cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
माइकल कोलिन्स
वर्ष 1963 में नासा के 14 खगोलयात्रियों की तीसरी सूची में चयनित करने के पश्चात् कोलिन्स ने दो बार अंतरिक्ष यात्रा की। उनकी अंतरिक्ष में पहली उड़ान वर्ष 1966 में जेमीनी 10 के साथ थी जिसमें वो और कमांड पायलेट जॉन यंग ने दो अंतरिक्षयानों के साथ कक्षीय संवहन निष्पादित किया और अंतरिक्ष में चहलकदमी (इसे ईवीए अथवा स्पेसवॉक भी कहते हैं) की। वर्ष 1969 में अपोलो 11 मिशन में चयनित चन्द्रमा के लिए उड़ान भरने वाले 24 लोगों में से एक थे जिसमें उन्होंने तीस बार परिक्रमा की। वो स्पेसवॉक करने वाले चौथे (तीसरे अमेरिकी) और एक से अधिक स्पेसवॉक करने वाले पहले व्यक्ति थे। यंग के बाद अपोलो 10 के कमांड मॉड्यूल को उड़ाने वाले दूसरे व्यक्ति थे जिन्होंने अकेले चन्द्रमा की परिक्रमा की।
वर्ष 1970 में नासा से सेवानिवृत्त होने के पश्चात् कोलिन्स ने डिपार्टमेंट ऑफ़ स्टेट में सार्वजनिक मामलों के सहायक राज्य सचिव की नौकरी आरम्भ की। एक वर्ष पश्चात् वो नेशनल एयर स्पेस म्यूज़ियम (राष्ट्रीय वायु और अंतरिक्ष संग्रहालय) के निर्देशक बन गये और वर्ष 1978 तक इस पद पर कार्यरत रहे, जब तक वो स्मिथसोनियन इंस्टीट्यूशन में उपसचिव के पद पर कार्यरत हुये। वर्ष 1980 में उन्होंने एलटीवी एयरोस्पेस के उपाध्यक्ष की नौकरी प्राप्त की। वर्ष 1985 में उन्होंने इस पद से त्यागपत्र दे दिया और स्वयं का परामर्श केन्द्र स्थापित किया। अपने अपोलो 11 के साथियों के साथ कोलिन्स को वर्ष 1969 में प्रेसिडेंशियल मेडल ऑफ़ फ्रीडम और वर्ष 2011 में कॉन्ग्रेसनल गोल्ड मेडल सम्मानित किया गया।
बचपन
कोलिन्स का जन्म अक्टूबर 31, 1930 को इटली के रोम में हुआ। वो अमेरिकी सेना के अधिकारी जेम्स लॉटन कोलिन्स (1882–1963) के दूसरे पुत्र थे,, जिन्होंने अमेरिकी सेना में वर्ष 1928 से 1932 तक सेवा दी। उनकी माँ का नाम वर्जिनिया सी॰, जन्मनाम स्टीवर्ट (1895–1987) था। कोलिन्स के बड़े भाई जेम्स लॉटन कोलिन्स जूनियर थे,  और उनके दो बहने वर्जिनिया एवं अएग्नेस थीं।
कोलिन्स के पिता की सेना में अलग-अलग जगह तैनाती के कारण उनके जीवन के शुरुआती 17 वर्ष विभिन्न स्थानों पर गुजरे: रोम; ओक्लाहोमा; गवर्नर्स आइलैंड, न्यूयॉर्क; फोर्ट होयल (बाल्टीमोर, मेरीलैंड के निकट); फोर्ट होयल (कोलम्बस, ओहियो के निकट); पोर्टो रीको; सैन एन्टोनियो, टेक्सस और अलेक्जेंड्रिया, वर्जीनिया। उन्होंने अपनी पहली हवाई यात्रा ग्रुम्मन विजन से पोर्टो रीको में की; पायलेट ने उन्हें उड़ान के कुछ भाग पर ही उड़ाने की अनुमति दी। वो इसे पुनः उड़ाना चाहते थे लेकिन इसके बाद जल्दी ही द्वितीय विश्वयुद्ध आरम्भ हो गया और उन्हें मौका नहीं मिला। कोलिन्स की 2 वर्ष की पढ़ाई सैन जुयान, पोर्टो रिको में एकेडेमिया डेल पेरपेटो सोकोरो में हुई।
इसके पश्चात् अमेरिका भी द्वितीय विश्वयुद्ध में कूद पड़ा, उनका परिवार वॉशिंगटन, डी॰ सी॰ में चला गया जहाँ कोलिन्स ने सेंट एल्बन्स स्कूल में प्रवेश लिया और 1948 में अपनी शिक्षा पूर्ण की। उनकी माँ उन्हें कुटनीतिक सेवाओं में भेजना चाहती थीं, लेकिन उन्होंने अपने पिता, दो चाचा, भाई और चचेरे भाई की सैन्य सेवा की राह का अनुसरण करने का निर्णय लिया। उन्हें यूनाइटेड स्टेट्स मिलिट्री अकादमी के वेस्ट पॉइंट में प्रवेश मिला जहाँ पर क्रमशः उनके पिता और बड़े भाई ने वर्ष 1907 और 1939 में शिक्षा प्राप्त की थी। उन्होंने जून 3, 1952 को सैन्य विज्ञान में विज्ञान स्नातक की डिग्री प्राप्त की, उनकी इस कक्षा में 527 सैन्य-छात्रों में 185वाँ स्थान मिला जिससे उन्हें भावी साथी अंतरिक्षयात्री एड व्हाइट भी मिले।
लड़ाकू विमान चालक
Collins began basic flight training in the T-6 Texan at Columbus Air Force Base in Columbus, Mississippi, in August 1952, then moved on to San Marcos Air Force Base in Texas to learn instrument and formation flying, and finally to James Connally Air Force Base in Waco, Texas, for training in jet aircraft. Flying came easily to him, and unlike many of his colleagues, he had little fear of failure. He was awarded his wings upon completion of the course at Waco, and in September 1953, he was chosen for advanced day-fighter training at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, flying F-86 Sabres. The training was dangerous; eleven people were killed in accidents during the 22 weeks he was there.
This was followed by an assignment in January 1954 to the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing at George Air Force Base, California, where he learned ground attack and nuclear weapons delivery techniques in the F-86. He moved with the 21st to Chambley-Bussières Air Base, France, in December 1954. He won first prize in a 1956 gunnery competition. During a NATO exercise that year, he was forced to eject from an F-86, near Chaumont-Semoutiers AB, after a fire started aft of the cockpit.
Collins met his future wife, Patricia Mary Finnegan from Boston, Massachusetts, in an officers' mess. A graduate of Emmanuel College, where she majored in English, she was a social worker, dealing mainly with single mothers. To see more of the world, she was working for the Air Force service club. After getting engaged, they had to overcome a difference in religion. Collins was nominally Episcopalian, while Finnegan came from a staunchly Roman Catholic family. After seeking permission to marry from Finnegan's father, and delaying their wedding when Collins was redeployed to West Germany during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, they married in 1957. They had a daughter, actress Kate Collins, in 1959, a second daughter, Ann, in 1961 and a son, Michael, in 1963.
After Collins returned to the United States in late 1957, he attended an aircraft maintenance officer course at Chanute Air Force Base, Illinois. He would later describe this school as "dismal" in his autobiography; he found the classwork boring, flying time scarce, and the equipment outdated. Upon completing the course, he commanded a Mobile Training Detachment (MTD) and traveled to air bases around the world. The detachment trained mechanics on the servicing of new aircraft, and pilots how to fly them. He later became the first commander of a Field Training Detachment (FTD 523) back at Nellis AFB, which was a similar kind of unit, except that the students traveled to him.
पाइलट परीक्षण
Collins' MTD posting allowed him to accumulate over 1,500 flying hours, the minimum required for admission to the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California. His application was successful, and on August 29, 1960, he became a member of Class 60C, which included Frank Borman, Jim Irwin and Tom Stafford, who later became astronauts. Military test pilot instruction started with the North American T-28 Trojan, and proceeded through the high performance F-86 Sabre, B-57 Canberra, T-33 Shooting Star, and the F-104 Starfighter. Collins was a heavy smoker, but quit in 1962 after suffering a particularly bad hangover. The next day, he spent what he described as the worst four hours of his life in the co-pilot's seat of a B-52 Stratofortress while going through the initial stages of nicotine withdrawal.
The inspiration for Collins in his decision to become a NASA astronaut was the Mercury Atlas 6 flight of John Glenn on February 20, 1962, and the thought of being able to circle the Earth in 90 minutes. Collins applied for the second group of astronauts that year. To raise the numbers of Air Force pilots selected, the Air Force sent their best applicants to a "charm school". Medical and psychiatric examinations at Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, and interviews at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston followed. In mid-September, he found out he had not been accepted. It was a blow even though he did not expect to be selected. Collins rated the second group of nine as better than the Mercury Seven who preceded them, or the five groups that followed, including his own.
That year the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School became the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School (ARPS), as the Air Force tried to enter into space research through the X-15 and X-20 programs. Collins applied for a new postgraduate course offered into the basics of spaceflight. He was accepted into the third class on October 22, 1962. Other students in his eleven-member class included three future astronauts: Charles Bassett, Edward Givens and Joe Engle. Along with classwork, they also flew up to about 90000 ft in F-104 Starfighters. As they passed through the top of their arc, they would experience a brief period of weightlessness. On finishing this course he returned to fighter operations in May 1963.
At the start of June, NASA once again called for astronaut applications. Collins went through the same process as with his first application, though he did not take the psychiatric evaluation. He was at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas, on October 14 when Deke Slayton, the Chief of the Astronaut Office at NASA, called and asked if he was still interested in becoming an astronaut. Bassett was also accepted. By this time Collins had flown over 3,000 hours, of which 2,700 were in jet aircraft.
अंतरिक्ष कार्यक्रम
Compared with the first two groups of astronauts, the third group of fourteen astronauts, which included Collins, was younger, with an average age of 31—the first two groups had an average age of 34.5 and 32.5 at their time of selection—and was better educated, with an average of 5.6 years of tertiary education; but they had fewer flying hours—2,300 on average compared with 3,500 and 2,800 for the first two groups, and only eight of the fourteen were test pilots. Of the thirty astronauts selected in the first three groups, only Collins and his third group colleague William Anders were born outside the United States, and Collins was the only one with an older brother; all the rest were the eldest or only sons in their families. Training began with a 240-hour course on the basics of spaceflight. Fifty-eight hours of this was devoted to geology, something Collins did not readily understand and in which he never became very interested. At the end, Alan Shepard, the Chief of the Astronaut Office, asked the fourteen to rank their fellow astronauts in the order they would want to fly with them in space. Collins picked David Scott in the number one position.
Crew assignments
After this basic training, the third group were assigned specializations. Collins received his first choice: pressure suits and extravehicular activities (EVAs, also known as spacewalks). His job was to monitor development and act as a liaison between the Astronaut Office and contractors. He was disturbed by the secretive planning of Ed White's EVA on Gemini 4, because he was not involved despite being the person with the greatest knowledge of the subject.
In late June 1965, Collins received his first crew assignment: the backup pilot for Gemini 7, with his West Point classmate Ed White named as the backup mission commander. Collins was the first of the fourteen to receive a crew assignment, but the first to fly was Scott on Gemini 8, and Bassett was assigned to Gemini 9. Under the system of crew rotation established by Slayton, being on the backup crew of Gemini7 set Collins up to pilot Gemini 10. Gemini7 was commanded by Borman, whom Collins knew well from their days at Edwards, with Jim Lovell as the pilot. Collins made a point of providing a daily briefing to their wives, Susan Borman and Marilyn Lovell, on the progress of the two-week Gemini7 mission.
बहुदेववाद
बह्वास्तिक्य (बहु-आस्तिक्य) या बहुदेववाद कई देवताओं में विश्वास है, जो सामान्यतः अपने स्वयं के धार्मिक सम्प्रदायों और अनुष्ठानों के साथ-साथ देवी -देवता ओं के एक सर्वदेवालय में एकत्रित होते हैं। बह्वास्तिक्य आस्तिकता का एक प्रकार है। आस्तिक्य के भीतर, यह एकास्तिक्य या एकेश्वरवाद के विपरीत है, एक एकमात्र ईश्वर में विश्वास, जो अधिकतर मामलों में पारलौकिक है। बह्वास्तिक्य को स्वीकार करने वाले धर्मों में, विभिन्न देवी-देवता प्रकृति या पैतृक सिद्धान्तों की शक्तियों का प्रतिनिधित्व कर सकते हैं; उन्हें या तो स्वायत्त के रूप में देखा जा सकता है या एक सृष्टि देव या पारलौकिक निरपेक्ष सिद्धान्त (अद्वैतवादी धर्मशास्त्र) के पहलुओं या उत्सर्जन के रूप में देखा जा सकता है, जो प्रकृति में आसन्न रूप से प्रकट होता है (निमित्तोपादानेश्वरवाद और सर्वेश्वरवाद धर्मशास्त्र) ।  बह्वास्तिक हमेशा सभी देवताओं की समान रूप से पूजा नहीं करते; वे एकैकापि देववादी हो सकते हैं, एक विशेष देवता की पूजा में विशेषज्ञता रखते हैं, या कैथेनोथिस्ट, भिन्न समयों पर विभिन्न देवताओं की पूजा करते हैं।
माइकल कोलिन्स
Crew assignments
After the successful completion of Gemini7 on January 24, 1966, Collins was assigned to the prime crew of Gemini 10, but with John Young as mission commander, as White moved on to the Apollo program. Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin were designated as the backup commander and pilot respectively. The arrangements were disturbed on February 28 by the deaths of the Gemini9 crew, Bassett and Elliot See, in the 1966 NASA T-38 crash. They were replaced on Gemini9 by their backups, Stafford and Gene Cernan. Cernan was the second of the fourteen to fly in space. Lovell and Aldrin became their backups, and Alan Bean and C.C. Williams took their place as the Gemini 10 backup crew. Collins would be the seventeenth American, and third member of his group, to fly in space.
बहुदेववाद
यहूदी, ईसाई और इस्लाम के इब्राहीमी धर्मों के विकास और प्रसार से पहले बह्वास्तिक्य धर्म का विशिष्ट रूप था, जिस पर एकास्तिक्य को लागू किया गया। यह पूरे इतिहास में अच्छी तरह से प्रलेखित है, प्रागितिहास से और प्राचीन मिस्र का धर्म और प्राचीन मेसोपोटामियन धर्म के प्रारम्भिक अभिलेखों से लेकर शास्त्रीय प्राचीनकाल के दौरान प्रचलित धर्मों तक, जैसे कि प्राचीन यूनानी धर्म और प्राचीन रोमन धर्म, और जातीय धर्मों जैसे जर्मनिक, स्लाविक, बाल्टिक बुतपरस्ती और मूल अमेरिकी धर्मों में।
वर्तमान प्रचलित उल्लेखनीय बह्वास्तिकीय धर्मों में ताओवाद, शेनिज़्म या चीनी लोक धर्म, जापानी शिन्तो धर्म, सान्तेरिया, अधिकांश पारम्परिक अफ़्रीकी धर्म, विक्का जैसे विभिन्न नव-मूर्तिपूजक धर्म शामिल हैं। हिन्दू धर्म, जिसे लोकप्रियतः बह्वास्तिकीय माना जाता है, को विशेष रूप से वर्गीकृत नहीं किया जा सकता है जैसे कि कुछ हिन्दू स्वयं को सर्वेश्वरवादी मानते हैं और अन्य स्वयं को एकेश्वरवादी मानते हैं। दोनों पन्थ हिन्दू ग्रन्थों के अनुकूल हैं, क्योंकि विश्वास में मानकीकरण की कोई सहमति नहीं है। वेदान्त, हिन्द धर्म का सबसे प्रमुख दर्शन, एकास्तिक्य और बह्वास्तिक्य का संयोजन प्रदान करता है, जिसमें कहा गया है कि ब्रह्मन् ब्रह्माण्ड की एकमात्र परम सत्य है, तथापि इसके साथ ऐक्य कई देवी-देवताओं की पूजा करके प्राप्त की जा सकती है।
माइकल कोलिन्स
Crew assignments
Training for Gemini 10 was interrupted in March when Slayton diverted Young, Collins and Williams to represent their respective services on a panel to select another group of astronauts, along with himself, Shepard, spacecraft designer Max Faget, and astronaut training officer Warren J. North. Young protested the loss of a week's training to no avail. Applying strict criteria for age, flying experience and education reduced the number of applicants to 35. The panel interviewed each for an hour, and rated nineteen as qualified. Collins was surprised when Slayton elected to take them all. Slayton later admitted that he too had doubts; he already had enough astronauts for Project Apollo as far as the first Moon landing, but post-Apollo plans were for up to 30 missions. Such a large intake therefore seemed prudent. Ten of the nineteen had test pilot experience, and seven were graduates of the ARPS.
जेमीनी 10
Fifteen scientific experiments were carried on Gemini 10—more than any other Gemini mission except the two-week-long Gemini 7. After Gemini 9's EVA ran into problems, the remaining Gemini objectives had to be completed on the last three flights. While the overall number of objectives increased, the difficulty of Collins' EVA was scaled significantly back. There was no backpack or astronaut maneuvering unit (AMU), as there had been on Gemini 8.
Their three-day mission called for them to rendezvous with two Agena Target Vehicles, undertake two EVAs, and perform 15 different experiments. The training went smoothly, as the crew learned the intricacies of orbital rendezvous, controlling the Agena and, for Collins, the EVA. For what was to be the fourth ever EVA, underwater training was not performed, mostly because Collins did not have the time. To train to use the nitrogen gun he would use for propulsion, a smooth metal surface about the size of a boxing ring was set up. He would stand on a circular pad that used gas jets to raise itself off the surface. Using the nitrogen gun he would practice propelling himself across the "slippery table".
Gemini 10 lifted off from Launch Complex 19 at Cape Canaveral at 05:20 local time on July 18, 1966. Upon reaching orbit, it was about 1600 km behind the Agena target vehicle, which had been launched 100 minutes earlier. A rendezvous was achieved on Gemini 10's fourth orbit at 10:43, followed by docking at 11:13. The mission plan called for multiple dockings with the Agena target, but an error by Collins in using the sextant caused them to burn valuable propellant, resulting in Mission Control calling off this objective to conserve propellant. Once docked, the Agena 10 propulsion system was activated to boost the astronauts to a new altitude record, 764 km above the Earth, breaking the previous record of 295 mi set by Voskhod 2.
A second burn of the Agena 10 engine at 03:58 on July 19 put them into the same orbit as Agena8, which had been launched for the Gemini8 mission on March 16. For his first EVA Collins did not leave the Gemini capsule, but stood up through the hatch with an ultraviolet camera. After he took the ultraviolet photos, Collins took photos of a plate they brought with them. They were used to compare photos taken in space with those taken in a laboratory. In his biography he said he felt at that moment like a Roman god riding the skies in his chariot.
The EVA started on the dark side of the Earth so Collins could take photos of the Milky Way. Collins' and Young's eyes began to water, forcing an early end to the EVA. Lithium hydroxide, which was normally used to remove exhaled carbon dioxide from the cabin, had accidentally been fed into the astronauts' space suits. The compressor causing the problem was switched off, and a high oxygen flow was used to purge the environmental control system.
Prior to Collins' second EVA, the Agena 10 spacecraft was jettisoned. Young positioned the capsule close enough to Agena8 for Collins to get to it while attached to his 49 ft umbilical. Collins became the first person to perform two spacewalks in the same mission. He found it took much longer to complete tasks than he expected, something Cernan also experienced during his spacewalk on Gemini 9. He removed a micrometeorite experiment from the exterior of the spacecraft, and configured his nitrogen maneuvering thruster. Collins had difficulty reentering the spacecraft, and needed Young to pull him back in with the umbilical.
The duo activated the retrorockets on their 43rd revolution, and they splashed down in the Atlantic at 04:06 on July 21, 3.5 nmi from the recovery vessel, the amphibious assault ship USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7), and were picked up by helicopter. Collins and Young completed nearly all the major objectives of the flight. The docking practice and the landmark measurement experiment were cancelled in order to conserve propellant, and the micrometeorite collector was lost when it drifted out of the spacecraft.
अपोलो कार्यक्रम
Staff meetings were always held on Fridays in the Astronaut Office, and it was here that Collins found himself on January 27, 1967. Don Gregory was running the meeting in the absence of Shepard and so it was he who answered the red phone to be informed there had been a fire in the Apollo 1 CM, and that the three astronauts, Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee were dead. When the enormity of the situation was ascertained, it fell on Collins to go to the Chaffee household to inform Martha Chaffee that her husband had died. The Astronaut Office had learned to be proactive in informing astronauts' families of a death quickly, because of the death of Theodore Freeman in an aircraft crash in 1964, when a newspaper reporter was the first to his house.
ढोल (बहुविकल्पी पृष्ठ)
यह एक बहुविकल्पी पृष्ठ है।
माइकल कोलिन्स
अपोलो कार्यक्रम
Collins and Scott were sent by NASA to the Paris Air Show in May 1967. There they met cosmonauts Pavel Belyayev and Konstantin Feoktistov, with whom they drank vodka on the Soviets' Tupolev Tu-134. Collins found it interesting that some cosmonauts were doing helicopter training like their American counterparts, and Belyayev said he hoped to make a circumlunar flight soon. The astronauts' wives had accompanied them on the trip, and Collins and his wife Pat were compelled by NASA and their friends to travel to Metz where they had been married ten years before. There, they found a third wedding ceremony had been arranged for them (ten years previously they had already had civil and religious ceremonies), so they could renew their vows.
During 1968, Collins noticed his legs were not working as they should, first during handball games, then as he walked down stairs. His knee would almost give way, and his left leg had unusual sensations when in hot and cold water. Reluctantly he sought medical advice and the diagnosis was a cervical disc herniation, requiring two vertebrae to be fused. The surgery was performed at Wilford Hall Hospital at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. The planned recuperation time was three to six months. Collins spent three months in a neck brace. As a result, he was removed from the prime crew of Apollo 9 and his backup, Jim Lovell, replaced him as CMP. When the Apollo 8 mission was changed from a CSM/LM mission in high Earth orbit to a CSM-only flight around the Moon, both prime and backup crews for Apollo8 and9 swapped places.
अपोलो 8
Having trained for the flight, Collins was made a capsule communicator (CAPCOM), an astronaut stationed at Mission Control responsible for communicating directly with the crew during a mission. As part of the Green Team, he covered the launch phase up to translunar injection, the rocket burn that sent Apollo8 to the Moon. The successful completion of the first crewed circumlunar flight was followed by the announcement of the Apollo 11 crew of Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. At that time, in January 1969, it was not certain this would be the lunar landing mission; this depended on the success of Apollo9 and Apollo 10 testing the LM.
अपोलो 11
As CMP, Collins' training was completely different from the LM and lunar EVA, and was sometimes done without Armstrong or Aldrin being present. Along with simulators, there were measurements for pressure suits, centrifuge training to simulate the reentry, and practicing docking with a huge rig at NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia. Since he would be the active participant in the rendezvous with the LM, Collins compiled a book of 18 different rendezvous schemes for various scenarios including ones where the LM did not land, or it launched too early or too late. This book ran for 117 pages.
The mission patch of Apollo 11 was the creation of Collins. Jim Lovell, the backup commander, mentioned the idea of eagles, a symbol of the United States. Collins liked the idea and found a painting by artist Walter A. Weber in a National Geographic Society book, Water, Prey, and Game Birds of North America, traced it and added the lunar surface below and Earth in the background. The idea of an olive branch, a symbol of peace, came from a computer expert at the simulators. The call sign Columbia for the CSM came from Julian Scheer, the NASA Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs. He mentioned the idea to Collins in a conversation and Collins could not think of anything better.
During the training for Apollo 11, Slayton offered to get Collins back into the crew sequence after the flight. Collins would almost certainly have been the backup commander of Apollo 14, followed by commander of Apollo 17, but he told Slayton he did not want to travel to space again if Apollo 11 was successful. The difficult schedule of an astronaut strained his family life. He wanted to help achieve John F. Kennedy's goal of landing on the Moon within the decade and had no interest in further exploration of the Moon once the goal had been achieved. The assignment was given to Cernan.
An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more listened to radio broadcasts. Propelled by a giant Saturn V rocket, Apollo 11 lifted off from Launch Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969, at 13:32 UTC (09:32 EDT), and entered Earth orbit twelve minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the S-IVB third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon. About 30 minutes later, Collins performed the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver. This involved separating Columbia from the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking with the Lunar Module Eagle. After it was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past it.
On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquillity about 12 mi southwest of the crater Sabine D. At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered Eagle and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 Eagle separated from Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it rotated before him to ensure the craft was not damaged and that the landing gear had correctly deployed before heading for the surface.
During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said "not since Adam has any human known such solitude", Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote "this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two". In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth while Columbia passed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather "awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation".
One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about four miles off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the lunar module. On his first two orbits on the far side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by the fuel cells and preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Columbia orbited the Moon thirty times.
Just before he reached the far side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts of Columbia might freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the offending system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. When Columbia came back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the far side of the Moon as "relaxing". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called for Eagle to meet up with Columbia, Collins was prepared for certain contingencies in which he would fly Columbia down to meet Eagle. After spending so much time with the CSM, Collins felt compelled to leave his mark on it, so during the second night following their return from the Moon, he went to the lower equipment bay of the CM and wrote:
In a July 2009 interview with The Guardian, Collins said that he was very worried about Armstrong and Aldrin's safety. He was also concerned in the event of their deaths on the Moon, he would be forced to return to Earth alone and, as the mission's sole survivor, be regarded as "a marked man for life".
At 17:54 UTC on July 21, Eagle lifted off from the Moon to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit. After rendezvous with Columbia, the ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit, and Columbia made its way back to Earth.
Columbia splashed down in the Pacific 2660 km east of Wake Island at 16:50 UTC (05:50 local time) on July 24. The total mission duration was eight days, three hours, 18 minutes, and thirty-five seconds. Divers passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. Though the chance of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was believed to be remote, it was still considered a possibility. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter, and flown to the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-12), where they spent the first part of the Earth-based portion of 21 days of quarantine (time in space was also counted), before moving on to Houston.
On August 13, the three astronauts rode in parades in their honor in New York and Chicago, with about six million attendees. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the Chief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. In September, the astronauts embarked on a 38-day world tour that brought them to 22 foreign countries and included visits with world leaders.
सार्वजनिक मामलों के सहायक राज्य सचिव
NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine told Collins that Secretary of State William P. Rogers was interested in appointing Collins to the position of Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. After the crew returned to the U.S. in November, Collins sat down with Rogers and accepted the position on the urgings of President Nixon. He was an unusual choice for the role, as he was neither a journalist nor a career diplomat. Nor, unlike some of his predecessors, did he act as the department spokesperson. Instead, as the head of the State Department's Bureau of Public Affairs, his role was that of managing relations with the public at large. He had a staff of 115 and a budget of $2.5 million, but this was small compared with the 6,000 public affairs staff at the United States Department of Defense.
Collins took over at a very difficult time. The Vietnam War was going badly, and the invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State shootings had triggered a wave of protests and unrest across the country. He had no illusions about his ability to change minds, but attempted to engage with the public all the same, playing on his Apollo 11 fame. He attributed part of the nation's problems to insularity. In a 1970 commencement speech at Saint Michael's College in Vermont, he told his audience that "Farmers speak to farmers, students to students, business leaders to other business leaders, but this intramural talk serves mainly to mirror one's beliefs, to reinforce existing prejudices, to lock out opposing views".
Collins realized he was not enjoying the job, and secured President Nixon's permission to become the Director of the National Air and Space Museum. His departure was officially announced on February 22, 1971. He worked in that role until April 11, 1971. The position remained vacant until Carol Laise replaced him in October 1973.
नेशनल एयर और स्पेश म्यूज़ियम के निर्देशक
<!-- On August 12, 1946, Congress passed an authorization bill for a National Air Museum, to be administered by the Smithsonian Institution, and located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Under the U.S. legislative system, authorization is insufficient; Congress also has to pass an appropriation bill allocating funding. Since this was not done, there was no money for the museum building.
The 1957 Sputnik crisis and the resulting Space Race led to a surge of public interest in space exploration. The Freedom 7 and Friendship 7 Project Mercury spacecraft were donated to the Smithsonian, and 2,670,000 visitors descended on the Arts and Industries Building when they were put on display in 1963. The museum was renamed the National Air and Space Museum in 1966, but there was still no funding to build it. Apollo 11 created another surge of interest in space. An exhibition of a Moon rock attracted 200,000 visitors in one month. On May 19, 1970, Senator Barry Goldwater, a retired USAF major general, gave an impassioned speech in the Senate for funding of a museum building.
The job had a clearly defined and tangible goal: to obtain Congressional funding, and to build the museum. Collins lobbied hard for the new museum. With the help of Goldwater in particular, Congress relented, and on August 10, 1972, approved $13 million and contract authority of $27 million for its construction. The $40 million budget was lower than he had hoped for, and the building had to be scaled back and some economies made.
In addition to cost pressure, there was also severe time pressure, as the museum was scheduled to open on July 4, 1976, as part of celebrations of the upcoming United States Bicentennial. The design by architect Gyo Obata of the St. Louis firm Hellmuth Obata & Kassabaumof aimed to harmonize the new museum with the other ones on the National Mall, so the exteriors were faced with Tennessee marble to match the façade of the National Gallery of Art. Gilbane Building Company was awarded the construction contract. Everything was fast-tracked. Contracts were awarded as soon as each component of the design was complete. This allowed the first contract to be awarded within five months of the start of design. The design was completed in just nine months, and all contracts were awarded within a year of the start of design.
Ground was broken on the new museum on November 20, 1972. The building was built horizontally rather than vertically, as is the norm, so that work on the interiors could proceed concurrently. Overseeing construction was but a part of Collins' task: he also had to hire museum staff, oversee the creation of exhibits, and launch the Museum's Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, a new division devoted to research and analysis of lunar and planetary spacecraft data. Collins described the project as "a monumental effort" in which "individual creativity combined with dedicated teamwork and plain hard work".
Collins held the directorship until 1978, when he stepped down to become undersecretary of the Smithsonian Institution. During this time, although no longer an active-duty USAF officer after he joined the State Department in 1970, he remained in the U.S. Air Force Reserve. He attained the rank of major general in 1976, and retired in 1982.
अन्य गतिविधियाँ
Collins completed the Harvard Business School's Advanced Management Program in 1974, and in 1980 became vice president of LTV Aerospace in Arlington, Virginia. He resigned in 1985 to start his own consulting firm, Michael Collins Associates. He wrote an autobiography in 1974 entitled Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys. The New York Times writer John Wilford wrote that it is "generally regarded as the best account of what it is like to be an astronaut."
Collins has also written Liftoff: The Story of America's Adventure in Space (1988), a history of the American space program, Mission to Mars (1990), a non-fiction book on human spaceflight to Mars, and Flying to the Moon and Other Strange Places (1976), revised and re-released as Flying to the Moon: An Astronaut's Story (1994), a children's book on his experiences. Along with his writing, he has painted watercolors, mostly of the Florida Everglades or aircraft he has flown; they are rarely space-related. He did not initially sign his paintings to avoid them increasing in price just because they had his autograph on them.
Collins lived with his wife, Pat, in Marco Island, Florida, and Avon, North Carolina, until her death in April 2014.
निधन
Collins died from cancer on April 28, 2021, aged 90.
पुरस्कार और सम्मान
Collins was a long-time trustee of the National Geographic Society and served as Trustee Emeritus. He was also a fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Collins was inducted into four halls of fame: the International Air & Space Hall of Fame (1971), the International Space Hall of Fame (1977), the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame (1993), and the National Aviation Hall of Fame (1985). In 2008 he was inducted into the Aerospace Walk of Honor in Lancaster, California. The International Astronomical Union honored him by naming an asteroid after him, 6471 Collins. Also, like the other two Apollo 11 crew members, he has a lunar crater named after him.
Collins was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Flying Cross in 1966 for his work in the Gemini Project. He was also awarded Air Force Command Pilot Astronaut Wings. Deputy NASA Administrator Robert Seamans pinned the NASA Exceptional Service Medal on Collins and Young in 1966 for their role in the Gemini 10 mission. For the Apollo Project, he was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and the NASA Distinguished Service Medal. He was awarded the Legion of Merit in 1977.
Along with the rest of the Apollo 11 crew, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Distinction by President Nixon in 1969 at the state dinner in their honor. The three were awarded the Collier Trophy and the General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy in 1969. The National Aeronautic Association president awarded a duplicate trophy to Collins and Aldrin at a ceremony. The trio received the international Harmon Trophy for aviators in 1970, conferred to them by Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1971. Agnew also presented them the Hubbard Medal of the National Geographic Society in 1970. He told them, "You've won a place alongside Christopher Columbus in American history".
Collins also received the Iven C. Kincheloe Award from the Society of Experimental Test Pilots (SETP) in 1970. In 1989, some of his personal papers were transferred to Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1999, while celebrating the 30th anniversary of the lunar landing, Vice President Al Gore, who was also the vice chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution's Board of Regents, presented the Apollo 11 crew with the Smithsonian's Langley Gold Medal for aviation. After the ceremony, the crew went to the White House and presented President Bill Clinton with an encased Moon rock.
The crew was awarded the New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal in the Capitol Rotunda in 2011. It is the highest civilian award that can be received in the United States. During the ceremony, NASA administrator Charles Bolden said, "Those of us who have had the privilege to fly in space followed the trail they forged."
लोकप्रिय संस्कृति में
Collins is one of the astronauts featured in the 2007 documentary In the Shadow of the Moon. He had a small part as "Old Man" in the 2009 movie Youth in Revolt. In the 1996 TV movie Apollo 11, he was played by Jim Metzler, and in the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, he was played by Cary Elwes. In the 2009 TV movie Moon Shot, he was played by Andrew Lincoln. In the 2018 film First Man, he was portrayed by Lukas Haas, and he is featured in the 2019 documentary film Apollo 11. For contributions to the television industry, the Apollo 11 astronauts were honored with round plaques on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In For All Mankind he is portrayed by Ryan Kennedy. In The Crown he is portrayed by Andrew Potts.
English rock group Jethro Tull recorded a song "For Michael Collins, Jeffrey and Me", which appears on the Benefit album from 1970. The song compares the feelings of misfitting from vocalist Ian Anderson (and friend Jeffrey Hammond) with the astronaut's own, as he is left behind by the ones who had the privilege of walking on the surface of the Moon. In 2013, indie pop group The Boy Least Likely To released the song "Michael Collins" on the album The Great Perhaps. The song uses Collins' feeling that he was blessed to have the type of solitude of being truly separated from all other human contact in contrast with modern society's lack of perspective. American folk artist John Craigie recorded a song titled "Michael Collins" for his 2017 album No Rain, No Rose. The song embraces his role as an integral part of the Apollo 11 mission with the chorus, "Sometimes you take the fame, sometimes you sit back stage, but if it weren't for me them boys would still be there."
Collins provided narration for the Google Doodle that commemorated the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11's 1969 mission to the Moon.
सन्दर्भ
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प्रेमानंदपुर गाँव, फूलपुर (इलाहाबाद)
प्रेमानंदपुर फूलपुर, इलाहाबाद, उत्तर प्रदेश स्थित एक गाँव है।
बरूना-२ गाँव, पालीगंज (पटना)
बरूना-२ पालीगंज, पटना, बिहार स्थित एक गाँव है।
सफ़ेद खून
सफ़ेद खून या सफ़ेद ख़ून शेक्सपियर के नाटक किंग लियर पर आधारित आगा हशर कश्मीरी का उर्दू भाषा में लिखा हुआ एक नाटक है। यह 1907 में प्रकाशित हुआ था।
पंडित पृथ्वी नाथ कॉलेज,कानपुर
पंडित पृथ्वी नाथ कॉलेज (पीपीएन कॉलेज) भारत में उत्तर प्रदेश राज्य के कानपुर में एक शैक्षणिक संस्थान है। यह छत्रपति शाहू जी महाराज विश्वविद्यालय (सीएसजेएम विश्वविद्यालय), कानपुर से संबद्ध है।
स्थित
यह कानपुर के मध्य में परेड मार्केट और लाल इमली मिल्स के बीच माल रोड (महात्मा गांधी मार्ग) पर स्थित है।
सुविधाएं
कॉलेज में एक नया खुला सभागार है जिसमें कुल 150+ छात्रों की क्षमता है। सभी पाठ्यक्रमों (बीए, बीएससी, बीकॉम, आदि) के लिए हजारों पुस्तकों वाली एक नई खुली "ई-लाइब्रेरी" और व्यापक पढ़ने और पुस्तकों को जारी करने के लिए एक ऑफ़लाइन पुस्तकालय है। विभिन्न प्रकार की प्रयोगशालाएं हैं: भौतिकी, रसायन विज्ञान,  जीव विज्ञान और कंप्यूटर
उल्फा
उल्फा  (उल्फ़ा) या यूनाइटेड लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ असम (United Liberation Front of Asom) भारत के पूर्वोत्तर राज्य असम में सक्रिय एक प्रमुख आतंकवादी और उग्रवादी संगठन हैं। सशस्त्र संघर्ष के द्वारा असम को एक स्वतन्त्र राज्य बनाना इसका लक्ष्य है। भारत सरकार ने इसे सन् 1990 में प्रतिबन्धित कर दिया और इसे एक 'आतंकवादी संगठन' के रूप में वर्गीकृत किया है।
परिचय एवं संक्षिप्त इतिहास
उत्तरपूर्वी भारत में सक्रिय ढ़ेर सारे आतंकवादी संगठनों में से एक आतंकवादी संगठन उल्फा है। उल्फा का पूरा नाम  यूनाइटेड लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ असम  है। लेकिन संगठन उल्फा के नाम से ही प्रचलित है। सैन्य संघर्ष के जरिये सम्प्रभु समाजवादी असम को स्थापित करने मकसद से भीमकान्त बुरागोहाँइ, राजीव राजकोँवर अर्फ अरबिन्द राजखोवा, गोलाप बरुवा उर्फ अनुप चेतिया, समिरण गोगई उर्फ प्रदीप गोगई, भद्रेश्वर गोहाँइ और परेश बरुवा ने 7 अप्रैल 1979 में शिवसागर के रंघर में उल्फा की स्थापना की। ऐसा माना जाता है कि 1986 में उल्फा का सम्पर्क नेशनलिस्ट सोशलिस्ट काउंसिल ऑफ़ नागालैण्ड (एनएससीएन) और म्यान्मार में सक्रिय संगठन काछिन रेबेल्स से हुआ। 1989 में इसे बांग्लादेश में कैम्प लगाने की छूट मिल गयी और 1990 के आते-आते उल्फा ने कई हिंसक वारदातों को अंजाम दिया। अमेरिकी गृह मन्त्रालय ने अन्य सम्बन्धित आंतकवादी संगठनों की सूची में उल्फा को भी शामिल किया है। संगठन के प्रमुख नेता परेश बरुवा (कमाण्डर-इन-चीफ), अरबिन्द राजखोवा (चेयरमैन) अनुप चेतिया (जनरल सेक्रेटरी) (वर्तमान में बांग्लादेश सरकार की कस्टडी में है), प्रदीप गोगोई (वाइस चेयरमैन) (असम सरकार की कस्टडी में) स्वयं को क्रान्तिकारी संगठन मानता है। उल्फा स्वयं को भारत के विरुद्ध सम्प्रभु और स्वतन्त्र असम की स्थापना में संघर्षरत क्रान्तिकारी राजनीतिक संगठन कहता है। उल्फा का कहना है कि असम कभी भी भारत का हिस्सा नहीं था। उल्फा का दावा है कि असम जिन ढेर सारी परेशानियों का सामना कर रहा है। उनमें राष्ट्रीय पहचान सबसे प्रमुख समस्या है। इसलिए उल्फा स्वतन्त्र दिमाग से संघर्षरत लोगों का प्रतिनिधित्व कर रहा है। ऐस लोग जो नस्ल, जनजाति, जाति, धर्म और राष्ट्रीयता से प्रभावित नहीं हैं।
जबकि भारत सरकार ने उल्फा को आतंकवादी संगठनों की श्रेणी में रखा है और प्रीवेंशन एक्ट के तहत उल्फा को प्रतिबन्धित किया है। भारत ने उल्फा के विरुद्ध भारतीय सेना द्वारा संचालित ऑपरेशन बजरंग शुरू किया है। सरकार ने उल्फा पर पाकिस्तानी आसूचना अभिकरण आईएसआई और बांग्लादेशी आसूचना अभिकरण डीजीएफआई से सम्पर्क बना भारत के विरुद्ध छद्म युद्ध छेड़ने का आरोप लगाया है।
प्रमुख वारदातें
उल्फा वामपन्थी विचारधारा को मानने वाला है और उसका सम्बन्ध माओवादियों से भी है। ऐसे भी दावे किये जाते हैं कि उसके कई सदस्यों को पाकिस्तान में प्रशिक्षित किया गया है।
1990 में व्यवसायी लॉर्ड स्वराज पॉल के भाई सुरेन्द्र पॉल की हत्या
1991 में रूसी इंजीनियर का अपहरण और बाद में अन्य लोगों के साथ उसकी हत्या
1997 में सामाजिक कार्यकर्ता और वरिष्ठ भारतीय कूटनीतिज्ञ का अपहरण कर हत्या
2000 में वरिष्ठ सरकारी अधिकारी नगेन शर्मा की हत्या
2003 में असम में कार्यरत बिहारी मजदूरों की हत्या
15 अगस्त 2004 में कुछ बच्चों समेत बम विस्फोट में 15 लोगों की हत्या
जनवरी 2007 में 62 हिन्दी भाषियों विशेषकर बिहारी मजदूरों की हत्या
15 मार्च 2007 गुवाहाटी में बम ब्लास्ट 6 लोग घायल
असम के अलगाववादी संगठनों की सूची
असम में 35 से भी ज्यादा अलगाववादी संगठन हैं सक्रिय हैं। पाकिस्तानी आसूचना अभिकरण आईएसआई भारत में आतंकी गतिविधियों को तेज करने के लिए हमेशा से ही साजिशें रचता रहा है। जम्मू-कश्मीर में घुसपैठियों को सहाओ देने के लिए कुख्यात आसूचना अभिकरण बांग्लादेशी आसूचना अभिकरणों के साथ मिलकर भारत के उत्तर-पूर्वी क्षेत्र में सक्रिय विद्रोही संगठन उल्फा (युनाइटेड लिब्रेशन फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ असम) को संगठित करने का प्रयास जोर शोर से कर रही है।
युनाइटेड लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ असम (उल्फा)
नेशनल डेमोक्रेटिक फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ बोडोलैण्ड (एनडीएफबी)
युनाइटेड पीपुल्स डेमोक्रेटिक सॉलिडेरिटी (यूपीडीएस)
कामतापुर लिबरेशन ऑर्गनाइजेशन (केएलओ)
डिमा हालिम डाओगा (डीएचडी)
कार्बी लांग्री नेशनल लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट (केएलएनएलएफ)
कार्बी नेशनल वॉलियण्टर्स (केएनवी)
राभा नेशनल सिक्योरिटी फोर्स (आएनएसएनफ)
कोच राजवंशी लिबरेशन आर्गनाइजेशन (केआरएलओ)
हमार पीपुल्स कोन्वेशन (एचपीसी-डी)
कार्बी पीपुल्स फ़्रण्ट (केपीएफ)
तिवा नेशनल रिवोल्यूशनरी फोर्स (टीएनआरएफ)
बिरसा कमाण्डो फोर्स (बीसीएफ)
बंगाली टाइगर फोर्स (बीटीएफ)
आदिवासी टाइगर फोर्स (एटीएफ)
आदिवासी नेशनल लिबरेशन आर्मी ऑफ़ असम (आनला)
गोरखा टाइगर फोर्स (जीटीएफ)
बराक वेली यूथ लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट (बीवीवाइएलएफ)
युनाइटेड लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ बराक वेली
मुसलिम युनाइटेड लिबरेशन फ़्रण्ट ऑफ़ असम (मुल्फा)
मुसलिम सिक्योरिटी काउंसिल ऑफ़ असम (एमएससीएफ)
युनाइटेड लिबरेशन मिलिशिया ऑफ़ असम (उल्मा)
इसलामिक लिबरेशन आर्मी ऑफ़ असम (आईएलएफ)
मुसलिम वॉलण्टियर फोर्स (एमवीएफ)
मुसलिम लिबरेशन आर्मी (एमएलए)
मुसलिम सिक्योरिटी फोर्स (एमएसएफ)