cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Lõunamere kompanii
Orjakaubandus
1714. aastal teatas valitsus, et veerand kasumist reserveeritakse kuningannale ja veel 7,5% finantsnõustaja Manasseh Gilliganile. Mõned kompanii direktorid keeldusid lepingut neil tingimustel pikendamast ning valitsusel tuli otsus tühistada.
Salvatore Tripoli
Salvatore Peter Tripoli (22. november või 5. detsember 1904 New York – 7. märts 1990 New York) oli USA poksija, rahvuselt itaallane.
Tema perekond ei aktsepteerinud tema poksiharrastust ning seetõttu kasutas ta võitlemisel varjunime Jackie Williams. Selle nime all tuli ta 1924. aastal Bostonis Ameerika Ühendriikide harrastajate meistriks kukk-kaalus (kuni 118 naela ehk 53,5 kg) ja sai õiguse minna võistlema olümpiale. Ta kasutas seda nime hiljem ka elukutselisena.
Lõunamere kompanii
Orjakaubandus
Tagasilöökidest hoolimata jätkas kompanii tegutsemist, kogudes töö finantseerimiseks 200 000 naela. 1714. aastal veeti 2680 orja ja 1716–17 veel 13 000, kuid kaubandus oli endiselt kahjumlik. Iga orja eest nõuti impordimaksuks 33 Hispaania dollarit (ehkki mõned orjad võidi arvestada vaid osaliselt, sõltuvalt kvaliteedist). Üks lisalaevadest saadeti 1714. aastal Cartagenasse villakaupade laadungiga, vaatamata hoiatustele, et neile pole seal turgu, ning kaubad seisid kaks aastat müümata.
Salvatore Tripoli
Tripoli sai kukk-kaalus (kuni 118 naela ehk 53,5 kg) 1924. aasta Pariisi olümpiamängude poksivõistlustel hõbemedali, kaotades finaalis kuldmedali- ja olümpiavõitjale William Smithile (Lõuna-Aafrika Liit).
Lõunamere kompanii
Muudatused juhtimises
Kompanii sõltus väga valitsuse heast tahtest. Kui valitsus vahetus, vahetati välja ka direktorid ettevõtte juhatuses. 1714. aastal püüdis üks Harley toel ametisse saanud direktoritest Arthur Moore transportida kompanii laeval 60 tonni isiklikke kaupu. Direktori ametist lasti ta lahti, kuid sellest sai alguse Harley langus kompaniis. Pärast lahkheli tooride parlamendifraktsioonis vahetati Harley 27. juulil 1714 riigikassa lordi kohalt välja. 1. augustil 1714 suri kuninganna Anne ja direktorite valimisel 1715. aastal valiti kompanii kuberneriks Walesi prints, tulevane kuningas George II. Uuel kuningal George I-l ja Walesi printsil olid kompaniis märkimisväärsed osad, nii nagu ka mitmel silmapaistval viigide poliitikul, kelle seas olid James Craggs Vanem, Halifaxi krahv ja Sir Joseph Jekyll. Peapostiülem James Craggs vastutas kirjade lugemise eest, mille kaudu valitsus sai poliitilist ja rahanduslikku teavet. Kõik tooride poliitikud eemaldati juhatusest ja asendati ärimeestega. Direktorite hulka valiti viigid Horatio Townshend (Robert Walpole'i õemees) ja Argylli hertsog.
Uus valitsus elustas taas kompanii aktsiahinna, mis oli langenud allapoole alghinda. Eelmine valitsus oli jätnud kahel viimasel aastal tasumata intressimaksed kompaniile, jäädes võlgu enam kui 1 miljon naela. Uus valitsus nõudis, et võlg tühistataks, kuid lubas kompaniil väljastada võlgujäädud maksete summas uusi aktsiaid. Lõunamere kompanii ligikaudu 10 miljoni naelane kapital moodustas nüüd poole kogu riigis ringlevast aktsiakapitalist. 1714. aastal oli kompaniil 2000–3000 aktsionäri, mida oli rohkem kui ühelgi firma konkurendil.
Salvatore Tripoli
Elukutselisena
Tripoli poksis veebruarist 1925 kuni detsembrini 1931 elukutselisena. Ta osales kokku 66 kohtumisel, võitis neist 34 (neist 5 nokaudiga), kaotas 18 kohtumist (neist 1 nokaudiga) ning 14 kohtumist jäi viiki.
Dhammapada
pisi|Marmortahvel, millele on kirjutatud osa Dhammapadast, [[Myanmaris Mandalays asuvas Kuthodaw Pagoda stuupas]] "Dhammapada" (paali keeles 'seadmuse jada'), ka “Dhammavärsid”, on Buddha mõttesalmidest koosnev vanaindia kirjandusteos. Originaaltekst kuulub theravaada koolkonna paalikeelse pühakirja Tipiṭaka Sutta Piṭaka osasse Khuddaka-nikāya. Ilmselt valmis see tekst India budistlike kogukondade tööna, eesmärgiga säilitada Buddha õpetussõnu.
Lõunamere kompanii
Muudatused juhtimises
Järgmiste direktorivalimiste ajaks 1718. aastal oli poliitiline olukord taas muutunud: viigide seas oli tekkinud lõhe Walpole'i fraktsiooni vahel, mis toetas Walesi printsi, ja James Stanhope'i fraktsiooni vahel, mis toetas kuningat. Argyll ja Townshend lasti direktoriametist lahti, nagu ka viimased toorid Sir Richard Hoare ja George Pitt, ning kuberneriks sai kuningas George I. Direktoriks jäid neli parlamendiliiget ja kuus rahanduses töötavat valitsusametnikku. Sword Blade Company jäi Lõunamere kompanii pangaks ning õitses, hoolimata ettevõtte kahtlasest juriidilisest positsioonist. Blunt ja Sawbridge jäid Lõunamere kompanii direktorite hulka ning nendega liitusid Gibbon ja Child. Caswall astus Lõunamere juhatusest tagasi, et keskenduda ärile Sword Blade'is. 1718. aasta novembris surid alamkuberner Bateman ja asekuberner Shepheard. Kuna kuberneri amet oli auamet, jäi kompanii nõnda äkitselt ilma kahest kõrgeimast ja kogenuimast juhist. Nende asemele astusid Sir John Fellowes alamkubernerina ja Charles Joye asekubernerina.
Heiki Ernits
pisi|Heiki Ernits 5. aprillil 2014 Nukitsa konkursi auhinnatseremoonial Heiki Ernits (sündinud 24. märtsil 1953 Tallinnas) on eesti filmilavastaja ja karikaturist.
Lõunamere kompanii
Muudatused juhtimises
<!--=== War === In 1718 war broke out with Spain once again, in the War of the Quadruple Alliance. The company's assets in South America were seized, which the company claimed cost it £300,000. Any prospect of profit from trade, for which the company had purchased ships and had been planning its next ventures, disappeared.
Dhammapada
Teos sisaldab 423 Buddhale omistatud mõttesalmi, mis on rühmitatud 26 temaatilisse peatükki.
Lõunamere kompanii
Refinancing government debt
In February 1719 Craggs explained to the House of Commons a new scheme for improving the national debt by converting the annuities issued after the 1710 lottery into South Sea stock. By Act of Parliament, the company was granted the right to issue £1,150 of new stock for every £100 per annum of annuity which was surrendered. The government would pay 5% per annum on the stock created, which would halve their annual bill. The conversion was voluntary, amounting to £2.5 million new stock if all converted. The company was to make an additional new loan to the government pro-rata up to £750,000, again at 5%.
Dhammapada
"Dhammapada" salmides on lihtsas ja arusaadavas keeles, sageli kujundeid kasutades, selgitatud budismi kõige olulisemaid kõlbelisi ja maailmavaatelisi seisukohti. Kõiki salme on võimalik lugeda eraldiseisvatena nagu aforisme. Paljud salmid sisaldavad otseseid juhiseid inimesele. Õpetuse põhiline mõte on end vaimselt arendades jõuda kõrgematele mõistmis- ja olemistasemetele ning ka lihtsalt õnnelikult elada.
Heiki Ernits
Ernits sai alghariduse aastatel 1965–1971 Kohila Keskkoolis. 1975. aastal lõpetas ta Tallinna Pedagoogilise Instituudi kunsti- ja tööõpetuse erialal. 1977. aastal teenis ta Belogorskis Nõukogude armee suurtükiväe polgus. 1978. aastal läks ta tööle Tallinnfilmi joonisfilmi osakonda, kus on töötanud joonisfilmide kunstniku ja hiljem režissöörina.
Dhammapada
"Dhammapada" järgi on iga inimese teadlik muutumine võimalik, et vabaneda kannatustest ning saada õnnes ja rahus viibivaks targaks. Kõigil on võimalus sinna jõuda, juhul kui suudetakse kainelt mõista oma olukorda ning leida selle põhjused iseenda sees.
Pealkiri
Dhammapada koosneb sõnadest dhamma ja pada. Dhamma (sanskriti keeles dharma) on üks tähtsamaid mõisteid budismis. Eesti keelde on seda tõlgitud sõnaga 'seadmus'. Dhamma tähistab üldist Buddha õpetust ning selle põhjal arenenud budismi ja budistlikku kultuuri. Samuti tähendab dhamma ka selle õpetuse kõiki osi: tekste, salme, tekstilõike, sõnu ning mõtteid. Pada 'l on mitu erinevat tähendust. Sellele sõnale vastab algupäraselt 'jalg' või 'rada', kirjanduslikult võib tähendada 'värssi', 'salmi', 'värsirida' või 'värsijalga'.
Ajalugu
Dhammapada on kirja pandud selleks, et anda õppijale juhendeid elamiseks ja kõige olulisem Buddha õpetussõnadest. Siddhārta Gautama veetis pärast virgumist kogu oma ülejäänud elu Gangese orus ringi rännates ja õpetades. Buddha õpetas suuliselt ja tema õpetust anti algul samuti edasi suuliselt. Juba esimestel sajanditel pärast Buddha parinirvaanat, hakkasid kujunema erinevad koolkonnad. Need erinesid Buddha õpetuse tõlgendustelt. Tolle aja koolkondi on teada vähemalt 18.
Mõttesalmid pandigi kirja esimeste India budistlike kogukondade poolt, et säilitada Buddha sõna. 2. saj eKr hakati Indias budistlikke tekste üles kirjutama. Kirjutati palmilehtede peale ning hiljem pikkade ja kitsaste raamatulehtede peale. Buddha jutlused ning munga- ja nunnakoguduste elureeglid kanoniseeriti budismi suurkogudel, mis toimusid neli korda poole tuhande aasta jooksul.
Tänapäeval on "Dhammapada" üks tuntumaid ja tõlgitumaid budistlikke tekste. Põhjusteks võivad olla nii selle lühidus ja kompaktsus kui ka teose sisu. Kuigi mõttesalmid on kirja pandud üle 2000 aasta tagasi, ei ole nad aegunud ega oma tähtsust kaotanud. Teos kätkeb probleeme ja mõtteid, mis püsivad iga süveneva mõttelaadiga inimese ees ja sees olenemata sellest, mis ajastul või riigis ta ka ei elaks.
Ülesehitus
pisi|Dhammapada marmortahvel "Dhammapada" koosneb 423 mõttesalmist ehk värsist, mis on jaotatud 26 peatükiks. Kõik salmid ei ole seotud vastava peatüki teemaga ja neil on ka iseseisev mõte.
Umbes pooltes "Dhammapada" värssides leiduvad õpetused esinevad ka teistes Tipitaka osades.
Heiki Ernits
Ernits kuulub Eesti Kinoliitu, Eesti Animatsiooni Liitu ja Eesti Kunstnike Liidu raamatugraafika sektsiooni.
Dhammapada
Olulised kohad
Mitmeid kordi rõhutatakse "Dhammapadas" skandhade ehk isiksuse moodustajate tähtsust (värsid 202 ja 374).
Heiki Ernits
Heiki Ernits on koos Janno Põldmaga avaldanud muret, mis tuleneb nende filmide tasuta allalaadimisest internetist, ning väitnud juba 2009. aastal, et seetõttu on nad kaotanud üle ühe miljoni Eesti krooni tulu.
Looming
Heiki Ernitsa esimene filmitöö oli Tallinnfilmi joonisfilmi osakonnas Rein Raamatu joonisfilmis „Põld“ (1978) kunstnik-lavastaja assistendina.
Dhammapada
Olulised kohad
Üks budismi kesksemaid õpetusi, trilakṣaṇa ehk olemasolu tunnused, leidub üksnes "Dhammapadas" (värsid 277, 278 ja 279).
"Miski ei püsi – kes seda mõistab, enam ei kannata. See on puhas tee. Miski ei rahulda – kes seda mõistab, enam ei kannata. See on puhas tee. Kuskil pole kedagi – kes seda mõistab, enam ei kannata. See on puhas tee."
Heiki Ernits
Looming
Peale animatsiooni on ta tegutsenud muudes valdkondades. Alates 1993. aastast on ta olnud Eesti Ekspressi karikaturist-illustraator ning töötanud raamatukujundaja, fotograafi ja õpetajana, korraldanud autorinäitusi, illustreerinud väljaandeid ja teinud firmadele reklaamfilme.
Lõunamere kompanii
Refinancing government debt
The South Sea company presented the offer to the public in July 1719. In March there was an abortive attempt to restore the Old Pretender, James Edward Stuart, to the throne of Britain, with a small landing of troops in Scotland. They were defeated at the Battle of Glen Shiel on 10 June. The Sword Blade company spread a rumour that the Pretender had been captured, and the general euphoria encouraged the South Sea share price to rise from £100, where it had been in the spring, to £114. Annuitants were still paid out at the same money value of shares, the company keeping the profit from the rise in value before issuing. About two-thirds of the in-force annuities were exchanged.
Heiki Ernits
Looming
Ernitsa karikatuure ja illustratsioone on avaldatud väljaannetes Pikker, Põhjanael, Täheke, Anne, Kultuur ja Elu, Pilkaja jpt. Ta on osalenud karikatuurivõistlustel nii Eestis kui ka välismaal.
Lõunamere kompanii
Trading more debt for equity
pisi|350px|[[William Hogarth, Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (1721). In the bottom left corner are Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round, which people are boarding. At the top is a goat, written below which is "Who'l Ride". The people are scattered around the picture with a sense of disorder, while the progress of the well-dressed people towards the ride in the middle represents the foolishness of the crowd in buying stock in the South Sea Company, which spent more time issuing stock than anything else]]
The 1719 scheme was a distinct success from the government's perspective, and they sought to repeat it. Negotiations took place between Aislabie and Craggs for the government and Blunt, Cashier Knight and his assistant and Caswell. Janssen, the Sub Governor and Deputy Governor were also consulted but negotiations remained secret from most of the company. News from France was of fortunes being made investing in Law's bank, whose shares had risen sharply. Money was moving around Europe, and other flotations threatened to soak up available capital (two insurance schemes in December 1719 each sought to raise £3 million).
Plans were made for a new scheme to take over most of the unconsolidated national debt of Britain (£30,981,712) in exchange for company shares. Annuities were valued as a lump sum necessary to produce the annual income over the original term at an assumed interest of 5%, which favoured those with shorter terms still to run. The government agreed to pay the same amount to the company for all the fixed term repayable debt as it had been paying before, but after seven years the 5% interest rate would fall to 4% on both the new annuity debt and also that taken over previously. After the first year, the company was to give the government £3 million in four quarterly installments. New stock would be created at a face value equal to the debt, but the share price was still rising and sales of the remaining stock, i.e. the excess of the total market value of the stock over the amount of the debt, would be used to raise the government fee plus a profit for the company. The more the price rose in advance of conversion, the more the company would make. Before the scheme, payments were costing the government £1.5 million per year.
In summary, the total government debt in 1719 was £50 million:
The purpose of this conversion was similar to the old one: debt holders and annuitants might receive less return in total, but an illiquid investment was transformed into shares which could be readily traded. Shares backed by national debt were considered a safe investment and a convenient way to hold and move money: far easier and safer than metal coins. The only alternative safe asset, land, was much harder to sell and it was legally much more complex to transfer ownership.
Company stock was now trading at £123, so the issue amounted to an injection of £5 million of new money into a booming economy just as interest rates were falling. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Britain at this point was estimated as £64.4 million.
Public announcement
On 21 January the plan was presented to the board of the South Sea Company, and on 22 January Chancellor of the Exchequer John Aislabie presented it to Parliament. The House was stunned into silence, but on recovering proposed that the Bank of England should be invited to make a better offer. In response, the South Sea increased its cash payment to £3.5 million, while the Bank proposed to undertake the conversion with a payment of £5.5 million and a fixed conversion price of £170 per £100 face value Bank stock. On 1 February, the company negotiators led by Blunt raised their offer to £4 million plus a proportion of £3.5 million depending on how much of the debt was converted. They also agreed that the interest rate would reduce after four years instead of seven, and agreed to sell on behalf of the government £1 million of Exchequer bills (formerly handled by the Bank). The House accepted the South Sea offer. Bank stock fell sharply.
Perhaps the first sign of difficulty came when the South Sea Company announced that its Christmas 1719 dividend would be deferred for 12 months. The company now embarked on a show of gratitude to its friends. Select individuals were sold a parcel of company stock at the current price. The transactions were recorded by Knight in the names of intermediaries, but no payments were received and no stock issued – indeed the company had none to issue until the conversion of debt began. The individual received an option to sell his stock back to the company at any future date at whatever market price might then apply. Shares went to the Craggs: the Elder and the Younger; Lord Gower; Lord Lansdowne; and four other MPs. Lord Sunderland would gain £500 for every pound that stock rose; George I's mistress, their children and Countess Platen £120 per pound rise, Aislabie £200 per pound, Lord Stanhope £600 per pound. Others invested money, including the Treasurer to the Navy, Hampden, who invested £25,000 of government money on his own behalf.
The proposal was accepted in a slightly altered form in April 1720. Crucial in this conversion was the proportion of holders of irredeemable annuities who could be tempted to convert their securities at a high price for the new shares. (Holders of redeemable debt had effectively no other choice but to subscribe.) The South Sea Company could set the conversion price but could not diverge much from the market price of its shares. The company ultimately acquired 85% of the redeemables and 80% of the irredeemables.
Inflating the share price
pisi|Chart of company stock prices The company then set to talking up its stock with "the most extravagant rumours" of the value of its potential trade in the New World; this was followed by a wave of "speculating frenzy". The share price had risen from the time the scheme was proposed: from £128 in January 1720, to £175 in February, £330 in March and, following the scheme's acceptance, £550 at the end of May.
What may have supported the company's high multiples (its P/E ratio) was a fund of credit (known to the market) of £70 million available for commercial expansion which had been made available through substantial support, apparently, by Parliament and the King.
Dhammapada
Olulised kohad
"Dhammapadas" leidub ka Buddha hüüatus virgumise hetkel (värss 154).
Lõunamere kompanii
Inflating the share price
Shares in the company were "sold" to politicians at the current market price; however, rather than paying for the shares, these recipients simply held on to what shares they had been offered, with the option of selling them back to the company when and as they chose, receiving as "profit" the increase in market price. This method, while winning over the heads of government, the King's mistress, et al., also had the advantage of binding their interests to the interests of the Company: in order to secure their own profits, they had to help drive up the stock. Meanwhile, by publicising the names of their elite stockholders, the Company managed to clothe itself in an aura of legitimacy, which attracted and kept other buyers.
Dhammapada
Eestikeelne tõlge
"Dhammapada" on paali keelest eesti keelde tõlkinud Linnart Mäll. Esmakordselt ilmus see 1977. aastal Loomingu Raamatukogus nr 24, olles esimene eestikeelne raamatuna välja antud budistlik tekst ning ühtlasi ka esimene Linnart Mälli tõlgitud budistlik teos. Teist korda ilmus see parandatud tõlkena kogumikus "Budismi pühad raamatud I" 2004. aastal. Selles on esitatud kirjandusliku tõlke kõrval ka terminoloogiline tõlge. 2005. aastal andsid Tartu Ülikooli orientalistikakeskus ja Budismi Instituut välja Linnart Mälli tõlkes, saatesõna ning seletustega raamatu pealkirjaga "Dhammapada: Buddha mõttesalmide jada". See raamat on trükitud Taiwanis Buddha Hariduse Fondi kulul tasuta levitamiseks eelkõige koolidele ja raamatukogudele.
Lõunamere kompanii
Bubble Act
The South Sea Company was by no means the only company seeking to raise money from investors in 1720. A large number of other joint-stock companies had been created making extravagant (sometimes fraudulent) claims about foreign or other ventures or bizarre schemes. Others represented potentially sound, although novel, schemes, such as for founding insurance companies. These were nicknamed "Bubbles". Some of the companies had no legal basis, while others, such as the Hollow Sword Blade company acting as the South Sea's banker, used existing chartered companies for purposes entirely different from their creation. The York Buildings Company was set up to provide water to London, but was purchased by Case Billingsley who used it to purchase confiscated Jacobite estates in Scotland, which then formed the assets of an insurance company.
On 22 February 1720 John Hungerford raised the question of bubble companies in the House of Commons, and persuaded the House to set up a committee, which he chaired, to investigate. He identified a number of companies which between them sought to raise £40 million in capital. The committee investigated the companies, establishing a principle that companies should not be operating outside the objects specified in their charters. A potential embarrassment for the South Sea was avoided when the question of the Hollow Sword Blade Company arose. Difficulty was avoided by flooding the committee with MPs who were supporters of the South Sea, and voting down the proposal to investigate the Hollow Sword by 75 to 25. (At this time, committees of the House were either 'Open' or 'secret'. A secret committee was one with a fixed set of members who could vote on its proceedings. By contrast, any MP could join in with an 'open' committee and vote on its proceedings.) Stanhope, who was a member of the committee, received £50,000 of the 'resaleable' South Sea stock from Sawbridge, a director of the Hollow Sword, at about this time. Hungerford had previously been expelled from the Commons for accepting a bribe.
Amongst the bubble companies investigated were two supported by Lords Onslow and Chetwynd respectively, for insuring shipping. These were criticised heavily, and the questionable dealings of the Attorney-General and Solicitor-General in trying to obtain charters for the companies led to both being replaced. However, the schemes had the support of Walpole and Craggs, so that the larger part of the Bubble Act (which finally resulted in June 1720 from the committee's investigations) was devoted to creating charters for the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation and the London Assurance Corporation. The companies were required to pay £300,000 for the privilege. The Act required that a joint stock company could only be incorporated by Act of Parliament or Royal charter. The prohibition on unauthorised joint stock ventures was not repealed until 1825.
The passing of the Act gave a boost to the South Sea Company, its shares leaping to £890 in early June. This peak encouraged people to start to sell; to counterbalance this the company's directors ordered their agents to buy, which succeeded in propping the price up at around £750.
Top reached
pisi|Tree caricature from Bubble Cards The price of the stock went up over the course of a single year from about £100 to almost £1000 per share. Its success caused a country-wide frenzy—herd behavior —as all types of people, from peasants to lords, developed a feverish interest in investing: in South Seas primarily, but in stocks generally. Among the many companies to go public in 1720 is—famously—one that advertised itself as "a company for carrying out an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to know what it is".
The price finally reached £1,000 in early August, and the level of selling was such that the price started to fall, dropping back to £100 per share before the year was out. This triggered bankruptcies amongst those who had bought on credit, and increased selling, even short selling (i.e., selling borrowed shares in the hope of buying them back at a profit if the price fell).
Also, in August 1720, the first of the installment payments of the first and second money subscriptions on new issues of South Sea stock were due. Earlier in the year John Blunt had come up with an idea to prop up the share price: the company would lend people money to buy its shares. As a result, many shareholders could not pay for their shares except by selling them.
Furthermore, a scramble for liquidity appeared internationally as "bubbles" were also ending in Amsterdam and Paris. The collapse coincided with the fall of the Mississippi Company of John Law in France. As a result, the price of South Sea shares began to decline.
Recriminations
By the end of September the stock had fallen to £150. Company failures now extended to banks and goldsmiths as they could not collect loans made on the stock, and thousands of individuals were ruined, including many members of the aristocracy. With investors outraged, Parliament was recalled in December and an investigation began. Reporting in 1721, it revealed widespread fraud amongst the company directors and corruption in the Cabinet. Among those implicated were John Aislabie (the Chancellor of the Exchequer), James Craggs the Elder (the Postmaster General), James Craggs the Younger (the Southern Secretary), and even Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland (the heads of the Ministry). Craggs the Elder and Craggs the Younger both died in disgrace; the remainder were impeached for their corruption. The Commons found Aislabie guilty of the "most notorious, dangerous and infamous corruption", and he was imprisoned.
The newly appointed First Lord of the Treasury Robert Walpole successfully restored public confidence in the financial system. However, public opinion, as shaped by the many prominent men who lost money, demanded revenge. Walpole supervised the process which removed all 33 of the company directors and stripped them of, on average, 82% of their wealth. The money went to the victims and the stock of the South Sea Company was divided between the Bank of England and the East India Company. Walpole made sure that King George and his mistresses were protected, and by the margin of three votes he managed to save several key government officials from impeachment. In the process Walpole won plaudits as the savior of the financial system while establishing himself as the dominant figure in British politics; historians credit him for rescuing the Whig government, and indeed the Hanoverian Dynasty, from total disgrace.
Quotations prompted by the collapse
Joseph Spence wrote that Lord Radnor reported to him "When Sir Isaac Newton was asked about the continuance of the rising of South Sea stock... He answered 'that he could not calculate the madness of people'." He is also quoted as stating, "I can calculate the movement of the stars, but not the madness of men". Newton himself owned nearly £22,000 in South Sea stock in 1722, but it is not known how much he lost, if anything.
A trading company
The South Sea Company was created in 1711 to reduce the size of public debts, but was granted the commercial privilege of exclusive rights of trade to the Spanish Indies, based on the treaty of commerce signed by Britain and the Archduke Charles, candidate to the Spanish throne during the War of the Spanish Succession. After Philip V became the King of Spain, Britain obtained at the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht the rights to the slave trade to the Spanish Indies (or Asiento) for 30 years. Those rights were previously held by the Compagnie de Guinée et de l'Assiente du Royaume de la France.
The South Sea Company board opposed taking on the slave trade that had showed little profitability when chartered companies had engaged in it, but it was the only legal type of commerce with the Spanish Colonies as they were a closed market. To increase the profitability, the Asiento contract included the right to send one yearly 500 ton ship to the fairs at Portobello and Veracruz loaded with duty-free merchandises, called the Navío de Permiso. The Crown of England and the King of Spain were each entitled to 25% of the profits, according to the terms of the contract, that was a copy of the French Asiento contract, but Queen Anne soon renounced her share. The King of Spain did not receive any payments due to him, and this was one of the sources of contention between the Spanish Crown and the South Sea Company.
Slave trade under the Asiento
pisi|Cover of the English translation of the Asiento contract signed by Britain and Spain in 1713 as part of the Utrecht treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. The contract granted exclusive rights to Britain to sell slaves in the Spanish Indies Under the Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves. The slaves for the Spanish America were provided by companies that were granted exclusive rights to their trade. This monopoly contract was called the slave Asiento. Between 1701 and 1713 the Asiento contract was granted to France. In 1711 Britain had created the South Sea Company to reduce debt and to trade with the Spanish America, but that commerce was illegal without a permit from Spain, and the only existing permit was the Asiento for the slave trade, so at the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 Britain obtained the transfer of the Asiento contract from French to British hands for the next 30 years. The board of directors was reluctant to take on the slave trade that was not an object of the company and had shown little profitability when carried out by chartered companies, but they finally agreed on 26 March 1714. The Asiento set a sale quota of 4800 units of slaves per year. An adult male slave counted as one unit; females and children counted as fractions of a unit. Initially the slaves were provided by the Royal African Company.
The South Sea Company established slave reception factories at Cartagena, Colombia, Veracruz, Mexico, Panama, Portobello, La Guaira, Buenos Aires, La Havana and Santiago de Cuba, and slave deposits at Jamaica and Barbados. Despite problems with speculation, the South Sea Company was relatively successful at slave trading and meeting its quota (it was unusual for other, similarly chartered companies to fulfill their quotas). According to records compiled by David Eltis and others, during the course of 96 voyages in 25 years, the South Sea Company purchased 34,000 slaves, of whom 30,000 survived the voyage across the Atlantic. (Thus about 11% of the slaves died on the voyage: a relatively low mortality rate for the Middle Crossing. ) The company persisted with the slave trade through two wars with Spain and the calamitous 1720 commercial bubble. The company's trade in human slavery peaked during the 1725 trading year, five years after the bubble burst. Between 1715 and 1739, slave trading constituted the main legal commercial activity of the South Sea Company.
The annual ship
The slave Asiento contract of 1713 granted a permit to send one vessel of 500 tons per year, loaded with duty-free merchandise to be sold at the fairs of New Spain, Cartagena, and Portobello. This was an unprecedented concession that broke two centuries of strict exclusion of foreign merchants from the Spanish Empire.
The first ship to head for the Americas, the Royal Prince, was scheduled for 1714 but was delayed until August 1716. In consideration of the three annual ships missed since the date of the Asiento, the permitted tonnage of the next ten ships was raised to 650. Actually only seven annual ships sailed during the Asiento, the last one being the Royal Caroline in 1732. The company's failure to produce accounts for all the annual ships but the first one, and lack of payment of the proceeds to the Spanish Crown from the profits for all the annual ships, resulted in no more permits being granted to the Company's ships after the Royal Caroline trip of 1732–1734.
In contrast to the legitimate trade in slaves, the regular trade of the annual ships generated healthy returns, in some case profits were over 100%. Accounts for the voyage of the Royal Prince were not presented until 1733, following continuous demands by Spanish officials. They reported that profits of £43,607. Since the King of Spain was entitled to 25% of the profits, after deducting interest on a loan he claimed £8,678. The South Sea Company never paid the amount due for the first annual ship to the Spanish Crown, nor did it pay any amount for any of the other six trips.
Arctic whaling
The Greenland Company had been established by Act of Parliament in 1693 with the object of catching whales in the Arctic. The products of their "whale-fishery" were to be free of Customs and other duties. Partly due to maritime disruption caused by wars with France, the Greenland Company failed financially within a few years. In 1722 Henry Elking published a proposal, directed at the governors of the South Sea Company, that they should resume the "Greenland Trade" and send ships to catch whales in the Arctic. He made very detailed suggestions about how the ships should be crewed and equipped.
Government debt after the Seven Years' War
The company continued its trade (when not interrupted by war) until the end of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). However, its main function was always managing government debt, rather than trading with the Spanish colonies. The South Sea Company continued its management of the part of the National Debt until it was disestablished in 1853, at which point the debt was reconsolidated. The debt was not paid off by World War I, at which point it was consolidated again, under terms that allowed the government to avoid paying down the principal.
Officers of the South Sea Company
The South Sea Company had a governor (generally an honorary position); a subgovernor; a deputy governor and 30 directors (reduced in 1753 to 21).
In fiction
David Liss' historical-mystery novel "A Conspiracy of Paper", set in 1720 London, is focused on the South Sea Company at the top of its power, its fierce rivalry with the Bank of England and the events leading up to the collapse of the "bubble".
Charles Dickens novels are littered with stock-market speculations, villains, swindlers and fictional speculators. Little Dorrit (1857) The financial house of Mr Merdle; Martin Chuzzlewit (1844) 'Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Company, modeled loosely on the South Sea Bubble,- is in essence a classic Ponzi scheme; Nicholas Nickleby (1839) Ralph Nickleby's great Joint Stock Company, United Metropolitan Improved Hot Muffin and Crumpet Baking and Punctual Delivery Company; David Copperfield (1850) the false accounting by the sycophant Uriah Heep, clerk to lawyer Mr Wickfield.-->
Empire State
pisi|[[New Yorgi osariik 1800. aasta Low's Encyclopaedia kaardil]]
Empire State ('impeeriumiosariik') on Ameerika Ühendriikide New Yorgi osariigi hüüdnimi, mida hakati kasutama 19. sajandil.
Etümoloogia
pisi|Arvatav väljendile aluse panija [[George Washington]]
Arvatakse, et selle grandioosse väljendiga tuli esmalt lagedale George Washington, viidates ilukirjanduslikult osariigile kui "Ameerika tulevase impeeriumi aujärjele". Samuti on ta sellele viidanud kui "käigurajale impeeriumisse" (võimalik, et ta mõtles Põhja-Ameerikas võimu taotlenud ookeanitagusele Suurbritannia kuningriigile).
Väljend oli New Yorgile ka kohane, sest osariik võttis enda haardesse imperiaalse hiilguse Euroopast ning peegeldas selle otseseid mõjutusi oma seljatagusele mandrile. Uue Maailma nii-öelda eesrindlikku sõlmjaama kogunes Vana Maailma ehk Euroopa keiserlik luksus ning kapital. Osariigi linnasid ilmestab samas ka pompoosselt historitsistlik Euroopa-pärane arhitektuur, näiteks Šotimaalt lähtunud uusparunistiil või Kontinentaalse Euroopa beaux-arts 'i stiilielementidega uusbarokk. Sisekujunduses andis stiilitooni jõukust ilmestav uusrokokoo.
Siiski on nimetuse täpse päritolu allikas jäänud selgusetuks. Kõigest hoolimata määrati riiki valitsevaks pealinnaks hoopis Washington, nii et New Yorgist sai kujuneda kõrgehinnalise kinnisvaraga üle külvatud ja turistirohke rahandus-, kultuuri- ja meelelahutuskeskus. See suurlinn on tänapäevalgi nii Euroopa värav Põhja-Ameerikasse kui ka viimase heidetud visiitkaart esimesele.
Vaata ka
vasakul|pisi|[[Empire State Building]]
Paul Erik
pisi|Metsataksaator-topograaf Paul Erik oma hea sõbra Waletiga 1915. aastal Paul Erik VR I/3 (5. august 1886 Kurikse küla, Lelle vald, Pärnumaa – 11. juuni 1978) oli Eesti metsaülem ja metsandustegelane.
Elukäik ja haridus
Paul Erik oli pere 11. laps. Ta õppis kohalikus kihelkonnakoolis ja Tallinna linnakoolis. 1908. aastal kutsus vanem vend Juhan ta Kaug-Itta, kus ta ise Vladivostoki lähedal Nikolsk-Ussuriiskis 3. Siberi kütipolgus staabikaptenina teenis. Paul Erik sooritas eksami Habarovski reaalkooli juures ja läks madruseks, et Vladivostoki merekooli jaoks meresõidustaaži saada. Kuid 1909. aastal avati Nikolsk-Ussuriiskis metsakool, peamiselt Ussuuri taiga metsade korraldamise eesmärgil, mistõttu õpetati peamiselt maamõõdu ja topograafiaga seotud aineid. Kahe aastaga andis kool hea metsandusliku ettevalmistuse.
1911. aastal lõpetas Paul Erik kooli kolme parima hulgas ja sai töökoha valida. Paul valis maamõõtja ameti ja määrati riigivarade valitsusse, kuid sattus siiski pooleks aastaks (1911–1912) Olga metskonna abimetsaülemaks. Tohutu suur metskond asus Jaapani mere ranniku ja Sihhote-Alini mäeaheliku vahel, pindalalt suurem kui Eesti Vabariik. Abimetsaülema paberitöö talle ei sobinud, kuid Paul Erik tutvus lähemalt Ussuuri metsadega ja töötas 1917. aasta aprillini mitmes piirkonnas maamõõtja-topograafina.
Irkutski lipnike kooli suunati Paul Erik pärast Vene sõjaväkke mobiliseerimist. Pärast kooli lõpetamist pöördus ta tagasi Eestisse ja astus 1917. aastal Rahvaväkke. Saksa okupatsiooni algul 1918. aastal läks ta Ukrainasse ning töötas Kiievis maamõõtmistöödel ja Volõõnias Karasini metsamõisa valitsejana. 1918. aasta lõpus tuli ta taas Eestisse, astus sõjaväkke ja määrati hiljem 3. diviisi staabi topograafiks. 1919. aasta juunis oli ta Nikolai Reegi lähim abiline, operatiivjaoskonna adjutant. 1919. aastal sügisel sai ta ametikõrgendusega alamleitnandiks. Oli veel piirivalve jaoskonnülem ja kindralstaabi vanem käsundusohvitser.
Teenete eest sai 1920. aasta aprillis I liigi 3. järgu Vabadusristi.
Metsaülem Eestis
1920. aastal alustas Paul Erik tööd Eesti metsaülemana.
1951. aastal arreteeriti Paul Erik nagu enamik Eestisse jäänud metsaülemaid ja talle määrati sel ajal tavaline 25+5 aastat vabadusekaotust. Pärast Stalini surma 1953. aastal anti talle amnestia. Paar aastat töötas ta veel Pärnu metsamajandi puidutsehhis, 1957. aastal jäi vanaduspensionile.
Paul Erik on maetud Tartus Raadi kalmistule.
Isiklikku
Paul ja Elisabeth Eriku neli poega on isa huvi jaganud.
Paul Erik (1923–1996) ja Leo Erik (1924–2013) astusid 1942. aastal Tartu ülikooli metsandusteaduskonda, kuid nende õpingud katkestas sõda ja mobiliseerimine.
Ain Erik (1932–2018) astus 1950. aastal Tartu riikliku ülikooli metsandusteaduskonda ja lõpetas 1955. aastal EPA metsandusteaduskonna. Ain Erik töötas metsanduses mitmetel ametikohtadel, oli metsaülem ja RMK puhkeala juhataja ning loodusõppe spetsialist. Aini tütretütar Laura õpib Eesti maaülikoolis metsandust ja on Metsaüliõpilaste seltsi liige.
Kirjatöö
Paul Eriku kirjutisi ilmus sõjaeelses Eesti Metsas arvukalt. Eriti pakkusid huvi Kaug-Idas töötamise aega, sealset loodust ja olustikku kirjeldanud artiklid.
Brewsteri nurk
pisi|Brewsteri nurga all kahe keskkonna piirpinnale langeva valguse polarisatsiooni illustratsioon. Joonisel on s-polariseeritud valgus kujutatud täpikestena ning p-polariseeritud valgus noolekestena. Ülemine keskkond on väiksema murdumisnäitajaga n_1 ja alumine keskkond on suurema murdumisnäitajaga n_2 Brewsteri nurk (teatud ka kui polarisatsiooninurk) on valguse langemisnurk, mille korral kindla polarisatsiooniga valgus ei peegeldu, vaid murdub täielikult läbipaistvas dielektrilises materjalis. Kui polariseerimata valgus langeb pinnale Brewsteri nurga all, siis pinnalt peegeldunud valgus on lineaarselt polariseeritud. See langemisnurk on nimetatud Šoti füüsiku Sir David Brewsteri (1781–1868) järgi.
Seletus
Kui valgus jõuab kahe erineva murdumisnäitajaga keskkonna piirpinnale, siis üldjuhul osa sellest peegeldub. Peegeldunud valguse intensiivsust saab leida Fresneli valemite abil ning see sõltub vaadeldava valguskiire lainepikkusest, langemisnurgast ja polarisatsioonist.
Fresneli valemite abil saab näidata, et p-polariseeritud valgus (valgus, mille elektriväli võngub langeva kiire ja pinnanormaali tasandis) ei peegeldu, kui langemisnurk on:
kus valgus langeb keskkonnast murdumisnäitajaga n1 keskkonda murdumisnäitajaga n2. Nurka nimetatakse Brewsteri nurgaks.
Nähtuse füüsikaline mehhanism põhineb järgneval arutluskäigul. Läbipaistvat optilist keskkonda võib kirjeldada kui elektriliste dipoolide kogumit. Olukorras, kus väline väli puudub, langevad aatomis positiivne (aatomi tuum) ja negatiivne (elektronpilv) laengutsenter kokku ning keskkond on elektriliselt polariseerimata. Välise elektrivälja mõjul lahknevad positiivne ja negatiivne laengutsenter ruumis ehk aine polariseerub elektriliselt, seejuures polariseeritavus on ajas muutuv ning järgib välise välja ajalist käiku. Välise välja mõjul võnkuv dipool kiirgab valgust kõigis suundades, välja arvatud oma telje sihis. Dipooli kiirguse sagedus langeb kokku välise välja sagedusega.
Vabas ruumis leviva valguslaine polarisatsioon on alati risti valguse levimise suunaga. Vaatleme olukorda, keskkonnale langeva laine elektriväli võngub langemistasandis. Seda nimetatakse p-polariseeritud valguseks (nüüd on tegemist on elektromagnetlaine võnkumistasandiga, mitte elektrilise polarisatsiooniga). Teise keskkonda murdunud laine levimise siht on määratud Snelli seadusega. Olukorras, kus langemisnurga ja murdumisnurga summa on, on peegeldunud laine amplituud (ja ka ajas keskmistatud amplituudi ruut ehk intensiivsus) null ehk peegeldunud lainet ei esine. Kogu pealelangev valdus murdub.
Sel juhul kehtib: kus θ1 on langemisnurk ja 'θ''2 on murdumisnurk. Kasutades Snelli seadust, saame arvutada langemisnurga θ1 = θB mille puhul valgust ei peegeldu:
Avaldades θB saame:
Klaasi (n2 ≈ 1,5) jaoks õhus (n1 ≈ 1) on Brewsteri nurk nähtava valguse jaoks umbes 56°, samas kui vee ja õhu piirpinnal (n2 ≈ 1,33) on see umbes 53°. Kuna keskkondade murdumisnäitajad sõltuvad valguse lainepikkusest, sõltub ka Brewsteri nurk lainepikkusest.
Kui läbipaistvate dielektriliste keskkondade lahutuspinnale langeb Brewsteri nurga all laine, millel esineb langemistasandiga ristuv polarisatsioonikomponent (ehk s-polariseeritud laine), on mõlemad, nii peegeldunud kui ka murdunud laine amplituudid nullist erinevad. Siit järeldub, Brewsteri nurga all langemine võimaldab muuta nn loomulik valguse, milles polarisatsioonitasand on ajas kiirelt ja juhuslikult muutuv, peegeldunud laines lineaarselt polariseerituks.
Esimesena vaatles valguse polariseerumist mingilt pinnalt kindla nurga alt peegeldudes Étienne-Louis Malus 1808. aastal. Ta proovis polarisatsiooni esilekutsuvat nurka seostada materjali murdumisnäitajaga, kuid tema uurimist segas talle kättesaadavate klaaside ebaühtlane kvaliteet. 1815. aastal oli Brewsteril võimalik eksperimenteerida parema kvaliteediga materjalidega ning ta näitas, et vastav nurk on murdumisnäitaja funktsioon, defineerides sellega Brewsteri seaduse.
Brewsteri nurgale viidatakse tihti kui "polariseerivale nurgale", sest valgus mis peegeldub selle nurga alt on täielikult polariseeritud risti langemistasandiga("s-polariseeritud"). Klaasplaati või klaasplaatide virna, mis on asetatud valguskiire teele Brewsteri nurga all saab kasutada polarisaatorina.
Rakendused
Polariseeritud päikeseprillid kasutavad Brewsteri nurga põhimõtet, et vähendada horisontaalsetelt pindadelt peegeldava valguse pimestavat mõju. Suures nurkade vahemikus Brewsteri nurga ümber peegeldub p-polariseeritud valgus vähem kui s-polariseeritud valgus. Seega kui päike on taevas madalal, on peegeldunud valgus enamasti s-polariseeritud. Polariseerivad päikeseprillid kasutavad materjale nagu Polaroidi, et blokeerida horisontaalselt polariseeritud valgust ning seega blokeerida horisontaalsetelt pindadelt tulevaid peegeldusi. Efekt on suurim siledate pindade puhul nagu vesi, kuid sellised päikeseprillid vähendavad ka autoteedelt ja maapinnalt tekkivat peegeldust.
Fotograafid kasutavad sama efekti, et eemaldada veepinna peegeldusi, kui nad soovivad pildistada veealuseid objekte. Kaameratel on tihti lisaseade, mida keerates saab valida, mis suunas pindadelt peegeldusi blokeeritakse. center|frame|Kaks fotot aknast, kus fotokaamera polariseeriv filter on keeratud eri nurkade alla. Vasakul pildil on polarisaator samas suunas akna peegelduse polarisatsiooninurgaga. Parempoolsel pildil on polarisaatorit keeratud 90°, mis eemaldab aknalt peegelduva polariseeritud päikesevalguse Kui hologrammi salvestatakse, siis on pealelangev valgus üldiselt Brewsteri nurga all. Kuna pealelangev valgus on p-polariseeritud, siis seda ei peegeldata läbipaistvalt taustapinnalt tagasi holograafilisele kilele. See aitab ära hoida soovimatuid interferentsiefekte hologrammis.
Brewsteri nurgaga prismasid kasutatakse laserfüüsikas. Polariseeritud valgus siseneb prismasse Brewsteri nurga all ilma peegelduskadudeta.
Pindade uurimisel kasutatakse Brewsteri nurga mikroskoope, et kujutada osakeste kihte või molekule õhu-vedeliku piirpinnal. Suunates laseri Brewsteri nurga all piirpinnale, näib puhas vedelik pildil mustana samas kui molekulidekihid peegeldavad valgust, mida saab detekteerida.
COVID-19 antigeeni kiirtestid
COVID-19 kiirtestid, mida sageli nimetatakse ka COVID-19 külgvoolutestideks, on kiirtestid, mida kasutatakse SARS-COV-2 infektsiooni (COVID-19) avastamiseks. Neid on kiire rakendada minimaalse väljaõppega, nad pakuvad märkimisväärseid kulueeliseid, maksavad vaid murdosa teistest COVID-19 testimisviisidest ja annavad kasutajatele tulemuse 5-30 minuti jooksul. Siiski on neil kõrge valenegatiivsete tulemuste määr. Mitmes riigis kasutatakse antigeeni kiirteste massilise testimise või kogu elanikkonda hõlmava sõeluuringu osana. Arvatakse, et need on väärtuslikud selliste isikute tuvastamiseks, kes on asümptomaatilised ja võivad potentsiaalselt levitada viirust teistele inimestele, kes muidu ei teaks, et nad on nakatunud. See erineb teistest COVID-19 testimisviisidest, nagu PCR, mida peetakse üldiselt kasulikuks testiks sümptomaatiliste isikute puhul, kuna nende tundlikkus on suurem ja nad suudavad juhtumeid täpsemalt tuvastada.
COVID-19 kiirtesti tehnoloogia arendamise ajalugu
COVID-19 kiirtestid tekkisid Ühendkuningriigi vastuolulise programmi Moonshot raames, mis on 100 miljardi naelsterlingi suurune programm COVID-19 testimise uute tehnoloogiate süstemaatiliseks hindamiseks, arendamiseks ja rakendamiseks. Kiirtestid kuulusid esialgu sellesse süstemaatilise hindamise kavasse koos paljude teiste võimalike COVID-19 testimise tehnoloogiate, nagu lamp, Lampore, PCR, massispektromeetria ja proovide koondamine, kõrvale. Hindamise jätkudes osutusid kiirtestid siiski kõige edukamaks COVID-19 testimise vormiks selles programmis, et täiendada olemasolevat PCR-testimist.