លាស់ប្តូរក្រោយសង្គ្រាមនៃកម្មវិធីវិភាគបានដឹកនាំក្នុងទិសដៅធំទូលាយចំនួនពីរ: នៅលើដៃមួយ, ការចាប់អារម្មណ៍នៅក្នុងភាសាសាមញ្ញដូចជាវិធីនៃការជៀសវាងឬ redescribing បញ្ហាបែបប្រពៃណីទស្សនវិទូនិងនៅលើផ្សេងទៀតដែលជាធម្មជាតិ thoroughgoing ទៀតដែលបានស្វែងរកដើម្បីរំលាយល្បែងផ្គុំរូបនេះ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទំនើបតាមរយៈលទ្ធផលនៃវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តធម្មជាតិ (ដូចជាចិត្តវិទ្យាយល់ដឹងនិងការវិវត្តនជីវវិទ្យា) ។ ការផ្លាស់ប្តូរនៅក្នុងការងាររបស់ Ludwig Wittgenstein, ពីល្អៀងទិដ្ឋភាពមួយជាមួយនឹង positivism ឡូជីខលទៅជាការរំលាយព្យាបាលនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបែបប្រពៃណីដូចជាការយល់ច្រឡំភាសានៃទម្រង់ធម្មតានៃជីវិតគឺជាកំណែមានឥទ្ធិពលបំផុតនៃទិសដៅដំបូងក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគ។ [39] [ 40] ការងារក្រោយរ័សុលនិងទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃ WVO នេះ លោកក្វីនបានមានតាំងគំរូឥទ្ធិពលនៃវិធីសាស្រ្តធម្មជាតិដែលបានលេចធ្លោនៅក្នុងឆមាសទីពីរនៃសតវត្សរ៍ទី 20 [41] [42] [43] [44] ប៉ុន្តែភាពចម្រុះនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគពីទសវត្សរ៍ឆ្នាំ 1970 មកម៉្លេះ defies ការបង្កើតភាពងាយស្រួល: ។ ធម្មជាតិនៃលោកក្វីនបាននិងរបស់គាត់ epigoni គឺនៅឯបរិវេណមួយចំនួនជំនួសដោយ "បរមត្ថថ្មី" របស់ពិភពលោកអាចធ្វើបានដូចនៅក្នុងការងារមានឥទ្ធិពលរបស់ព្រះបាទដាវីឌ Lewis បាន។ [45] [46] នេះ, ចលនាទស្សនវិជ្ជាពិសោធន៍បានព្យាយាមពិចារណាហើយកែប្រែតាមរយៈការបច្ចេកទេសមានបញ្ហាទស្សនវិជ្ជាការស្រាវជ្រាវវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តសង្គម។
នៅលើទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប, គ្មានសាលាតែមួយឬអារម្មណ៍រីករាយឥទ្ធិពល។ ការហោះហើររបស់ positivists ឡូជីខលមកពីអឺរ៉ុបភាគកណ្តាលក្នុងអំឡុងឆ្នាំ 1930 និងឆ្នាំ 1940 ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា, ថយចុះការចាប់អារម្មណ៍ក្នុងវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តទស្សនវិជ្ជាធម្មជាតិហើយនិងការសង្កត់ធ្ងន់លើមនុស្សសាស្ត្រមួយបានបកស្រាយថាយ៉ាងទូលាយ, តួលេខលេចធ្លោនៅក្នុងអ្វីដែលត្រូវបានគេហៅថាជាធម្មតា«ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទ្វីប»។ ចលនាសតវត្សទី 20 ដូចជាអភូតហេតុ និរុត្តិវិទ្យា [កែប្រែកូដ] សេចក្តីណែនាំនៃពាក្យ "ទស្សនវិទូ" និង "ទស្សនវិជ្ជា" ត្រូវបានអះអាងលើហេតុផលក្នុងការគិតក្រិច Pythagoras ។ [51] ascription នេះត្រូវបានគេនិយាយថាត្រូវបានផ្អែកលើការអនុម័តនៅក្នុងការងារដែលបានបាត់ពី Herakleides Pontikos, សិស្សរបស់អារីស្តូតមួយ។ វាត្រូវបានគេចាត់ទុកថាជាផ្នែកមួយនៃរាងកាយរីករាលដាលនៃរឿងព្រេងរបស់ Pythagoras នៃពេលវេលានេះ។ "ទស្សនវិទូ" ត្រូវបានយល់ថាជាពាក្យដែលផ្ទុយស្រឡះជាមួយ "ទំនើប" (ពី sophoi) មួយ។ ការធ្វើដំណើរទំនើបឬ«អ្នកប្រាជ្ញ»ត្រូវបានគេសំខាន់ក្នុងបុរាណក្រិចជាញឹកញាប់ប្រាក់ជាគ្រូបង្រៀនរកប្រាក់ចំណូលបានចំណែកទស្សនវិទូ«ស្រឡាញ់ប្រាជ្ញា»និងមិនជំនាញ។
សនិទាននិយម និង ពិសោធន៍និយម សមហេតុផលណាមួយដែលសង្កត់ធ្ងន់ទៅលើទស្សនៈនេះគឺជាតួនាទីឬសារៈសំខាន់នៃហេតុផលរបស់មនុស្ស។ សនិទាននិយមខ្លាំងព្យាយាមមូលដ្ឋានចំណេះដឹងទាំងអស់នៅលើហេតុផលតែម្នាក់ឯង។ សនិទាននិយមជាធម្មតាចាប់ផ្តើមពីបរិវេណដែលអាចត្រូវបានបដិសេធមិន coherently បន្ទាប់មកព្យាយាមដោយជំហានឡូជីខលដើម្បីឈានទៅដល់គ្រប់វត្ថុដែលអាចធ្វើបាននៃចំណេះដឹង។
នេះសនិទាននិយមដំបូងនៅក្នុងន័យធំទូលាយនេះត្រូវបានប្រារព្ធឡើងជាញឹកញាប់ដើម្បីឱ្យមានផាមីនិ (FL ។ 500 មុនគ) ដែលបានអះអាងថាវាមិនអាចទៅរួចទេសង្ស័យថាគិតកើតឡើងជាក់ស្តែង។ ប៉ុន្តែការគិតត្រូវមានវត្ថុមួយ, ដូច្នេះអ្វីមួយដែលហួសពីការគិតពិតជាមាន។ ផាមីនិ deduced ថាអ្វីដែលពិតជាមានត្រូវតែមានលក្ខណៈសម្បត្តិសម្រាប់ការមួយចំនួនឧទាហរណ៍ថាវាមិនអាចចូលមកក្នុងអត្ថិភាពឬដើម្បីបញ្ឈប់ការមាន, ថាវាគឺជាការទាំងមូល coherent, ថាវានៅតែមានដូចគ្នានៅអស់កល្បជានិច្ច (ជាការពិតនៅខាងក្រៅទាំងអស់គ្នាមានពេល) ។ នេះត្រូវបានគេស្គាល់ថាជាអាគុយម៉ង់បុរសទីបី។ ការ Zeno នៃ Elea (កើតនៅគ។ 495 មុនគ) ជាសិស្សរបស់ផាមីនិមួយហើយបានអះអាងថាចលនានេះគឺមិនអាចទៅរួចនោះទេចាប់តាំងពីមានការអះអាងថាវាមានបង្កប់ន័យផ្ទុយមួយ (សូមមើលសញ្ញាព្រួញរបស់ Zeno) ។
លោកផ្លាតូ (427-347 មុនគ) ត្រូវបានរងឥទ្ធិពលផងដែរដោយផាមីនិចទេប៉ុន្តែរួមបញ្ចូលគ្នាសនិទាននិយមជាមួយនឹងការរបាកដនិយមមួយ។ ការងារទស្សនវិទូនេះគឺដើម្បីពិចារណាសុខុមាលភាពនិងខ្លឹមសារ (ousia) នៃរឿង។ ប៉ុន្តែលក្ខណៈនៃសារៈសំខាន់នោះគឺថាពួកគេគឺជាសកល។ ធម្មជាតិនៃបុរសម្នាក់, ត្រីកោណ, ដើមឈើមួយនេះបានអនុវត្តទៅមនុស្សទាំងអស់, ត្រីកោណទាំងអស់ដើមឈើទាំងអស់។ លោកផ្លាតូបានអះអាងថាទាំងនេះគឺមានសារៈសំខាន់ "ទម្រង់" គំនិតឯករាជ្យដែលមនុស្ស (ប៉ុន្តែជាពិសេសទស្សនវិទូ) អាចចូលមកស្គាល់ដោយមូលហេតុនិងដោយមិនអើពើនឹងការរំខាននៃការយល់-ការយល់ឃើញនេះ។
សនិទាននិយមសម័យទំនើបបានចាប់ផ្តើមជាមួយនឹងការដេកា។ ការឆ្លុះបញ្ចាំងលើធម្មជាតិនៃបទពិសោធដែលអាចស្គាល់ការរកឃើញផងដែរនៅសរីរវិទ្យានិងវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តអុបទិចដែលដឹកនាំដេកាត (ហើយចាក់សោ) ដើម្បីទិដ្ឋភាពដែលយើងមានដោយផ្ទាល់ដឹងអំពីការគំនិតជាជាងវត្ថុ។ ទិដ្ឋភាពនេះបានបណ្ដាលឱ្យមានសំណួរចំនួនបី:
Empiricism ផ្ទុយទៅសនិទាននិយម, មិនដែលឬបដិសេធចោលសមត្ថភាពនៃហេតុផលតែម្នាក់ឯងដើម្បីទទួលបានចំនេះដឹងនៃពិភពលោក, preferring ទៅមូលដ្ឋានចំណេះដឹងណាមួយដែលយើងមាននៅលើអារម្មណ៍របស់យើង។ នេះបានចុះកាលបរិច្ឆេទត្រលប់ទៅគំនិតនៃ rasa គ្រាប់ (កុំព្យូទ័របន្ទះ unscribed) ទាំងស្រុងរបស់អារីស្តូតនៅលើព្រលឹងដែលបានរៀបរាប់ជាច្រើនទៀតជាក់លាក់នៅក្នុងរបស់អាវីសេនណាសៀវភៅនៃការព្យាបាល, [52] និងបានបង្ហាញនៅក្នុង Ibn Tufail របស់ Hayy Ibn Yaqdhan ជាការពិសោធន៍គំនិតមួយ។ [53] សម័យទំនើប empiricism ត្រូវបានពន្យល់ដោយ Francis Bacon ដែលគួរឱ្យកត់សំគាល់ជាលោកយ៉ូហាន Lock នៅក្នុងអត្ថបទមួយស្ដីអំពីការយល់ដឹងមនុស្សនៅឆ្នាំ 1689 និង David Hume ។
ក្នុងអំឡុងពេលសម័យនេះគំនិតសាសនាបានដើរតួនាទីយ៉ាងលាយបញ្ចូលគ្នាក្នុងការតស៊ូដែលជាប់រវល់ទស្សនៈវិជ្ជាខាងលោកិយឡើយ។ refutation ឧត្តមគតិនៃគោលការណ៍សំខាន់ល្បីរបស់អ៊ីសាកញូតុនប៊ីស្សព Berkeley គឺករណីនៃការទស្សនវិទូត្រាស់ដឹងដែលបានទាក់ទាញខ្លាំងពីគំនិតសាសនា។ អ្នកគិតសាសនាមានឥទ្ធិពលផ្សេងទៀតនៃពេលវេលាដែលរួមមានលោក Blaise Pascal, លោកយ៉ូសែបលោក Butler, លោក Thomas Reid និងយ៉ូណាថាន Edwards បាន។ អ្នកនិពន្ធសំខាន់ផ្សេងទៀតដូចជាលោក Jean-Jacques Rousseau និង Edmund Burke បានយកផ្លូវផ្សេងគ្នាជា។ [ត្រូវការបញ្ជាក់]
សង្ស័យនិយម [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: ប៉ះពាល់សេដ្ឋកិច្ច សង្ស័យជាអាកប្បកិរិយាទស្សនវិទូថានៅក្នុងសំណុំបែបបទខ្លាំងបំផុតរបស់ខ្លួន, សួរលទ្ធភាពនៃការទទួលបានការតម្រៀបនៃចំណេះដឹងណាមួយ។ វាត្រូវបានបញ្ជាក់យ៉ាងច្បាស់ជាលើកដំបូងដោយ Pyrrho ដែលជឿថាអ្វីគ្រប់យ៉ាងអាចនឹងត្រូវបានលើកលែងតែការបង្ហាញខ្លួននៅសង្ស័យ។ Sextus Empiricus (សតវត្សទី 2 នៃគ), ការតស៊ូមតិលេចធ្លោបំផុតសង្ស័យរបស់រៀបរាប់អំពីវាជា
«សមត្ថភាពដើម្បីដាក់នៅក្នុង antithesis, ក្នុងលក្ខណៈណាមួយអ្វីដែល, ការបង្ហាញខ្លួននិងវិន័យហើយដូច្នេះ ... អញ្ជើញមកមុននៃការទាំងអស់ឱ្យមានការព្យួរការវិនិច្ឆ័យមួយហើយបន្ទាប់មកទៅកាន់ Tran ផ្លូវចិត្ត
អត្ថិភាពនិយម
សព្វគឺជាពាក្យដែលបានអនុវត្តការងារនៃចំនួន 19th- ចុងសតវត្សទី 20 និងទស្សនវិទូម្នាក់ដែលបាន, បើទោះបីជាភាពខុសគ្នាខាងគោលលទ្ធិយ៉ាងជ្រាលជ្រៅ, [68] [69] បានចែករំលែកជំនឿដែលថាការគិតចាប់ផ្តើមជាមួយនឹងប្រធានបទទស្សនវិទូមិនមែនមនុស្សគ្រាន់តែជាប្រធានបទការគិតមួយ ប៉ុន្តែការសម្ដែង, អារម្មណ៍, ការរស់នៅរបស់បុគ្គលរបស់មនុស្ស។ [70] នៅក្នុងទ្រឹស្តីទស្សនចំណុចចាប់ផ្តើមរបស់បុគ្គលដែលត្រូវបានកំណត់ដោយអ្វីដែលត្រូវបានគេហៅថា«អាកប្បកិរិយាសព្វ ", ឬអារម្មណ៍នៃអារម្មណ៍ភាន់ភាំងនិងការភាន់ច្រឡំនៅក្នុងការប្រឈមមុខនឹងមួយជាក់ស្តែងឥតបានការឬមិនទំនងនេះ នៅលើពិភពលោក។ [71] ទ្រឹជាច្រើនចាត់ទុកថាផងដែរទស្សនវិជ្ជាមានលក្ខណៈជាប្រព័ន្ធឬសិក្សាតាមបែបប្រពៃណី, ទាំងនៅក្នុងរចនាប័ទ្មនិងមាតិកា, ជាអរូបីផងដែរនិងពីចម្ងាយពីបទពិសោធបេតុងមនុស្ស។ [72] [73]
ទោះបីជាពួកគេមិនបានប្រើពាក្យនេះជាទស្សនវិទូសតវត្សទី 19 Soren Kierkegaard និងមូលនិធិ Friedrich Nietzsche ត្រូវបានគេចាត់ទុកជាទូទៅថាជាឪពុកនៃទ្រឹស្តីទស្សននេះ។ ឥទ្ធិពលរបស់ខ្លួន, ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា, បានពង្រីកហួសពីការគិតទ្រឹ។ [74] [75] [76]