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Quarrel with Hume
On 3 April 1766 a daily newspaper published the letter constituting Horace Walpole's hoax on Rousseau - without mentioning Walpole as the actual author; that the editor of the publication was Hume's personal friend compounded Rousseau's grief. Gradually articles critical of Rousseau started appearing in the British press; Rousseau felt that Hume, as his host, ought to have defended him. Moreover, in Rousseau's estimate, some of the public criticism contained details to which only Hume was privy. Further, Rousseau was aggrieved to find that Hume had been lodging in London with François Tronchin, son of Rousseau's enemy in Geneva.
About this time, Voltaire anonymously published his ''Letter to Dr. J.-J. Pansophe'' in which he gave extracts from many of Rousseau's prior statements which were critical of life in England; the most damaging portions of Voltaire's writeup were reprinted in a London periodical. Rousseau now decided that there was a conspiracy afoot to defame him. A further cause for Rousseau's displeasure was his concern that Hume might be tampering with his mail. The misunderstanding had arisen because Rousseau tired of receiving voluminous correspondence whose postage he had to pay. Hume offered to open Rousseau's mail himself and to forward the important letters to Rousseau; this offer was accepted. However, there is some evidence of Hume intercepting even Rousseau's outgoing mail.
After some correspondence with Rousseau, which included an eighteen-page letter from Rousseau describing the reasons for his resentment, Hume concluded that Rousseau was losing his mental balance. On learning that Rousseau had denounced him to his Parisian friends, Hume sent a copy of Rousseau's long letter to Madame de Boufflers. She replied stating that, in her estimate, Hume's alleged participation in the composition of Horace Walpole's faux letter was the reason for Rousseau's anger.
When Hume learnt that Rousseau was writing the Confessions, he assumed that the present dispute would feature in the book. Adam Smith, Turgot, Marischal Keith, Horace Walpole, and Mme de Boufflers advised Hume not to make his quarrel with Rousseau public; however, many members of d'Holbach's coterie—particularly, d'Alembert—urged him to reveal his version of the events. In October 1766 Hume's version of the quarrel was translated into French and published in France; in November it was published in England. Grimm included it in his correspondance; ultimately,"the quarrel resounded in Geneva, Amsterdam, Berlin, and St. Petersburg. A dozen pamphlets redoubled the bruit. Walpole printed his version of the dispute; Boswell attacked Walpole; Mme. de La Tour's Precis sur M. Rousseau called Hume a traitor; Voltaire sent him additional material on Rousseau's faults and crimes, on his frequentation of 'places of ill fame', and on his seditious activities in Switzerland. George III 'followed the battle with intense curiosity'."After the dispute became public, due in part to comments from notable publishers like Andrew Millar, Walpole told Hume that quarrels such as this only end up becoming a source of amusement for Europe. Diderot took a charitable view of the mess: "I knew these two philosophers well. I could write a play about them that would make you weep, and it would excuse them both." Amidst the controversy surrounding his quarrel with Hume, Rousseau maintained a public silence; but he resolved now to return to France. To encourage him to do so swiftly, Thérèse advised him that the servants at Wootton Hall sought to poison him. On 22 May 1767 Rousseau and Thérèse embarked from Dover for Calais.
In Grenoble
On 22 May 1767, Rousseau reentered France even though an arrest warrant against him was still in place. He had taken an assumed name, but was recognized, and a banquet in his honor was held by the city of Amiens. French nobles offered him a residence at this time. Initially, Rousseau decided to stay in an estate near Paris belonging to Mirabeau. Subsequently, on 21 June 1767, he moved to a chateau of the Prince of Conti in Trie.
Around this time, Rousseau started developing feelings of paranoia, anxiety, and of a conspiracy against him. Most of this was just his imagination at work, but on 29 January 1768, the theatre at Geneva was destroyed through burning, and Voltaire mendaciously accused Rousseau of being the culprit. In June 1768, Rousseau left Trie, leaving Therese behind, and went first to Lyon, and subsequently to Bourgoin. He now invited Therese to this place and married her, under his alias "Renou" in a faux civil ceremony in Bourgoin on 30 August 1768.
In January 1769, Rousseau and Thérèse went to live in a farmhouse near Grenoble. Here he practiced botany and completed the Confessions. At this time he expressed regret for placing his children in an orphanage. On 10 April 1770, Rousseau and Therese left for Lyon where he befriended Horace Coignet, a fabric designer and amateur musician. At Rousseau's suggestion, Coignet composed musical interludes for Rousseau's prose poem Pygmalion; this was performed in Lyon together with Rousseau's romance The Village Soothsayer to public acclaim. On 8 June, Rousseau and Therese left Lyon for Paris; they reached Paris on 24 June.
In Paris, Rousseau and Therese lodged in an unfashionable neighborhood of the city, the Rue Platrière—now called the Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He now supported himself financially by copying music, and continued his study of botany. At this time also, he wrote his Letters on the Elements of Botany. These consisted of a series of letters Rousseau wrote to Mme Delessert in Lyon to help her daughters learn the subject. These letters received widespread acclaim when they were eventually published posthumously. "It's a true pedagogical model, and it complements Emile," commented Goethe.
For defending his reputation against hostile gossip, Rousseau had begun writing the Confessions in 1765. In November 1770, these were completed, and although he did not wish to publish them at this time, he began to offer group readings of certain portions of the book. Between December 1770, and May 1771, Rousseau made at least four group readings of his book with the final reading lasting seventeen hours. A witness to one of these sessions, Claude Joseph Dorat, wrote:"I expected a session of seven or eight hours; it lasted fourteen or fifteen. ... The writing is truly a phenomenon of genius, of simplicity, candor, and courage. How many giants reduced to dwarves! How many obscure but virtuous men restored to their rights and avenged against the wicked by the sole testimony of an honest man!"After May 1771, there were no more group readings because Madame d'Épinay wrote to the chief of police, who was her friend, to put a stop to Rousseau's readings so as to safeguard her privacy. The police called on Rousseau, who agreed to stop the readings. The Confessions were finally published posthumously in 1782.
In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland, which was to be his last major political work.
Final years
In 1766, Rousseau had impressed Hume with his physical prowess by spending ten hours at night on the deck in severe weather during the journey by ship from Calais to Dover while Hume was confined to his bunk. "When all the seamen were almost frozen to death...he caught no harm...He is one of the most robust men I have ever known," Hume noted. By 1770, Rousseau's urinary disease had also been greatly alleviated after he stopped listening to the advice of doctors.[citation needed] At that time, notes Damrosch, it was often better to let nature take its own course rather than subject oneself to medical procedures. His general health had also improved. However, on 24 October 1776, as he was walking on a narrow street in Paris a nobleman's carriage came rushing by from the opposite direction; flanking the carriage was a galloping Great Dane belonging to the nobleman. Rousseau was unable to dodge both the carriage and the dog, and was knocked down by the Great Dane. He seems to have suffered a concussion and neurological damage. His health began to decline; Rousseau's friend Corancez described the appearance of certain symptoms which indicate that Rousseau started suffering from epileptic seizures after the accident. The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthéon, Paris In 1777, Rousseau received a royal visitor, when the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II came to meet him. His free entry to the Opera had been renewed by this time and he would go there occasionally. At this time also (1777–78), he composed one of his finest works, Reveries of a Solitary Walker.
In the spring of 1778, the Marquis Girardin invited Rousseau to live in a cottage in his château at Ermenonville. Rousseau and Thérèse went there on 20 May. Rousseau spent his time at the château in collecting botanical specimens, and teaching botany to Girardin's son. He ordered books from Paris on grasses, mosses and mushrooms, and made plans to complete his unfinished Emile and Sophie and Daphnis and Chloe.
On 1 July, a visitor commented that "men are wicked", to which Rousseau replied with "men are wicked, yes, but man is good"; in the evening there was a concert in the château in which Rousseau played on the piano his own composition of the Willow Song from Othello. On this day also, he had a hearty meal with Girardin's family; the next morning, as he was about to go teach music to Girardin's daughter, he died of cerebral bleeding resulting in an apoplectic stroke. It is now believed that repeated falls, including the accident involving the Great Dane, may have contributed to Rousseau's stroke.
Following his death, Grimm, Madame de Staël and others spread the false news that Rousseau had committed suicide; according to other gossip, Rousseau was insane when he died. All those who met him in his last days agree that he was in a serene frame of mind at this time.
Influences
Rousseau later noted that when he read the question for the essay competiton of the Academy of Dijon which he would go on to win: "Has the rebirth of the arts and sciences contributed to the purification of the morals?", he felt that the "the moment I read this announcement I saw another universe and became a different man". The essay he wrote in response led to one of the central themes of Rousseau’s thought, which was that perceived social and cultural progress had in fact led only to the moral degradation of humanity. His influences to this conclusion included Montesquieu, François Fénelon, Michel de Montaigne, Seneca the Younger, Plato, and Plutarch.
Rousseau based his political philosophy on contract theory and his reading of Thomas Hobbes. Reacting to the ideas of Samuel von Pufendorf and John Locke was also driving his thought. All three thinkers had believed that humans living without central authority were facing uncertain conditions in a state of mutual competition. In contrast, Rousseau believed that there was no explanation for why this would be the case, as there would have been no conflict or property. Rousseau especially criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature... has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that "uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature".
Human nature
Statue of Rousseau on the Île Rousseau, Geneva The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said 'This is mine', and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.
According to Rousseau, humans have two traits in common with other animals: the amour de soi, which describes the self-preservation instinct; and pitié, which is empathy for the rest of one's species, both of which precede reason and sociability. Only humans who are morally deprived would care only about their relatove status to others, leading to amour-propre, or vanity. He did not believe humans to be innately superior to other species. However, human beings did have the unique ability to change their nature through free choice, instead of being confined to natural instincts.
Another aspect separating humans from other animals is the ability of perfectability, which allows humans to choose in a way which improves their condition. These improvements could be lasting, leading not only to individual, but also collective change for the better. Together with human freedom, the ability to imrpove makes possible the historic evolution of humanity. However, there is no guarantee that this evolution will be for the better.
Human development
Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called "savages" was the best or optimal in human development, between the less-than-optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and the extreme of decadent civilization on the other. "...[N]othing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment of civil man". This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage, which Arthur Lovejoy claimed misrepresents Rousseau's thought.
Rousseau's ideas of human development were highly interconnected with forms of mediation, or the processes that individual humans use to interact with themselves and others while using an alternate perspective or thought process. According to Rousseau, these were developed through the innate perfectibility of humanity. These include a sense of self, morality, pity, and imagination. Rousseau's writings are purposely ambiguous concerning the formation of these processes to the point that mediation is always intrinsically part of humanity's development. An example of this is the notion that as an individual, one needs an alternative perspective to come to the realization that they are a 'self'.
As humans started to compare themselves with each other, they began to notice that some had qualities differentiating them from others. However, only when moral significance was attached to these qualities did they start to create esteem and envy, and thereby, social hierarchies. Rousseau noted that whereas "the savage lives within himself, sociable man, always outside himself, can only live in the opinion of others". This then resulted in the corruption of humankind, "producing combinations fatal to innosense and happiness".
Following the attachment of importance to human difference, they would have started forming social institutions, according to Rousseau. Metallurgy and agriculture would have subsequently increased the inequalities between those with and without property. After all land had been converted into private properties, a zero-sum game would have resulted in competition for it, leading to conflict. This would have led to the creation and perpetuation of the 'hoax' of the political system by the rich which perpetuated their power.
Political theory
Île Rousseau, Geneva According to Rousseau, the original forms of government to emerge, monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, were all products of the differing levels of inequality in their societies. However, they would always end up with ever worse levels of inequality, until a revolution would have overthrown it and new leaders would have emerged with further extremes of injustice. Nevertheless, the human capacity for self-improvement remained. As the problems of humanity were the product of political choice, they could also be improved by a better political system.
The Social Contract outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Économie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they."
Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom.
According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law.
Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by direct democracy in an assembly.
—  The logical framework of Social Contract is also analyzed in.
Education and child rearing
Jean-Jacques Rousseau on a Romanian stamp, 1962 Main article: Emile, or On Education The noblest work in education is to make a reasoning man, and we expect to train a young child by making him reason! This is beginning at the end; this is making an instrument of a result. If children understood how to reason they would not need to be educated.
—  Rousseau's philosophy of education concerns itself not with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupil's character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. The hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences". Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to Émile through his learning experiences.
Rousseau became an early advocate of developmentally appropriate education; his description of the stages of child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages:
Rousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune (the most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing). The sixteen-year-old is also ready to have a companion of the opposite sex.
Rousseau's ideas have influenced progressive "child-centered" education. John Darling's 1994 book Child-Centered Education and its Critics portrays the history of modern educational theory as a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. The theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries Pestalozzi, Mme. de Genlis and, later, Maria Montessori and John Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices, have significant points in common with those of Rousseau.
Religion
Having converted to Roman Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of John Calvin as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life. Unlike many of the more agnostic Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion. His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism.
Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded in Émile, was interpreted as advocating indifferentism, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both Calvinist Geneva and Catholic Paris. Although he praised the Bible, he was disgusted by the Christianity of his day. Rousseau's assertion in The Social Contract that true followers of Christ would not make good citizens may have been another reason for his condemnation in Geneva. He also repudiated the doctrine of original sin, which plays a large part in Calvinism. In his "Letter to Beaumont", Rousseau wrote, "there is no original perversity in the human heart."
In the 18th century, many deists viewed God merely as an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, likened to a giant machine. Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its emotionality. He saw the presence of God in the creation as good, and separate from the harmful influence of society. Rousseau's attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of 19th-century Romanticism towards nature and religion. (Historians—notably William Everdell, Graeme Garrard, and Darrin McMahon—have additionally situated Rousseau within the Counter-Enlightenment.) Rousseau was upset that his deism was so forcefully condemned, while those of the more atheistic philosophers were ignored. He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his "Letter to Mgr de Beaumont, the Archbishop of Paris", "in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force."
Legacy
, showing Rousseau's father gesturing towards the window. The scene is drawn from a footnote to the Letter to d'Alembert where Rousseau recalls witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St Gervais regiment.
General will
Rousseau's idea of the volonté générale ("general will") was not original with him but rather belonged to a well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and theological writings in use at the time. The phrase was used by Diderot and also by Montesquieu (and by his teacher, the Oratorian friar Nicolas Malebranche). It served to designate the common interest embodied in legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending people's private and particular interests at any particular time. It displayed a rather democratic ideology, as it declared that the citizens of a given nation should carry out whatever actions they deem necessary in their own sovereign assembly.
The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical 17th-century republican tradition of Spinoza, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality:"While Rousseau's notion of the progressive moral degeneration of mankind from the moment civil society established itself diverges markedly from Spinoza's claim that human nature is always and everywhere the same ... for both philosophers the pristine equality of the state of nature is our ultimate goal and criterion ... in shaping the 'common good', volonté générale, or Spinoza's mens una, which alone can ensure stability and political salvation. Without the supreme criterion of equality, the general will would indeed be meaningless. ... When in the depths of the French Revolution the Jacobin clubs all over France regularly deployed Rousseau when demanding radical reforms. and especially anything—such as land redistribution—designed to enhance equality, they were at the same time, albeit unconsciously, invoking a radical tradition which reached back to the late seventeenth century."
Effect on the American Revolution
According to some scholars, Rousseau exercised minimal influence on the Founding Fathers of the United States, despite similarities between their ideas. They shared beliefs regarding the self-evidence that "all men are created equal," and the conviction that citizens of a republic be educated at public expense. A parallel can be drawn between the United States Constitution's concept of the "general welfare" and Rousseau's concept of the "general will". Further commonalities exist between Jeffersonian democracy and Rousseau's praise of Switzerland and Corsica's economies of isolated and independent homesteads, and his endorsement of a well-regulated militia, such as those of the Swiss cantons.
However, Will and Ariel Durant have opined that Rousseau had a definite political influence on America. According to them:"The first sign of [Rousseau's] political influence was in the wave of public sympathy that supported active French aid to the American Revolution. Jefferson derived the Declaration of Independence from Rousseau as well as from Locke and Montesquieu. As ambassador to France (1785–89) he absorbed much from both Voltaire and Rousseau...The success of the American Revolution raised the prestige of Rousseau's philosophy."One of Rousseau's most important American followers was textbook writer Noah Webster (1758–1843), who was influenced by Rousseau's ideas on pedagogy in Emile (1762). Webster structured his Speller in accord with Rousseau's ideas about the stages of a child's intellectual development.
Rousseau's writings perhaps had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of Wordsworth and Kant, whose works were important to the New England transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, as well as on Unitarians such as theologian William Ellery Channing. The Last of the Mohicans and other American novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in Thomas Paine and in English Romantic primitivism.
Criticisms of Rousseau
A portrait of Rousseau in later life The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow Philosophes, above all, Voltaire. According to Jacques Barzun, Voltaire was annoyed by the first discourse, and outraged by the second. Voltaire's reading of the second discourse was that Rousseau would like the reader to "walk on all fours" befitting a savage.
Samuel Johnson told his biographer James Boswell, "I think him one of the worst of men; a rascal, who ought to be hunted out of society, as he has been".
Jean-Baptiste Blanchard was his leading Catholic opponent. Blanchard rejects Rousseau's negative education, in which one must wait until a child has grown to develop reason. The child would find more benefit from learning in his earliest years. He also disagreed with his ideas about female education, declaring that women are a dependent lot. So removing them from their motherly path is unnatural, as it would lead to the unhappiness of both men and women.
Frédéric Bastiat severely criticized Rousseau in several of his works, most notably in "The Law", in which, after analyzing Rousseau's own passages, he stated that:"And what part do persons play in all this? They are merely the machine that is set in motion. In fact, are they not merely considered to be the raw material of which the machine is made? Thus the same relationship exists between the legislator and the prince as exists between the agricultural expert and the farmer; and the relationship between the prince and his subjects is the same as that between the farmer and his land. How high above mankind, then, has this writer on public affairs been placed?"Bastiat believed that Rousseau wished to ignore forms of social order created by the people—viewing them as a thoughtless mass to be shaped by philosophers. Bastiat, who is considered by thinkers associated with the Austrian School of Economics to be one of the precursors of the "spontaneous order", presented his own vision of what he considered to be the "Natural Order" in a simple economic chain in which multiple parties might interact without necessarily even knowing each other, cooperating and fulfilling each other's needs in accordance with basic economic laws such as supply and demand. In such a chain, to produce clothing, multiple parties have to act independently—e.g. farmers to fertilize and cultivate land to produce fodder for the sheep, people to shear them, transport the wool, turn it into cloth, and another to tailor and sell it. Those persons engage in economic exchange by nature, and don't need to be ordered to, nor do their efforts need to be centrally coordinated. Such chains are present in every branch of human activity, in which individuals produce or exchange goods and services, and together, naturally create a complex social order that does not require external inspiration, central coordination of efforts, or bureaucratic control to benefit society as a whole. This, according to Bastiat, is a proof that humanity itself is capable of creating a complex socioeconomic order that might be superior to an arbitrary vision of a philosopher.[citation needed]
The Marquis de Sade's Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue (1791) partially parodied and used as inspiration Rousseau's sociological and political concepts in the Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract. Concepts such as the state of nature, civilization being the catalyst for corruption and evil, and humans "signing" a contract to mutually give up freedoms for the protection of rights, particularly referenced. The Comte de Gernande in Justine, for instance, after Thérèse asks him how he justifies abusing and torturing women, states:"The necessity mutually to render one another happy cannot legitimately exist save between two persons equally furnished with the capacity to do one another hurt and, consequently, between two persons of commensurate strength: such an association can never come into being unless a contract [un pacte] is immediately formed between these two persons, which obligates each to employ against each other no kind of force but what will not be injurious to either. . . [W]hat sort of a fool would the stronger have to be to subscribe to such an agreement?"Edmund Burke formed an unfavorable impression of Rousseau when the latter visited England with Hume and later drew a connection between Rousseau's egoistic philosophy and his personal vanity, saying Rousseau "entertained no principle... but vanity. With this vice he was possessed to a degree little short of madness".
In 1919, Irving Babbitt, founder of a movement called the "New Humanism", wrote a critique of what he called "sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau. Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by A.O. Lovejoy in 1923.[page needed] In France, fascist theorist Charles Maurras, founder of Action Française, "had no compunctions in laying the blame for both Romantisme et Révolution firmly on Rousseau in 1922."
During the Cold War, Rousseau was criticized for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses, for example in. This came to be known among scholars as the "totalitarian thesis". Political scientist J.S. Maloy states that "the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century had tried to instantiate." But he adds that "The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been discredited as an attribution of real historical influence." Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes that his theories do contain the "seeds of nationalism", insofar as they set forth the "politics of identification", which are rooted in sympathetic emotion. Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many. Others counter, however, that Rousseau was concerned with the concept of equality under the law, not equality of talents.[citation needed] For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand, Rousseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of "imagined communities" that transcend social and religious divisions within states.
Appreciation and influence
The book Rousseau and Revolution, by Will and Ariel Durant, begins with the following words about Rousseau:"How did it come about that a man born poor, losing his mother at birth and soon deserted by his father, afflicted with a painful and humiliating disease, left to wander for twelve years among alien cities and conflicting faiths, repudiated by society and civilization, repudiating Voltaire, Diderot, the Encyclopédie and the Age of Reason, driven from place to place as a dangerous rebel, suspected of crime and insanity, and seeing, in his last months, the apotheosis of his greatest enemy—how did it come about that this man, after his death, triumphed over Voltaire, revived religion, transformed education, elevated the morals of France, inspired the Romantic movement and the French Revolution, influenced the philosophy of Kant and Schopenhauer, the plays of Schiller, the novels of Goethe, the poems of Wordsworth, Byron, and Shelley, the socialism of Marx, the ethics of Tolstoy, and, altogether, had more effect upon posterity than any other writer or thinker of that eighteenth century in which writers were more influential than they had ever been before?"The German writers Goethe, Schiller, and Herder have stated that Rousseau's writings inspired them. Herder regarded Rousseau to be his "guide", and Schiller compared Rousseau to Socrates. Goethe, in 1787, stated: "Emile and its sentiments had a universal influence on the cultivated mind." The elegance of Rousseau's writing is held to have inspired a significant transformation in French poetry and drama—freeing them from rigid literary norms. Other writers who were influenced by Rousseau's writings included Leopardi in Italy; Pushkin and Tolstoy in Russia; Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, and Keats in England; and Hawthorne and Thoreau in America. According to Tolstoy: "At fifteen I carried around my neck, instead of the usual cross, a medallion with Rousseau's portrait."
Rousseau's Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, emphasizing individualism and repudiating "civilization", was appreciated by, among others, Thomas Paine, William Godwin, Shelley, Tolstoy, and Edward Carpenter. Rousseau's contemporary Voltaire appreciated the section in Emile titled Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar.
Modern admirers of Rousseau include John Dewey and Claude Lévi-Strauss. According to Matthew Josephson, Rousseau has remained controversial for more than two centuries, and has continued to gain admirers and critics down to the present time. However, in their own way, both critics and admirers have served to underscore the significance of the man, while those who have evaluated him with fairness have agreed that he was the finest thinker of his time on the question of civilization.
Composer
Rousseau was a successful composer of music, who wrote seven operas as well as music in other forms, and made contributions to music as a theorist. As a composer, his music was a blend of the late Baroque style and the emergent Classical fashion, and he belongs to the same generation of transitional composers as Christoph Willibald Gluck and C. P. E. Bach. One of his more well-known works is the one-act opera The Village Soothsayer. It contains the duet "Non, Colette n'est point trompeuse," which was later rearranged as a standalone song by Beethoven, and the gavotte in scene no. 8 is the source of the tune of the folk song Go Tell Aunt Rhody. He also composed several noted motets, some of which were sung at the Concert Spirituel in Paris. Rousseau's Aunt Suzanne was passionate about music and heavily influenced Rousseau's interest in music. In his Confessions, Rousseau claims he is "indebted" to her for his passion of music. Rousseau took formal instruction in music at the house of Françoise-Louise de Warens. She housed Rousseau on and off for about 13 years, giving him jobs and responsibilities. In 1742, Rousseau developed a system of musical notation that was compatible with typography and numbered. He presented his invention to the Academie Des Sciences, but they rejected it, praising his efforts and pushing him to try again. In 1743, Rousseau wrote his first opera, Les Muses galantes [fr], which was first performed in 1745.
Rousseau and Jean-Philippe Rameau argued over the superiority of Italian music over French. Rousseau argued that Italian music was superior based on the principle that melody must have priority over harmony. Rameau argued that French music was superior based on the principle that harmony must have priority over melody. Rousseau's plea for melody introduced the idea that in art, the free expression of a creative person is more important than the strict adherence to traditional rules and procedures. This is now known today as a characteristic of Romanticism. Rousseau argued for musical freedom, and changed people's attitudes towards music. His works were acknowledged by composers such as Christoph Willibald Gluck and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. After composing The Village Soothsayer in 1752, Rousseau felt he could not go on working for the theater because he was a moralist who had decided to break from worldly values.
सलना, जोशीमठ तहसील
सलना, जोशीमठ तहसील में भारत के उत्तराखण्ड राज्य के अन्तर्गत गढ़वाल मण्डल के चमोली जिले का एक गाँव है।
सांबा (ब्राजीलीय नृत्य)
सांबा ब्राजीलीय मूल का सांबा संगीत के तहत 2/4 के समय के ताल पर नाचा जाने वाला तालबद्ध एक जीवंत नृत्य है। हालांकि, हर रोध (बार) में तीन कदम उठाए जाते हैं, जिससे सांबा को यह अनुभव हो कि उसने 3/4 समय के अंतराल पर नृत्य किया है। इसका मूल मक्सक्सी (Maxixe (कोरो के संगीत पर नाचा जाने वाला ब्राजीलीय नृत्य टांगो) से जुड़ा है।
19 वीं सदी में इसके सूत्रपात के समय से ही सांबा संगीत ताल पर ब्राजील में नृत्य कियाजाता रहा है। वास्तव में सांबा कोई एक विशेष प्रकार की नृत्य शैली नहीं बल्कि नृत्यों का एक पूरा सेट है, जो ब्राजील में दृश्यगत होता है, अतः किसी एक विशेष नृत्य को "मूल" सांबा शैली के रूप में निश्चितता के साथ दावा नहीं किया जा सकता है।
ब्राजीलीय सांबा नृत्य शैलियों के अतिरिक्त दूसरी प्रमुख धारा बॉलरूम सांबा है, जो उल्लेखनीय रूप से अलग है।
मिट्टी की बारात
मिट्टी की बारात  हिन्दी के विख्यात साहित्यकार शिवमंगल सिंह सुमन द्वारा रचित एक कविता–संग्रह है जिसके लिये उन्हें सन् 1974 में साहित्य अकादमी पुरस्कार से सम्मानित किया गया।
सांबा (ब्राजीलीय नृत्य)
सांबा नो पे (Samba no pé)
सांबा नो पे (Samba no pé) एक एकल नृत्य है जो अक्सर साम्बा संगीत के बजने पर अचानक ही नाचा जाता है। आधारभूत संचालन में शरीर एक सीध में रहता है और एक बार में केवल एक ही घुटना मुड़ता है। पैर बहुत हलके थिरकते हैं - एक बार में केवल कुछ ही इंच. प्रति प्रविधि पर 3 चरणों के साथ ताल 2/4 ही रहता है। इसे स्टेप बाल चेंज (दो चरणों में से एक पर अधिक दबाव) के रूप में लिया जा सकता है। इसे ऐण्ड -अ-वन, ऐण्ड-अ-टू और फिर बैक-टू-वन कहकर भी वर्णित किया जा सकता है। दोनों ही ओर मौलिक संचालन एक सामान ही रहता है, जब पहले ताल (बीट) से थोड़ा पहले एक पैर बाहर की ओर ऊपर उठता है (यानी दाहिना पैर हलका-सा दाहिनी ओर मुड़ता है) और पैर पूरी तरह सीधा रहता है। दूसरा पैर हल्का-सा सामने की ओर चलता है और पहले पैर के करीब. दूसरा पैर घुटने पर हल्का-सा झुकता है जिससे कि कूल्हे का बायां हिस्सा नीचे की ओर झुकता है और दाहिना हिस्सा ऊपर की ओर उठता हुआ दिखाई देता है। वजन अगले "और एक" (एंड-अ) के लिए थडी देर के लिए वजन अंदरूनी पैर पर स्थानांतरित कर दिया है और फिर यही वजन "दो" (ऑन टू) के ताल पर बाहर पैर पर पड़ता है और इसी प्रकार पैरों के संचालन की यह प्रक्रिया दूसरे पक्ष की ओर दोहराई जाती है।
यह नृत्य केवल संगीत की ताल का अनुसरण करता है और इस प्रकार बहुत जल्दी औसत से काफी तेज गति पकड़ सकता है। जमीन पर पूरे पैर के साथ पुरुष नृत्य करते हैं, जबकि महिलाओं को अक्सर ऊँची एड़ी के जूते पहने, सिर्फ पैर के अगले गद्देदार पंजे पर नृत्य करना पड़ता है। पेशेवर नर्तक कदमों को थोड़ा बदल सकते हैं, 3 की बजाय प्रति धाप 4 कदम चलकर और अक्सर संगीत के मिजाज के मुताबिक बाहों के संचालन कर.
ब्राजील में नृत्य के आंचलिक स्वरूप भी हैं जिसमे आवश्यक कदम एक सामान ही हैं, लेकिन संगीत के उच्चारण में परिवर्तन की वजह से लोग लहजे में थोड़ा हेर-फेर कर ही ताल से ताल मिलाकर ठीक इसी तरह की अंग-भंगी के साथ नृत्य करेंगे. उदाहरण के लिए, बाहिया में लड़कियों का झुकाव अपने पैरों को बाहर की ओर मोड़ने की ओर अधिक होता है न कि घुटनों को एक साथ एक दूसरे के करीब सटाकर, जैसाकि रियो डी जनेरियो में होता है।
यह सांबा नृत्य का एक प्रकार है जैसाकि कोइ ब्राजील के कार्निवल परेड में एवं दुनिया भर में होने वाले अन्य सांबा कार्निवल में दिखाई देता है। यह भी सांबाओं के लोकप्रिय संस्करणों में से एक सबसे लोकप्रिय सांबा है।
सांबा डी गैफियेरा (Samba de Gafieira)
सांबा डी गैफियेरा एक युगल नृत्य है जो बालरूम सांबा से काफी अलग है। यह 1940 के आसपास दिखाई दिया और उस समय के रियो डी जेनेरो के लोकप्रिय शहरी नाइटक्लब गैफियेरा (Gafieira) के नाम पर इसका नाम पड़ा.
यह नृत्य max (Maxixe) से व्युत्पन्न और (साम्बा की एक और संगीत शैली) कोरो (Choro) के आगमन का अनुकरण करता है। इसने मक्सिक्से के पोल्का के अधिकांश तत्वों को त्याग दिया लेकिन अर्जेंटीना के टेंगो की एक दुसरे से लिपटे हुए पैरों के संचालन को बनाए रखा, हालांकि बाद वाली भंगिमा की तुलना में अधिक आराम की मुद्रा अपनाते हुए. कई सांबा की इस शैली को वाल्ट्ज और टेंगो का संयोजन मानते हैं। ब्राजील के कई नृत्य स्टूडियो सांबा डी गफियेरा के पद-संचालन एवं नृत्य की नियमावली सिखाने में इन दोनों नृत्य के तत्व और तकनीक का उपयोग करते हैं।
चरण छोट-छोटे-लम्बे (जल्द-जल्दी धीमी गति से) चलते हैं और मौलिक पद-संचालन की गति निम्नानुसार है:
जबसे यह आरम्भ हुआ है तबसे आजतक सांबा डी गफेरिया में कई अक्रोबेटिक की कलाबाजियां शामिल की गयी हैं और ब्राजील में सांबा की आज की सबसे जटिल नृत्य शैली के रूप में विकसित हुई है। यह शैली दुनिया भर के नृत्य अकादमियों में मौजूद है।
सांबा पगोडे (Samba Pagode)
सांबा पगोडे एक और युगल साम्बा नृत्य है जो सांबा डी ग़फ़िएइर जैसा दिखता है, लेकिन इसमें अक्रोबेटिक कलाबाजियां कम होती हैं और युगल अधिक घनिष्ठ हो जाते है। पगोडे के आने के बाद यह नृत्य की एक शैली बन गयी और साओ पाउलो शहर में इसकी शुरूआत हुई.
सांबा ऐक्स (Samba Axé)
सांबा ऐक्स एक एकल नृत्य है जिसकी शुरूआत 1992 में ब्राजीलीय कार्निवल उत्सव के दौरान बाहिया में हुई जब ऐक्स की ताल नेलंबाडा को प्रतिस्थापित कर दिया. कई सालों के लिए यह ब्राजील के उत्तर पूर्व के लिए छुट्टी के महीनों के दौरान एक प्रकार का प्रमुख नृत्य बन गया। यह नृत्य पूरी तरह से शैली में निर्देशित है और संचालन की भंगिमाएं गीत की नकल करती हैं। यह एक बहुत ऊर्जावान नृत्य की तरह है जिसमे सांबा नो पे के तत्वों और एरोबिक्स का मिश्रण है और क्योंकि गीत, जो मनोरंजन के लिए बने हैं, उने साथ नृत्य में आम तौर पर एक प्रकार का कौतुक तत्व घुला होता है।
कई संगीत दलों जैसे "ए ओ चान" ("É o Tchan") विपणन नीति है कि उनकी हर कोरियोग्राफ़ी हमेशा उनके गीतों के साथ रिलीज होती है, इसलिए सांबा ऐक्स हमेशा एक परिवर्तनशील नृत्य है जिसमे कोई औपचारिक पद-संचालन का प्रारूप या नियमबद्धता बनाए रखने के लिए कोइ प्रतिबद्धता नहीं होती है (इसमें वास्तव में सांबा ऐक्स जैसी कोइ मौलिक बात नहीं होती है।)
सांबा रेग्गे
इसके अलावा यह बाहिया से उत्पन्, सांबा ड्रम के साथ रेग्गे की धुन का एक मिश्रण है। डैनिएला मरकरी, ने अपने बेहद लोकप्रिय गानों जैसे कि "सोल डा लिबर्देद" "ओ रेग्गे ई ओ मार" एवं "पेरोला नेगरा" के साथ दुनिया को लय में बांध दिया. बाहिया में सांबा रेग्गे दूसरा सबसे लोकप्रिय साम्बा शैली है, जिसके ब्राजील भर मेंअनुयायी है।
सांबा-रॉक
सांबा रॉक साम्बा का ही एक हल्का-फुल्का रूप है और यह साओ पाउलो में उद्भूत है। यह एक लैटिन नाइट क्लब नृत्य है। सांबा रॉक थोडा बहुत सांबा डी गैफियेरा, फोर्रो, जोक-लाम्बादा और सालसा जैसा दिखता है।
सांबा डी रोडा (Samba de roda)
सांबा डी रोडा कपोएइर दलों द्वारा प्रदर्शित एक पारंपरिक अफ्रीकी ब्राजील के नृत्य है (अफ्रीकी दासों द्वारा विकसित सामरिक, क्रीडा और संगीत शैली का मिश्रण) जो कई सालों से उनके साथ संबद्ध है। ऑर्केस्ट्रा का गठन पन्देइरो (pandeiro), अताबकुए (atabaque), बेरिम्बु-वाइओला (berimbau-viola) (छोटी लौकी के साथ बेरिम्बु झुनझुने - सा वाद्य-यंत्र (cabaça) तथा ऊंची तान), चोकाल्हो chocalho, (खड़खड़ - एक तबला है) से होता है जिसके साथ गाना और ताली बजाना शामिल है।
पमस्यारी, डीडीहाट तहसील
पमस्यारी, डीडीहाट तहसील में भारत के उत्तराखण्ड राज्य के अन्तर्गत कुमाऊँ मण्डल के पिथोरागढ जिले का एक गाँव है।
नदी अपहरण
नदी अपहरण एक प्रमुख प्रवाही जल (नदी) कृत अपरदनात्मक स्थलरुप हैं। जब सामान्य सरिता या उसकी सहायक दूसरी नदी या उसकी सहायक नदी के जल का अपहरण कर ले तब उस अवस्था को नदी अपहरण कहते हैं।
बांद्रा टर्मिनस एक्स्प्रेस 2972
बांद्रा टर्मिनस एक्स्प्रेस 2972  भारतीय रेल द्वारा संचालित एक मेल एक्स्प्रेस ट्रेन है। यह ट्रेन भावनगर टर्मिनस रेलवे स्टेशन (स्टेशन कोड:BVC) से 06:05PM बजे छूटती है और बांद्रा टर्मिनस रेलवे स्टेशन (स्टेशन कोड:BDTS) पर 07:45AM बजे पहुंचती है। इसकी यात्रा अवधि है 13 घंटे 40 मिनट।
गौडनहल्लि (अनंतपुर)
गौडनहल्लि (अनंतपुर) में भारत के आन्ध्रप्रदेश राज्य के अन्तर्गत के अनंतपुर जिले का एक गाँव है।
करिश्मा कपूर
करिश्मा कपूर हिन्दी फिल्मों की एक प्रसिद्ध अभिनेत्री हैं। वह प्रसिद्ध कपूर ख़ानदान से हैं और करीना कपूर की बड़ी बहन हैं। इनका जन्म 25 जून 1974 को मुम्बई में हुआ था। इन्हौंने बॉलीवुड की कई प्रसिद्ध और इनाम जीतने वाली फ़िल्मों में काम किया है।
फ़िल्मी सफ़र
करिश्मा कपूर बॉलीवुड के सुप्रशिद्ध कपूर खानदान से सम्बन्ध रखती है। हम उने लोलो के नाम से भी जानते है, उहोने अपने फ़िल्मी सफर की शुरुआत वर्ष 1992 में आई फिल्म " प्रेम क़ैदी " से की। करिश्मा कपूर बॉलीवुड की सबसे खूबसूरत अदाकाराओं में से एक है, लाजवाब अभिनय और बेहतर नृत्य उनकी कुछ खासियतें है। अपने फ़िल्मी करियर के दौरान करिश्मा ने एक राष्ट्रीय फिल्म पुरस्कार व चार फिल्म फेयर पुरस्कार अर्जित किये।
बांद्रा टर्मिनस एक्स्प्रेस 2980
बांद्रा टर्मिनस एक्स्प्रेस 2980  भारतीय रेल द्वारा संचालित एक मेल एक्स्प्रेस ट्रेन है। यह ट्रेन जयपुर रेलवे स्टेशन (स्टेशन कोड:JP) से 08:40PM बजे छूटती है और बांद्रा टर्मिनस रेलवे स्टेशन (स्टेशन कोड:BDTS) पर 02:30PM बजे पहुंचती है। इसकी यात्रा अवधि है 17 घंटे 50 मिनट।
कैटहा गाँव, फर्रुखाबाद (फर्रुखाबाद)
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अशोक कुमार के॰
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