cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Dampak ledakan nuklir
Pada tahun 1942, ada beberapa spekulasi awal di antara para ilmuwan yang mengembangkan senjata nuklir pertama bahwa ledakan nuklir yang cukup besar dapat menyalakan atmosfer bumi. Gagasan ini menyangkut reaksi nuklir dari dua atom nitrogen atmosfer yang membentuk atom karbon dan oksigen, dengan pelepasan energi yang terkait. Para ilmuwan berhipotesis bahwa energi ini akan memanaskan nitrogen atmosfer yang tersisa sehingga cukup untuk menjaga reaksi tetap berlangsung sampai semua atom nitrogen dikonsumsi, dan kemudian membakar semua atmosfer bumi (yang terdiri dari hampir 80% nitrogen diatomik) dalam satu peristiwa pembakaran besar-besaran tunggal. Hans Bethe ditugaskan untuk mempelajari hipotesis ini pada masa-masa awal, dan akhirnya ia menyimpulkan bahwa pembakaran seluruh atmosfer tidak mungkin: pendinginan bola api karena semua kebalikan dari efek Compton kecuali dijamin bahwa skenario seperti itu tidak akan menjadi kenyataan. Richard Hamming, seorang ahli matematika, diminta untuk membuat perhitungan serupa sebelum uji coba Trinity, dan ia juga mendapatkan hasil yang sama seperti Bethe. Namun demikian, gagasan tersebut telah bertahan sebagai desas-desus selama bertahun-tahun dan menjadi sumber komedi gelap pada masa uji Trinity.
Rumpun bahasa Sasak-Sumbawa
Rumpun bahasa Sasak-Sumbawa adalah sekelompok bahasa yang diidentifikasi Adelaar (cit. Adelaar dan Himmelmann 2005). Kelompok ini termasuk dalam rumpun bahasa Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa, yang sendirinya adalah bagian dari kelompok "Utara dan Timur" dalam rumpun bahasa Melayu-Sumbawa.
Adelaar (2005)
Menurut Adelaar (2005), rumpun bahasa Melayu-Sumbawa terdiri dari:
Note: BSS = "Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa"
HMS Leopard (1790)
HMS Leopard adalah sebuah kapal dari Angkatan Laut Kerajaan dengan 50 meriam. Kapal tersebut bertugas selama Revolusi Prancis dan Perang Napoleon, dan terkenal atas tindakan kaptennya pada 1807, yang merupakan simbol dari ketegangan yang kemudian meletus dalam Perang 1812 antara Inggris dan Amerika. Kapal tersebut hancur pada 1814.
Praedecessores nostros
Praedecessores nostros adalah sebuah ensiklik yang diterbitkan oleh Paus Pius IX pada tanggal 25 Maret 1847 sebagai tanggapan terhadap Wabah Kelaparan Besar di Irlandia yang berlangsung dari tahun 1845 hingga 1850. Peristiwa ini dikenal sebagai bencana terbesar pada abad ke-19.
Di dalam ensiklik ini, Paus Pius IX meminta agar para pendeta memberikan lebih banyak bantuan untuk rakyat Irlandia. Ia meminta setiap keuskupan untuk melakukan doa umum selama tiga hari di gereja dan tempat-tempat kudus lainnya. Untuk menggalakkan doa untuk rakyat Irlandia, indulgensi selama tujuh tahun ditawarkan bagi mereka yang hadir dalam doa umum. Paus juga mengajak umat Katolik untuk bersedekah.
Taluak IV Suku, Banuhampu, Agam
Taluak IV Suku merupakan salah satu nagari yang terdapat dalam kecamatan Banuhampu, kabupaten Agam, provinsi Sumatera Barat, Indonesia.
Hulchul (film 1995)
Hulchul adalah sebuah film aksi Hindi India tahun 1995 yang ditulis dan disutradarai oleh Anees Bazmee. Film tersebut dibintangi oleh Vinod Khanna, Ajay Devgn dan Kajol. Film tersebut tayang perdana pada 4 Agustus 1995 di Mumbai.
2000 KE41
2000 KE41 adalah sebuah asteroid. Asteroid ini merupakan bagian dari asteroid Apollo, yang terletak dekat dengan bumi. Eksentrisitas orbit asteroid ini tercatat sebesar 0.867, sementara magnitudo mutlaknya adalah 17.4.
Pembentukan
Seperti asteroid pada umumnya, asteroid ini terbentuk dari nebula matahari primordial sebagai pecahan planetisimal, sesuatu di nebula matahari muda yang tidak cukup besar untuk berubah menjadi planet.
Aur Cino, Bathin III Ulu, Bungo
Aur Cino adalah dusun yang berada di kecamatan Bathin III Ulu, Kabupaten Bungo, Jambi, Indonesia.
Mattiro Deceng, Liukang Tupabbiring, Pangkajene dan Kepulauan
Etimologi
Mattiro Deceng diambil dalam bahasa Bugis yang merupakan salah satu paseng atau pandangan hidup suku Bugis. Bahwa setiap kegiatan yang diilhami niat yang baik dalam menjalani hidup akan berbuah kebaikan/rezeki/keberkahan pula ke depan. Jadi tidak heran jika banyak daerah menggunakan nama ini (atau korelasinya) di wilayah-wilayah yang notabene banyak dihuni suku Bugis. Kata mattiro merupakan bentuk kata kerja (verba) dan dari kata dasar tiro yang memiliki makna lihat/pandang. Kata mattiro yang telah dibubuhkan prefiks ma- dan fon t mengalami geminasi sehingga maknanya "melihat/memandang/menuju". Sedangkan kata décéng merupakan bentuk kata sifat (adjektiva) yang memiliki makna "baik/bagus/terpuji/penuh rezeki". Jadi Mattiro Deceng memiliki makna "melihat atau memandang hal-hal yang baik atau terpuji".
Groupe SEB
Groupe SEB adalah perusahaan Perancis yang dikenal sebagai produsen peralatan rumah tangga kecil.
SEB adalah singkatan dari Société d'Emboutissage de Bourgogne. Pada 2019, Groupe SEB mencapai penjualan 7,354 miliar euro. Ini mempekerjakan hampir 34.263 orang di lebih dari 60 negara.
Perusahaan ini terdaftar di bursa saham Euronext Paris (di Kompartemen A).
Dandelion (film 2014)
Dandelion (Chàng trai năm ấy) adalah film komedi romantis Vietnam tahun 2014 yang disutradarai oleh Nguyễn Quang Huy. Film ini dibintangi oleh Sơn Tùng M-TP, Hari Won, Phạm Quỳnh Anh, Ngô Kiến Huy, Hứa Vĩ Văn. Skenario film ini didasarkan pada buku "Bắt đầu từ một kết thúc", sebuah otobiografi tentang kehidupan penyanyi yang bernasib naas Wanbi Tuấn Anh.
Pyloderma latrunculioides
Pyloderma latrunculioides adalah spesies spons yang tergolong dalam kelas Demospongiae. Spesies ini juga merupakan bagian dari kelas Demospongiae, filum Porifera, subregnum Parazoa, dan kingdom Animalia.
Seperti spons pada umumnya, spesies ini memiliki tubuh yang berpori dan permukaan yang keras seperti batu. Selain itu, Pyloderma latrunculioides juga dapat menyerap oksigen dari air melalui proses difusi.
Titik bidik
Titik bidik atau dalam bahasa Inggris disebut Aiming point (AP), dalam artileri adalah keakuratan tembakan tidak langsung yang tergantung pada penggunaan titik bidik. Dalam angkatan udara, istilah titik bidik (atau AP) mengacu pada titik di tengah tanda + yang ada pada layar atau kaca bombsight untuk membidik target tertentu yang telah ditentukan.
Titik bidik tembakan tidak langsung menyajikan titik referensi sudut untuk mengarahkan senjata ke arah horizontal yang diperlukan - azimuth. Sampai tahun 1980-an titik bidik merupakan hal penting untuk artileri tembakan tidak langsung. Titik bidik juga digunakan untuk mortir dan senapan mesin yang menembak secara tidak langsung.
Bentuk titik bidik yang paling awal adalah sepasang tiang bidik untuk setiap senapan, hampir sejajar satu sama lain ketika dilihat melalui pandangan senjata, dan ditempatkan sekitar 50 meter dari senapan. Setidaknya ada dua cara untuk menggunakan ini, tetapi yang paling sederhana adalah mengarahkan pandangan di tengah-tengah dari kedua tiang tersebut.
Daniel Parantac
Daniel Parantac adalah atlet wushu yang berasal dari Filipina. Dia telah memenangkan sejumlah medali untuk Filipina. Dia adalah atlet penerima Kafagway Sports Achievers Awards tahun 2013. Dia menempuh pendidikan di Universitas Cordilleras.
2000 KA
2000 KA adalah sebuah asteroid. Asteroid ini merupakan bagian dari asteroid Apollo, yang terletak dekat dengan bumi. Eksentrisitas orbit asteroid ini tercatat sebesar 0.462, sementara magnitudo mutlaknya adalah 21.6.
Sejarah Roma
Sejarah Roma mencakup sejarah kota Roma maupun peradaban bangsa Romawi Kuno. Sejarah Roma telah memengaruhi dunia modern, teristimewa perjalanan sejarah Gereja Katolik, sementara hukum Roma telah memengaruhi banyak tatanan hukum modern. Sejarah Roma dapat dibagi menjadi beberapa kurun waktu sebagai berikut:
2000 KA
Pembentukan
Seperti asteroid pada umumnya, asteroid ini terbentuk dari nebula matahari primordial sebagai pecahan planetisimal, sesuatu di nebula matahari muda yang tidak cukup besar untuk berubah menjadi planet.
Sejarah Roma
Sejarah Perdana
Ada bukti arkeologis yang mengindikasikan bahwa kawasan kota Roma sudah didiami manusia selambat-lambatnya sejak 5.000 tahun yang lampau, tetapi lapisan padat puing-puing yang jauh lebih muda umurnya mengaburkan keberadaan situs-situs zaman Batu Tua dan Batu Muda. Bukti tersebut mengisyaratkan bahwa cikal bakal terbentuknya kota Roma pada masa purba juga dikaburkan legenda pendirian kota Roma yang melibatkan Romulus dan Remus.
Menurut tradisi, kota Roma didirikan pada tanggal 21 April 753 SM, mengacu kepada keterangan Marcus Terentius Varro, dan kira-kira sejak saat itu kota Roma maupun daerah Latium terus-menerus didiami manusia nyaris tanpa jeda. Usaha-usaha ekskavasi pada tahun 2014 telah menyingkap keberadaan sebuah tembok yang dibangun jauh sebelum tahun 753 SM. Para arkeolog menemukan sebuah tembok batu dan pecahan tembikar yang dipertanggal abad ke-9 SM dan permulaan abad ke-8 SM. Selain itu terdapat pula bukti kedatangan manusia ke bukit Palatin seawal-awalnya pada abad ke-10 SM.
Situs Area Sant'Omobono sangat penting artinya bagi usaha memahami tiga proses yang saling terkait, yakni monumentalisasi, urbanisasi, dan pembentukan negara di Roma menjelang akhir zaman Purba. Situs kuil Sant'Omobono dipertanggal abad ke-7 sampai ke–6 SM, sehingga menjadikannya reruntuhan kuil tertua di Roma yang sudah diketahui saat ini.
Legenda asal mula kota Roma
Asal mula nama kota Roma diduga berasal dari nama Romulus, tokoh legendaris yang dipercaya sebagai pendiri sekaligus raja pertamanya. Konon Romulus dan saudara kembarnya, Remus, putra-putra Dewa Mars dan masih terhitung keturunan Aeneas, pahlawan Troya, disusui seekor serigala betina sesudah ditelantarkan, dan sesudah dewasa berikhtiar mendirikan sebuah kota. Keduanya bertengkar, Romulus membunuh Remus, kemudian menamai kota baru itu menurut namanya sendiri. Sesudah mendirikan dan menamai kotanya sebagaimana dikisahkan dalam legenda tersebut, Romulus tanpa pandang bulu menyambut siapa saja, segala macam orang dari semua lapisan masyarakat, baik budak maupun orang merdeka, untuk menjadi warga negara kota Roma. Agar rakyatnya dapat membina rumah tangga, Romulus mengundang suku-suku tetangga menghadiri sebuah perayaan yang diselenggarakan di Roma, kemudian melarikan anak-anak gadis mereka (dikenal sebagai peristiwa penculikan perempuan-perempuan Sabini). Seusai perang melawan orang Sabini, Romulus berbagi takhta dengan Titus Tatius, raja orang Sabini. Romulus memilih 100 orang dari antara warga Roma yang paling berbudi untuk membentuk senatus (majelis tua-tua), dewan penasihat raja. Seratus tetua tersebut ia sapa dengan panggilan pater (bapa), dan keturunan merekalah yang kemudian hari dihormati sebagai patricius (bangsawan). Ia membentuk tiga centuria (pasukan seratus) eques (prajurit berkuda), yakni Ramni (artinya orang Romawi), Titii (menurut nama raja orang Sabini), dan Luceri (orang Etruski). Ia juga membagi rakyatnya menjadi tiga puluh curia (majelis). Nama tiap-tiap curia diambil dari nama tiga puluh perempuan Sabini yang berjasa melerai dan mengakhiri peperangan antara Romulus dan Tatius. Tiga puluh curia tersebut menjadi satuan-satuan pengambil keputusan melalui pemungutan suara di dalam comitia curiata (sidang majelis).
Berbagai usaha sudah dilakukan untuk mencari akar kebahasaan dari nama Roma. Kemungkinan-kemungkinannya mencakup turunan dari kata Yunani ῥώμη (rome) yang berarti keberanian atau kebernyalian; kemungkinan besar berasal dari akar kata *rum- yang berarti "puting", dan secara teoritis merujuk kepada totem serigala yang mengadopsi dan menyusui si kembar yang nama-namanya masih berkaitan. Tampaknya nama Etruski untuk kota Roma adalah Ruma. Bandingkan pula dengan Rumon, nama lama Sungai Tiber. Sebagaimana kebanyakan kata-kata bahasa Etruski, etimologinya tidak diketahui. Di dalam bukunya, Concise Etymological Dictionary of Latin (terbit tahun 1931), Thomas G. Tucker mengemukakan dugaannya bahwa nama Roma mungkin sekali berasal dari kata *urobsma (bdk. urbs, robur), malah mungkin pula, "kendati kecil kemungkinannya", berasal dari kata*urosma yang berarti "bukit" (bdk. kata Sangsekerta varsman- yang berarti "tinggi" atau "ujung", kata Slavoni vriksu yang berarti "mercu" atau "puncak", kata Rusia verks yang berarti "mercu" atau "arah ke atas", kata Lituania virsus yang berarti "sebelah atas").
Pembentukan kota
Cikal bakal kota Roma adalah padang-padang penggembalaan atau perkampungan-perkampungan di atas Bukit Palatin dan bukit-bukit di sekitarnya, kira-kira 30 km dari Laut Tirenia di tepi selatan Sungai Tiber. Mungkin sekali Bukit Kuirinal adalah pangkalan terdepan orang Sabini, salah satu kelompok masyarakat penutur rumpun bahasa Itali. Di lokasi tersebut, aliran Sungai Tiber berkelok. Di tengah kelokan sungai terdapat sebuah pulau yang menandai perairan dangkal, tempat orang dapat menyeberang dengan mudah. Dengan lokasi semacam ini, Roma berada di persimpangan lalu lintas sungai dan jalur ulang-alik utara-selatan kaum pedagang di kawasan barat Jazirah Italia.
Temuan-temuan arkeologis membuktikan bahwa pada abad ke-8 SM sudah ada dua permukiman berkubu di lokasi yang kemudian hari menjadi kawasan kota Roma, yakni permukiman orang Rumi di Bukit Palatin dan permukiman orang Titientes di Bukit Kuirinal, dibekingi orang Luceres yang mendiami hutan-hutan di sekitarnya. Rumi, Titientes, dan Luceres hanyalah tiga di antara sekian banyak komunitas penutur rumpun bahasa Itali di daerah Latium, sebuah dataran luas di Jazirah Italia, pada milenium pertama SM. Masyarakat-masyarakat penutur rumpun bahasa Itali terbentuk pada zaman prasejarah sehingga asal-usulnya tidak diketahui secara pasti, tetapi rumpun bahasa India-Eropa yang mereka tuturkan datang dari timur pada seperdua akhir milenium ke-2 SM.
Menurut Dionisios dari Halikarnasos, banyak sejarawan Romawi (termasuk Porcius Cato dan Gaius Sempronius) beranggapan bahwa nenek moyang bangsa Romawi (keturunan kaum Aborigines) adalah orang Yunani, kendati anggapan itu sesungguhnya mereka dapatkan dari khazanah sastra legenda Yunani. Orang Sabini, pada khususnya, adalah masyarakat yang pertama kali mengemuka di dalam uraian Dionisios dari Halikarnasos. Menurut Dionisios, orang Sabini tanpa disangka-sangka merebut Lista, kota yang dianggap sebagai ibu kota kaum Aborigines.
Konteks Itali
Masyarakat penutur rumpun bahasa Itali di lokasi tersebut terdiri atas orang Latini (di sebelah barat), orang Sabini (di sebelah hulu lembah Sungai Tiber), orang Umbri (di sebelah timur laut), orang Samni (di sebelah Selatan), orang Osci, dan lain-lain. Pada abad ke-8 SM, kelompok-kelompok tersebut mendiami Jazirah Italia bersama-sama dengan dua bangsa besar, bangsa Etruski di utara dan bangsa Yunani di selatan.
Bangsa Etruski (Etrusci atau Tusci dalam bahasa Latin) diketahui berdiam di sebelah utara dari Roma, di Etruria (kawasan utara daerah Lazio, daerah Toskana, dan sebagian daerah Umbria sekarang ini). Bangsa ini mendirikan kota-kota seperti Tarquinia, Veii, dan Volterra. Budaya mereka pun sangat mempengaruhi budaya bangsa Romawi, mengingat beberapa Raja Roma menurut mitos adalah orang Etruski. Lantaran ketiadaan peninggalan pustaka, sastra keagamaan atau filsafat, sebagian besar pengetahuan tentang peradaban Etruski didapatkan para sejarawan dari barang-barang bekal kubur dan temuan-temuan makam.
Bangsa Yunani sudah mendirikan banyak koloni di kawasan selatan Jazirah Italia antara tahun 750 sampai 550 SM (kemudian hari disebut daerah Magna Graecia oleh bangsa Romawi), antara lain Kumai, Napoli, Regio Kalabria, Kroton, Sibaris, dan Taranto, demikian pula di sepertiga bagian Sisilia, yakni di bagian timur pulau itu.
Zaman daulat Etruski
Sesudah tahun 650 SM, bangsa Etruski kian berkuasa dan memperluas wilayah kedaulatannya sampai ke tengah kawasan utara Jazirah Italia. Menurut tradisi bangsa Romawi, tujuh orang raja silih berganti memerintah kota Roma dari tahun 753 sampai tahun 509 SM, mulai dari Romulus, yang konon mendirikan kota Roma bersama-sama saudara kembarnya, Remus. Konon tiga raja terakhir adalah orang Etruski (sekurang-kurangnya peranakan Etruski), yakni Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, dan Tarquinius Superbus (menurut sumber-sumber sastrawi kuno, ayah Tarquinius Priscus adalah seorang pengungsi Yunani, sementara ibunya berkebangsaan Etruski). Nama-nama mereka merujuk kepada Tarquinia, kota bangsa Etruski.
Livius, Plutarkhos, Dionisios dari Halikarnasos, dan pujangga-pujangga kuno lainnya mengklaim bahwa Roma silih berganti diperintah tujuh orang raja pada abad-abad pertama sejarah kota itu. Menurut kronologi tradisional yang dibakukan pujangga Varro, rentang waktu pemerintahan ketujuh raja tersebut adalah 243 tahun, rata-rata satu orang raja memerintah selama kurang lebih 35 tahun. Pandangan tradisional ini sudah diketepikan dunia kesarjanaan modern sejak terbitnya karya tulis Barthold Georg Niebuhr.<!-- The Gauls destroyed much of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC (according to Polybius, the battle occurred in 387/6) and what was left was eventually lost to time or theft. With no contemporary records of the kingdom existing, all accounts of the kings must be carefully questioned. The list of kings is also of dubious historical value, though the last-named kings may be historical figures. It is believed by some historians (again, this is disputed) that Rome was under the influence of the Etruscans for about a century. During this period, a bridge was built called the Pons Sublicius to replace the Tiber ford, and the Cloaca Maxima was also built; the Etruscans are said to have been great engineers of this type of structure. From a cultural and technical point of view, Etruscans had arguably the second-greatest impact on Roman development, only surpassed by the Greeks.
Expanding further south, the Etruscans came into direct contact with the Greeks and initially had success in conflicts with the Greek colonists; after which, Etruria went into a decline. Taking advantage of this, Rome rebelled and gained independence from the Etruscans around 500 BC. It also abandoned monarchy in favour of a republican system based on a Senate, composed of the nobles of the city, along with popular assemblies which ensured political participation for most of the freeborn men and elected magistrates annually.
The Etruscans left a lasting influence on Rome. The Romans learned to build temples from them, and the Etruscans may have introduced the worship of a triad of gods — Juno, Minerva, and Jupiter — from the Etruscan gods: Uni, Menrva, dan Tinia. However, the influence of Etruscan people in the development of Rome is often overstated. Rome was primarily a Latin city. It never became fully Etruscan. Also, evidence shows that Romans were heavily influenced by the Greek cities in the South, mainly through trade.
Republik Romawi
The Roman Republic traditionally dates from 509 BC to 27 BC. After 500 BC, Rome joined with the Latin cities in defence against incursions by the Sabines. Winning the Battle of Lake Regillus in 493 BC, Rome established again the supremacy over the Latin countries it had lost after the fall of the monarchy. After a lengthy series of struggles, this supremacy became fixed in 393, when the Romans finally subdued the Volsci and Aequi. In 394 BC, they also conquered the menacing Etruscan neighbour of Veii. The Etruscan power was now limited to Etruria itself, and Rome was the dominant city in Latium.
Also a formal treaty with the city of Carthage is reported to have been made in the end of the 6th century BC, which defined the spheres of influence of each city and regulated the trade between them.
At the same time, Heraclides stated that 4th-century Rome was a Greek city (Plut. Cam. 22).
Rome's early enemies were the neighbouring hill tribes of the Volscians, the Aequi, and of course the Etruscans. As years passed and military successes increased Roman territory, new adversaries appeared. The fiercest were the Gauls, a loose collective of peoples who controlled much of Northern Europe including what is modern North and Central-East Italy.
In 387 BC, Rome was sacked and burned by the Senones coming from eastern Italy and led by Brennus, who had successfully defeated the Roman army at the Battle of the Allia in Etruria. Multiple contemporary records suggest that the Senones hoped to punish Rome for violating its diplomatic neutrality in Etruria. The Senones marched 130 km to Rome without harming the surrounding countryside; once they had sacked the city, the Senones withdrew from Rome. Brennus was defeated by the dictator Furius Camillus at Tusculum soon afterwards.
After that, Rome hastily rebuilt its buildings and went on the offensive, conquering the Etruscans and seizing territory from the Gauls in the north. After 345 BC, Rome pushed south against other Latins. Their main enemy in this quadrant were the fierce Samnites, who outsmarted and trapped the legions in 321 BC at the Battle of Caudine Forks. In spite of these and other temporary setbacks, the Romans advanced steadily. By 290 BC, Rome controlled over half of the Italian peninsula. In the 3rd century BC, Rome brought the Greek poleis in the south under its control as well.
Amidst the never-ending wars (from the beginning of the Republic up to the Principate, the doors of the temple of Janus were closed only twice – when they were open it meant that Rome was at war), Rome had to face a severe major social crisis, the Conflict of the Orders, a political struggle between the Plebeians (commoners) and Patricians (aristocrats) of the ancient Roman Republic, in which the Plebeians sought political equality with the Patricians. It played a major role in the development of the Constitution of the Roman Republic. It began in 494 BC, when, while Rome was at war with two neighboring tribes, the Plebeians all left the city (the first Plebeian Secession). The result of this first secession was the creation of the office of Plebeian Tribune, and with it the first acquisition of real power by the Plebeians.
According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination. By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage (264 to 146 BC), Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops.
In the following years, Rome continued its conquests in Spain with Tiberius Gracchus, and it set foot in Asia, when the last king of Pergamum gave his kingdom to the Roman people. The end of the 2nd century brought another threat, when a great host of Germanic peoples, namely Cimbri and Teutones, crossed the river Rhone and moved to Italy. Gaius Marius was consul five consecutive times (seven total), and won two decisive battles in 102 and 101 BC He also reformed the Roman army, giving it such a good reorganization that it remained unchanged for centuries.
The first thirty years of the last century BC were characterised by serious internal problems that threatened the existence of the Republic. The Social War, between Rome and its allies, and the Servile Wars (slave uprisings) were hard conflicts, all within Italy, and forced the Romans to change their policy with regards to their allies and subjects. By then Rome had become an extensive power, with great wealth which derived from the conquered people (as tribute, food or manpower, i.e. slaves). The allies of Rome felt bitter since they had fought by the side of the Romans, and yet they were not citizens and shared little in the rewards. Although they lost the war, they finally got what they asked, and by the beginning of the 1st century AD practically all free inhabitants of Italy were Roman citizens.
However, the growth of the Imperium Romanum (Roman power) created new problems, and new demands, that the old political system of the Republic, with its annually elected magistrates and its sharing of power, could not solve. The dictatorship of Sulla, the extraordinary commands of Pompey Magnus, and the first triumvirate made that clear. In January 49 BC, Julius Caesar the conqueror of Gaul, marched his legions against Rome. In the following years, he vanquished his opponents, and ruled Rome for four years. After his assassination in 44 BC, the Senate tried to reestablish the Republic, but its champions, Marcus Junius Brutus (descendant of the founder of the republic) and Gaius Cassius Longinus were defeated by Caesar's lieutenant Marcus Antonius and Caesar's nephew, Octavian.
The years 44–31 BC mark the struggle for power between Marcus Antonius and Octavian (later known as Augustus). Finally, on 2 September 31 BC, in the Greek promontory of Actium, the final battle took place in the sea. Octavian was victorious, and became the sole ruler of Rome (and its empire). That date marks the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Principate.
Permulaan kekaisaran
Rome was a subsidised city at the time, with roughly 15 to 25 percent of its grain supply being paid by the central government. Commerce and industry played a smaller role compared to that of other cities like Alexandria. This meant that Rome had to depend upon goods and production from other parts of the Empire to sustain such a large population. This was mostly paid by taxes that were levied by the Roman government. If it had not been subsidised, Rome would have been significantly smaller.
Rome's population declined after its apex in the 2nd century. At the end of that century, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the Antonine Plague killed 2,000 people a day. Marcus Aurelius died in 180, his reign being the last of the "Five Good Emperors" and Pax Romana. His son Commodus, who had been co-emperor since AD 177, assumed full imperial power, which is most generally associated with the gradual decline of the Western Roman Empire. Rome's population was only a fraction of its peak when the Aurelian Wall was completed in the year 273 (in that year its population was only around 500,000). At this time, part of the Roman aristocratic class circulated in Rome following the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which destroyed the city of Pompeii.
Krisis abad ke-3
Starting in the early 3rd century, matters changed. The "Crisis of the Third Century" defines the disasters and political troubles for the Empire, which nearly collapsed. The new feeling of danger and the menace of barbarian invasions was clearly shown by the decision of Emperor Aurelian, who at year 273 finished encircling the capital itself with a massive wall which had a perimeter that measured close to 20 km. Rome formally remained capital of the empire, but emperors spent less and less time there. At the end of 3rd century Diocletian's political reforms, Rome was deprived of its traditional role of administrative capital of the Empire. Later, western emperors ruled from Milan or Ravenna, or cities in Gaul. In 330, Constantine I established a second capital at Constantinople.
Kristenisasi
Christianity reached Rome during the 1st century AD. For the first two centuries of the Christian era, Imperial authorities largely viewed Christianity simply as a Jewish sect rather than a distinct religion. No emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church, and persecutions, such as they were, were carried out under the authority of local government officials. A surviving letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bythinia, to the emperor Trajan describes his persecution and executions of Christians; Trajan notably responded that Pliny should not seek out Christians nor heed anonymous denunciations, but only punish open Christians who refused to recant.
Suetonius mentions in passing that during the reign of Nero "punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition" (superstitionis novae ac maleficae). He gives no reason for the punishment. Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians. The war against the Jews during Nero's reign, which so destabilised the empire that it led to civil war and Nero's suicide, provided an additional rationale for suppression of this 'Jewish' sect.
Diocletian undertook what was to be the most severe and last major persecution of Christians, lasting from 303 to 311. Christianity had become too widespread to suppress, and in 313, the Edict of Milan made tolerance the official policy. Constantine I (sole ruler 324–337) became the first Christian emperor, and in 380 Theodosius I established Christianity as the official religion.
Under Theodosius, visits to the pagan temples were forbidden, the eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum extinguished, the Vestal Virgins disbanded, auspices and witchcrafting punished. Theodosius refused to restore the Altar of Victory in the Senate House, as asked by remaining pagan Senators.
The Empire's conversion to Christianity made the Bishop of Rome (later called the Pope) the senior religious figure in the Western Empire, as officially stated in 380 by the Edict of Thessalonica. In spite of its increasingly marginal role in the Empire, Rome retained its historic prestige, and this period saw the last wave of construction activity: Constantine's predecessor Maxentius built buildings such as its basilica in the Forum, Constantine himself erected the Arch of Constantine to celebrate his victory over the former, and Diocletian built the greatest baths of all. Constantine was also the first patron of official Christian buildings in the city. He donated the Lateran Palace to the Pope, and built the first great basilica, the old St. Peter's Basilica.
Invasi bangsa Jermani dan tumbangnya kekaisaran barat
Still Rome remained one of the strongholds of Paganism, led by the aristocrats and senators. However, the new walls did not stop the city being sacked first by Alaric on 24 August 410, by Geiseric on 2 June 455, and even by general Ricimer's unpaid Roman troops (largely composed of barbarians) on 11 July 472. This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to an enemy. The previous sack of Rome had been accomplished by the Gauls under their leader Brennus in 387 BC. The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote that "The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken." These sackings of the city astonished all the Roman world. In any case, the damage caused by the sackings may have been overestimated. The population already started to decline from the late 4th century onward, although around the middle of the fifth century it seems that Rome continued to be the most populous city of the two parts of the Empire, with a population of not less than 650,000 inhabitants. The decline greatly accelerated following the capture of Africa Proconsularis by the Vandals. Many inhabitants now fled as the city no longer could be supplied with grain from Africa from the mid-5th century onward.
At the beginning of the 6th century Rome's population may have been less than 100,000. Many monuments were being destroyed by the citizens themselves, who stripped stones from closed temples and other precious buildings, and even burned statues to make lime for their personal use. In addition, most of the increasing number of churches were built in this way. For example, the first Saint Peter's Basilica was erected using spoils from the abandoned Circus of Nero. This architectural cannibalism was a constant feature of Roman life until the Renaissance. From the 4th century, imperial edicts against stripping of stones and especially marble were common, but the need for their repetition shows that they were ineffective. Sometimes new churches were created by simply taking advantage of early Pagan temples, while sometimes changing the Pagan god or hero to a corresponding Christian saint or martyr. In this way, the Temple of Romulus and Remus became the basilica of the twin saints Cosmas and Damian. Later, the Pantheon, Temple of All Gods, became the church of All Martyrs.
Usaha restorasi Romawi Timur
Gothic resistance revived however, and on 17 December 546, the Ostrogoths under Totila recaptured and sacked Rome. Belisarius soon recovered the city, but the Ostrogoths retook it in 549. Belisarius was replaced by Narses, who captured Rome from the Ostrogoths for good in 552, ending the so-called Gothic Wars which had devastated much of Italy. The continual war around Rome in the 530s and 540s left it in a state of total disrepair – near-abandoned and desolate with much of its lower-lying parts turned into unhealthy marshes as the drainage systems were neglected and the Tiber's embankments fell into disrepair in the course of the latter half of the 6th century. Here, malaria developed. The aqueducts except for one were not repaired. The population, without imports of grain and oil from Sicily, shrank to less than 50,000 concentrated near the Tiber and around the Campus Martius, abandoning those districts without water supply. There is a legend, significant though untrue, that there was a moment where no one remained living in Rome.
Justinian I provided grants for the maintenance of public buildings, aqueducts and bridges – though, being mostly drawn from an Italy dramatically impoverished by the recent wars, these were not always sufficient. He also styled himself the patron of its remaining scholars, orators, physicians and lawyers in the stated hope that eventually more youths would seek a better education. After the wars, the Senate was theoretically restored, but under the supervision of the urban prefect and other officials appointed by, and responsible to, the Eastern Roman authorities in Ravenna.
However, the Pope was now one of the leading religious figures in the entire Byzantine Roman Empire and effectively more powerful locally than either the remaining senators or local Eastern Roman (Byzantine) officials. In practice, local power in Rome devolved to the Pope and, over the next few decades, both much of the remaining possessions of the senatorial aristocracy and the local Byzantine Roman administration in Rome were absorbed by the Church.
The reign of Justinian's nephew and successor Justin II (reigned 565–578) was marked from the Italian point of view by the invasion of the Lombards under Alboin (568). In capturing the regions of Benevento, Lombardy, Piedmont, Spoleto and Tuscany, the invaders effectively restricted Imperial authority to small islands of land surrounding a number of coastal cities, including Ravenna, Naples, Rome and the area of the future Venice. The one inland city continuing under Eastern Roman control was Perugia, which provided a repeatedly threatened overland link between Rome and Ravenna. In 578 and again in 580, the Senate, in some of its last recorded acts, had to ask for the support of Tiberius II Constantine (reigned 578–582) against the approaching Dukes, Faroald I of Spoleto and Zotto of Benevento.
Maurice (reigned 582–602) added a new factor in the continuing conflict by creating an alliance with Childebert II of Austrasia (reigned 575–595). The armies of the Frankish King invaded the Lombard territories in 584, 585, 588 and 590. Rome had suffered badly from a disastrous flood of the Tiber in 589, followed by a plague in 590. The latter is notable for the legend of the angel seen, while the newly elected Pope Gregory I (term 590–604) was passing in procession by Hadrian's Tomb, to hover over the building and to sheathe his flaming sword as a sign that the pestilence was about to cease. The city was safe from capture at least.
Agilulf, however, the new Lombard King (reigned 591 to c. 616), managed to secure peace with Childebert, reorganised his territories and resumed activities against both Naples and Rome by 592. With the Emperor preoccupied with wars in the eastern borders and the various succeeding Exarchs unable to secure Rome from invasion, Gregory took personal initiative in starting negotiations for a peace treaty. This was completed in the autumn of 598—later recognised by Maurice—lasting until the end of his reign.
The position of the Bishop of Rome was further strengthened under the usurper Phocas (reigned 602–610). Phocas recognised his primacy over that of the Patriarch of Constantinople and even decreed Pope Boniface III (607) to be "the head of all the Churches". Phocas's reign saw the erection of the last imperial monument in the Roman Forum, the column bearing his name. He also gave the Pope the Pantheon, at the time closed for centuries, and thus probably saved it from destruction.
Break with Constantinople and formation of the Papal States
In 727, Pope Gregory II refused to accept the decrees of Emperor Leo III, which promoted the Emperor's iconoclasm. Leo reacted first by trying in vain to abduct the Pontiff, and then by sending a force of Ravennate troops under the command of the Exarch Paulus, but they were pushed back by the Lombards of Tuscia and Benevento. Byzantine general Eutychius sent west by the Emperor successfully captured Rome and restored it as a part of the empire in 728.
In this period the Lombard kingdom revived under the leadership of King Liutprand. In 730 he razed the countryside of Rome to punish the Pope who had supported the duke of Spoleto. Though still protected by his massive walls, the pope could do little against the Lombard king, who managed to ally himself with the Byzantines. Other protectors were now needed. Gregory III was the first Pope to ask for concrete help from the Frankish Kingdom, then under the command of Charles Martel (739).
Liutprand's successor Aistulf was even more aggressive. He conquered Ferrara and Ravenna, ending the Exarchate of Ravenna. Rome seemed his next victim. In 754, Pope Stephen II went to France to name Pippin the Younger, king of the Franks, as patricius romanorum, i.e. protector of Rome. In the August of that year the King and Pope together crossed back the Alps and defeated Aistulf at Pavia. When Pippin went back to St. Denis however, Aistulf did not keep his promises, and in 756 besieged Rome for 56 days. The Lombards returned north when they heard news of Pippin again moving to Italy. This time he agreed to give the Pope the promised territories, and the Papal States were born.
In 771 the new King of the Lombards, Desiderius, devised a plot to conquer Rome and seize Pope Stephen III during a feigned pilgrimage within its walls. His main ally was one Paulus Afiarta, chief of the Lombard party within the city. He conquered Rome in 772 but angered Charlemagne. However the plan failed, and Stephens' successor, Pope Hadrian I called Charlemagne against Desiderius, who was finally defeated in 773. The Lombard Kingdom was no more, and now Rome entered into the orbit of a new, greater political institution.
Formation of the Holy Roman Empire
On 25 April 799 the new Pope, Leo III, led the traditional procession from the Lateran to the Church of San Lorenzo in Lucina along the Via Flaminia (now Via del Corso). Two nobles (followers of his predecessor Hadrian) who disliked the weakness of the Pope with regards to Charlemagne, attacked the processional train and delivered a life-threatening wound to the Pope. Leo fled to the King of the Franks, and in November, 800, the King entered Rome with a strong army and a number of French bishops. He declared a judicial trial to decide if Leo III were to remain Pope, or if the deposers' claims had reasons to be upheld. This trial, however, was only a part of a well thought out chain of events which ultimately surprised the world. The Pope was declared legitimate and the attempters subsequently exiled. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor in St. Peter's Basilica.
This act forever severed the loyalty of Rome from its imperial progenitor, Constantinople. It created instead a rival empire which, after a long series of conquests by Charlemagne, now encompassed most of the Christian Western territories.
Following the death of Charlemagne, the lack of a figure with equal prestige led the new institution into disagreement. At the same time the universal church of Rome had to face emergence of the lay interests of the City itself, spurred on by the conviction that the Roman people, though impoverished and abased, had again the right to elect the Western Emperor. The famous counterfeit document called the Donation of Constantine, prepared by the Papal notaries, guaranteed to the Pope a dominion stretching from Ravenna to Gaeta. This nominally included the suzerainty over Rome, but this was often highly disputed, and as the centuries passed, only the strongest Popes were to be able to assert it. The main element of weakness of the Papacy within the walls of the city was the continued necessity of the election of new popes, in which the emerging noble families soon managed to insert a leading role for themselves. The neighbouring powers, namely the Duchy of Spoleto and Toscana, and later the Emperors, learned how to take their own advantage of this internal weakness, playing the role of arbiters among the contestants.
Rome was indeed prey of anarchy in this age. The lowest point was touched in 897, when a raging crowd exhumed the corpse of a dead pope, Formosus, and put it on trial.
Roman Commune
From 1048 to 1257, the papacy experienced increasing conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The latter culminated in the East-West Schism, dividing the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. From 1257 to 1377, the pope, though the bishop of Rome, resided in Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia, and then Avignon. The return of the popes to Rome after the Avignon Papacy was followed by the Western Schism: the division of the western church between two, and for a time three, competing papal claimants.
In this period the renovated Church was again attracting pilgrims and prelates from all the Christian world, and money with them: even with a population of only 30,000, Rome was again becoming a city of consumers dependent upon the presence of a governmental bureaucracy. In the meantime, Italian cities were acquiring increasing autonomy, mainly led by new families which were replacing the old aristocracy with a new class formed by entrepreneurs, traders and merchants. After the sack of Rome by the Normans in 1084, the rebuilding of the city was supported by powerful families such as the Frangipane family and the Pierleoni family, whose wealth came from commerce and banking rather than landholdings. Inspired by neighbouring cities like Tivoli and Viterbo, Rome's people began to consider adopting a communal status and gaining a substantial amount of freedom from papal authority.
Led by Giordano Pierleoni, the Romans rebelled against the aristocracy and Church rule in 1143. The Senate and the Roman Republic, the Commune of Rome, were born again. Through the inflammatory words of preacher Arnaldo da Brescia, an idealistic, fierce opponent of ecclesiastical property and church interference in temporal affairs, the revolt that led to the creation of the Commune of Rome continued until it was put down in 1155, though it left its mark on the civil government of the Eternal City for centuries. 12th-century Rome, however, had little in common with the empire which had ruled over the Mediterranean some 700 years before, and soon the new Senate had to work hard to survive, choosing an ambiguous policy of shifting its support from the Pope to the Holy Roman Empire and vice versa as the political situation required. At Monteporzio, in 1167, during one of these shifts, in the war with Tusculum, Roman troops were defeated by the imperial forces of Frederick Barbarossa. Luckily, the winning enemies were soon dispersed by a plague and Rome was saved.
In 1188 the new communal government was finally recognised by Pope Clement III. The Pope had to make large cash payments to the communal officials, while the 56 senators became papal vassals. The Senate always had problems in the accomplishment of its function, and various changes were tried. Often a single Senator was in charge. This sometimes led to tyrannies, which did not help the stability of the newborn organism.
Guelphs and Ghibellines
In 1204 the streets of Rome were again in flames when the struggle between Pope Innocent III's family and its rivals, the powerful Orsini family, led to riots in the city. Many ancient buildings were then destroyed by machines used by the rival bands to besiege their enemies in the innumerable towers and strongholds which were a hallmark of the Middle Age Italian towns.
The struggle between the Popes and the emperor Frederick II, also king of Naples and Sicily, saw Rome support the Ghibellines. To repay his loyalty, Frederick sent to the commune the Carroccio he had won to the Lombards at the battle of Cortenuova in 1234, and which was exposed in the Campidoglio.
In that year, during another revolt against the Pope, the Romans headed by senator Luca Savelli sacked the Lateran. Curiously, Savelli was the nephew of Pope Honorius III and father of Honorius IV, but in that age family ties often did not determine one's allegiance.
Rome was never to evolve into an autonomous, stable reign, as happened to other communes like Florence, Siena or Milan. The endless struggles between noble families (Savelli, Orsini, Colonna, Annibaldi), the ambiguous position of the Popes, the haughtiness of a population which never abandoned the dreams of their splendid past but, at the same time, thought only of immediate advantage, and the weakness of the republican institutions always deprived the city of this possibility.