cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Calakmul
Emblem Glyph
At Calakmul's peak in the 7th century, the polity was known as Kan. Interesting to know is that the title Kan was used at another place before Calakmul became a regional powerhouse. The Preclassic political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kan. There is the idea that, after the collapse of the Mirador state, its refugees migrated north towards Calakmul, where they founded a new Kan polity. However, epigraphical studies of the monuments at Calakmul show that prior to the 7th century AD the emblem glyph of Calakmul had nothing to do with a snake, but with a bat. It seems that a different polity ruled there. The Kan emblem glyph, before being associated with Calakmul, is found (once) at Dzibanché, a site more towards the east. Perhaps during the late 6th/early 7th century, the polity at Dzibanché moved to Calakmul in order to establish a more strategically placed capital. After Calakmul's power dwindled in the 8th century, after the rule of Yuknoom Took K'awiil, it appears that the bat emblem glyph made its resurgence. Still, many uncertainties remain and new epigraphical studies have to be done to fill the gaps.
History
Calakmul has a long occupational history and excavations have revealed evidence from the Middle Preclassic right through to the Postclassic. The causeway network that linked Calakmul with the cities of El Mirador, Nakbe and El Tintal suggest strong political links between the four cities that may have begun in the Preclassic, when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities, and continued into the Classic period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands.
Calakmul vs. Tikal
The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on more than competition for resources. Their dynastic histories reveal different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had an ideological grounding. Calakmul's dynasty seems ultimately derived from the great Preclassic city of El Mirador while the dynasty of Tikal was profoundly affected by the intervention of the distant central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan. With few exceptions, Tikal's monuments and those of its allies place great emphasis upon single male rulers while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave greater prominence to the female line and often the joint rule of king and queen.
Karin Amatmoekrim
Karin Amatmoekrim adalah penulis Belanda kelahiran Suriname.
Calakmul
Preclassic
Calakmul was already a large city in the Preclassic period. The early history of Calakmul is obscure, although a dynastic list has been pieced together that extends back into an ancestral past. This dynasty has been reconstructed in part from Late Classic ceramics from the region of great Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe. This may mean that Calakmul ultimately inherited its political authority from one of these cities, with its dynasty originating in the Late Preclassic in the Mirador Basin and relocating itself to Calakmul in the Classic period after the collapse of these cities.
Early Classic
Both Calakmul and Tikal were sizeable Preclassic cities that survived into the Classic Period. Early hieroglyphic texts from stelae found in Structure 2 record the probable enthronement of a king of Calakmul in AD 411 and also records a non-royal site ruler in 514. After this there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records that lasts over a century, although the Kaan dynasty experienced a major expansion of its power at this time. The lack of inscriptions recording the events of this period may be either due to the fact that the Kaan dynasty was located elsewhere during this time or perhaps that the monuments were later destroyed.
The earliest legible texts referring to the kings of the Kaan dynasty come from excavations of the large city of Dzibanche in Quintana Roo, far north of Calakmul. A hieroglyphic stairway depicts bound captives, their names and the dates they were captured together with the name of king Yuknoom Che'en I, although the exact context of the king's name is unclear - the captives may have been his vassals captured by an enemy or they may have been rulers captured by the king of Calakmul. The dates are uncertain but two of them may fall within the 5th century AD. The nearby Quintana Roo site of El Resbalón has a jumbled hieroglyphic text, including a date in 529, that indicates that the city was within the control of the Kaan dynasty.
Karin Amatmoekrim
Pada tahun 2004, ia menerbitkan karya debutnya Het knipperleven, yang diterima pers dengan antusias, disusul karyanya pada tahun 2006 Wanneer wij samen zijn, sebuah roman generasi mengenai riwayat keluarga Amatmoekrim.
Pada tahun 2009, roman Titus terbit. Amatmoekrim juga menerbitkan cerita pendek dalam De Groene Amsterdammer dan Vrij Nederland pada tahun itu juga, dan menggantikan kolumnis Aaf Brandt Corstius selama 3 minggu di kolom harian nrc.next.
Calakmul
Early Classic
By the middle of the 6th century AD Calakmul was assembling a far-reaching political alliance, activity that brought the city into conflict with the great city of Tikal. The influence of Calakmul extended deep into the Petén; king Tuun K'ab' Hix of Calakmul oversaw the enthronement of Aj Wosal to the rulership of Naranjo in 546. Another vassal of Tuun K'ab' Hix was taken captive by Yaxchilan on the banks of the Usumacinta River in 537.
In 561, the king now known as Sky Witness installed a ruler at the site of Los Alacranes. Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region. He became the overlord of the city of Caracol, to the south of Naranjo, which had previously been a vassal of Tikal. In 562, according to a damaged text at Caracol, Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king Wak Chan K'awiil, thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal. This catastrophic defeat began a 130-year hiatus for Tikal, reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul. This event is used as a marker to divide the Early Classic from the Late Classic. Sky Witness is also mentioned at Okop, a site much further north in Quintana Roo. The last reference to Sky Witness occurs at Caracol and is dated to AD 572. The text is damaged but probably records the death of this powerful king.
War with Palenque
Sky Witness was quickly succeeded by First Axewielder, who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the K'atun-ending of 573. First Axewielder ruled for about six years. In 579 Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul. Uneh Chan engaged in an aggressive campaign in the western Maya region and attacked Palenque on 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak, lord of the small city of Santa Elena 70 km east of Palenque, defeating Palenque's queen Lady Yohl Ik'nal and sacking the city. The defeat is recorded on a series of hieroglyphic steps at Palenque itself and the event initiated a long-lasting grudge against Calakmul. Lady Yohl Ik'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years, although she perhaps paid tribute to Calakmul.
Uneh Chan maintained his alliances with cities in the east and he is depicted on Caracol Stela 4 supervising an event involving king Yajaw Te' K'inich of that city that occurred before 583. Calakmul again sacked Palenque on 7 April 611 under the personal direction of Uneh Chan. Palenque was now ruled by king Ajen Yohl Mat who had gained some sort of independence from Calakmul, provoking the new invasion. The immediate aftermath of this second victory over Palenque involved the deaths of the two most important nobles at the city, Ajen Yohl Mat himself and Janab Pakal, a high-ranking member of the royal family and possibly co-ruler. Janab Pakal died in March 612 and Ajen Yohl Mat a few months later. Their deaths so soon after the sacking of the city suggests that their demise was directly linked to Calakmul's triumph. Palenque suffered a lengthy decline in its fortunes after this date before it was able to recover from its disastrous war with Calakmul. The wars against Palenque may have been undertaken by Uneh Chan in order to seize control of wealthy trade routes that passed through the western Maya region.
Rebellion at Naranjo
King Yuknoom Chan of Calakmul supervised an event at Caracol in 619. Caracol Stela 22 records the accession of Tajoom Uk'ab' K'ak' to the Calakmul throne in 622. Two stelae were erected at Calakmul in 623 but their texts are too badly damaged to reveal the names of the royal couple involved. Approximately at this time Naranjo, a vassal of Calakmul, broke away when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Uneh Chan of Calakmul. Naranjo was independent of Calakmul by at least AD 626, when it was twice defeated by Caracol and Yuknoom Chan may have been attempting to bring Naranjo back under Calakmul control. His attempts were brought to an end by his death in 630. In 631 Yuknoom Head, the new king of Calakmul, finally regained control of Naranjo. Texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already captive at Calakmul on the day that his city was overrun and his punishment on the very same day is described by the word k'uxaj meaning either "tortured" or "eaten". Yuknoom Head conquered another city in March 636, although the exact site is unknown.
Apogee
The Kaan dynasty was not originally established at Calakmul but rather re-located there in the 7th Century from another city. Calakmul experienced its highest achievements during the reign of king Yuknoom Che'en II, sometimes called Yuknoom the Great by scholars. Yuknoom Che'en II was 36 years old when he came to the throne of Calakmul in AD 636. A significant increase in the production of stelae at the city began with his reign and 18 stelae were commissioned by the king. Yuknoom Che'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core.
Calakmul and Dos Pilas
In 629 Tikal had founded Dos Pilas in the Petexbatún region, some 110 km to its southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che'en II but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king, and went on to attack Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol. In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas, driving Tikal out and reinstalled B'alaj Chan K'awiil on his throne. In 679 Dos Pilas, probably aided by Calakmul, gained an important victory over Tikal, with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads.
Troubles continued in the east, with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol. Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682, indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne. The patronage of Yuknoom Che'en II as overlord is recorded at a range of important cities, including El Peru where he oversaw the installation of K'inich B'alam as king and strengthened the tie with the marriage of a Calakmul princess to that king. The power of Calakmul extended as far as the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá, where Motul de San José is recorded as its vassal in the 7th century, although it was traditionally aligned with Tikal. Yuknoom Che'en II commanded the loyalty of three generations of kings at Cancuen, 245 km to the south, and supervised the enthronement of at least two of them, in 656 and 677. King Yuknoom Che'en II was involved, directly or indirectly, in the crowning of a king at Moral to the west in Tabasco and one of Yuknoom's nobles supervised a ritual at Piedras Negras on the Guatemalan bank of the Usumacinta River. Yuknoom Che'en II died in his eighties, probably at the beginning of 686. When he died, Calakmul was the most powerful city in the central Maya lowlands.
Later kings
The next ruler of Calakmul, Split Earth, is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal.
The next known king used a number of name variants, and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul. A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom Took' K'awiil. He erected seven stelae to celebrate a calendrical event in 702 and is named at Dos Pilas in that year, presumably demonstrating that Dos Pilas was still a vassal of Calakmul. El Peru also continued as a vassal and Yuknoom Took' K'awiil installed a new king there at an unknown date. La Corona received a queen from Yuknoom Took'. Naranjo also remained loyal. Yuknoom Took' K'awiil commissioned seven more stelae to mark the k'atun-ending of 731. A new defeat at the hands of Tikal is evidenced by a sculpted altar at that city, probably dating to sometime between 733 and 736, depicting a bound lord from Calakmul and possibly names Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.
Calakmul and Quiriguá
After this the historical record of Calakmul becomes very vague, due both to the poor state of the heavily eroded monuments at the city itself and also its reduced political presence on the wider Maya stage. Wamaw K'awiil is named at Quiriguá on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica. Quiriguá traditionally had been a vassal of its southern neighbour Copán, and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, king of Copán, installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá's throne as his vassal. By 734 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as k'ul ahaw, holy lord, instead of using the lesser term ahaw, subordinate lord; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph. This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul. In 736, only two years later, K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K'awiil of Calakmul, while Copán was one of Tikal's oldest allies. The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant, falling between the accession of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow. This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley. It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne. In 738 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil. An inscription at Quiriguá, although difficult to interpret, suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738, when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán's patron deities. The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual.
In the Late Classic, alliance with Calakmul was frequently associated with the promise of military support. The fact that Copán, a much more powerful city than Quiriguá, failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul. Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state, even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán. The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage: Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence.
Collapse
Five large stelae were raised in 741, although the name of the king responsible is illegible on all of them and he has been labelled as Ruler Y. Calakmul's presence in the wider Maya area continued to wane, with two of the city's major allies suffering defeats at the hands of Tikal. El Peru was defeated in 743 and Naranjo a year later and this resulted in the final collapse of Calakmul's once powerful alliance network, while Tikal underwent a resurgence in its power.
In 751 Ruler Z erected a stela that was never finished, paired with another with the portrait of a queen. A hieroglyphic stairway mentions someone called B'olon K'awiil at about the same time. B'olon K'awiil was king by 771 when he raised two stelae and he was mentioned at Toniná in 789. Sites to the north of Calakmul showed a reduction in its influence at this time, with new architectural styles influenced by sites further north in the Yucatán Peninsula.
A monument was raised in 790 although the name of the ruler responsible is not preserved. Two more were raised in 800 and three in 810. No monument was erected to commemorate the important Bak'tun-ending of 830 and it is probable that political authority had alreadly collapsed at this time. Important cities such as Oxpemul, Nadzcaan and La Muñeca that were Calakmul's vassals at one time now erected their own monuments, where before they had raised very few; some continued producing new monuments until as late as 889. This was a process that paralleled events at Tikal. However, there is strong evidence of an elite presence at the city continuing until AD 900, possibly even later.
In 849, Calakmul was mentioned at Seibal where a ruler named as Chan Pet attended the K'atun-ending ceremony; his name may also be recorded on a broken ceramic at Calakmul itself. However, it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as a state in any meaningful way at this late date. A final flurry of activity took place at the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th. A new stela was erected, although the date records only the day, not the full date. The recorded day may fall either in 899 or 909 with the latter date the most likely. A few monuments appear to be even later although their style is crude, representing the efforts of a remnant population to maintain the Classic Maya tradition. Even the inscriptions on these late monuments are meaningless imitations of writing.
Ceramics dating to the Terminal Classic period are uncommon outside of the site core, suggesting that the population of the city was concentrated in the city centre in the final phase of Calakmul's occupation. The majority of the surviving population probably consisted of commoners who had occupied the elite architecture of the site core but the continued erection of stelae into the early 10th century and the presence of high status imported goods such as metal, obsidian, jade and shell, indicate a continued occupation by royalty until the final abandonment of the city. The Yucatec-speaking Kejache Maya who lived in the region at the time of Spanish contact in the early 16th century may have been the descendants of the inhabitants of Calakmul.
Modern history
Calakmul was first reported by Cyrus Lundell in 1931. A year later he informed Sylvanus Morley of the site's existence and the presence of more than 60 stelae. Morley visited the ruins himself on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1932. In the 1930s surveys mapped the site core and recorded 103 stelae. Investigations stopped in 1938 and archaeologists did not return to the site until 1982 when William J. Folan directed a project on behalf of the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, working at Calakmul until 1994. Calakmul is now the subject of a large-scale project of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) under the direction of Ramón Carrasco.
Site description
The site core of Calakmul covers an area of approximately 2 km2, an area that contains the remains of roughly 1000 structures. The periphery occupied by smaller residential structures beyond the site core covers an area of more than 20 km2 within which archaeologists have mapped approximately 6250 structures. Calakmul matches the great city of Tikal in size and estimated population, although the density of the city appears to have been greater than that city.
The stone used in construction at the site is a soft limestone. This has resulted in severe erosion of the site's sculpture. The city of Calakmul was built in a strongly concentric fashion and can be divided into zones as one moves outwards from the centre of the site. The innermost zone covers an area of approximately 1.75 km2 It contains most of the monumental architecture and has 975 mapped structures, about 300 of which are built from vaulted stone masonry. About 92 structures were built on large pyramids laid out around plazas and courtyards. The city's core was bordered on the north side by a 6 m high wall that controlled access from the north and may also have had a defensive function.
Water control
The site is surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs. There are five major reservoirs, including the largest example in the Maya world, measuring 242 by. This reservoir is filled by a small seasonal river during the rainy season and continues to hold enough water for it to be used by archaeologists in modern times.
Perang Messenia Kedua
Perang Messenia Kedua adalah perang yang terjadi antara negara kota Yunani kuno Messenia melawan Sparta. Perang ini dimulai sekitar 40 tahun setelah berakhirnya Perang Messenia Pertama dan diawali dengan pemberontakan para budak. Perang ini berlangsung dari tahun 685 sampai 668 SM.
Catatan kaki
Messenische Kriege
Calakmul
Water control
Aguada 1 is the largest of the reservoirs and has a surface area of 5 ha.
Causeways
Eight sacbe (causeways) have been located around Calakmul. Two of these have been mapped, three have been identified visually on the ground and three more identified with remote sensing. They have been numbered as Sacbe 1 through to Sacbe 7. The causeway network not only linked Calakmul with local satellite sites but also with more distant allies and rivals, such as the great cities of El Mirador, El Tintal and Nakbe. Those causeways that cross swampy land are elevated above the surrounding wetland and they now tend to support denser vegetation than the surrounding forest.
Sacbe 1 is 450 m long and is lined and filled with stone. It is located within the mapped urban area of the site core. Sacbe 1 was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Sacbe 2 is 70 m long. It has been mapped within the urban area of the site core. Sacbe 2 is built of packed earth and was discovered during the archaeological excavation of a nearby quarry. This causeway may have been built to transport stone from the quarry in order to build Structures 1 and 3.
Sacbe 3 extends 8 km northeast from the site core and is visible from the summit of Structure 1. It was first discovered in 1982.
Sacbe 4 runs 24 km southeast from the site core, it is also visible from the summit of Structure 1 and was discovered in 1982.
Sacbe 5 runs westwards from the main watering hole, across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and carries on for a total distance of 16 km or more towards Sasilhá.
Sacbe 6 runs southwest across El Laberinto bajo and links Calakmul with El Mirador (38.25 km to the southwest) and, beyond it, El Tintal (an additional 30 km.
Sacbe 7 is located south of Sacbe 6. It is at least 5.1 km long and runs across El Laberinto swamp.
Sacbe 8 is on the west side of the swamp and does not appear to cross it to the site core.
Structures
Structure 1 (or Structure I) is a 50 m pyramid to the east of the site core. A number of stelae were erected at its base by Yuknoom Took' K'awiil in 731. Because it was built on a low hill, Structure 1 appears to be higher than Structure 2, although this is not the case.
Structure 2 (or Structure II) is a massive north-facing pyramid temple, one of the largest in the Maya world. Its base measures 120 m square and it stands over 45 m high. In common with many temple pyramids in the Mesoamerican cultural region, the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the pre-existing temple in order to increase its bulk. The core of the building (Structure 2A) is a triadic pyramid dating to the Late Preclassic period, with this ancient building still forming the highest point of the structure. In the Early Classic a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid, covering an earlier stucco-covered building on the north side. Three new shrines were built upon this extension (Structures 2B, 2C and 2D), each of these shrines had its own access stairway. Structure 2B was the central shrine, 2C was to the east and 2D to the west. The facade possessed six large masks set between these stairways, three arranged vertically on each side of the central stairway. Structure 2 is similar in date, size and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador, and associated ceramics are also similar. At a later time buildings were erected along the base of the facade, each of these contained stelae. In the 8th century AD, Structure 2B was entombed under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks. Later another facade was built over this 8th century stepped frontage but it may never have been finished. In the Late Classic a nine-room palace was built on top of the pyramid, supporting a roof comb that had painted stucco bas-relief decoration. The rooms were arranged in three groups of three, each room positioned behind the next. The entire Late Classic palace measured 19.4 by. The front two rows of rooms (Rooms 1 through to 6) were used for food preparation, metates and hearths were found in each of them. Room 7, the southwest room, was a sweatbath.
Structure 3 (or Structure III, also known as the Lundell Palace) is southeast of Structure 4, on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is a building with multiple rooms.
Structure 4 (or Structure IV) is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is divided into three sections, labelled Structures 4a, 4b and 4c. The central Structure 4b is built upon a substructure dating to the Preclassic period. Together with Structure 6 on the opposite side of the plaza, these buildings form an E-Group that may have been used to determine the solstices and the equinoxes.
Structure 5 (or Structure V) is a large building located on the plaza to the north of Structure 2. It was surrounded by 10 stelae, many dated to the 7th century AD although the building itself was first erected in the Preclassic period.
Structure 6 (or Structure VI) is on the west side of the Central Plaza and, together with Structures 4a, 4b and 4c, forms an E-Group astronomical complex. In 1989 observations verified that on March 21, the vernal equinox, the sun rose behind Structure 4b as seen from Structure 6.
Structure 7 (or Structure VII) is a temple pyramid on the north side of the Central Plaza. It faces south and stands 24 m high. Five plain stelae were erected on the south side of the pyramid. It underwent several construction phases from in the Late to Terminal Classic. The pyramid was topped by a three-room temple that possessed a tall stucco-covered roof comb. A patolli game board was carved into the floor of the outermost room of the temple.
Structure 8 (or Structure VIII) is a small building located on the north side of the Central Plaza, to the east of Structure 7. It is associated with Stela 1 and its altar.
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 1 is associated with an altar and located by Structure 8.
Stela 8 records the celebration of an event in AD 593 by Uneh Chan and was erected after his death.
Stela 9 is a thin slate monument dated to 662. Its text describes the birth of king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' and gives him his full royal title.
Stela 28 and Stela 29 were erected in 623 and are the earliest monuments to survive from Late Classic Calakmul. They depict a royal couple but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names.
Stela 38 stands at the base of Structure 2.
Stela 43 dates to AD 514. It was set in a vaulted chamber near the base of Structure 2. The text is damaged but carries an early spelling of the k'uhul chatan winik non-royal noble title used in Calakmul and the Mirador Basin.
Stela 50 is one of the last monuments erected during the final decline of the city. It bears a crude, clumsily executed portrait.
Stela 51 is the best preserved monument at Calakmul. It depicts Yuknoom Took' K'awiil and dates to AD 731.
Stela 54 dates to 731 and depicts a wife of Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.
Stela 57 is a tall stela erected in 771 by B'olon K'awiil. It is paired with Stela 58 and stands to the east of Structure 13.
Stela 58 is the second of a pair erected by B'olon K'awiil in 771, the other being Stela 57. It was erected to the east of Structure 13.
Toto Jumariono
Brigadir Jenderal TNI (Purn.) Toto Jumariono, S.S., M.I.Kom. adalah seorang purnawirawan TNI-AD yang terakhir kali menjabat sebagai Komandan Korem 043/Garuda Hitam.
Calakmul
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 61 is a late monument bearing the name Aj Took'. It is a stunted stela with a badly eroded portrait and a shortened date form that is equivalent to a date either in 899 or 909, probably the latter.
Columbio, Sultan Kudarat
Columbio adalah munisipalitas yang terletak di provinsi Sultan Kudarat, Filipina.
Calakmul
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 62 was unfinished. It was carved to mark the K'atun-ending ceremony of 751 and bears the damaged name of Ruler Z.
Columbio, Sultan Kudarat
Pada tahun 2010, munisipalitas ini memiliki populasi sebesar 26.800 jiwa dan 5.296 rumah tangga.
Calakmul
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 76 and Stela 78 are a pair of monuments dated to AD 633. They are badly eroded but should date to the reign of king Yuknoom Head.
Columbio, Sultan Kudarat
Pembagian wilayah
Secara administratif Columbio terbagi menjadi 16 barangay, yaitu:
Calakmul
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 84 is one of the last monuments erected at Calakmul and bears an inscription that is an illiterate imitation of writing. It probably dates to the early 10th century AD.
Toto Jumariono
Toto, merupakan lulusan Akmil tahun 1987 ini dari kecabangan Infanteri. Jabatan terakhir jenderal bintang satu ini adalah Paban Sahli Bid. Orpol, Ormas dan LSM Pok Sahli Bid. Idpol Sahli Kasad.
Calakmul
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 88 may have been paired with Stela 62. The monument has the image of a queen but her name is unknown. B'olon K'awiil also appears to be mentioned on the stela. It dates to around 751 and stands on the stairway of Structure 13. Stela 91 is another very late monument probably dating to the early 10th century. Like Stela 84, it bears an inscription that is a meaningless imitation of hieroglyphic writing.
Lamproxynella dyscola
Lamproxynella dyscola adalah spesies lalat yang tergolong famili Tephritidae. Spesies ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Diptera, kelas Insecta, filum Arthropoda, dan kingdom Animalia.
Calakmul
Stelae, murals and ceramics
Stela 114 dates to AD 435, in the Early Classic. It was moved in antiquity to be reset into the base of Structure 2. The stela has a long hieroglyphic text that has resisted translation but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411.
Stela 115 and Stela 116 date to the reign of Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'. They were broken and buried in Structure 2 and may be associated with the royal burial in Tomb 4.
Royal burial
Tomb 4 was set into the floor of Structure 2B in the 8th century AD and is the richest burial known from Calakmul. The tomb contained a male skeleton wrapped in textiles and jaguar pelts that were partially preserved with resin. The tomb contained rich offerings that included jade ear ornaments handed down from the Early Classic, a jade mosaic mask, shell and bone beads, spiny oyster shells, eccentric obsidian blades, fine ceramics and the remains of wooden objects. One of the ceramics was a plate with a hieroglyphic text that specifically named king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' as its owner. The remains and the offering were placed in an arched wooden bier carved with elaborate decoration and hieroglyphs that was painted in a variety of colours. The bier has almost completely decayed but left an impression in the mud packed around it. Due to the plate and the possible association of Stelae 115 and 116 with the burial the tomb is believed to be that of the late 7th-century king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'.
See also
-->
Columbio, Sultan Kudarat
Pembagian wilayah
🇨🇴
Jonathan Majors
Jonathan Majors  adalah seorang pemeran asal Amerika Serikat. Ia meraih ketenaran usai membintangi film fitur independen The Last Black Man in San Francisco (2019). Pada 2020, ia meraih sambutan karena memerankan Atticus Freeman dalam seri televisi HBO Lovecraft Country. Ia tampil sebagai He Who Remains dalam seri Disney+ Loki (2021) dari Marvel Cinematic Universe, dan tampil sebagai versi lain dari karakter tersebut, Kang the Conqueror, dalam film Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania (2023).
Rumpun bahasa Arab Yahudi
Rumpun bahasa Arab Yahudi (عربية يهودية; ) adalah sebuah ragam bahasa Arab yang dipakai oleh Yahudi di Timur Tengah dan Afrika Utara. Istilah Yudeo-Arab juga merujuk kepada bahasa Arab Klasik yang ditulis dalam abjad Ibrani, terutama pada Abad Pertengahan.
Sebagian besar karya Yahudi signifikan, yang meliputi sejumlah tulisan keagamaan karya Saadia Gaon, Maimonides dan Judah Halevi, awalnya ditulis dalam bahasa Arab Yahudi karena bahasa tersebut adalah bahasa vernakular utama dari para penulisnya.
Yamagiwa Katsusaburō
Yamagiwa Katsusaburō (山極 勝三郎) adalah seorang patologis asal Jepang yang menpionirkan kerja dalam sebab-sebab kanker. Ia adalah orang pertama yang menunjang karsinogenesis kimia.
Lako Akediri, Sahu, Halmahera Barat
Lako Akediri adalah sebuah nama desa yang berada di wilayah Kecamatan Sahu, Kabupaten Halmahera Barat, Provinsi Maluku Utara, Indonesia. Jumlah penduduk desa ini tahun 2019 berjumlah 346 jiwa, dengan luas wilayah 2,61 km².
Masyarakat Halmahera Barat memiliki beragam macam suku bangsa, termasuk suku Loloda, Tabaru, Gamkonora, Wayoli, Sahu, Gorap, dan ada pula suku Ternate, dll. Sementara itu, penduduk desa ini berdasarkan data BPS tahun 2019, pemeluk agama Islam 99,13% dan Kristen 0,87%. Dan mayoritas pekerjaan warga sebagai petani, pedagang dan ada juga pelaku industri seperti menganyam, dll.
Ki Ageng Suryomentaraman
Ki Ageng Suryomentaraman (O Jawa: Ki Ageng Suryamentaraman) adalah putra ke-55 dari Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono VII yang lahir dari Ratu Permaisuri B.R.A. Retnomandoyo. Kakek pihak ibunya adalah Patih Danurejo VI. Ia lahir dengan nama B.R.M. Kudiarmadji dan berganti nama menjadi BPH. Suryomataram (O Jawa: B.P.H. Suryamataram) pada masa dewasa.
Setelah diangkat menjadi pangeran, Suryamataram tidak bisa merasakan ketentraman dan berkeinginan untuk hidup seperti rakyat biasa di luar keraton namun tidak diizinkan oleh kesultanan. Setelah mengajukan permohonan kepada Sultan Hamengkubuwono VII, permintaan tersebut dikabulkan.
Setelah melepas status bangsawan, ia kemudian pindah ke Dukuh Kroya, Bringin, Salatiga dan dikenal dengan nama Ki Gedhe Bringin. Saat bertemu dengan Ki Hajar Dewantoro, ia berganti nama menjadi Ki Ageng Suryomentaraman.
Ki Ageng Suryomentaraman meninggal pada Minggu Pon, 18 Maret 1962 dan dikebumikan di dekat Masjid Taqorrub Kanggotan.
Bonto Bunga, Moncongloe, Maros
Bonto Bunga (Ejaan Van Ophuijsen: Bonto Boenga; Lontara Bugis & Lontara Makassar: ᨅᨘᨈᨚ ᨅᨘᨂ, transliterasi:  Bonto Bunga ) adalah nama sebuah desa yang berada di wilayah Kecamatan Moncongloe, Kabupaten Maros, Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan, Indonesia. Desa Bonto Bunga berstatus sebagai desa definitif dan tergolong pula sebagai desa swakarya. Desa Bonto Bunga memiliki luas wilayah 10,02 km² dan jumlah penduduk sebanyak 1.355 jiwa dengan tingkat kepadatan penduduk sebanyak 135,23 jiwa/km² pada tahun 2017. Pusat pemerintahan desa ini berada di Dusun Manjalling. Desa Bonto Bunga membawahi 3 buah dusun, 3 Rukun Warga (RW), dan 11 Rukun Tetangga (RT).
Etimologi
Nama Bonto Bunga diambil dari Bahasa Makassar, yakni kata Bonto berarti "daratan atau bukit" dan kata Bunga berarti "bunga", jadi kata Bonto Bunga berarti "bukit bunga".
Sejarah
Desa Bonto Bunga merupakan pemekaran dari Desa Moncongloe Bulu, Kecamatan Mandai pada Desember 1993 sebagai desa persiapan. Dusun Manjalling yang sebelumnya merupakan salah satu wilayah dusun di Desa Moncongloe Bulu membentuk desa tersendiri dengan nomenklatur Desa Bonto Bunga dengan pembagian tiga wilayah dusun, yakni Dusun Manjalling, Dusun Je'ne Tallasa, dan Dusun Bonto Bunga. Pada Februari 1994, Desa Bonto Bunga resmi berstatus sebagai desa definitif.
Topografi
Wilayah Desa Bonto Bunga masuk dalam kategori wilayah dataran rendah dengan ketinggian 50 meter di atas permukaan laut.
Orbitrasi
Beberapa lokasi pada jarak orbitrasi atau pusat pemerintahan dari Desa Bonto Bunga adalah sebagai berikut:
Batas wilayah
Desa Bonto Bunga memiliki batas-batas wilayah sebagai berikut:
Aksesibilitas
Jarak Kantor Pemerintahan Desa Bonto Bunga dengan ibu kota kecamatan di Moncongloe Bulu adalah 2,6 km dan ibu kota kabupaten di Kota Turikale adalah 17 km. Pasar Sentral BTP dan Puskesmas Moncongloe tidak terlalu jauh dari desa ini. Bila menuju ke Kota Makassar, desa ini mudah diakses melalui Kodam 3, Perumahan Bumi Tamalanrea Permai (BTP), dan Manggala (Antang).
Jumlah penduduk
Desa Bonto Bunga memiliki luas 10,02 km² dan penduduk berjumlah 1.767 jiwa dengan tingkat kepadatan penduduk sebesar 176,35 jiwa/km² pada tahun 2021. Adapun rasio jenis kelamin penduduk Desa Bonto Bunga pada tahun tersebut adalah 101,48. Artinya, tiap 100 penduduk perempuan ada sebanyak 101 penduduk laki-laki. Berikut ini adalah data jumlah penduduk Desa Bonto Bunga dari tahun ke tahun:
Suku dan bahasa
Di Desa Bonto Bunga terdapat beragam suku dan penggunaan bahasa. Namun secara mayoritas penduduk Desa Bonto Bunga adalah Suku Makassar dengan menggunakan Bahasa Makassar, Bahasa Melayu Makassar, atau Bahasa Indonesia dalam berinteraksi sehari-hari.
Dusun
Desa Bonto Bunga memiliki tiga wilayah pembagian administrasi daerah tingkat V berupa dusun sebagai berikut:
Rukun warga
Desa Bonto Bunga memiliki 5 wilayah pembagian administrasi berupa rukun warga (RW) sebagai berikut:
Rukun tetangga
Desa Bonto Bunga memiliki 10 wilayah pembagian administrasi berupa rukun tetangga (RT) sebagai berikut:
Daftar kepala desa
Berikut ini adalah daftar kepala desa di Desa Bonto Bunga dari masa ke masa sejak pembentukannya pada tahun 1993:
Daftar sekretaris desa
Berikut ini adalah daftar sekretaris desa di Desa Bonto Bunga dari masa ke masa:
Indeks desa membangun
Data informasi mengenai Indeks Desa Membangun (IDM) berperan membantu upaya pemerintah dalam memahami kondisi desa. Data yang diekspos sangat penting dalam perencanaan agar setiap tahun ada peningkatan status desa. Setiap tahun status desa diperbarui sesuai dengan capaian yang ada dalam indeks desa membangun. Tim ahli IDM yang menilai terdiri dari tenaga ahli bidang infrastruktur, pengembangan masyarakat desa, perencanaan partisipatif, dan pelayanan sosial dasar. IDM ini mengukur aspek indeks pembangunan desa, yakni ketahanan sosial, ketahanan lingkungan, dan ketahanan ekonomi. Indeks Desa Membangun meliputi kategori sangat tertinggal, tertinggal, berkembang, maju, dan mandiri. Kategori desa mandiri adalah kategori ideal yang ingin dicapai.
Pada tahun 2020, prestasi Indeks Desa Membangun (IDM) dari Desa Bonto Bunga mendapatkan raihan nilai 0,6740 dan diklasifikasikan dengan status desa berkembang di Kecamatan Moncongloe, Kabupaten Maros.
Kadipaten Roma
Kadipaten Roma (Ducatus Romanus) adalah sebuah kadipaten yang merupakan bagian dari Eksarkatus Ravenna di Kekaisaran Romawi Timur. Seperti negara bagian Romawi Timur lainnya di Semenanjung Italia, wilayah ini dipimpin oleh seorang pejabat kekaisaran yang bergelar dux. Kadipaten Roma sering berselisih dengan Paus terkait dengan kekuasaan tertinggi di Roma. Setelah berdirinya Negara Kepausan pada tahun 756, Kadipaten Roma tidak lagi menjadi unit administratif dan 'adipati Roma', yang ditunjuk oleh paus dan bukan kaisar, jarang diperlihatkan.
Adipati
Adipati Roma pada awalnya ditunjuk oleh eksarkat, tetapi pada pertengahan abad, adipati ditunjuk oleh Paus.
Jabatan Adipati Roma tidak ada sekitar tahun 778–781, tetapi ada referensi yang tersebar mengenai adipati di antara para pejabat Kepausan, yang mungkin merupakan penerus Adipati Roma:
Kacamata kuda
Kacamata Kuda adalah bagian dari pakaian kuda yang mencegah kuda melihat ke belakang dan, dalam beberapa kasus, ke samping. Kacamata kuda terdiri atas Bit (Besi Kendali), dan Bridle yang diberi tambahan penutup mata.
Di Jawa, kacamata kuda dikenal dengan sebutan "Tropong"
Hendri Yanto Sitorus
Hendri Yanto Sitorus, S.E., M.M. adalah politikus Indonesia yang menjabat Bupati Labuhanbatu Utara periode 2021—2024. HYS pernah menjabat sebagai Anggota DPRD Kabupaten Labuhanbatu Utara 2 periode yakni 2014—2019 dan 2019—2020.Ia adalah anak kandung dari mantan Bupati Labuhanbatu Utara, Khairuddin Syah Sitorus.
Takalik Abaj
Tak'alik Ab'aj adalah sebuah situs arkeologi Pra-Kolumbus di Guatemala. Situs tersebut dulunya disebut sebagai Abaj Takalik; nama kunonya adalah Kooja.
Ron Underwood
Ronald Brian "Ron" Underwood adalah seorang sutradara film, produser dan sutradara televisi asal Amerika Serikat.
Kehidupan awal
Underwood lahir di Glendale, California.
2010 WK7
Pembentukan
Seperti asteroid secara keseluruhan, asteroid ini terbentuk dari nebula matahari primordial sebagai pecahan planetisimal, sesuatu di nebula matahari muda yang tidak cukup besar untuk berubah menjadi planet.
Jamie Lee Curtis
Jamie Lee Curtis merupakan seorang aktris berkebangsaan Amerika Serikat yang memenangkan dua Golden Globe dan Academy Award. Dia dilahirkan di Los Angeles, California. Berkarier di dunia film sejak tahun 1978. Dia menikah dengan Christopher Guest sejak tahun 1984.
Daftar Wali Kapten San Marino
Wali Kapten (Capitani reggenti) adalah sebutan bagi kepala negara di San Marino. Setiap enam bulan sekali, 1 April dan 1 Oktober setiap tahunnya, Great and General Council San Marino memilih dua orang dari dua partai yang beroposisi untuk menjadi kepala negara. Penerapan dua kepala negara ini merupakan salah satu kebiasaan yang diturunkan dari Republik Romawi, yang setara dengan Konsul pada Romawi Kuno.
Pajak kendaraan bermotor
Pajak kendaraan bermotor adalah pajak yang harus dibayar oleh setiap pemilik kendaraan bermotor yang mengoperasikan kendaraannya di jalan umum.
Narumonda V, Siantar Narumonda, Toba
Narumonda V adalah salah satu desa di Kecamatan Siantar Narumonda, Kabupaten Toba, Provinsi Sumatera Utara, Indonesia.
Pajak kendaraan bermotor
Pembayaran pajak kendaraan bisa dilakukan melalui layanan pemerintah baik di Samsat, Polres ataupun Samsat Keliling.
Narumonda V, Siantar Narumonda, Toba
Pemerintahan
Kepala Desa Narumonda V pada tahun 2020 adalah Fernando Marpaung.
Pajak kendaraan bermotor
Pajak kendaraan atau perpanjangan masa berlaku STNK dilakukan setahun sekali dengan ketentuan belum memasuki masa ganti plat nomor atau lima tahunan.
Narumonda V, Siantar Narumonda, Toba
Pemerintahan
Desa Narumonda V terdiri dari dusun:
Pajak kendaraan bermotor
Australia
Semua negara bagian mewajibkan pembayaran pajak kendaraan bermotor setiap tahun untuk setiap kendaraan bermotor yang dioperasikan di jalan umum. Besaran pajaknya bervariasi antar negara bagian dan tergantung pada jenis kendaraannya. Pajak kendaraan bermotor lebih sering disebut 'rego' (kependekan dari registration). Pajak kendaraan bermotor di Queensland didasarkan pada jumlah silinder atau rotor yang dimiliki oleh kendaraan, sementara di New South Wales didasarkan pada berat kotor kendaraan bermotor.
Belgia
Mobil penumpang membayar pajak berdasarkan pada ukuran mesin, keluaran tenaganya, serta keluaran CO2 g/km. Semakin banyak CO2 g/km yang dikeluarkan, maka pajaknya makin tinggi.
Pembayaran pajak kendaraan bermotor dilakukan setahun sekali. Pajak ini didasarkan pada ukuran mesin (0-799cc = HP 4 fiskal, di atas 800cc, tiap naik 200cc merupakan kelas yang berbeda). Karena adanya peraturan berbasis CO2, mobil bermesin diesel dengan ukuran mesin di atas 2.000cc diuntungkan, sementara mobil berbahan bakar bensin dengan ukuran serupa justru dirugikan. Pajak tambahan juga dikenakan pada mobil berbahan bakar LPG/CNG (0-799cc: €84/tahun, 800-2.499cc; €148/tahun dan >2.500cc: €208/tahun) karena negara ini tidak menerapkan pajak bahan bakar gas.
Brazil
Di Brazil, tiap negara bagian dapat mengenakan pajak kendaraan bermotor berdasarkan jenis kendaraannya. Selain itu, tiap negara bagian juga dapat mengenakan pajak kepemilikan kendaraan hingga 4%.
Kosta Rika
Pajak kepemilikan kendaraan di Kosta Rika juga sebesar 100%, sehingga sebuah mobil yang diimpor ke Kosta Rika menjadi lebih mahal dua kali lipat dibandingkan harga aslinya. Selain itu, negara ini juga menerapkan pajak bahan bakar sebesar 65%.
Prancis
DI Prancis, vignette dihapus untuk kendaraan pribadi pada tahun 2001 dan digantikan oleh pajak untuk pengguna jalan tol dengan tarif €6,85 per 1.000 km yang ditempuh di jalan ton. Sejak tahun 2006, pajak kendaraan juga didasarkan pada emisi CO2, dengan rentang antara €2 per gram hingga €19 per gram.
Jerman
Di Jerman, pajak kendaraan bermotor (Kraftfahrzeugsteuer) wajib dibayar oleh semua pemilik kendaraan bermotor tiap tahun. Besarannya bervariasi dari €5 per 100cc hingga €25 per 100cc untuk mesin bensin dan €13 hingga €37 untuk mesin diesel. Kendaraan yang didaftarkan sebelum tanggal 30 Juni 2009 dikenakan pajak berdasarkan kapasitas mesin dan kelas emisi, sementara kendaraan yang didaftarkan setelahnya hanya dikenakan pajak berdasarkan emisi CO2 dalam gram km (g CO2/km). Kalkulator pajak daring pun telah disediakan oleh pemerintah.