cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Heinrich IV, Kaisar Romawi Suci
Masa perwalian
Pada usia enam tahun, Heinrich menjadi penguasa tunggal Kekaisaran Romawi Suci. Paus Viktor II mendudukkan Heinrich di atas singgasana kiani di Aachen dan membujuk para menak Jerman untuk bersumpah setia kepada raja baru mereka yang masih kanak-kanak itu. Ibu Suri Agnes terpaksa mengurungkan rencananya menjadi biarawati karena diangkat menjadi pemangku takhta mewakili putranya. Agnes mengurusi pendidikan putranya dengan bantuan seorang ministerialis (abdi dalem) bernama Kuno. Ia mengukuhkan dukungan menak-menak terkuat dengan jalan mengaruniakan banyak anugerah kepada mereka. Agnes juga berdamai dengan Gottfried Si Berewok, dan mengangkat seteru lain dari mendiang suaminya, Konrad dari wangsa Ezzo, menjadi Adipati Kärnten.
Agnes memegang kendali penuh atas penyelengaraan negara selaku pemangku takhta sesudah Paus Viktor II meninggalkan Jerman pada awal tahun 1057, tetapi ia kurang memperhatian Burgundia dan Italia. Heinrich mewarisi gelar Patricius yang didapatkan mendiang ayahnya dari warga Roma, tetapi konsep "kemerdekaan Gereja" kian mengental di Roma pada masa perwaliannya. Pengganti Paus Viktor II, Paus Stefanus IX, adik Gottfried Si Berewok, terpilih pada awal bulan Agustus tanpa campur tangan pemerintah kekaisaran.
Sekelompok menak Sachsen berkomplot untuk menjatuhkan Heinrich. Mereka khawatir, jika sudah cukup umur untuk memerintah sendiri, Heinrich akan melanjutkan kebijakan-kebijakan opresif mendiang ayahnya. Mereka membujuk Otto dari Nordmark, yang baru saja pulang dari pengasingan, untuk melakukan kudeta. Dua orang kerabat Heinrich, Bruno II dan Ekbert I dari Braunschweig, menyergap anggota-anggota komplotan makar. Meskipun berhasil menewaskan Otto, Bruno terluka parah dalam aksi penyergapan.
Pada tahun 1057, Agnes mengangkat seorang menak kaya, Rudolf dari Rheinfelden, menjadi Adipati Schwaben, dan mempercayakan pemerintahan Burgundia kepadanya. Gottfried Si Berewok mengambil alih pemerintahan praja Kadipaten Spoleto dan praja Kabupaten Fermo, mungkin sekali sebagai anugerah pemerintah kekaisaran. Selentingan-selentingan tentang niat Gottfried untuk merebut takhta kekaisaran dengan bantuan Paus Stefanus IX tersiar di Italia, tetapi Sri Paus wafat tanpa diduga-duga pada tanggal 29 Maret 1058.
Tanpa berembuk terlebih dahulu dengan wakil-wakil Heinrich, para menak Roma memilih salah seorang dari antara mereka menjadi paus baru, yakni Giovanni, Kardinal-Uskup Velletri. Giovanni memutuskan memakai nama Benediktus X selaku paus, tetapi Petrus Damianus, Kardinal-Uskup Ostia, menolak melantiknya. Menurut tradisi, melantik paus baru adalah kewenangan istimewa Uskup Ostia. Para kardinal bersidang di Firenze, tempat Paus Stefanus IX tutup usia, untuk membicarakan pemilihan penggantinya. Mereka berencana memilih Uskup Firenze, Gerard, menjadi paus baru, dan mengirim utusan ke Jerman untuk mengabarkan rencana mereka kepada Heinrich. "Sesudah bermufakat dengan para pangeran", Heinrich mengukuhkan pencalonan Gerard pada tanggal 7 Juni di Augsburg. Raja Hungaria, András I, juga mengirim perutusan ke Jerman pada bulan September 1058. András hendak menobatkan Salomon, putranya yang baru berumur lima tahun, menjadi penggantinya, dengan dengan demikian mengabaikan hak adiknya untuk mewarisi takhta Kerajaan Hungaria sepeninggal dirinya. Utusan-utusan Hungaria dan wakil-wakil Heinrich berhasil mencapai kata sepakat, dan kakak Heinrich, Judith, dipertunangkan dengan Salomon.
Kaum rohaniwan reformis memilih Gerard menjadi paus baru di Firenze pada bulan Desember 1058. Selaku paus, Gerard memakai nama Nikolaus II. Gottfried Si Berewok menyertai keberangkatan Paus Nikolaus II ke Roma dan memaksa Antipaus Benediktus X untuk hengkang dari kota itu. Penasihatnya, rahib Hildebrand, bertekad mengukuhkan otonomi lembaga kepausan. Sri Paus menggelar sinode yang menghasilkan maklumat In nomine Domini. Maklumat ini menetapkan para kardinal sebagai pihak yang berwenang memilih paus, berlawanan dengan adat pemilihan paus oleh warga dan rohaniwan Roma, yang pernah dimanipulasi Kaisar Heinrich III. Maklumat yang menyebut Heinrich IV sebagai "raja yang sekarang bertakhta dan dengan pertolongan Allah niscaya kelak menjadi kaisar" ini juga mengakui hak-hak prerogatif Kaisar Romawi Suci terkait proses pemilihan paus, tetapi tidak memerincinya. Meskipun demikian, Humbertus, Kardinal-Uskup Silva Candida, sudah mulai mempertanyakan hak raja-raja untuk mengangkat rohaniwan menjadi uskup atau abas dalam risalah-risalah penentangan simoni yang ia tulis seawal-awalnya antara tahun 1057 sampai 1058.
Paus Nikolaus II mengangkat dua orang pemimpin orang Norman, Robert Guiscard dan Richard I dari Capua, menjadi penguasa praja-praja kadipaten di kawasan selatan Italia pada tahun 1059. Sebagai balasannya, orang Norman bersumpah setia kepada Sri Paus dan berjanji akan membantu melawan musuh-musuhnya. Mungkin sekali musuh-musuh yang dimaksud adalah para menak Roma. Meskipun praja-praja kadipaten di kawasan selatan Italia adalah bagian dari wilayah kedaulatan Kekaisaran Romawi Suci, tindakan Sri Paus tersebut tidak dapat dianggap melangkahi hak-hak kaisar, karena sudah satu dasawarsa lamanya para paus bertindak selaku wakil kaisar di kawasan selatan Italia. meskipun demikian, mufakat antara Sri Paus dan orang Norman melahirkan persekutuan yang bertahan lama.
Pada tahun 1061, hubungan Paus Nikolaus II dengan para prelatus Jerman menegang karena alasan-alasan yang tidak diketahui. Ketika Paus Nikolaus II wafat pada tanggal 20 Juli 1061, para menak Roma mengirim utusan ke Jerman untuk meminta Heinrich mengajukan calon paus baru. Rahib Hildebrand dan tokoh-tokoh rohaniwan reformis lainnya memilih Anselmus dari Baggio, Uskup Lucca, menjadi paus baru pada tanggal 30 September tanpa pengesahan Heinrich. Selaku paus, Anselmus memakai nama Aleksander II. Heinrich memanggil uskup-uskup Italia untuk bersidang dalam sinode yang digelar di kota Basel guna membicarakan situasi saat itu. Ia menghadiri persidangan dengan mengenakan tanda-tanda kebesaran statusnya selaku Patricius Roma. Sinode memilih Cadalus, Uskup Parma, menjadi paus tandingan (memakai nama Honorius II selaku paus) pada tanggal 28 Oktober.
Keberadaan dua orang paus membuat rohaniwan Jerman terpecah. Beberapa uskup mendukung Honorius II, sementara yang lain mendukung Aleksander II. Adalbert, Uskup Agung Hamburg, mendukung Honorius II, sementara Hanno II, Uskup Agung Köln, mendukung Aleksander II. Ibu Suri Agnes mendukung Honorius II, sehingga para penasihatnya diekskomunikasi Paus Aleksander II. Tindakannya menganakemaskan Heinrich II, Uskup Augsburg, secara terang-terangan dan kegagalan kampanye militer Jerman di Hungaria melunturkan wibawa Agnes di mata kawulanya. Skisma membuat kekesalan mereka terhadap pemerintahan Agnes kian menjadi-jadi. Uskup Agung Hanno, Ekbert dari Braunschweig, Otto dari Nordheim, dan menak-menak lain yang tidak berpuas hati memutuskan untuk melengserkan Agnes dari jabatan pemangku takhta. Uskup Agung Hanno menyiapkan sebuah perahu yang "dibuat sangat elok" dan berlayar menyusuri Sungai Rhein sampai ke sebuah pulau dekat istana raja di Kaiserswerth pada bulan April 1062. Heinrich terkagum-kagum melihat perahu itu, sehingga mudah dibujuk Hanno untuk menaikinya. Begitu Heinrich menjejakkan kakinya di atas geladak, perahu langsung dikayuh menjauhi tepian. Karena takut dibunuh para penculiknya, Heinrich menceburkan diri ke sungai. Ia nyaris tenggelam, tetapi diselamatkan Ekbert dari Braunschweig.
Peristiwa "Kudeta di Kaiserswerth" meruntuhkan rasa percaya diri ibu suri. Ia mengundurkan diri dan menyepi ke daerah pertuanannya. Hanno mengambil alih jabatannya sebagai kepala pemerintahan. Gelar barunya, magister (empu), menunjukkan bahwa ia juga mengurusi pendidikan Heinrich. Hanno bertekad mengakhiri skisma. Pada bulan Oktober 1062, sinode waligereja Jerman mengangkat kemenakan Hanno, Burchard II, Uskup Halberstadt, untuk membuka negosiasi dengan Paus Aleksander II. Pada bulan itu juga, teolog Petrus Damianus merampungkan penulisan risalah pembelaan legalitas pemilihan Paus Aleksander II. Lewat risalah tersebut, ia menegaskan bahwa "hak Heinrich untuk berpartisipasi dalam sidang pemilihan paus ... setiap kali harus dikonfirmasi ulang oleh Sri Paus". Dalil yang dikemukakan Petrus Damianus menyiratkan bahwa Heinrich hanya mewarisi klaim atas hal prerogatif kaisar terkait pemilihan paus, dan sewaktu-waktu dapat saja kehilangan klaim tersebut. Rasa hormat kepada kepala negara juga memudar di Jerman. Sebagai contoh, para kawula Widerad, Abas Biara Fulda, dan para kawula Hezilo, Uskup Hildesheim, tidak menghiraukan perintah-perintah yang diserukan Heinrich ketika timbul bentrok di antara mereka di depan mata Heinrich di dalam sebuah gereja di kota Goslar pada bulan Juni 1063.
Béla I, Raja Hungaria, menyatakan keinginannya untuk berdamai dengan Heinrich demi melindungi kedudukannya dari klaim kemenakannya, Salomon, yang mendapatkan suaka politik di Jerman. Meskipun demikian, Heinrich beserta para penasihatnya ingin agar Salomon kembali menjadi Raja Hungaria, dan oleh karena itu mengerahkan angkatan bersenjata untuk menginvasi Hungaria pada bulan Agustus 1063. Heinrich mendapatkan pengalaman tempurnya yang pertama dari kampanye militer ini. Béla mangkat tanpa diduga-duga akibat kecelakaan, dan angkatan bersenjata Jerman bergerak memasuki kota Székesfehérvár. Heinrich membantu Salomon naik takhta menjadi Raja Hungaria dan menghadiri upacara perkawinannya dengan Judith sebelum pulang ke Jerman. Adalbert dari Bremen menyertai Heinrich dalam kampanye militer Jerman di Hungaria dan menjalin persahabatan dengannya. Adalbert disebut sebagai "pelindung" Heinrich dalam surat-surat kenegaraan sejak tahun 1063. Sebutan tersebut adalah indikasi bahwa kedudukan Adalbert sejajar dengan kedudukan Hanno. Hanno berangkat ke Italia untuk menghadiri sinode pengakuan keabsahan jabatan Paus Aleksander II yang digelar di Mantua pada bulan Mei 1064. Selama kepergiannya, Adalbert berkesempatan mengeratkan cengkeraman pengaruhnya atas diri Heinrich.
Amon (The Legend of Korra)
Amon merupakan sebuah karakter fiksi dalam serial televisi animasi Nickelodeon The Legend of Korra. Karakter tersebut dibuat oleh Michael Dante DiMartino dan Bryan Konietzko serta diisi oleh Steven Blum. Amon pertama kali muncul dalam episode perdana pada serial tersebut, Welcome to Republic City, dan merupakan antagonis utama pada Buku Pertama.
Heinrich IV, Kaisar Romawi Suci
Tahun-tahun pertama masa dewasa
Heinrich menjalani upacara pemasangan pedang pada ikat pinggang sebagai tanda kedewasaan di kota Worms pada tanggal 29 Maret 1065. Menurut keterangan sezaman dalam tawarikh yang ditulis Lampert dari Hersfeld, Heinrich menyerang Uskup Agung Hanno seusai upacara pemasangan pedang, dan hanya dapat ditenangkan oleh ibunya. Keterangan Lampert tidak sepenuhnya dapat dipercaya, tetapi diketahui bahwa Hanno disingkirkan dari majelis istana Heinrich. Di kota Worms, Heinrich menerima undangan Paus Aleksander II untuk berkunjung ke Roma. Ibu Suri Agnes memulihkan pengaruhnya, tetapi ia berangkat ke Italia dua bulan kemudian, dan Adalbert, Uskup Agung Bremen, sepenuhnya mengambil alih kewenangan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan. Kunjungan Heinrich ke Roma mula-mula ditunda sampai musim gugur, dan kemudian ditangguhkan tanpa batas waktu, meskipun Sri Paus membutuhkan kehadiran Heinrich untuk mengatasi para pendukung Antipaus Honorius II di Italia. Bukannya berangkat ke Roma, Heinrich malah berkunjung ke Burgundia pada bulan Juni 1065. Surat-surat kenegaraan Burgundia menunjukkan bahwa para menak setempat menganggap tanggal kunjungan tersebut sebagai tanggal permulaan masa pemerintahannya. Dari Burgundia, Heinrich berangkat ke Lothringen, dan menganugerahkan daerah Lothringen Hilir kepada Gottfried Si Berewok pada bulan Oktober.<!--
Adalbert dari Bremen, in concert with the King's young friend, Werner, abused royal prerogative to menyita harta benda Gereja and took bribes for royal appointments. They persuaded the King to grant monasteries to the most powerful prelates and princes to appease their envy at their aggrandizement. Adalbert's attempts to take possession of biara Lorsch by force caused his fall, because the scandal enabled Archbishops Siegfried of Mainz and Anno of Cologne to stage a plot. They secured the support of Otto dari Nordheim, Rudolf dari Rheinfelden dan Berthold dari Zähringen and convinced Heinrich to dismiss Adalbert on 13 January 1066. Anno regained the King's favour, but thereafter no royal advisors could take full control of state administration.
Heinrich mendadak jatuh sakit pada pertengahan bulan Mei 1066. Sakitnya benar-benar parah sampai-sampai orang mengira Heinrich sudah sekarat. Para menak mulai mencari-cari calon penggantinya, tetapi kesehatannya pulih dua minggu kemudian. He immediately married his betrothed, Bertha, most probably because the uncertainty about the childless monarch's succession caused widespread anxiety in his realms. Late in 1066, Prince Richard I of Capua rose up against Pope Alexander II and invaded Roman Campagna. Early in 1067, Agnes of Poitou hurried back from Roma ke Jerman to persuade her son to intervene on the Pope's behalf. Heinrich ordered his troops to berhimpun di Augsburg, but Godfrey the Bearded was faster and launched a successful counter-offensive against Richard in June. Godfrey's independent act was dianggap sebagai penghinaan terhadap kedaulatan Heinrich di Italia.
Adalbert of Bremen's fall had encouraged the Lutici (a pagan Slavic tribe dwelling over the river Elbe) to invade Jerman and plunder Hamburg. In early 1069, Heinrich crossed the Elbe to punish the invaders. He defeated them, but could not prevent them from launching subsequent plundering raids against Saxony.
Pemberontakan Sacsen dan Kontroversi Investitur
Large parcels of the royal demesne were distributed during Heinrich's minority, and he decided to recover them around 1069. The bulk of the royal estates had been in Saxony. Heinrich sent Swabian ministeriales to the duchy to investigate property rights. The appointment of non-native unfree officials offended the Saxons, especially because the new officials ignored their traditional civil procedures. New castles were built in Saxony and Heinrich manned them with Schwaben soldiers. Like his father, Heinrich spent more time in Saxony than in other parts of Jerman and the accommodation of his retinue was the Saxons' irksome duty. The Thuringians were also outraged that Heinrich supported Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz's claim to collect tithes from them, although most Thuringians had been exempted from the church tax for centuries. The Bupati Lusatia Hilir, Dedi I, was the first Saxon lord to rebel. He claimed benefices that his wife's former husband, Otto I, Margrave of Meissen, had held, but Heinrich refused him in 1069. Dedi approached the Thuringians for help, but after Heinrich's promise to confirm their exemption from tithes the Thuringians joined the royal army. Heinrich invaded Dedi's domains and forced him to surrender.
Otto of Nordheim held vast estates in Saxony. After a nobleman, Egeno, accused him of plotting against Heinrich's life, Otto was summoned to "purge himself of that charge in single combat" early in August 1070. The contemporary historian Bruno the Saxon stated that Heinrich had paid Egeno to accuse Otto, but his account is biased. Fearing his case would not be judged fairly, Otto disobeyed the summons and fled from Bavaria to Saxony. He was soon outlawed and his benefices were confiscated. Heinrich invaded Otto's Saxon domains, but Otto raided the royal estates in Thuringia. Ordulf, Duke of Saxony, and most Saxon aristocrats remained loyal to Heinrich, but Ordulf's son and heir, Magnus, joined Otto's revolt. Heinrich ceded Bavaria to Otto's wealthy son-in-law, Welf, at Christmas 1070. Without their peers' support, Otto and Magnus had to surrender. Heinrich placed them in the German dukes' and bishops' custody on 12 June 1071.
Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen convinced Heinrich to release Otto of Nordheim in May 1072, but Magnus of Saxony remained imprisoned. Before long, Adalbert died and Heinrich seized his treasury—an early example of the application of the jus spolii by a German monarch. Heinrich started appointing low-ranking men to royal offices in the whole kingdom and this practice outraged the German aristocrats. Rudolf of Rheinfelden and Berthold of Zähringen returned to their duchies from the royal court and rumours accusing them of plotting against the King spread in Jerman. Rudolf appealed to Agnes of Poitou, asking her to reconcile him with her son. Agnes who had moved to Rome in 1065 returned to Jerman and mediated a reconciliation in July 1072. It proved temporary because Heinrich did not dismiss his advisors. Agnes shared the dukes' negative views of Heinrich's advisors and persuaded Pope Alexander to excommunicate at least five of them in February 1073, though Heinrich did not sever ties with them.
Appointments to the highest church offices remained crucial elements of Heinrich's authority: the practice enabled him to demand benefices for his supporters from the wealthy bishops and abbots, but the reformist clergy condemned it as simony. When Heinrich appointed a Milanese nobleman, Gotofredo, to the Archbishopric of Milan in 1070, Pope Alexander II excommunicated the new archbishop. Heinrich obtained Gotofredo's consecration, however, which brought him into a prolonged conflict with the Holy See. The Bishopric of Constance became another source of conflict in 1070 after the local clerics appealed to the Holy See to prevent the installation of Heinrich's candidate, Charles of Magdeburg, to the episcopal see. Heinrich denied Charles had bribed him, but he publicly admitted at a synod that his advisors may have received money from Charles. Pope Alexander II decided to investigate and summoned all German bishops who had been accused of simony or corruption to Rome, but he died in two months. The Romans proclaimed Hildebrand as his successor on 22 April 1073.
Hildebrand, who assumed the name Gregory VII, did not seek confirmation from Heinrich. He did not challenge Heinrich's prerogatives, but he was convinced a monarch who had regular contacts with excommunicated people could not intervene in church affairs. He regarded lay investiture as the principal barrier to completing the reform of the Church and challenged royal appointments, taking advantage of individual complaints against German prelates. Heinrich's Italian chancellor, Bishop Gregory of Vercelli, and an assembly of the German bishops, urged the King to declare Gregory's election invalid, because he had been proclaimed pope by the Romans instead of being elected by the cardinals. The German dukes and Godfrey the Bearded's influential widow, Beatrice of Tuscany, convinced Heinrich that he should cooperate with the Pope.
Bolesław II, Duke of Poland, invaded Bohemia in early 1073, and Heinrich decided to launch a punitive action against him. He ordered the Saxon aristocrats to assemble at Goslar, where on 29 June they asked Heinrich to redress their grievances. Heinrich made no concessions and withdrew from Goslar to Harzburg. Otto of Nordheim soon convinced the assembled Saxons to take up arms for their liberties. The Saxons marched to Harzburg, but Heinrich had fled to Eschwege. The Thuringians and the Saxons concluded an alliance and captured Lüneburg. To save the life of the commander of Lüneburg, Heinrich released Magnus of Saxony, whom the rebels acknowledged as their lawful duke without seeking royal confirmation. The German dukes and bishops did not come to Heinrich's rescue, and the rebels began attacking the royal castles. To prevent the rebellious Saxon bishops from securing the Pope's support, Heinrich addressed a letter of penance to the Pope, admitting he had been involved in simony. He claimed his youthful arrogance had been responsible for his sins and blamed his advisors for his acts.
Siegfried of Mainz, Anno of Cologne, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Berthold of Zähringen and other German aristocrats came to Gerstungen to begin negotiations with the Saxon leaders in October 1073. They tried to persuade Heinrich to redress the Saxons' grievances, but he was determined to crush the revolt. A month later, Heinrich's servant Regenger informed Rudolf and Berthold that Heinrich was planning to murder them. Regenger was ready to prove his words in a judicial duel, but he died unexpectedly in January 1074. His statements, however, deepened the conflict between the King and the two dukes. Heinrich, who had just recovered from an illness, moved to Worms. The local bishop, Adalbert, denied his entry, but the townspeople rose up against the bishop and surrendered Worms to Heinrich. A grateful Heinrich exempted the burghers from customs duties, emphasising their loyalty in a time when "all the princes of the realm were raging" against him.
Liemar, Archbishop of Bremen, Udo, Archbishop of Trier, and eight bishops came to visit Heinrich in Worms in early 1074. Their retainers and the Worms militia joined Heinrich in a new military campaign against the Saxons and Thuringians, but he soon realised the rebels outnumbered his army and entered into negotiations with them. Heinrich accepted the rebels' principal demands in the Treaty of Gerstungen on 2 February. He agreed to destroy his castles and appoint only natives to offices in Saxony in return for the Saxon aristocrats' promise to raze their newly built fortresses. On hearing the agreement, the Saxon peasants captured and destroyed Harzburg and desecrated the graves of Heinrich's younger brother and first-born son. The destruction of the royal graves aroused public indignation, and Heinrich regarded it as a violation of the treaty.
Pope Gregory appointed the cardinal bishops Gerald of Ostia and Hubert of Palestrina to begin negotiations with Heinrich. Agnes of Poitou accompanied the two legates to her son's court. After Heinrich had done a public penance for simony, the legates absolved him on 27 April 1074. They summoned the German bishops to a synod to hear the case of Bishop Herman I of Bamberg who had been accused of simony, but eight prelates did not obey their summons. In response, the Pope suspended Archbishop Liemar from office, and summoned the disobedient bishops to Rome. Heinrich did not intervene in the conflict, although the German prelates under investigation were his staunch supporters.
Heinrich's brother-in-law, Solomon of Hungary, sent envoys to Heinrich seeking his assistance against his cousin Géza (who was Béla I's eldest son). Géza had defeated Solomon on 14 March 1074, forcing him to take refuge in the fortresses of Moson and Pressburg (now Mosonmagyaróvár in Hungary and Bratislava in Slovakia, respectively). Solomon promised to cede six castles to Heinrich and acknowledge his suzerainty in return for Heinrich's support to recover his country. Heinrich invaded Hungary and marched as far as Vác, but he could not force Géza to surrender. Pope Gregory sharply criticised Solomon for his willingness to accept Heinrich's suzerainty, because the Pope regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See.
On 7 December 1074, Pope Gregory asked Heinrich to compel the German prelates who had not obeyed his summons to attend a synod in Rome. The Pope suspended five German bishops for disobedience at the synod of Lent in Rome in February 1075. He blamed Heinrich's five advisors, likely those who had been excommunicated by his predecessor, for the conflict over the archbishopric of Milan. Heinrich and the German bishops wanted to avoid a conflict. Archbishops Siegfied of Mainz and Liemar of Bremen travelled to Rome to begin negotiations with the Pope. They did not protest when the Pope deposed Bishop Herman of Bamberg. The Pope appreciated their obedience and appointed Siegfried to hold a reforming synod in Jerman.
Heinrich had meanwhile made preparations to take vengeance for the desecration of royal graves at Harzburg. He promised amnesty and gifts to those who joined his campaign against Saxony. Most German dukes and many bishops hurried to Breitungen where the royal troops were assembling in June 1074. Saxon nobles and prelates also deserted to the royal camp. Under the command of Rudolf of Rheinfelden, the royal army launched a surprise attack on the Saxons at Homburg Castle on 9 June. Most Saxon noblemen were able to flee from the battlefield, but many of the common foot soldiers were slaughtered. Those who survived the massacre condemned the noblemen for their comrades' fate, and their stories turned the Saxon peasantry against their lords. Pope Gregory VII congratulated Heinrich on his victory, stating that the Saxons' defeat at Homburg was an act of "divine judgement".
Heinrich invaded Saxony again in autumn 1075. Godfrey the Hunchback, Duke of Lower Lorraine, was the sole German duke to join his campaign, but the Saxons were unable to resist. Otto of Nordheim convinced them to surrender unconditionally to the King on 26 or 27 October. Heinrich pardoned Otto and returned all his benefices except Bavaria. He showed no mercy to other rebel leaders, who were imprisoned and had their estates confiscated. Heinrich summoned the German dukes to Goslar to swear fealty to his two-year-old son, Conrad, as his successor, but only Duke Vratislaus II of Bohemia obeyed his command.
Perjalanan menuju Canossa
Heinrich knew that his dependence on Pope Gregory VII was loosened after his victory in the Saxon War. He sent Count Eberhard the Bearded as his deputy to Italy. Eberhard demanded an oath of fealty from the Pope's vassal, Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Heinrich made one of his chaplains, Tedald, archbishop of Milan contradicting the Pope's former decisions. Alarmed by these acts, the Pope announced he would excommunicate Heinrich unless he changed his policies.
Heinrich regarded the Pope's words as a clear denial of the sacred nature of kingship. He held a synod in Worms on 24 January 1076. Two archbishops, twenty-four German bishops (two-thirds of the German episcopate), one Burgundian bishop, an Italian bishop and Godfrey the Hunchback attended it. At Heinrich's order, they declared the Pope's election invalid and demanded his abdication. An assembly of the Lombard bishops and aristocrats passed a similar resolution in Piacenza on 5 February. Heinrich's most important ally, Godfrey the Hunchback, was murdered on 22 February. Godfrey had named his nephew, Godfrey of Bouillon, as his heir, but Heinrich granted Lower Lorraine to his own son, Conrad.
Pope Gregory VII was informed of the decisions of the two assemblies during the synod of Lent in Rome. He excommunicated Heinrich and released his subjects from fealty in a public prayer addressed to Saint Peter. The deposition of a monarch by a pope was unprecedented, but the Pope was convinced Heinrich's extraordinary arrogance could not be punished otherwise. On learning of the Pope's decision Heinrich convoked a synod in Utrecht, but the local bishop, William I, was the only prelate willing to excommunicate the Pope. Heinrich wanted to demonstrate that the Pope's denial of the monarchs' role in the administration of the Christian community was responsible for their conflict. His chaplain, Gottschalk, completed a letter to be circulated in Jerman, which emphasised that only God could judge a monarch. The letter addressed the Pope as the "false monk, Hildebrand" and ended with the dramatic warning demanding his abdication: "descend, descend!" Two incidents occurred in succession which discouraged Heinrich's supporters: a fire after a lightning strike destroyed the cathedral of Utrecht on 27 March, and Bishop William's sudden death on 27 April.
Heinrich's opponents regarded these incidents as divine retribution for his sinful acts. Bishop Herman of Metz released the Saxon rebels who had been in his custody. Bishop Burchard II of Halberstadt, who had been one of the leaders of the Saxon revolt, escaped from captivity and returned to Saxony. Theoderic and William, members of the House of Wettin, also returned from exile and rose up against Heinrich. Heinrich invaded Saxony in August, but only Vratislaus II of Bohemia accompanied him. Their arrival provoked a general uprising, and Heinrich was forced to flee to Bohemia. The German aristocrats and prelates met at Trebur from 16 October to 1 November. They convinced Heinrich to accept the terms the Pope had set for him. He had to promise to dismiss his excommunicated advisors and acknowledge Gregory as the lawful pope. Furthermore, he was to acknowledge the Pope's jurisdiction in his conflicts with the German dukes and bishops. They announced they would elect a new king if Heinrich was unable to achieve his absolution before the anniversary of his excommunication. They also invited Pope Gregory to Jerman to hold an assembly in Augsburg on 2 February 1077.
Heinrich moved to Speyer and lived there as a penitent. He decided to depart for Italy to achieve his absolution, because he wanted to prevent the Pope from hearing his case at an assembly dominated by his enemies. Although the winter was unexpectedly severe, Henry, his wife and their retainers crossed the Mont Cenis pass in December. On 25 January, they reached Canossa Castle where the Pope had sought refuge, fearing that Heinrich came to Italy to capture him. Henry remained barefoot and wearing sackcloth at the castle for three days. Matilda of Tuscany (who held the castle), Adelaide of Turin and Hugh of Cluny convinced the Pope he had no choice but to absolve the remorseful King. Before receiving absolution, Henry had to pledge to accept the Pope's judgement in his conflict with his subjects.
Perang saudara
Henry remained in Italy after his absolution, which surprised his German opponents. They held an assembly at Forchheim, arguing that it had not restored their oaths of fealty. The bishops, archbishops, dukes and the Saxons' representatives who attended the assembly elected Rudolf of Rheinfelden king on 14 March 1078. Although the papal legates who were present acknowledged Rudolf's election, Pope Gregory VII remained neutral. He maintained he was entitled to settle the dispute and informed both Henry and Rudolf he would hear their case at an assembly in Jerman.
The papal legate, Cardinal Bernard, excommunicated Henry on 12 November 1077. Henry sent Bishops Benno II of Osnabrück and Theoderic of Verdun to Rome to begin negotiations with Sri Paus, whose position in Italy had been weakening. Sri Paus appointed a new legate, whose name was not recorded, to represent him in Jerman. The papal legate celebrated Easter with Henry in Cologne pada tanggal 8 April 1078, demonstrating that Sri Paus had not regarded Henry's excommunication as valid. Henry invaded Lothringen and forced Bishop Herman of Metz into exile, but Berthold of Zähringen and Welf of Bavaria inflicted defeats on his Swabian and Franconian supporters. Rudolf of Rheinfelden hurried to Franconia and met Henry and his army of 12,000 Franconian peasants at Mellrichstadt on 7 August. The Battle of Mellrichstadt proved indecisive.
Paus Gregorius prohibited all clerics from receiving royal appointments to bishoprics or abbeys in November 1078. The royal investiture was a basic element of royal administration. The ring and crosier the prelates received from monarchs during their installation symbolised their mutual dependence. At the February 1079 synod of Lent, Henry's opponents, Bishops Altmann of Passau and Herman of Metz, convinced Sri Paus to send new legates to Jerman, but Sri Paus forbade his legates to pass judgement against the prelates who had been appointed by Henry.
Henry confiscated Rudolf of Rheinfelden's inherited Swabian estates and ceded them to Bishop Burchard of Lausanne in March. In the same month, he made a wealthy local aristocrat, Frederick of Büren, duke of Swabia. Frederick could only take possession of the lands north of the Danube, because Rudolf of Rheinfelden's son, Berthold, asserted his authority over the southern parts of Swabia.
Henry met with the papal legates, Bishops Peter of Albano and Udalric of Padua, in Regensburg on 12 May 1079. They convinced him to send envoys to Fritzlar to begin negotiations with Rudolf of Rheinfelden with their mediation. At the Fritzlar conference, the parties agreed to hold a new meeting at Würzburg, but Rudolf failed to appoint his representatives, thinking Henry had bribed the papal legates. Henry invaded Saxony in August, but Rudolf persuaded the aristocrats in Henry's army to obtain his consent to a truce. Henry sent agents to Saxony, and they convinced many Saxon leaders to desert the anti-king. He mustered troops from the German duchies, Burgundy and Bohemia and invaded Saxony in January 1080. He could not surprise Rudolf who defeated Henry's army at Flarchheim on 27 January. Rudolf did not take advantage of his victory, however, because the Saxons who had deserted him did not return to his camp.
Henry sent envoys to the synod of Lent in Rome and demanded Sri Paus mengekskomunikasi Rudolf, hinting he was ready to appoint an antipope to achieve his goal. Instead Pope Gregory excommunicated and deposed Henry and acknowledged Rudolf as the lawful king. A treatise, known as The Defence of King Henry, was published in Henry's defence which emphasised his hereditary claim to his realms. The treatise, likely written by the jurist Petrus Crassus, uses arguments based on Roman Law, showing the Corpus Juris Civilis had already been studied in Italy. Before returning to Jerman, Henry's envoys, Archbishop Liemar of Bremen and Bishop Rupert of Bamberg, raised a rebellion against the Pope's principal Italian ally Matilda of Tuscany. They also secured the support of northern Italian aristocrats for Henry.
Penobatan
Henry led a small army to Italy in March 1081. His Italian supporters had defeated Matilda of Tuscany's troops in the previous year, enabling him to reach Rome without resistance. The Romans, however, remained loyal to Pope Gregory VII and Henry had to withdraw to northern Italy in late June. He began negotiations with the envoys of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos about an alliance against Robert Guiscard. He granted privileges to Lucca and Pisa, releasing them from Matilda's lordship. While Henry was in Italy, the Saxons invaded Franconia. Henry's southern German opponents elected Welf's kinsman, Hermann of Salm, king at a poorly attended assembly early in August. The Saxons only paid homage to Hermann four months later.
Henry left Italy for Jerman in the autumn of 1081 but returned in February 1082. He laid siege to Rome but could not break the Romans' resistance. He charged Antipope Clement with the siege of Rome and began devastating Matilda's domains. Rumours of Hermann of Salm's plans to invade Italy forced Henry to remain in northern Italy, but Hermann did not risk an Italian campaign. Henry returned to the siege of Rome at the end of 1082. Emperor Alexios sent 144,000 gold pieces to him as a token of their friendship and promised a further 216,000 gold pieces in return for his support against Robert Guiscard. The treasure enabled Henry to bribe Roman aristocrats, and his troops captured the Leonine City in Rome on 3 June 1083. Pope Gregory VII continued to resist in the Castel Sant'Angelo. Henry withdrew from Rome again in early July. He concluded a secret treaty with the Roman aristocrats who promised to induce Gregory to crown Henry emperor or to elect another pope.
Micranoplium
Micranoplium adalah genus kumbang tanduk panjang yang tergolong famili Cerambycidae. Genus ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Coleoptera, kelas Insecta, filum Arthropoda, dan kingdom Animalia.
Ivan Ustinov
Ivan Vitalyevich Ustinov (Иван Витальевич Устинов; ) adalah pemain sepak bola asal Rusia. Pada saat ini ia bermain untuk tim FC Dynamo Kirov.
The Berlin File
Film ini dirilis di Korea Selatan pada tanggal 31 Januari 2013. Film ini juga diputar di teater terbatas di 21 kota di Amerika Utara pada tanggal 15 Februari 2013, termasuk Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Chicago, New York, New Orleans, Vancouver, Toronto dan Montreal.
Ivan Ustinov
Ia memulai debut kariernya di Divisi Kedua Rusia untuk tim FC Saturn-2 Moscow Oblast pada tanggal 30 April 2011 dalam pertandingan melawan FC Dynamo Kostroma.
Rao Selatan, Pasaman
Rao Selatan adalah sebuah kecamatan di kabupaten Pasaman, provinsi Sumatera Barat, Indonesia.
Pemerintahan
Kecamatan Rao Selatan terbagi atas 3 nagari dan 23 jorong.
Micranoplium
Larva kumbang dalam genus ini biasanya mengebor ke dalam kayu dan dapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada batang kayu hidup atau kayu yang telah ditebang.
Heinrich IV, Kaisar Romawi Suci
Penobatan
Henry launched a military campaign against Robert Guiscard in February and March 1084. During his absence, the Antipope convinced more than ten cardinals to desert Pope Gregory VII. They were followed by other clerics and papal officials. Resistance against Henry collapsed, and he entered Rome on 21 March. Clement was installed as pope and he crowned Henry emperor in St Peter's Basilica on 1 April. Henry stayed in the Lateran Palace for six weeks. He left Rome before Robert Guiscard came to Gregory VII's rescue on 24 May. Robert's troops sacked Rome, outraging the Romans, and Gregory had to leave Rome for Salerno. Henry ordered his Italian supporters to conquer Matilda of Tuscany's lands before he returned to Jerman. However, her army routed his allies at the Battle of Sorbara on 2 July.
Microcacia
Microcacia adalah genus kumbang tanduk panjang yang tergolong famili Cerambycidae. Genus ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Coleoptera, kelas Insecta, filum Arthropoda, dan kingdom Animalia.
Heinrich IV, Kaisar Romawi Suci
Konsolidasi
Pope Gregory VII repeated Henry's excommunication in late 1084, but many of the Pope's former supporters came to pay homage to Henry as emperor at Cologne at Christmas. His supporters and opponents held a joint conference on the river Werra on 20 January 1085 but could not reach a compromise. The Saxon Count Theoderic II of Katlenburg and Bishop Udo of Hildesheim entered into secret negotiations with Henry during the conference, but the Saxons who remained hostile to Henry soon murdered Theoderic and forced the bishop to flee from Saxony. After the bishop persuaded Henry to pledge he would respect the Saxons' liberties, many rebels laid down their arms.
Microcacia
Larva kumbang dalam genus ini biasanya mengebor ke dalam kayu dan dapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada batang kayu hidup atau kayu yang telah ditebang.
Heinrich IV, Kaisar Romawi Suci
Konsolidasi
The papal legate, Cardinal Odo of Ostia, summoned the German prelates who were loyal to Pope Gregory VII to a synod at Quedlinburg. The synod issued a decree that papal judgements could not be questioned and forbade the faithful to make contact with those who had been excommunicated. In response, Henry held a general assembly in Mainz in late April or early May. Three or four archbishops and fifteen bishops obeyed his summons. They deposed their peers—two archbishops and thirteen bishops—who had failed to come to Mainz. The synod also established the "Peace of God" in Jerman, prohibiting armed conflicts during the main Christian festivals. Vratislaus II of Bohemia, who had always been Henry's loyal supporter, was rewarded with the title of king during this meeting.
Pope Gregory VII died in Salerno on 25 May 1085. Henry exploited his most prominent opponent's death to consolidate his position. Henry visited Lower Lorraine to end a conflict between his two supporters, Bishops Theoderic of Verdun and Henry of Liège in June 1085. He granted the County of Verdun to Henry of Liège's kinsman, Godfrey of Bouillon, and compensated Bishop Theoderic with estates confiscated from Matilda of Tuscany. Peace was not restored, however, because Godfrey of Bouillon soon laid claim to Matilda's estates. Henry invaded Saxony, reaching as far as Magdeburg in July. Hermann of Salm, Hartwig, Archbishop of Magdeburg and the archbishop's three suffragans fled to Denmark and the Saxons paid homage to Henry. Henry did not restore the rebels' confiscated estates and appointed new officials. The Saxons rose up in a new rebellion and forced Henry to withdraw to Franconia. Henry mustered a new army and invaded Saxony in January 1086, but the Saxons avoided a pitched battle. Henry withdrew to Regensburg. Welf of Bavaria laid siege to the town at Easter, but Henry was relieved by his supporters.
Henry's Bavarian, Swabian and Saxon opponents laid siege to Würzburg in July 1086, because possession of the town could secure their uninterrupted communication. Henry decided to force them to abandon the siege, but the rebels routed his army in the Battle of Pleichfeld on 11 August. Henry launched a military campaign against his enemies in Bavaria. In an attempt to restore peace, Bavarian and Swabian aristocrats from both kings' camps held a joint conference in Oppenheim in February 1087. Henry did not attend. He went to Aachen where his son, Conrad, was crowned his co-ruler on 30 May. On this occasion Henry likely rewarded Godfrey of Bouillon with the Duchy of Lower Lorraine.
A new joint conference of the German prelates and aristocrats assembled at Speyer in August 1087. Henry's opponents were willing to pay homage to him provided he had been absolved by the Pope. Henry refused them maintaining he had been unlawfully excommunicated. Pope Gregory VII's successor, Pope Victor III, held a synod in Benevento around the same time. The synod passed no resolution about Henry, suggesting the new Pope had adopted a conciliatory policy.
A sudden illness prevented Henry from invading Saxony in October. After his recovery he launched a military expedition against the Saxon rebels. One of the rebel leaders, Ekbert II of Brunswick, began to negotiate his surrender. Henry offered him the Margravate of Meissen, but Ekbert decided to continue the fight against Henry after two Saxon prelates, Hartwig of Magdeburg and Burchard of Halberstadt, promised to achieve his election as king of Jerman. The two prelates could not keep their promise, and Ekbert swore fealty to Henry in early 1088. Ekbert's about-face and Burchard's unexpected death on 7 April 1088 accelerated the disintegration of the Saxon rebels' camp. Hartwig of Magdeburg and his suffragans hurried to pay homage to Henry, and were followed to Henry's court by prominent Saxon aristocrats. Henry appointed Hartwig to be his lieutenant in Saxony.
Abandoned by his principal allies, the ailing Hermann of Salm sought Henry's permission to leave Saxony for his native Lorraine. His request was granted and he died in his homeland on 28 September 1088. Ekbert of Brunswick rose up in a new rebellion and defeated Henry's army near Gleichen on 25 December. Ekbert's estates were confiscated in February 1089. Henry, who had been widowed, went to Cologne to celebrate a new marriage with Eupraxia of Kiev in the summer of 1089. In the autumn, Henry returned to Saxony to prevent Ekbert from attacking Hildesheim, but he continued to resist.
Kembali ke Italia
Henry began negotiations with his Bavarian and Swabian opponents. They were willing to surrender, but they demanded the deposition of Antipope Clement III. Henry was inclined to accept their offer, but his bishops dissuaded him, fearing they would also be dismissed after the Antipope's fall. To prevent further negotiations between the Emperor and his opponents, Pope Urban II mediated a marriage alliance between Welf I of Bavaria's 18-year-old son, Welf the Fat, and the 43-year-old Matilda of Tuscany in the autumn of 1089. Henry decided to launch a new invasion of Matilda's domains. The Jews of Speyer approached him around this time for the confirmation of their rights. He summarised their liberties in a diploma, protecting them against physical assaults and prohibiting their forced baptism. He issued a similar document for the Jews of Worms. Henry was often in need of cash and according to Robinson, both communities had probably paid a significant sum of money in return for his protection.
Henry invaded Matilda's domains in March 1090, forcing her to seek refuge in the mountains in April. The retainers of Henry's sister, Abbess Adelaide of Quedlinburg, killed Ekbert of Brunswick on 3 July 1090. Henry made Ekbert's brother-in-law, Henry of Nordheim, his principal representative in Saxony. Ekbert's death put an end to Saxon opposition to the Emperor's rule, because he had secured Nordheim's loyalty with land grants. Henry continued his Italian campaign and captured Matilda's fortresses north of the river Po at the end of 1091. In June 1092, Henry crossed the Po and forced Matilda to begin negotiations for her surrender, but she and her vassals refused to acknowledge Clement III as the lawful pope. Henry laid siege to Canossa, but the garrison made a surprise attack on his army, forcing him to abandon the siege in October.
Henry's Swabian opponents elected the late Berthold of Rheinfelden's brother-in-law, Berthold II of Zähringen, to be their duke and he proclaimed himself the "vassal of St Peter" (that is of the Holy See). Henry had to send his German troops back to Jerman to fight in Schwaben dan Bayern. He began negotiations with King Ladislaus I of Hungary about an alliance, but Welf I prevented their meeting. Henry was forced to retreat to Pavia and Matilda's troops recaptured her fortresses.