cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Sumber-sumber India
- Hathigumpha inscription, line 8, probably in the 1st century BC. Original text is in Brahmi script.
But while this inscription may be interpreted as an indication that Demetrius I was the king who made conquests in Punjab, it is still true that he never issued any Indian-standard coins, only numerous coins with elephant symbolism, and the restoration of his name in Kharosthi on the Hathigumpha inscription: Di-Mi-Ta, has been doubted. The "Di" is a reconstruction, and it may be noted that the name of another Indo-Greek king, Amyntas, is spelt A-Mi-Ta in Kharosthi and may fit in.
Kerajaan Selaparang
Berdirinya Selaparang
Disebutkan di dalam daun Lontar, tersebut bahwa agama Islam salah satunya pertama kali dibawa dan disebarkan oleh seorang muballigh dari kota Bagdad, Iraq, bernama AsySyaikh As-Sayyid Nūrurrasyīd Ibnu Hajar al-Haytami. Masyarakat Lombok secara turun-temurun lebih mengenal dengan sebutan Ghaus 'Abdurrazzāq. Dia inilah, selain sebagai penyebar agama Islam, dipercaya juga sebagai menurunkan Sulthan dari kerajaan-kerajaan yang ada di Pulau Lombok. Namun selain dia, Betara Tunggul Nala (Nala Segara) diyakini pula sebagai leluhur Sulthan-Sulthan di Pulau Lombok.
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Sumber-sumber India
Therefore, Menander remains the likeliest candidate for any advance east of Panjab.
Kerajaan Selaparang
Berdirinya Selaparang
Betara Nala memiliki seorang putra bernama Deneq Mas Putra Pengendeng Segara Katon Rambitan yang bernama asli Sayyid 'Abdrurrahman. Dia ini dikenal pula dengan nama Wali Nyatok, seorang muballigh dan Wali Allah. Kata "Nyatoq" artinya Nyata. Ia disebut sebagai pendiri Kerajaan Kayangan yang merupakan cikal bakal Kerajaan Selaparang. Namun, karena ketinggian ilmu tarekatnya (thariqah), maka dia memilih untuk mengundurkan diri dari panggung Kerajaan Kayangan dan kemudian menetap di desa Rambitan, Lombok Tengah, sebagai penyebar agama Islam di wilayah ini. Wali Nyatoq dikenal juga di Lombok dengan nama Datu Pangeran Djajing Sorga'' untuk menyebarkan agama Islam. Ia mengarang kitab Jatiswara, Prembonan, Lampanan Wayang, Tashawwuf dan Fiqh. Dalam proses menyebarkan agama Islam, salah satu media yang digunakannya adalah Wayang, sebagaimana yang dilakukan pula oleh Sunan Kalijaga. Adapun bentuk mistik Islam yang dibawanya merupakan kombinasi (sinkretisme) antara mistisme Islam (Sufisme) dengan salah satu ajaran filsafat Hindu, yaitu Advaita Vedanta.
Kembali ke soal Kerajaan Selaparang dan Ghaus 'Abdurrazzāq. Tidak diketahui secara pasti kapan tepatnya dia masuk ke Pulau Lombok. Namun pendapat terkuat menyebutkan bahwa dia datang ke Pulau Lombok untuk pertama kalinya sekitar tahun 600-an Hijriyah atau abad ke-13 Masehi (antara tahun 1201 hingga 1300 Masehi). Ghaus 'Abdurrazzāq mendarat di Lombok Utara yang disebut dengan Bayan. Diapun menetap dan berda'wah di sana. Dia kemudian menikah dan lahirlahi tiga orang anak, ya'ni Sayyid Umar, yang kemudian menjadi datu Kerajaan Pujut, Sayyid Amir, yang kemudian menjadi datu Kerajaan Pejanggik, dan Syarifah Qomariah atau yang lebih terkenal dengan sebutan Dewi Anjani.
Kemudian Ghaus 'Abdurrazzāq menikah lagi dengan seorang putri dari Kerajaan Sasak yang melahirkan dua orang anak, ya'ni seorang putra bernama Sayyid Zulqarnain (dikenal juga dengan sebutan Syaikh 'Abdurrahman) atau disebut pula dengan Ghaos 'Abdurrahman, dan seorang putri bernama Syarifah Lathifah yang dijuluki dengan Denda Rabi'ah. Sayyid Zulqarnain inilah yang kemudian mendirikan Kerajaan Selaparang sekaligus pula sebagai Datu (raja) pertama dengan gelar Datu Selaparang atau Sulthan Rinjani.
Sampai disini sudah terdapat dua versi, yakni antara Nala Segara (Betara Tunggul Nala) dan Ghaus 'Abdurrazzāq yang sama-sama dipercaya sebagai penyebar agama Islam, menjadi cikal bakal Sulthan-Sulthan Lombok dan pendiri Kerajaan Selaparang. Pertanyaan yang agak menggelitik kemudian adalah:''Tidakkah keduanya memang orang yang sama? Tidakkah yang dimaksud sebagai Nala Segara itu sebagai Ghaus 'Abdurrazzāq, dan Wali Nyatok adalah Ghaos 'Abdurrahman?''. Hal itu masih dimungkinkan mengingat pada masa dahulu seorang tokoh sering kali menggunakan nama-nama berbeda ditempat yang berbeda.
Kejayaan Selaparang
Kerajaan Selaparang tergolong kerajaan yang tangguh, baik di darat maupun di laut. Laskar lautnya telah berhasil mengusir Belanda yang hendak memasuki wilayah tersebut sekitar tahun 1667-1668 Masehi. Namun, Kerajaan Selaparang harus merelakan salah satu wilayahnya dikuasai Belanda, yakni Pulau Sumbawa, karena lebih dahulu direbut sebelum terjadinya peperangan laut. Di samping itu, laskar lautnya pernah pula mematahkan serangan yang dilancarkan oleh Kerajaan Gelgel (Bali) dari arah barat. Selaparang pernah dua kali terlibat dalam pertempuran sengit melawan Kerajaan Gelgel, yakni sekitar tahun 1616 dan 1624 Masehi, akan tetapi kedua-duanya dapat ditumpas habis, dan tentara Gelgel dapat ditawan dalam jumlah yang cukup besar pula.
Setelah pertempuran sengit tersebut, Kerajaan Selaparang mulai menerapkan kebijaksanaan baru untuk membangun kerajaannya dengan memperkuat sektor agraris. Maka, pusat pemerintahan kerajaan kemudian dipindahkan agak ke pedalaman, di sebuah dataran perbukitan, tepat di Desa Selaparang sekarang ini. Dari wilayah kota yang baru ini, panorama Selat Alas yang indah membiru dapat dinikmati dengan latar belakang daratan Pulau Sumbawa dari ujung utara ke selatan dengan sekali sapuan pandangan. Dengan demikian, semua gerakan yang mencurigakan di tengah lautan akan segera dapat diketahui. Wilayah ibu kota Kerajaan Selaparang inipun memiliki daerah bagian belakang berupa bukit-bukit persawahan yang dibangun dan ditata rapi, bertingkat-tingkat hingga ke hutan Lemor yang memiliki sumber mata air yang melimpah.
Berbagai sumber menyebutkan, bahwa setelah dipindahkan, Kerajaan Selaparang mengalami kemajuan pesat. Sebuah sumber mengungkapkan, Kerajaan Selaparang dapat mengembangkan kekuasaannya hingga ke Sumbawa Barat. Disebutkan pula bahwa seorang raja muda bernama Sri Dadelanatha, dilantik dengan gelar Dewa Meraja di Sumbawa Barat karena saat itu (1630 Masehi) daerah ini juga masih termasuk ke dalam wilayah kekuasaan Kerajaan Selaparang. Kemudian dilanjutkan oleh generasi berikutnya, yaitu sekitar tanggal 30 November 1648 Masehi, putera mahkota Selaparang bernama Pangeran Pemayaman dengan gelar Pemban Aji Komala, dilantik di Sumbawa menjadi Sulthan Selaparang yang memerintah seluruh wilayah Pulau Lombok dan Sumbawa.
Keruntuhan Selaparang
Sekalipun Selaparang unggul melawan kekuatan tetangga, yaitu Kerajaan Gelgel, tetapi pada saat yang bersamaan, suatu kekuatan baru dari bagian barat telah muncul pula. Embrio kekuatan ini telah ada sejak permulaan abad ke-15 dengan datangnya para imigran petani liar dari Karang Asem (Pulau Bali) secara bergelombang, dan selanjutnya mendirikan koloni di kawasan Kota Mataram sekarang ini. Kekuatan itu kemudian secara berangsur-angsur tumbuh berkembang sehingga menjelma menjadi kerajaan kecil, yaitu Kerajaan Pagutan dan Pagesangan yang berdiri sekitar tahun 1622 Masehi. Kerajaan ini berdiri lima tahun setelah serangan laut pertama Kerajaan Gelgel dari Bali Utara atau dua tahun sebelum serangan ke dua yang dapat ditumpas oleh pasukan Kerajaan Selaparang.
Namun, bahaya yang dinilai menjadi ancaman utama dan akan tetap muncul secara tiba-tiba adalah kekuatan asing, yakni Belanda, yang tentunya sewaktu-waktu dapat melakukan ekspansi militer. Kekuatan dan tetangga dekat diabaikan, karena Gelgel yang demikian kuat mampu dipatahkan. Oleh sebab itu, sebelum kerajaan yang berdiri di wilayah kekuasaannya di bagian barat ini berdiri, hanya diantisipasi dengan menempatkan laskar kecil di bawah pimpinan Patinglaga Deneq Wirabangsa.
Dalam upaya menghadapi masalah yang baru tumbuh dari bagian barat itu, yakni Kerajaan Gelgel, dan Kerajaan Mataram Karang Asem, maka secara tiba-tiba saja, salah seorang tokoh penting di lingkungan pusat kerajaan bernama Arya Banjar Getas ditengarai berselisih paham dengan rajanya, raja Kerajaan Selaparang, soal posisi pasti perbatasan antara wilayah Kerajaan Selaparang dan Pejanggik. Arya Banjar Getas beserta para pengikutnya kemudian memutuskan untuk meninggalkan Selaparang dan bergabung dengan sebuah ekspedisi militer Kerajaan Mataram Karang Asem (Bali) yang pada saat itu sudah berhasil mendarat di Lombok Barat. Kemudian dengan segala taktiknya, Arya Banjar Getas menyusun rencana dengan pihak Kerajaan Mataram Karang Asem untuk bersama-sama menggempur Kerajaan Selaparang. Pada akhirnya, ekspedisi militer tersebut telah berhasil menaklukkan Kerajaan Selaparang. Peristiwa itu terjadi sekitar tahun 1672 Masehi. Sejak saat itu, Kerajaan Karang Asem menjadi penguasa diwilayah pulau Lombok bagian barat, dan beberapa wilayah timur dan tengah dibawah Arya Banjar Getas.
Darwin Mahesa
Diskografi
18. Jayalah Sinema Indonesia (Jingle Festival Film Banten)
19. Edelweiss (Original Soundtrack Edelweiss) Performed by Alzasya
20. Lanang Wanten (Original Soundtrack Golok) Performed by Alzasya
21. Tirtayasa (Original Soundtrack Tirtayasa The Sultan of Banten) Performed by Andhien Tyas
22. Bahagia (Original Soundtrack Belalang Cupu-cupu) Performed by Ipul
23. Kill Me By Your Hands (Original Soundtrack Kill Me By Your Hands) Performed by Dhady
24. Connected (Original Soundtrack Connected) Performed by Vira Yuliana
25. Saidjah dan Adinda (Original Soundtrack Saidjah dan Adinda (film)) Performed by Sita Nursanti
26. Berjuanglah Mengejar Impian (Original Soundtrack Saidjah dan Adinda (film)) Performed by Irfan Winaya
27. Biarlah (Original Soundtrack Lada) Perfromed by Dhadi
26. Bayang-Bayang (Original Soundtrack Elena) Performed by Arsya Aafiati kunthi
27. Matahari Terbenam (Original Soundtrack Rumi (Film) Performed by Naufal Ashafa
Penghargaan
2013, Best Film Director Islamic Movie Days, Universitas Indonesia
2015, Nominator Pencipta Lagu Terbaik Jingle Apresiasi Film Indonesia
2016, Stakeholder Budaya dan Pariwisata, Gubernur Banten
2016, Beasiswa Short Course Pembuat Film Auckland University of Technology New Zealand, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Konsolidasi
The important Bactrian king Eucratides seems to have attacked the Indo-Greek kingdom during the mid 2nd century BC. A Demetrius, called "King of the Indians", seems to have confronted Eucratides in a four-month siege, reported by Justin, but he ultimately lost.
Cyrtopogon albovarians
Cyrtopogon albovarians adalah spesies lalat yang tergolong famili Asilidae. Lalat ini juga merupakan bagian dari genus Cyrtopogon, ordo Diptera, kelas Insecta, filum Arthropoda, dan kingdom Animalia.
Lalat ini mempunyai insting predator yang agresif dan makanannya utamanya adalah serangga lain.
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Konsolidasi
In any case, Eucratides seems to have occupied territory as far as the Indus, between ca. 170 BC and 150 BC. His advances were ultimately checked by the Indo-Greek king Menander I,
Menander is considered to have been probably the most successful Indo-Greek king, and the conqueror of the largest territory. The finds of his coins are the most numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-Greek kings. Menander is also remembered in Buddhist literature, where he is called Milinda, and is described in the Milinda Panha as a convert to Buddhism: he became an arhat whose relics were enshrined in a manner reminiscent of the Buddha. He also introduced a new coin type, with Athena Alkidemos ("Protector of the people") on the reverse, which was adopted by most of his successors in the East.
Fall of Bactria and death of Menander
From the mid-2nd century BC, the Scythians, in turn being pushed forward by the Yuezhi who were completing a long migration from the border of China, started to invade Bactria from the north. Around 130 BC the last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles was probably killed during the invasion and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom proper ceased to exist. The Parthians also probably played a role in the downfall of the Bactrian kingdom.
Immediately after the fall of Bactria, the bronze coins of Indo-Greek king Zoilos I (130–120 BC), successor of Menander in the western part of the Indian territories, combined the club of Herakles with a Scythian-type bowcase and short recurve bow inside a victory wreath, illustrating interaction with horse-mounted people originating from the steppes, possibly either the Scythians (future Indo-Scythians), or the Yuezhi (future Kushans) who had invaded Greco-Bactria. This bow can be contrasted to the traditional Hellenistic long bow depicted on the coins of the eastern Indo-Greek queen Agathokleia. It is now known that 50 years later, the Indo-Scythian Maues was in alliance with the Indo-Greek kings in Taxila, and one of those kings, Artemidoros seems to claim on his coins that he is the son of Maues, although this is now disputed.
Preservation of the Indo-Greek realm
The extent of Indo-Greek rule is still uncertain and disputed. Probable members of the dynasty of Menander include the ruling queen Agathokleia, her son Strato I, and Nicias, though it is uncertain whether they ruled directly after Menander.
Other kings emerged, usually in the western part of the Indo-Greek realm, such as Zoilos I, Lysias, Antialcidas and Philoxenos. These rulers may have been relatives of either the Eucratid or the Euthydemid dynasties. The names of later kings were often new (members of Hellenistic dynasties usually inherited family names) but old reverses and titles were frequently repeated by the later rulers.
Immediately after the fall of Bactria, the bronze coins of Indo-Greek king Zoilos I (130–120 BC), successor of Menander in the western part of the Indian territories, combined the club of Herakles with a Scythian-type bowcase and short recurve bow inside a victory wreath, illustrating interaction with horse-mounted people originating from the steppes, possibly either the Scythians (future Indo-Scythians), or the Yuezhi (future Kushans) who had invaded Greco-Bactria. This bow can be contrasted to the traditional Hellenistic long bow depicted on the coins of the eastern Indo-Greek queen Agathokleia. It is now known that 50 years later, the Indo-Scythian Maues was in alliance with the Indo-Greek kings in Taxila, and one of those kings, Artemidoros seems to claim on his coins that he is the son of Maues, although this is now disputed.
While all Indo-Greek kings after Apollodotus I mainly issued bilingual (Greek and Kharoshti) coins for circulation in their own territories, several of them also struck rare Greek coins which have been found in Bactria. The later kings probably struck these coins as some kind of payment to the Scythian or Yuezhi tribes who now ruled there, though if as tribute or payment for mercenaries remains unknown. For some decades after the Bactrian invasion, relationships seem to have been peaceful between the Indo-Greeks and these relatively hellenised nomad tribes.
Lembaga Penyiaran Publik
Nasib LPP pada PP Pos, Telekomunikasi, dan Penyiaran
Pegiat Rumah Perubahan LPP, Darmanto, berpandangan bahwa salah satu implikasi UU Nomor 11 Tahun 2020 adalah RRI berpotensi kehilangan mandat untuk menyelenggarakan siaran internasional dan kehilangan hak penyelenggaraan penyiaran untuk cakupan wilayah siaran regional dan lokal. Substansi Pasal 72 Ayat (2) juga memperlihatkan adanya potensi stasiun RRI dan TVRI di daerah hanya berfungsi sebagai stasiun relai. Darmanto juga memandang bahwa proses pembahasannya "cenderung tertutup" dan kabarnya tidak melibatkan dewan pengawas.
Sementara itu, Ketua Pansus RUU Penyiaran 2002 Paulus Widiyanto berpendapat, minimalisnya penguatan diplomasi lewat LPP tidak hanya dialami RRI, tetapi juga TVRI. UU Cipta Kerja beserta RPP turunannya menempatkan kedua LPP seolah-olah badan usaha. Ia menilai bahwa secara keseluruhan aturan-aturan tersebut melupakan hal paling esensial dari penyiaran, yakni konten, serta substansinya cenderung ke urusan infrastruktur.
Hatchback
Hatchback adalah bentuk mobil penumpang 2-Box berbasis sedan, dengan bagian belakangnya lebih pendek dan pintu bagasi yang menyatu dengan kaca belakang. Pintu bagasi ini membuka ke atas dan ruang bagasi menyatu dengan ruang penumpang.
Humeisi, Hingk, Pegunungan Arfak
Humeisi adalah salah satu kampung di Distrik Hingk, Kabupaten Pegunungan Arfak, Papua Barat, Indonesia.
Hatchback
Mobil dengan bentuk Hatchback biasanya termasuk kategori mobil kota atau mobil mini (segmen A), mobil kecil (segmen B), atau mobil kompak (segmen C).
Perbedaan Hatchback dengan Liftback
Hatchback dan Liftback sama-sama memiliki pintu bagasi dengan kaca belakang yang dapat dibuka ke atas. Perbedaannya adalah atap hatchback sampai di belakang atas jok penumpang belakang sehingga kaca belakang lebih tegak. Sedangkan liftback atapnya lebih pendek dan kaca bagasi lebih landai atau miring. Ruang kepala penumpang belakang pada liftback lebih sempit daripada hatchback, tetapi dengan overhang belakang yang lebih panjang, bagasi liftback lebih luas.
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Indo-Greeks in the regions of Vidisha and Sanchi (115 BC)
Also around the same period, circa 115 BC, decorative reliefs were introduced for the first time at nearby Sanchi, 6 km away from Vidisha, by craftsmen from the northwest. These craftsmen left mason's marks in Kharoshthi, mainly used in the area around Gandhara, as opposed to the local Brahmi script. This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa. These early reliefs at Sanchi, (those of Sanchi Stupa No.2), are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar carvings are dated to 80 BC. These reliefs have been described as "the oldest extensive stupa decoration in existence". They are considered the origin of Jataka illustrations in India.
Federasi Serikat Buruh Seluruh Dunia
Federasi Serikat Buruh Seluruh Dunia atau yang dikenal dengan World Federation of Trade Unions (WTFU). Federasi serikat buruh seluruh dunia merupakan suatu organisasi yang didirikan dalam The International Trade Union Conferences di London pada tahun 1945 oleh Persatuan Buruh Perang Dunia II. Dasar hukum Federasi serikat buruh seluruh dunia ialah aturan berdasarkan perjanjian oleh anggota-anggota Federasi tersebut. Federasi serikat buruh seluruh dunia didukung oleh Persatuan Komunis Barat. Pemilihan pimpinan Federasi serikat buruh seluruh dunia dilakukan dengan sistem vote oleh Para anggota dan Komite Eksekutif.
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Indo-Greeks and Bharhut (100-75 BC)
Also around that time, craftsmen from the Gandhara area are known to have been involved in the construction of the Buddhist torana gateways at Bharhut, which are dated to 100–75 BC: this is because mason's marks in Kharosthi have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the north, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use.
Federasi Serikat Buruh Seluruh Dunia
Federasi serikat buruh seluruh dunia didirikan dengan tujuan untuk:
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Indo-Greeks and Bharhut (100-75 BC)
Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were found on the balusters between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.
Sanchi Yavanas (50–1 BC)
Again in Sanchi, but this time dating to the period of Satavahana rule circa 50–1 BC, one frieze can be observed which shows devotees in Greek attire making a dedication to the Great Stupa of Sanchi. The official notice at Sanchi describes "Foreigners worshiping Stupa". The men are depicted with short curly hair, often held together with a headband of the type commonly seen on Greek coins. The clothing too is Greek, complete with tunics, cloaks, and sandals, typical of the Greek travelling costume. The musical instruments are also quite characteristic, such as the double flute called aulos. Also visible are carnyx-like horns. They are all celebrating at the entrance of the stupa.
Decline
King Philoxenus (100–95 BC) briefly occupied the whole Greek territory from the Paropamisadae to Western Punjab, after what the territories fragmented again between smaller Indo-Greek kings. Throughout the 1st century BC, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground to the Indians in the east, and the Scythians, the Yuezhi, and the Parthians in the West. About 20 Indo-Greek kings are known during this period, down to the last known Indo-Greek rulers, Strato II and Strato III, who ruled in the Punjab region until around 10 AD.
Loss of Hindu Kush territories (70 BC–)
Around eight "western" Indo-Greek kings are known; most of them are distinguished by their issues of Attic coins for circulation in the neighbouring region.
One of the last important kings in the Paropamisadae (part of the Hindu Kush) was Hermaeus, who ruled until around 80 BC; soon after his death the Yuezhi or Sakas took over his areas from neighbouring Bactria. When Hermaeus is depicted on his coins riding a horse, he is equipped with the recurve bow and bow-case of the steppes and RC Senior believes him to be of partly nomad origin. The later king Hippostratus may however also have held territories in the Paropamisadae.
After the death of Hermaeus, the Yuezhi or Saka nomads became the new rulers of the Paropamisadae, and minted vast quantities of posthumous issues of Hermaeus up to around 40 AD, when they blend with the coinage of the Kushan king Kujula Kadphises. The first documented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around 20 BC, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings, probably depending on Greek mints and chelators.
Loss of Central territories (48/47 BC)
Around 80 BC, an Indo-Scythian king named Maues, possibly a general in the service of the Indo-Greeks, ruled for a few years in northwestern India before the Indo-Greeks again took control. He seems to have been married to an Indo-Greek princess named Machene. King Hippostratus (65–55 BC) seems to have been one of the most successful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the Indo-Scythian Azes I, who established an Indo-Scythian dynasty in 48/47 BC. Various coins seem to suggest that some sort of alliance may have taken place between the Indo-Greeks and the Scythians.
Although the Indo-Scythians clearly ruled militarily and politically, they remained surprisingly respectful of Greek and Indian cultures. Their coins were minted in Greek mints, continued using proper Greek and Kharoshthi legends, and incorporated depictions of Greek deities, particularly Zeus. The Mathura lion capital inscription attests that they adopted the Buddhist faith, as do the depictions of deities forming the vitarka mudra on their coins. Greek communities, far from being exterminated, probably persisted under Indo-Scythian rule. There is a possibility that a fusion, rather than a confrontation, occurred between the Greeks and the Indo-Scythians: in a recently published coin, Artemidorus seems to present himself as "son of Maues" ( but this is now disputed), and the Buner reliefs show Indo-Greeks and Indo-Scythians reveling in a Buddhist context.
Loss of Eastern territories (10 AD)
- Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman
They would again win independence until being conquered by Samudragupta (350-375 CE) of the Gupta Empire, and would disintegrate soon after.
During the 1st century BC, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally the Kunindas also started to mint their own coins, usually in a style highly reminiscent of Indo-Greek coinage.
The Yavanas may have ruled as far as the area of Mathura from the time of Menander I until the middle of the 1st century BC: the Maghera inscription, from a village near Mathura, records the dedication of a well "in the one hundred and sixteenth year of the reign of the Yavanas", which corresponds to circa 70 BC. In the 1st century BC, however, they lost the area of Mathura, either to the Mitra rulers under the Shunga Empire or to the Datta dynasty.
Fleeing the Sakas in the west, the Indo-Greeks continued to rule a territory in the eastern Punjab. The kingdom of the last Indo-Greek kings Strato II and Strato III was conquered by the Northern Satrap Saka ruler Rajuvula around 10 AD.
Later contributions
Some Greek nuclei may have continued to survive until the 2nd century AD.
Nahapana had at his court a Greek writer named Yavanesvara ("Lord of the Greeks"), who translated from Greek to Sanskrit the Yavanajataka ("Saying of the Greeks"), an astrological treatise and India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.
Buddhist caves
A large number of Buddhist caves in India, particularly in the west of the country, were artistically hewn between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. Numerous donors provided the funds for the building of these caves and left donatory inscriptions, including laity, members of the clergy, government officials. Foreigners, mostly self-declared Yavanas, represented about 8% of all inscriptions.
Yavanas from the region of Nashik are mentioned as donors for six structural pillars in the Great Buddhist Chaitya of the Karla Caves built and dedicated by Western Satraps ruler Nahapana in 120 AD, although they seem to have adopted Buddhist names. In total, the Yavanas account for nearly half of the known dedicatory inscriptions on the pillars of the Great Chaitya. To this day, Nasik is known as the wine capital of India, using grapes that were probably originally imported by the Greeks.
Two more Buddhist inscriptions by Yavanas were found in the Shivneri Caves. One of the inscriptions mentions the donation of a tank by the Yavana named Irila, while the other mentions the gift of a refectory to the Sangha by the Yavana named Cita. On this second inscription, the Buddhist symbols of the triratna and of the swastika (reversed) are positioned on both sides of the first word "Yavana(sa)".
One of the Buddhist caves (Cave No.17) in the Pandavleni Caves complex near Nashik was built and dedicated by "Indragnidatta the son of the Yavana Dharmadeva, a northerner from Dattamittri", in the 2nd century AD. The city of "Dattamittri" is thought to be the city of Demetrias in Arachosia, mentioned by Isidore of Charax.
In the Manmodi Caves, near Junnar, an inscription by a Yavana donor appears on the façade of the main Chaitya, on the central flat surface of the lotus over the entrance: it mentions the erection of the hall-front (façade) for the Buddhist Samgha, by a Yavana donor named Chanda:
- Inscription on the façade of the Manmodi Chaitya.
These contributions seem to have ended when the Satavahana King Gautamiputra Satakarni vanquished the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, who had ruled over the area where these inscriptions were made, c. AD 130. This victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra Satakarni restruck many of Nahapana's coins, and that he is claimed to have defeated a confederacy of Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians), and Yavanas (Indo-Greeks), in the inscription of his mother Queen Gotami Balasiri at Cave No. 3 of the Nasik Caves:
"...Siri-Satakani Gotamiputa (....) who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas; who destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas and Palhavas; who rooted out the Khakharata race; who restored the glory of the Satavahana family..."
- Nasik Caves inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri, circa AD 170, Cave No.3
Inscriptions of the 3rd century (AD 210–325) at the Nagarjunakonda Buddhist complex in southern India again mention the involvement of the Yavanas with Buddhism: an inscription in a monastery (Site No.38) describes its residents as Acaryas and Theriyas of the Vibhajyavada school, "who had gladdened the heart of the people of Kasmira, Gamdhara, Yavana, Vanavasa, and Tambapamnidipa".
Yavana era for Buddha sculptures
The inscription at the base of the statue is:
"sa 1 1 1 100 10 4 4 Prothavadasa di 20 4 1 1 1 Budhagosa danamu(khe) Saghorumasa sadaviyasa "In year 318, the day 27 of Prausthapada, gift of Buddhaghosa, the companion of Samghavarma""
- Inscription of the Buddha of Loriyan Tangai.
This would make it one of the earliest known representations of the Buddha, after the Bimaran casket (1st century AD), and at about the same time as the Buddhist coins of Kanishka.
Another statue of Buddha, the Buddha of Hashtnagar, is inscribed from the year 384, also probably in the Yavana era, which is thought to be AD 209. Only the pedestal is preserved in the British Museum, the statue itself, with folds of clothing having more relief than those of the Loriyan Tangai Buddha, having disappeared.
Ideology
Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that of Menander, has been remembered as benevolent. It has been suggested, although direct evidence is lacking, that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan empire which may have had a long history of marital alliances, Marital alliances: The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek populations in India, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the Shungas. The city of Sirkap founded by Demetrius combines Greek and Indian influences without signs of segregation between the two cultures.
Also, most of the coins of the Greek kings in India were bilingual, written in Greek on the front and in Pali on the back (in the Kharosthi script, derived from Aramaic, rather than the more eastern Brahmi, which was used only once on coins of Agathocles of Bactria), a tremendous concession to another culture never before made in the Hellenic world. From the reign of Apollodotus II, around 80 BC, Kharosthi letters started to be used as mintmarks on coins in combination with Greek monograms and mintmarks, suggesting the participation of local technicians to the minting process. Incidentally, these bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks were the key in the decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by James Prinsep (1835) and Carl Ludwig Grotefend (1836). Kharoshthi became extinct around the 3rd century AD.
In Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as Yavanas (in Sanskrit),  or Yonas (in Pali) both thought to be transliterations of "Ionians". In the Harivamsa the "Yavana" Indo-Greeks are qualified, together with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e. foremost among the Warrior caste, or Kshatriyas. The Majjhima Nikaya explains that in the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas, in contrast with the numerous Indian castes, there were only two classes of people, Aryas and Dasas (masters and slaves).
Religion
In addition to the worship of the Classical pantheon of the Greek deities found on their coins (Zeus, Herakles, Athena, Apollo...), the Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.
Karawang Wetan, Karawang Timur, Karawang
Karawang Wetan adalah salah satu desa di Kecamatan Karawang Timur, Kabupaten Karawang, Jawa Barat, Indonesia. Kelurahan ini termasuk dalam kelurahan dengan penduduk terbanyak dan terpadat di Kabupaten Karawang sehingga dikabarkan akan dimekarkan karena jumlah penduduknya yang sangat banyak, walau mungkin tidak akan dimekarkan dalam waktu dekat.
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Interactions with Buddhism
Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, conquered the Greek satraps left by Alexander, which belonged to Seleucus I Nicator of the Seleucid Empire. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka would then establish the largest empire in the Indian Subcontinent through an aggressive expansion. Ashoka converted to Buddhism following the destructive Kalinga War, abandoning further conquests in favor of humanitarian reforms. Ashoka erected the Edicts of Ashoka to spread Buddhism and the 'Law of Piety' throughout his dominion. In one of his edicts, Ashoka claims to have converted his Greek population along with others to Buddhism. "Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma."
The last Mauryan Emperor Brihadratha was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga, the former senapati or "army lord" of the Mauryan Empire and founder of the Shunga Empire. Pushyamitra is alleged to have persecuted Buddhism in favor of brahmanism, likely in attempt to further remove the legacy of the Mauryan Empire. "... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama (in Pataliputra). ... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed. ... After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a ... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk."
It is possible that Menander I Soter or the "Saviour king", choose Sakala as his capital due to the Buddhist presence there. Menander I, is stated to have converted to Buddhism in the Milinda Panha, which records the dialogue between Menander and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. Menander is claimed to have obtained the title of an arhat."And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he (Menander) handed over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the house-less state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to Arahatship!"
- The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids.
The wheel he represented on some of his coins was most likely Buddhist Dharmachakra,.
Another Indian text, the Stupavadana of Ksemendra, mentions in the form of a prophecy that Menander will build a stupa in Pataliputra.
Plutarch also presents Menander as an example of benevolent rule, and explains that upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the various cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in "monuments" (μνημεία, probably stupas), in a parallel with the historic Buddha: "But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at last brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should carry away an equal share, and they should all erect monuments to him."
Karawang Wetan, Karawang Timur, Karawang
Kampung ini berbatasan dengan Kampung Lembur pasir, Kampung Karawang Kulon, Kampung Karawang Kaler, Kampung Lembur Situ, Kampung Karawang Central dan Kampung Selajambu.
Mata pencaharian masyarakatnya beragam, dari mulai petani, peternak, pegawai pabrik, karyawan swasta, perawat, petugas pajak, guru, dan lain-lain. Total populasi diperkirakan sekitar 350 KK yang terbagi dalam 4 Rukun Tetangga dalam 1 Rukun Warga.
Tunggakjati, Karawang Barat, Karawang
Tunggakjati adalah salah satu kelurahan di Kecamatan Karawang Barat, Kabupaten Karawang, Jawa Barat, Indonesia.Kelurahan ini dilintasi jalan raya Proklamasi yang menghubungkan kecamatan Karawang Barat dan kecamatan Rengasdengklok.
Tunggak jati memiliki 2 (dua) arti kata Tunggak yang berarti “hutang” Jati yang berarti “orangtua” yang artinya hutang ke orangtua, menyimpan nilai historis sejarah Karawang yaitu Raden Adipati Singaperbangsa dulu di tangkap di daerah Tunggak Jati. Tunggak Jati terbentang luas hijau persawahan dan mengalirnya sungai Citarum, irigasi, kali apur dan selokan. Gedung Pemerintahan Kelurahan Tunggak Jati sempat dijadikan sebagai tempat penyimpanan persenjataan pada saat penjajahan Belanda.
Memiliki sejarah berdirinya olahraga anggar oleh salah seorang tokoh olahragawan sekaligus pelatih atlit-atlit anggar di Kabupaten Karawang Alhamrhum Sucipto yang banyak menuai prestasi pada ajang kejuaraan daerah, bahkan tingkat nasional dan internasional.
Tunggak jati memiliki UMKM unggulan yaitu "Singkong Apem Pak Gede" adalah usaha industri makanan olahan rumahan dari bahan singkong, model kue basah dengan olahan singkong dengan citarasa yang sangat enak sekali. Ini adalah tempat usaha dan tempat pengolahan produksi yang langsung yang berada di lokasi Wanasepi Rt. 01/09 Tunggakjati Karawang Barat. Salah satu keunggulan singkong apem pak gede juga sudah memiliki PIRT adalah sertifikat izin pangan industri rumah tangga yang aman untuk di konsumsi, walaupun jenisnya adalah kue basah. Dan juga memiliki hak paten logo dari Kemenkumham.
84011 Jean-Claude
84011 Jean-Claude (2002 OB25) adalah sebuah asteroid yang terletak di sabuk utama luar. Asteroid ini ditemukan pada tanggal 23 Juli 2002 oleh S. F. Hönig dari citra-citra NEAT yang diambil dari Observatorium Palomar.
Chrysobothris marina
Chrysobothris marina adalah spesies kumbang yang tergolong ke dalam famili Buprestidae. Spesies ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Coleoptera. Spesies Chrysobothris marina sendiri merupakan bagian dari genus Chrysobothris. Nama ilmiah dari spesies ini pertama kali diterbitkan oleh Abeille de Perrin, 1907.
84011 Jean-Claude
Eksentrisitas orbit asteroid ini tercatat sebesar 0,2488327, sementara magnitudo mutlaknya adalah 13,7.
84012 Deluise
84012 Deluise (2002 PR) adalah sebuah asteroid yang terletak di sabuk utama. Eksentrisitas orbit asteroid ini tercatat sebesar 0,1524651. Anomali rata-rata 84012 Deluise adalah 264,91077, sementara magnitudo mutlaknya 16,9.
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
Interactions with Buddhism
The Butkara stupa was "monumentalized" by the addition of Hellenistic architectural decorations during Indo-Greek rule in the 2nd century BC. A coin of Menander I was found in the second oldest stratum (GSt 2) of the Butkara stupa suggesting a period of additional constructions during the reign of Menander. It is thought that Menander was the builder of the second oldest layer of the Butkara stupa, following its initial construction during the Mauryan Empire.
Palumbonsari, Karawang Timur, Karawang
Palumbonsari adalah salah satu kelurahan di Kecamatan Karawang Timur, Kabupaten Karawang, Jawa Barat, Indonesia.terdiri dari beberapa lingkungan atau dusun dan beberapa pemukiman baru berbentuk perumahan, lingkungan pundong, lamaran, karajan, karees, citeureup, rawabagi, taneuh beureum, perumahan buana asri, perum parahiyangan, perum palumbonsari asri, perum green gatden dan beberapa perumahan baru lain, ---
Kerajaan Indo-Yunani
"Followers of the Dharma"
Several Indo-Greek kings use the title "Dharmikasa", i.e. "Follower of the Dharma", in the Kharoshti script on the obverse of their coins. The corresponding legend in Greek is "Dikaios" ("The Just"), a rather usual attribute on Greek coins. The expression "Follower of the Dharma" would of course resonate strongly with Indian subjects, used to this expression being employed by pious kings, especially since the time of Ashoka who advocated the Dharma in his inscriptions. The seven kings using "Dharmakasa", i.e. "Follower of the Dharma", are late Indo-Greek kings, from around 150 BC, right after the reign of Menander I, and mainly associated with the area of Gandhara: Zoilos I (130–120 BC), Strato (130–110 BC), Heliokles II (95–80 BC), Theophilos (130 or 90 BC), Menander II (90–85 BC), Archebios (90–80 BC) and Peukolaos (c. 90 BC). The attribute of Dharmika was again used a century later by a known Buddhist practitioner, Indo-Scythian king Kharahostes, to extoll on his coins the virtues of his predecessor king Azes.
Bhagavata cult
The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column that was erected around 113 BC in central India in Vidisha near modern Besnagar, by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra. The pillar originally supported a statue of Garuda. In the dedication, the Indo-Greek ambassador explains he is a devotee of "Vāsudeva, the God of Gods". Historically, it is the first known inscription related to the Bhagavata cult in India.
Art
In general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly documented, and few works of art (apart from their coins and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to them. The coinage of the Indo-Greeks however is generally considered some of the most artistically brilliant of Antiquity. The Hellenistic heritage (Ai-Khanoum) and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek world would suggest a rich sculptural tradition as well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains have been attributed to them. On the contrary, most Gandharan Hellenistic works of art are usually attributed to the direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in India in the 1st century AD, such as the nomadic Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and, in an already decadent state, the Kushans In general, Gandharan sculpture cannot be dated exactly, leaving the exact chronology open to interpretation.
The possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art has been reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has been extended to the first decades of the 1st century AD, with the reign of Strato II in the Punjab. Also, Foucher, Tarn, and more recently, Boardman, Bussagli and McEvilley have taken the view that some of the most purely Hellenistic works of northwestern India and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two centuries earlier, to the time of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd–1st century BC:
This is particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in Hadda, Afghanistan, an area which "might indeed be the cradle of incipient Buddhist sculpture in Indo-Greek style". Referring to one of the Buddha triads in Hadda, in which the Buddha is sided by very Classical depictions of Herakles/Vajrapani and Tyche/Hariti, Boardman explains that both figures "might at first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia Minor or Syria of the first or second century BC (...) these are essentially Greek figures, executed by artists fully conversant with far more than the externals of the Classical style".
Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art may have been executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with the West from the 1st to the 3rd century AD.
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, beyond the omnipresence of Greek style and stylistic elements which might be simply considered an enduring artistic tradition, offers numerous depictions of people in Greek Classical realistic style, attitudes and fashion (clothes such as the chiton and the himation, similar in form and style to the 2nd century BC Greco-Bactrian statues of Ai-Khanoum, hairstyle), holding contraptions which are characteristic of Greek culture (amphoras, "kantaros" Greek drinking cups), in situations which can range from festive (such as Bacchanalian scenes) to Buddhist-devotional.
Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these works of art actually depict Greeks of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BC, or remaining Greek communities under the rule of the Indo-Parthians or Kushans in the 1st and 2nd century AD. Benjamin Rowland thinks that the Indo-Greeks, rather than the Indo-Scythians or the Kushans, may have been the models for the Bodhisattva statues of Gandhara
Economy
Very little is known about the economy of the Indo-Greeks, although it seems to have been rather vibrant.
Coinage
The abundance of their coins would tend to suggest large mining operations, particularly in the mountainous area of the Hindu-Kush, and an important monetary economy. The Indo-Greek did strike bilingual coins both in the Greek "round" standard and in the Indian "square" standard, suggesting that monetary circulation extended to all parts of society. The adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neighbouring kingdoms, such as the Kunindas to the east and the Satavahanas to the south, would also suggest that Indo-Greek coins were used extensively for cross-border trade.
Tribute payments
It would also seem that some of the coins emitted by the Indo-Greek kings, particularly those in the monolingual Attic standard, may have been used to pay some form of tribute to the Yuezhi tribes north of the Hindu-Kush. This is indicated by the coins finds of the Qunduz hoard in northern Afghanistan, which have yielded quantities of Indo-Greek coins in the Hellenistic standard (Greek weights, Greek language), although none of the kings represented in the hoard are known to have ruled so far north. Conversely, none of these coins have ever been found south of the Hindu-Kush.
Trade with China
The Indo-Greek kings in Southern Asia issued the first known cupro-nickel coins, with Euthydemus II, dating from 180 to 170 BC, and his younger brothers Pantaleon and Agathocles around 170 BC. As only China was able to produce cupro-nickel at that time, and as the alloy ratios are exclusively similar, it has been suggested that the metal was the result of exchanges between China and Bactria.