cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
​វិលហែម វុឌ
លោក វិលហែម​ មាស៊ីលៀន វុឌ(Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt) កើតនៅថ្ងៃទី ១៦ ខែ សីហា ឆ្នាំ ១៨៣២ និង ស្លាប់នៅ ថ្ងៃទី ៣១ ខែ សីហា ឆ្នាំ ១៩២០ right|thumb|250px|លោក វិលហែម​ មាស៊ីលៀន វុឌ ដែលជាអ្នកចិត្តវិទូជនជាតិអាឡឺម៉ង់ ហើយក៏ជាអ្នករកឃើញនូវរបកគំហើញនៃចិត្តវិទ្យាដែរ។យោងទៅតាមការសិក្សាស្រាវជ្រាវ និងការកឃើញអំពីវិជ្ជានៃចិត្តវិទ្យារបស់គាត់ ធ្វើអោយគាត់បានហៅខ្លួនគាត់ផ្ទាល់ថា​ជាអ្នកចិត្តវិទ្យា។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៧៩ វុឌ បានរកឃើញពិសោធន៏មួយអំពីចិត្តវិទ្យានៅ លីបហ្សីង ហើយនេះគឺជាគោលចំបងដែលត្រូវសិក្សាសម្រាប់គាត់។ ដោយការរុករកស្រាវជ្រាវរបស់គាត់ជាមួយនឹងមន្ទីពិសោធន៏ ផ្អែកទៅលើជំនឿនៃសាសនាបើនិយាយពីចិត្តវិទ្យាទៅវាមានលក្ខណៈ មិនប្រក្រតីមិនរៀបរយ ទៅតាមជំនឿនីមួយៗដូចជាបានត្រុវគេបំផ្លាញខួរក្បាល។ គាត់ក៏បានបង្កើតនិង ចែកចាយនូវចំនេះខាងចិត្តវិទ្យារបស់គាត់ ហើយគាត់ក៏ជាអ្នករុករកស្រាវជ្រាវខាងចិត្តវិទ្យា ដែលហៅថាអ្នកការសែតផងដែរ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៨១។
​ជីវៈប្រវត្តិ
វិលហែម វុឌ កើតនៅទីក្រុង និកការៅ នៃបែតឌិន ឥលូវជាផ្នែកនៃម៉ាន់ណហែមនៅខែ សីហា ១៨៣២ គាត់គឺជាកូនទី ៤នៃគ្រួសារ ម៉ាស៊ីមីលៀន វុឌ ហើយប្រពន្ធរបស់ឪពុកគាត់មានឈ្មោះថា ម៉ារី ហ្វ្រីឌ័រីគឺ នៅពេលដែលគាត់មានអាយុ ៤ឆ្នាំ ក្រុមគ្រួសាររបស់គាត់បានផ្លាស់ប្តូរទីលំនៅទៅរស់នៅក្នុងហេដេស៊ីមដែលជាតំបន់ជនបទមួយ។ គាត់បានសិក្សានៅឯសកលវិទ្យាល័យ ទូប៊ីជិន ហើយនឹងសកលវិទ្យាល័យប័លីន ចាប់ពីឆ្នាំ ១៨៥១ ដល់ ១៨៥៦។ បន្ទាប់មកគាត់បានបញ្ជាប់ការសិក្សាផ្នែកពេទ្យ នៅ ហេឌែលប៊ើក នៅឆ្នាំ១៨៥៦ វុឌ បានសិក្សា ក្នុងរយៈពេលខ្លីជាមួយនឹង លោក ចនែស ភីតទ័រ ម៉ាល័មុននឹងគាត់ក្លាយជាទៅជាបុគ្គលិកនៃសកលវិទ្យាល័យនោះ គាត់បានក្លាយទៅជាអ្នកជំនួយការផ្នែកអ្នកចិត្តវិទ្យាមួយរូបមានឈ្មោះថា ហឺមែន វុន ហែលហូស្ស នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៥៨។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៥៨ ដល់ឆ្នាំ ១៨៦២ គាត់បានសរសេរអំពីការចែកជាវិភាគទានរបសគាត់។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៦៥ គាត់បានចងក្រងសៀវភៅមួយដែលនិយាយអំពី ចិត្តវិទ្យា។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៦៧ គាត់បានក្លាយទៅជាអ្នកជំនាញខាងថ្នាំពេទ្យ និងអ្នកខាងចិត្តវិទ្យាមួយរូប។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៧៤ គាត់បានក្លាយទៅជាអ្នកចិត្តវិទ្យាដ៏មានកេរ្តិ៏ឈ្មោះមួយរូប នៅ ហ្សឺរីក។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៧៥ គាត់បានផ្លាស់ទៅនៅ លីបហ្សីង។ គាត់បានរៀបការជាមួយនឹង សូភី មៅ នៅពេលដែលគាត់រស់នៅ ហែដែលប៊ើ។នៅពេលនោះដែរ វុឌ បានផ្តល់អោយនូវមុខវិជ្ជាមួយដែលទាក់ទងនិងចិត្តវិទ្យា ដែលជាដំណោះស្រាយមួយ នៅពេលដែល មាននរណាមួយមានការស្រ្តែស(ធុញទ្រាន់)និងអ្វីមួយ ការខ្មាសអៀន របស់មនុស្ស គឺវាមានការទាក់ទងទៅនឹង ខួរក្បាលនិងអារម្មណ៏។ ជីវៈប្រវិត្តរបស់គាត់គឺមានឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងខ្លាំងនៅក្នុងវិជ្ជាចិត្តវិទ្យា។នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៦៣ ដល់ ១៨៦៤គាត់បានបង្ហាញអំពី ចិត្តវិទ្យា មានឈ្មោះថា លេចហ្សឺ នៃ មនុស្សនិង សត្វ។ គាត់បានក្លាយទៅជាជំនួយការពិសេសផ្នែក សរីសាស្ត្រនៅ ហេលឌែលប៊ើក នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៦៤ នៅ វែបប៊ឺ ១៧៩៥ដល់ ១៨៧៨ និង នៅហ្វាន់ន័រ ១៨០១ ដល់ ១៨៨៧ដែលគាត់ បានធ្វើការនៅលីបហ្សីង ក្នុងខណៈពេលដែលគាត់កំពុងតែមានចំណាប់អារម្មណ៏អំពី ជម្ងឺប្រសាទ។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៧៩ គាត់បានសរសេរអំពីការងាររបស់គាត់ផ្ទាល់ និងមានការព្យាយាមជាមួយការងាររបស់គាត់រហូតបានក្លាយទៅជាមនុស្សដ៏សំខាន់ ផ្នែកមួលដ្ឋានគ្រិះនៃចិត្តសរីរវិទ្យា។ នេះក៏ជាសៀវភៅសិក្សាមួយលើកដំបូងដែលសិក្សាអំពីចិត្តវិទ្យា។ មូលដ្ឋានគ្រិះនៃការប្រើប្រាស់ប្រពន្ធ័នៃចិត្តវិទ្យា គឺពឹងផ្អែកទៅលើ ការដឹងនៃស្មារតី អារម្មណ៏ជម្រៅចិត្តឆន្ទះ និងគំនិត សំខាន់ជាងនេះទៀត គេបានរកឃើញ និងយោងទៅតាមការស្រាវជ្រាវរបស់ វុឌ ដែលស្តីអំពី វិញ្ញាណខាងក្នុង ឬការធ្វើតេសខ្លួនឯងដោយស្មារតី របស់ខ្លួនផ្ទាល់។ នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ១៨៧៩ នៅឯសកលវិទ្យាល័យ លីបហ្សីង វុឌ បានបានធ្វើការដោះស្រាយនៅការមិនចុះសម្រុងនឹងគ្នានៅសាលា អំពីវិជ្ជាចិត្តវិទ្យា ហើយសូម្បីតែ ថ្ងៃខែនៃ មុខវិជ្ជានសចិត្តវិទ្យាក៏ក្លាយទៅជាឯករាជនៃពិភពចំនេះដឹងដែរ។ កន្លែងពិសោធន៏អំពីចិត្តវិទ្យាត្រូវបានសិក្សាស្រាវជ្រាវដោយ វុឌ ហើយគាត់បានទទួលអាហាររូបកណ៏អំពី មុខវិជ្ជាដែលខិតខំសិក្សា។
សូមមើលឯកសារជំនួយនៅភាសាអង់គ្លេស
ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:ចិត្តវិទ្យា
ម៉ុង ប្លុង
ម៉ុង​ ប្លុង ឬ ម៉ន់តេ ប៊ីអានកូ (ភាសាបារាំង ហើយ ភាសាអ៊ីតាលី, មានន័យថា "ភ្នំពណ៌ស") ជាភ្នំខ្ពស់បំផុតនៅឯជួរភ្នំ អាល់, ភាគខាងលិចអឺរ៉ុប ហើយសហភាពអឺរ៉ុប. វាមានកំពស់ ៤៨១០ម៉ែត ស្ថិតនៅលើនីវ៉ូទឹកសមុទ្រហើយត្រូវ បានគេផ្តល់ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ ១១th លើពិភពលោក នៅក្នុងភាពលយចេញនៃឋានលេខា។ ពេលខ្លះវាក៏ត្រូវបានគេស្គាល់ជា "La Dame Blanche" (ក្នុងភាសាបារាំងមានន័យថា "ស្រ្តីមានសម្បុរស").។
ភ្នំសលាតសន្ឋឹងចន្លោះតំបន់នៃ ជ្រោះអាអូស្តា អ៊ីតាលី, ហើយ ហ៊ោតេ-សាអូវី ប្រទេសបារាំងមានទីតាំងនៅ កំពួលភ្នំខ្ពស់នៅក្បែរព្រំប្រទល់បារាំងនិង អ៊ីតាលីប៉ុន្តែបារាំងនិងស្វីសអ្នកសិល្បះខាងផែនទីដែលកំនត់ ទីតាំងវានៅក្រៅព្រំប្រទល់នៅលើផែនទី។ ពេលថ្មីៗនេះ នៅចុងបញ្វប់នៃការសិក្សារបស់គាត់ទៅលើផែនទីខុសៗគ្នា ជាច្រើននិងជាមួយជំនួយនៃ Istituto Cartografico dell’Esercito, Antonio Napolitano, ជាមេដឹកនាំអ៊ីតាលីនៃបេសកម្មចំរុះបានអះអាងសម្រាប់ជនជាតិអ៊ីតាលីជាម្ចាស់នៃកំពូលភ្នំខ្ពស់បំផុត។
ទីក្រុងពីរដែលមានភាពល្បីល្បាញនៅក្បែរ ម៉ុង ប្លុង មានដូចជា (ខមេយឺ) Courmayeur នៅជ្រោះ អាអូស្តា ប្រទេសអ៊ីតាលី និង (ឆាំមូនិច) Chamonix,នៅ(អៅតេ សាវៀ) Haute-Savoie ប្រទេសបារាំង — ជាតំបន់នៃ កីឡាអូឡាំពិចរដូវរងារលើកដំបូង។ រថយន្តប្រើខ្សែមួយត្រូវបានតោងឡើងកាត់តាមភ្នំពី ឆាំមូនិក ទៅ ខមេយឺ
ការចាប់ផ្តើមក្នុងឆ្នាំ១៩៥៧ហើយចប់នៅឆ្នាំ១៩៦៥ នៅចំងាយ 11.6 km (7¼ mi) ផ្លូវរូងក្នុងដីនៅម៉ុង ប្លុង ឆ្លងកាត់ក្រោយភ្នំរវាងប្រទេសទាំងពីរនេះហើយក៏ជាផ្នែកមួយដ៏សំខាន់នៃរថភ្លើងដឹកអ្នកដំនើរយ៉ាងមមារញឹក។.
ប្រវតិ្ត
thumb|250px|[[Aerial view ភាគនិរតីជាផ្នែកនៃម៉ុង ប្លុងកាលពីដើមខែកញ្ញាថតដោយយន្តហោះដឹកអ្នកដំណើរ]]
នេះជាលើកដំបូងនៃការបំបែកឯកទក្តកម្មនៃការឡើងកំពូលភ្នំម៉ុង ប្លុង នៅថៃ្ងទី០៨ ខែសីហា ឆ្នាំ១៧៨៦ ដោយ(លោក យ៉េក បាល់ម៉េត) Jacques Balmat និងវិជ្ជបណ្ឌិត(មិកឆេល ផាកាត) Michel Paccard។ ការឡើងលើកដំបូងនេះ ត្រូវបានគេបញ្ចូលជាសមាជិកថ្មីដោយHorace Béné dictde Saussure ដែលជាអ្នកទទួលរង្វាន់ដោយជោគជ័យក្នុង ការឡើងកំពូលភ្នំដ៏ខ្ពស់ជាសញ្ញាសំគាល់បែបអ្នកប្រាជ្ញនៃការចាប់ផ្តើមដំបូងភាពពេញនិយមកីឡាឡើងភ្នំ។ ស្រ្តីលើកដំបូងដែលឡើងទៅដល់កំពូលភ្នំខ្ពស់មានឈ្មោះថា ម៉ារៀ ផារ៉ាឌិស Marie Paradis ក្នុងឆ្នាំ 1808។
ឥឡូវនេះកំពូលភ្នំដែលខ្ពស់ត្រូវបានគេឡើងទៅដែលមានអ្នកទេសចរជាមធ្យម 20,000 ក្នុងមួយឆ្នាំៗហើយអាចត្រូវបាន គេយល់ឃើញថាជាការងាយស្រួលថែមទៀតផង។ ផ្លូវឡើងសំរាប់ម្នាក់ៗដែលធ្វើការហ្វឹកហាត់បានយ៉ាងល្អ ហើយធ្លាប់ឧព្វេធ។ ការចាប់អារម្មណ៍នេះត្រូវបានគេពង្រឹងដោយការពិតថាAiguille du Midi(ជាកន្លែងដែលរថយន្ត ប្រើខ្សែឈប់)ម៉ុង ប្លុង​ ហាក់បីដូចជាមានសភាពស្ងៀមស្ងាត់ ការចាប់ផ្តើមត្រង់ព្រំដែនខ្ពស់ជាងគេ។ ខណះដែលខកចិត្តអំឡុងពេលស្ងៀមស្ងាត់ នៅផ្លូវតូច 3 Monts (ដែលត្រូវបានគេស្គាល់ច្រើនជាបច្ចេកទេស និងការខិតខំអស់លទ្ឋភាពច្រើនជាងផ្លូវធម្មតាដ៏ទៃទៀត)ផ្លូវឡើងដែលតំរូវអោយមានច្រើននិងការធ្លាក់ចុះមុនពេលការប្រកួត ផ្តាច់ព្រាត់នៃការឡើងទៅដល់ចុងក្រោយ 1000mឡើងដល់កំពូលដែលត្រូវបានគេព្យាយាម។
ទោះបីជាយ៉ាងជារៀងរាល់ឆ្នាំនៅម៉ុង ប្លុង Mont Blanc massifមានមនុស្សរងគ្រោះថ្នាក់ជាច្រើនហើយមានមនុស្សឡើង ដល់កំពូលជារៀងរាល់ចុងសប្តាហ៍(ជាទូទៅក្នុងខែសីហា) ក្រុមអ្នកជួយសង្រ្គោះដោយយន្តហោះបានជួបប្រទះមាន ករណី១២ដងជាមធ្យមភាគច្រើនមនុស្សដែលមានបញ្ហានោះឆ្ពោះទៅកាន់នៅលើភ្នំមួយដែលពិបាក។ មានកីឡាបាញ់សត្វ ជាច្រើនដែលតំរូវអោយមានចំនេះដឹងក្នុងការឡើងភ្នំដែលខ្ពស់និងមានអ្នកនាំផ្លូវម្នាក់ (ឬយ៉ាងហោចណាល់មានជើងចាស់ ឡើងភ្នំម្នាក់ដែរ)ហើយក៏ត្រូវមានសំភារះគ្រប់គ្រាន់។ វាត្រូវចំនាយពេលយូរនោះគឺមានន័យថាគួបផ្សំនឹងភាពឈ្លាសវៃរបស់អ្នកធ្វើដំណើរ ហើយគ្រោះថ្នាក់ដែលថ្មបាក់ធ្លាក់បាន។ យ៉ាងហោចណាល់ក៏ត្រូវរកទីជ្រកកោនមួយយប់ផងដែរ ដែលត្រូវគេតំរូវបែបនេះដើម្បីacclimatizeជាឧព្វេធ(កំពូលភ្នំភាគច្រើនគឺ នៅពីលើនីវ៉ូទឹកសមុទ្រ)មិនអាចនឹងដល់ឧព្វេធមហិមា ហើយអាចនឹងបាត់បង់ជីវិត។.
Reference
ចំនាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:ប្រទេសបារាំង ចំនាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:ប្រទេសអ៊ីតាលី
អបាយមុខ
អបាយមុខ (Apaya-mukha: path to deprivation) មាន​ន័យ​ថា "ហេតុ​ឬ​អំពើ​ជាប្រធាន​ឬ​ជា​ផ្លូវ​នៃសេចក្ដីវិនាស​" ។ អត្ថន័យ​របស់​ពាក្យ "អបាយ" គឺ ទី​ដែល​ប្រាស​ចាក​សេចក្តី​ចម្រើន, ទី​រង​ទុក្ខ, សេចក្តី​សាបសូន្យ, សេចក្តី​វិនាស, ដំណើរ​លិចលង់​ក្នុង​សេចក្តី​វិនាស ។
សុរានិងមេរ័យ គឺការផឹកទឹកស្រវឹង
សុរានិងមេរ័យនេះ ជាទឹកសម្រាប់បំពុល ឬ សម្រាប់បង្វិលចិត្តមនុស្សឲ្យខុសប្រក្រតី ។ មនុស្សអ្នកក្រេបលេបទឹកស្រវឹងចូលទៅហើយ, ទឹក​នោះ​អាច​កំដៅ​ហទយៈ​គឺបេះដូងឲ្យញាប់ញ័រ ច្រើនតែបណ្ដាលឲ្យកើតសេចក្ដីក្លាហានព្រហើនកោងកាចប្រមាថមើលងាយ អ្នកដទៃ, អំពើខុសយល់ថាត្រូវ, អំពើ​ត្រូវ​យល់​ថា​ខុស​វិញ ។ មនុស្សបើមិនទាន់ត្រូវសុរាចូលទៅដល់ទេ តែងឫកពាសុភាពរាបសា ដឹងខុសត្រូវគួរសម តែវេលាណាត្រូវសុរាហើយ អំណាច​សុរា​នេះ​បង្វិល​ឲ្យ​ចិត្ត​ខុស​ប្រក្រតីមួយរំពេចគឺបញ្ចេញការៈ ថោកទាបដោយផ្លូវកាយនិងវាចា, ទៅជាមនុស្សច្រងេងច្រងាងទទ្រាក់ទទ្រើកញញាក់ញញ័រ ទាំង​សំដី​សោត​ទៀត​ក៏​និយាយ​ច្រំដែលៗមិនទៅមុខ ចេញលំនាំប្រហែលគ្នានឹងមនុស្សឆ្កួត ។
មនុស្សប្រមឹកញៀនសុរានេះ រមែងទទួលរងទុក្ខទោសគ្រោះថ្នាក់ ៦ យ៉ាង អាចឃើញជាក់ច្បាស់ដោយខ្លួនឯងក្នុងបច្ចុប្បន្នជាតិនេះគឺ : អ្នកប្រមឹកសុរាមិនមែនធ្វើថោកត្រឹមតែខ្លួនឯងមួយ ឬគ្រួសាររបស់ខ្លួនមួយទេ, បានឈ្មោះថាធ្វើជាតិនិងប្រទេសឲ្យថោកថែមទៀត ។ ហេតុនេះ, អស់​លោក​អ្នក​កាន់​អំណាច គួរតែផ្ចាញ់ផ្ចាលបំបាត់សភាពប្រមឹកបែបនេះ ក្នុងស្រុកនីមួយៗកុំឲ្យមាន ទើបនឹងមានសេចក្ដីចម្រើន ។
សេចក្ដីដែលបានពណ៌នាមកនេះឈ្មោះថា អបាយមុខទីមួយ ។
ការដើរលេងក្នុងវេលាយប់ខុសកាល
ពេលដែលគេត្រូវសម្រាកសម្ងំដេកពួន ខ្លួនដើរលេងជជ្រកមមកតាមច្រកល្ហកផ្លូវតូចធំហួសពេលវេលា ចោលប្រពន្ធកូនទ្រពញយសម្បត្តិនៅឯផ្ទះ ឥត​មាន​អ្នក​ណា​គ្រប់​គ្រងរក្សា ឈ្មោះថាបើកឱកាសឲ្យដល់សត្រូវគឺចោរប្រមាថមើលងាយដល់ទ្រព្យ សម្បត្តិក៏មាន, ជួនកាលខ្លួនឯងដើរលេងទៅក៏ត្រូវទទួឡគ្រោះថ្នាក់ មាន​ពស់​ក្អែបខាំទិចជាដើមក៏មាន, ពុំនោះសោតមានអ្នកផងគេរង្កៀសសង្ស័យថា អ្នកនេះហៃដើរពេលយប់ ប្រហែលជាអ្នករកស៊ីដោយផ្លូវទុច្ចរិតទេដឹង ? ជួន​កាល​មានចោរលួចឆក់ទ្រពញយសម្បត្តិរបស់គេពិតហើយវាភៀសគេចខ្លួន បាត់ទៅ ទទួលគេឃើញខ្លួនដើរទៅ, ម្ចាស់ទ្រព្យគេក៏ចោទប្រកាន់ខ្លួនថាជាចោរ ហើត​ក៏​នាំគ្នាចាប់ចងធ្វើទុកទោស ដាក់ពិន័យជាប់គុកច្រវាក់បង់ទ្រព្យធនក៏មាន ។ នេះឈ្មោះថា អបាយមុខទី ២ ។
ការលេងល្បែងភ្នាល់គ្នាស៊ីសង
ល្បែងភ្នាល់ស៊ីសងនេះមានច្រើនយ៉ាង រាប់តាំងពីបៀនឹងធួរជាដើមទៅ ។ បុរសស្រ្តីអ្នកចូលចិត្តប្រព្រឹត្តលេងល្បែងស៊ីសងឯណានីមួយ សុទ្ធ​តែ​មាន​បំណង​ចង់​បាន​ប្រយោជន៍ចំណេញមកឆាប់ៗ, ប៉ុន្តែហេតុការណ៍ពិតនោះ មិនមែនត្រូវដូចគំនិតដែលប៉ងនោះទេ, បើទុកជាត្រូវបំណងខ្លះក៏មានតិចណាស់ក្នុងលោកនេះ, គួរអស់លោកអ្នកពិចារណាមើលដូច្នេះថា អ្នកមានភោគសម្បត្តិច្រើនរាប់ម៉ឺនសែននៅជុំវិញខ្លួនសព្វថ្ងៃនេះ តើគេមានមកអំពីលេងល្បែង ឬ​គេ​មាន​មក​អំពី​ប្រកប​សិប្បកម្ម និងពាណិជកម្ម ? ធម្មតាអ្នកប្រព្រឹត្តលេងល្បែងភ្នាល់គ្នា, មិនដែលអ្នកណាមួយមានកំណើតទៅជាមនុស្សគ្រាន់បើទេ, ច្រើន​តែ​ទទួល​រង​គ្រោះ​ថ្នាក់​សេចក្ដី​វិនាសច្រើនប្រការគឺ : អ្នកប្រព្រឹត្តលេងល្បែង កាលបើខ្លួនឈ្នះក៏ប្រើអំណាចរំលោភអូសយកទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិអំពី អ្នកចាញ់ៗ ក៏​កើត​សេចក្ដី​ក្ដៅ​ក្រហាយ​ចង​ពៀរ​ព្យាបាទគ្នាទៅវិញទៅមកក៏មាន, អ្នកចាញ់តែងដេកកើតទុក្ខថ្ងូរដកដង្ងើមធំស្ដាយទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិ ដែលវិនាសទៅរហូតដល់លែងចង់រស់នៅជាមនុស្ស ដោយ​ប្រើ​វិធីចងសម្លាប់ខ្លួនឯងជាដើមក៏មាន, អ្នកលេងល្បែងច្រើនមានឧបាយកុហកភូតភរបោកប្រាសគេឲ្យតែបានដល់ដៃ ឬ​ទោះ​​បី​ទៅ​និយាយ​ពឹង​ពាក់​ប្រស្រ័យ​កិច្ចការអ្វីៗ នឹងគេៗ ក៏មិនជឿមិនយកជាប្រមាណ ម៉្លោះហើយក៏ធ្លាក់ខ្លួនទៅជាមនុស្សថោកឥតគេត្រូវការរាប់រក ។ ម្យ៉ាងទៀត ល្បែង​ស៊ី​សង​អស់​នេះ​ច្រើន​ធ្វើ​ទុក្ខ​ដល់​អ្នកនៅទំនេរ, ជួនកាលប្ដីទៅធ្វើការបាត់ ប្រពន្ធនៅផ្ទះទំនេរឥតការអ្វីធ្វើ ក៏តាំងវ៉ៃភ្នែនតទល់នឹងប្រុសៗ ឬនឹងស្រីៗដូចគ្នា តាំងពីព្រលឹមទល់ថ្ងៃត្រង់ តាំង​ពី​បែរ​ពីថ្ងៃត្រង់ទល់ល្ងាច, ជួនកាលក៏ចាញ់ងស់រលីងពីខ្លួន ហើយក៏តាំងលក់ ឬបញ្ចាំគ្រឿងអលង្ការ សម្រាប់តាក់តែងរាងកាយយកមកលេងទៀត, កាល​ណា​បើ​ប្ដី​ដឹង​ក៏កើតទៅជាជម្លោះទាស់ទែងលែងលះគ្នាក៏មាន ។ នេះឈ្មោះថាអបាយមុខទី ៤ ។
ការសេពគប់នឹងបាបមិត្រ
មនុស្សណាដែលប្រព្រឹត្តធ្វើនូវអំពើអាក្រក់ ជាហេតុនាំឲ្យកើតសេចក្ដីវិនាសដល់ខ្លួន ឬដល់អ្នកដទៃ, មនុស្សនោះគេហៅថា បាបមិត្រ ។ បើ​អស់​លោក​អ្នក​ចង់​ស្គាល់​ថាមនុស្សបែបណាជាបាបមិត្រនោះ តោងពិនិត្យសង្កេតដោយផ្លូវកាយ - វាចានឹងចិត្ត ក៏នឹងអាចដឹងបាន ។ បណ្ដាមនុស្សក្នុងលោក, អ្នក​ណា​មួយ​ទោះ​ជា​មនុស្សជាន់ខ្ពស់ក្ដី ជាន់កណ្ដាលក្ដី ជាន់ទាបក្ដី សុទ្ធសឹងតែមានការងារត្រូវធ្វើជាប្រក្រតី, បើមនុស្សសប្បុរសល្អ ការងារចេញមកតាមផ្លូវកាយក៏ល្អ ចេញ​មក​តាម​ផ្លូវ​វាចាក៏ល្អ ចេញមកតាមផ្លូវចិត្តក៏ល្អ, មិនតែប៉ុណ្ណោះ ថែមទាំងជាអ្នកមានករុណាអាណិតអាសូរចំពោះអ្នកដទៃជានិច្ច, ធ្វើការងារអ្វីមិនអាងយសស័ក្ដិ មិន​អាង​អំណាច មិនលំអៀងព្រោះស្រឡាញ់ ព្រោះស្អប់ ព្រោះខ្លាចទេ, ព្រោះមនុស្សបែបនេះហៅថាកល្យាណមិត្រ, គួរសេពគប់រាប់រកយកមិត្រជាសំឡាញ់ ។ មនុស្ស​ណា​ជាអ្នកប្រព្រឹត្តលេងល្បែងភ្នាល់ស៊ីសង, ជាអ្នកលេងស្រី, ជាអ្នកលេងផឹកសុរា, ជាអ្នកបញ្ឆោតបោកប្រាសអ្នកដទៃដោយឧបាយកលណាមួយ, ជា​អ្នក​ប្រើ​អំណាច​រំលោភសង្កតសង្កិនអ្នកដទៃ ដោយអាងយសសក្ដិ ឬដោយងាងទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិ មនុស្សបែបនេះហៅថាបាបមិត្រ, កុំ​ចូល​ទៅ​សេព​គប់​រាប់​រក​យក​ជា​មិត្រ​សំឡាញ់​ឡើយ ។ សេចក្ដីដែលពណ៌នានេះ ចាត់ជាអបាយមុខទី ៥ ។
ការខ្ជិលច្រអូស
សេចក្ដីខ្ជិលនេះ បើមាននៅលើរូបបុគ្គលណាហើយ អាចនឹងពន្លិចបន្ទាបបុគ្គលនោះ ឲ្យធ្លាក់ទៅជាមនុស្សក្រីក្រល្ងង់ខ្លៅ មិនមានចំណេះវិជ្ជានឹងភោគសម្បត្តិ ។ ធម្មតា​មនុស្សដែលលុះក្នុងអំណាចនៃសេចក្ដីខ្ជិល បើនឹងធ្វើការអ្វីឬរៀនចំណេះអ្វីច្រើនប្រើអាការទម្រន់ដោយយក អ្វីម្យ៉ាងៗ មក​ធ្វើ​ជា​លេស​គ្រឿង​អាង​របស់​ខ្លួន គឺអ្នកខ្លះអាងថា ថ្ងៃនេះនៅព្រឹកណាស់, ល្ងាចណាស់, ត្រជាក់ណាស់, ក្ដៅណាស់, ឃ្លានណាស់, ស្រេកណាស់ ធ្វើការ ឬរៀនអ្វីពុំទាន់កើតទេ ចាំ​សម្រាក​ខ្លួន ឬចាំបរិភោគអ្វីបន្ដិចសិន សឹមធ្វើការ ឬសឹមរៀន, ការទម្រន់ខ្ជិលបែបនេះហើយ ដែលជាប្រធានធ្វើបុគ្គលនោះឲ្យដល់នូវភាពជាមនុស្សថោកទាបឥតគេ ត្រូវ​ការ​រាប់រក ។ ម្យ៉ាងទៀតអស់លោកអ្នកដែលជាមេបាក្នុងគ្រួសារ ឬក្រុមមួយៗ ខ្លះមិនសូវប្រឹតប្រៀនរំលឹកដាស់តឿនកូនចៅ ឬ​អ្នក​ដែល​នៅ​ក្រោម​បង្គាប់​របស់​ខ្លួន ឲ្យខំប្រឹងធ្វើការ ឬឲ្យខំប្រឹងរៀនតាមមុខការរបស់វាទេ, ច្រើនតែបណ្ដែតបណ្ដោយឲ្យក្មេងនៅទំនេរខ្ជិលដើរលេងតាមអំពើចិត្ត, លុះ​យូរ​ទៅ​ក៏​ក្លាយ​ទៅ​ជា​មនុស្ស​ល្ងង់ខ្លៅខ្សត់ខ្សោយចំណេះវិជ្ជានឹង ភោគសម្បត្តិ, មិនតែប៉ុណ្ណោះ មនុស្សល្ងង់ឈ្មោះថា ធ្វើជាត្រកូលនឹងស្រុកទេសឲ្យថោកទាបថែមទៀត ។ សូម​អស់​លោក​អ្នកពិនិត្យសង្កេតមើលទោសរបស់មនុស្សខ្ជិល សព្វថ្ងៃនេះចុះ, នៅក្នុងក្រុងឃើញមាននៅដេរដាសទាំងស្រី ទាំងប្រុស, ខ្លះ​ដេក​ដើរ​អង្គុយ​រដូក​រណែល​ក្រោម​ម្លប់ឈើ ឬតាមសំយាបផ្ទះ ក្បែរចិញ្ចើមថ្នល់, រកស៊ីគ្រាន់តែឲ្យរស់ត្រឹមមួយថ្ងៃៗប៉ុណ្ណោះ, បើ​នឹង​ធ្វើ​ការ​ឥត​មាន​ឧបាយ​គំនិត​ណា​ថា​អញ​ត្រូវ​ធ្វើ​យ៉ាង​នេះ​យ៉ាង​នោះ ទើបល្អដូច្នេះសោះឡើយ, មនុស្សបែបនេះហើយ ដែលសំដែងអាការឲ្យឃើញថោកទាបដល់ជាតិនឹងស្រុកទេស ។ នេះជាឈ្មោះថា អបាយមុខ ទី ៦ ។
មនុស្សខ្ជិលដូចបានពណ៌នាមកទាំងនេះ ប្រសិនបើរាជការបង្កើតរបរការអ្វីមួយ ដើម្បីតម្រូវដល់មនុស្សទាំងនេះឲ្យមានការធ្វើឡើង ត​ទៅ​ប្រហែល​ជា​នឹង​មាន​សេចក្ដី​ចម្រើនដល់រាជការវិញពុំខាន ។
ឯកសារយោង
ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:ព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា
រាជវង្សហាន
រាជវង្សហាន (, ២០៦មគ – ២២០គស) ជាអតិតរាជវង្ស​មួយ​នៃ​ប្រទេសចិន​ដែលបន្តពីរាជវង្សឈិន (២២១–២០៧មគ) និង​បន្តដោយ​សម័យនគរបី(ឬហៅថាសាមកុក) (២២០–២៨០គស)។ នគរថាង​បង្កើត​ឡើង​ដោយ​មេដឹកនាំ​ចលនា​បះបោរ លីវ ប៉ាង ដែល​ក្រោយ​ពីសោយទីវង្គត្ត​​មាន​ព្រះបរមងារជា​ព្រះរាជាកាវស៊ូ​នៃ​រាជវង្សហាន។ រាជវង្ស​នេះត្រូវបាន​បង្អាក់មួរយៈពេល​ខ្លី​ដោយ​រាជវង្សស៊ីន (៩–២៣គស) របស់​អតីតរាជានុសិទ្ធិវ៉ាង ម៉ាង។ ចន្លោះពេលនៃការផ្អាកមួយរយៈនេះបាន​បំបែកនគរ​ហានជាពីរសម័យកាលគឺ ហានខាងលិច (២០៦មគ – ៩គស) និង ហានខាងកើត (២៥–២២០គស)។ មាន​រយះពេលជាង៤សតវត្ស សម័យកាលរាជវង្សហាន​ត្រូវបានគេចាត់ទុកថា​ជាសម័យកាល​មាស​ក្នុងប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តចិន ។ បច្ចុប្បន្ន ក្រុម​ជនជាតិដើម​ចំបង​នៃ​ប្រទេសចិន​គឺ​សំដៅទៅលើ​ប្រជាជនហាន និងអក្សរ​ចិន​គឺសំដៅទៅលើ អក្សរហាន ។
អាណាចក្រហានត្រូវបានបែងចែកជាតំបន់ជាច្រើនដែល​គ្រប់គ្រងផ្ទាល់ដោយរដ្ឋបាលកណ្ដាលដែលគេស្គាល់ថាជាអាណាខេត្ត (តំបន់ដែនដីក្រោមការត្រួតត្រារបស់ប្រមុខខេត្ត, ភាសាចិន:, ភិងអ៊ិង jùn, វ៉េដ–ហ្គែយល្ស៍ chün) និង​រាជាណាចក្រពាក់កណ្ដាលស្វយ័តជាច្រើន។ រាជាណាចក្រទាំងនេះបានបាត់បង់ឯករាជ្យរបស់ខ្លួនបន្តិចម្ដងៗ ជាពិសេសបន្ទាប់ពីចលនាបះបោរនៃនគរប្រាំពីរ។ The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC.
After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empress dowagers, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased to exist.
និរុត្តិសាស្ត្រ
According to the Records of the Grand Historian, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong, named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi). Following Liu Bang's victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief.
ហានខាងលិច
China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). The Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of China, which had fissured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a capable commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC). Chang'an was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han.
At the beginning of the Western Han dynasty, thirteen centrally controlled commanderies—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms. To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 157 BC, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne was questioned. After several insurrections by Han kings—the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC—the imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BC limiting the size and power of these kingdoms and dividing their former territories into new centrally controlled commanderies. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.
Military expansion
Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. Chinese armies captured one stronghold after another and established agricultural colonies to strengthen their hold. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, where the Han commanders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert.
After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (呼韓邪) (r. 58–31 BC) finally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. His rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC), was killed by Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou (甘延壽/甘延寿) at the Battle of Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.
Even before Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (Indus River valley of North India) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire, bringing Han items like silk to Rome and Roman goods such as glasswares to China. From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs. The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the colonial establishments of Xuantu Commandery and Lelang Commandery in 108 BC. In China's first known nationwide census taken in 2 AD, the population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households.
To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalized several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze-coin currency. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent regency of Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favoring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.
Wang Mang's reign and civil war
Wang Zhengjun (71 BC–13 AD) was first empress, then empress dowager, and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan (r. 49–33 BC), Cheng (r. 33–7 BC), and Ai (r. 7–1 BC), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent. Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC–23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping (r. 1 BC – 6 AD).
When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25 AD) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age. Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD).
Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing land to equally distribute between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt buildup in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD.
The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive. Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang. The Gengshi Emperor (r. 23–25 AD), a descendant of Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BC), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi. Emperor Gengshi's brother Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), after distinguishing himself at the Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor.
Under Guangwu's rule the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 AD his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason. From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.
The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han dynasty or Former Han dynasty  (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han dynasty or the Later Han dynasty  (25–220 AD).
ហានខាងកើត
The Eastern Han, also known as the Later Han, formally began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the Korean state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.
During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade Han's Hexi Corridor in Gansu. Dou Gu (d. 88 AD) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami. After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. AD 75) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian (d. AD 92) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains. After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (檀石槐) (d. AD 180), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.
Ban Chao (d. AD 102) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire, occupying the area of modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When a request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises (r. c. 90–c. 100 AD) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.
In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han Empire received gifts from the Parthian Empire, from a king in modern Burma, from a ruler in Japan, and initiated an unsuccessful mission to Daqin (Rome) in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary. A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) is recorded in the Hou Hanshu to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. AD 146–168) in AD 166, yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants. Other travelers to Eastern-Han China included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao of Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara, India.
Eunuchs in state affairs
Emperor Zhang's (r. 75–88 AD) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans. With the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong (d. 107 AD), Emperor He (r. 88–105 AD) had Empress Dowager Dou (d. 97 AD) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—Consort Liang—and then concealing her identity from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (d. 121 AD) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD.
When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r. 106–125 AD) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 AD) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng (d. 132 AD) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125–144 AD). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent Liang Ji (d. 159 AD), brother of Empress Liang Na (d. 150 AD), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü (later empress) (d. 165 AD) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.
Students from the Imperial University organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168 AD) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.
Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (陳蕃) (d. 168 AD) attempted a coup d'état against the eunuchs Hou Lan (d. 172 AD), Cao Jie (d. 181 AD), and Wang Fu (王甫). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou (d. 172 AD) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan (張奐) favored the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.
Under Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while themselves auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong (d. 189 AD) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades.
End of the Han dynasty
The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Daoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue (d. 184 AD) and Zhang Lu (d. 216 AD), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in modern northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, was not quelled until 215 AD. Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year, however the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militia forces and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.
General-in-Chief He Jin (d. 189 AD), half-brother to Empress He (d. 189 AD), plotted with Yuan Shao (d. 202 AD) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao (何苗) rescind the order. The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on September 22, 189 AD. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu (d. 199 AD) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao (r. 189 AD) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han (r. 189–220 AD). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River.
General Dong Zhuo (d. 192 AD) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee. After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.
Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu (d. 198 AD) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun (d. 192 AD). Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan, to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD.
Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance. His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang (d. 221 AD), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.
After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating the west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei. This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between three states: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu Han.
Social class
In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However the emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the empress dowager or one of her male relatives. Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan. The rest of society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves belonged to one of twenty ranks (ershi gongcheng 二十公乘).
Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess, came with a state pension and a territorial fiefdom. Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule. Officials who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses. By the Eastern Han period, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a larger, nationwide gentry class with shared values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship. When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentrymen even considered the cultivation of morally grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office.
The farmer, or specifically the small landowner-cultivator, was ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as tenants, wage laborers, and in rare cases slaves. Artisans and craftsmen had a legal and socioeconomic status between that of owner-cultivator farmers and common merchants. State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-colored clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status. These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as industrialists and itinerant traders working between a network of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of government officials. Wealthy landowners, such as nobles and officials, often provided lodging for retainers who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes including fighting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves, retainers could come and go from their master's home as they pleased. Medical physicians, pig breeders, and butchers had a fairly high social status, while occultist diviners, runners, and messengers had low status.
Marriage, gender, and kinship
Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks, inheritance practices did not involve primogeniture; each son received an equal share of the family property. Since the father usually sent his adult married sons away with a portion of the family fortune, unlike later dynasties, sons did not always receive their inheritance after the death of their father. Daughters were not formally included in a father's will, although they did receive a portion of the family fortune through their marriage dowries.
The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, sale at market or for large textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women. Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became singers, dancers, sorceresses, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants who could afford their own silk clothes. Some women formed spinning collectives, aggregating the resources of several different families.
Education, literature, and philosophy
Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophical works written by Yang Xiong (53 BC – 18 AD), Huan Tan (43 BC – 28 AD), Wang Chong (27–100 AD), and Wang Fu (78–163 AD) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Tan (d. 110 BC) and his son Sima Qian (145–86 BC) established the standard model for all of imperial China's Standard Histories, such as the Book of Han written by Ban Biao (3–54 AD), his son Ban Gu (32–92 AD), and his daughter Ban Zhao (45–116 AD). There were dictionaries such as the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (c. 58 – c. 147 AD) and the Fangyan by Yang Xiong. Biographies on important figures were written by various gentrymen. Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the fu genre, which achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu.
Law and order
Han scholars such as Jia Yi (201–169 BC) portrayed the previous Qin dynasty as a brutal regime. However, archaeological evidence from Zhangjiashan and Shuihudi reveal that many of the statutes in the Han law code compiled by Chancellor Xiao He (d. 193 BC) were derived from Qin law.
អាហារ
The most common staple crops consumed during Han were wheat, barley, foxtail millet, proso millet, rice, and beans. Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, red bayberries, jujubes, calabash, bamboo shoots, mustard plant and taro. Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens, Mandarin ducks, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels and dogs (various types were bred specifically for food, while most were used as pets). Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, sika deer, and Chinese Bamboo Partridge were consumed. Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt and soy sauce. Beer and wine were regularly consumed.
Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics
Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and foodstuffs to deities, spirits, and ancestors at temples and shrines, in the belief that these items could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm. It was thought that each person had a two-part soul: the spirit-soul (hun 魂) which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (xian), and the body-soul (po 魄) which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony. These tombs were commonly adorned with uniquely decorated hollow clay tiles that function also as a doorjamb to the tomb. Otherwise known as tomb tiles, these artifacts feature holes in the top and bottom of the tile allowing it to pivot. Similar tiles have been found in the Chengdu area of Sichuan province in south-central China.
In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the main deities known as the Five Powers, and the spirits (shen 神) of mountains and rivers. It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.
It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or Mount Penglai. Han-era Daoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques and use of medical elixirs. By the 2nd century AD, Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (fl. 6th century BC) was a holy prophet who would offer salvation and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices and chant sections of the Daodejing.
Buddhism first entered China during the Eastern Han and was first mentioned in 65 AD. Liu Ying (d. 71 AD), a half-brother to Emperor Ming of Han (r. 57–75 AD), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although Chinese Buddhism at this point was heavily associated with Huang-Lao Daoism. China's first known Buddhist temple, the White Horse Temple, was erected during Ming's reign. Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century AD, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters, Perfection of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sutra.
Central government
In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a 600-dan salary-rank or higher. Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi 廷議)—where ministers were convened to reach majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions. If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.
Below the emperor were his cabinet members known as the Three Councillors of State. These were the Chancellor/Minister over the Masses, Imperial Counselor/Excellency of Works, and Grand Commandant/Grand Marshal.
The Chancellor, whose title was changed to 'Minister over the Masses' in 8 BC, was chiefly responsible for drafting the government budget. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600-shi.
The Imperial Counselor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Minster of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became oversight of public works projects.
The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119 BC before reverting to Grand Commandant in 51 AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiefly a civil official who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Councillors of State.
Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers, who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars. The Minister of the Household was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot. The Minister of the Guards was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces. The Minister Coachman was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces. The Minister of Justice was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law. The Minister Herald was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors. The Minister of the Imperial Clan oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles. The Minister of Finance was the treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement. The Minister Steward served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.
Local government
In descending order of size, the Han Empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided into political units of provinces (zhou), commanderies (jun), and counties (xian). A county was divided into several districts, the latter composed of a group of hamlets, each containing about a hundred families.