cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
কুমাৰ চানু
বিজু শ্বাহ
চানুৱে বিজু শ্বাহৰ কিছুমান মহান ৰচনাৰ বাবে কণ্ঠ প্ৰদান কৰিছে। বিশ্বতমা (১৯৯২), মোহৰা (১৯৯৪), তেৰে মেৰে চাপনে (১৯৯৬), গুপ্ত (১৯৯৭), আৰ য়া পাৰ (১৯৯৭), বেটি নং ১ (১৯৯৯), বুলন্দি (২০০০), প্যাৰ ইশ্ক আৰু মহব্বত (২০০১) আৰু কাচাম(২০০১) উল্লেখযোগ্য এলবাম।
আনন্দ-মিলিন্দ
চানুৱে আনন্দ-মিলিন্দৰ সৈতে 150 ৰো অধিক গান ৰেকৰ্ড কৰিছে। তেওঁৰ ৰোমাণ্টিক প্ৰতিচ্ছবিৰ পৰা আঁতৰি তেওঁ দুয়োজনৰ বাবে পিপী (peppy) নম্বৰ গাইছে, তেওঁৰ আটাইতকৈ বিখ্যাত হৈছে অভিনেতা গোবিন্দাৰ বাবে। তেওঁ দুয়োৰে সৈতে কাম কৰিছিল আৰু সফলতাৰে ত্ৰিনেত্ৰা (১৯৯১), জিগৰ (১৯৯২), বোল ৰাধা বোল (১৯৯২), ইনছানিয়াত কে দেৱতা (১৯৯২), এক লড়কা এক লড়কী (১৯৯২), সূৰ্য্যৱংশী(১৯৯২), হস্তি (১৯৯২), গিৰাফ্‌ট (১৯৯২), প্লেটফৰ্ম (১৯৯২), ৰাজা বাবু (১৯৯৪), চুহাগ (১৯৯৪), জয় কিষাণ (১৯৯৪), কুলি নম্বৰ ১ (১৯৯৫), হিৰো নং 1 (1997), গাইৰ (1998), চল মেৰে ভাই (2000), আৰ্মী (1996), লুটেৰে (1993), গোপী কিষাণ (1994) আৰু ৰক্ষক (1996)। আদিত কণ্ঠ প্ৰদান কৰিছিল।
অন্যান্য কাম
চানুৱে বিভিন্ন ভাৰতীয় চলচ্চিত্ৰৰ বাবে সংগীত ৰচনা কৰিছে। উথান আৰু ইয়ে চাণ্ডে কিউ আতা হে উল্লেখনীয়। লতা মংগেশকাৰ, আশা ভোঁচলে, কবিতা কৃষ্ণমূৰ্তি, অনুৰাধা পৌড়ৱাল, স্বপ্না মুখাৰ্জী, অলকা য়াগনিক, চনু নিগম, সাধনা সৰ্গম, সুদেশ ভোনছলে, শান, শ্ৰেয়া ঘোষাল, হেমা সৰদেশাই, সুনিধি চৌহান আৰু বহুতে তেওঁৰ সংগীতৰ বাবে তেওঁলোকৰ কণ্ঠ দান কৰিছিল। "ইয়ে কাইছা উথন হে" (আশা ভোচলে আৰু চনু নিগমে দুটা পৃথক সংস্কৰণত গোৱা) আৰু "জিচনে স্বপ্না দেখা" (নিজে চানুৱে গোৱা) সমালোচকৰ দ্বাৰা প্ৰশংসিত। তেওঁ গায়ক উদিত নাৰায়ণৰ সৈতে টিভি অনুষ্ঠান "ইয়ে দুনিয়ান গাজব কি" শীৰ্ষক গানটো গাইছিল.
২০১৭ চনত, চানুৱে সাধনা সৰ্গমৰ সৈতে ১৯ৰ ষ্টৰী আধাৰিত টিভি চিৰিজ "ইয়ে উন দিনন কি বাত হে"ৰ শীৰ্ষক ট্ৰেকৰ বাবে গান গাইছিল আৰু ইয়াত কেমিঅ'ৰ অংশ হিচাপেও দেখা গৈছিল। ২০১৯ চনত তেওঁ ষ্টাৰ প্লাছৰ "কুলফি কুমাৰ বাজেৱালা"ৰ বাবে অলপ গান গাইছিল।
চলচ্চিত্ৰৰ বাবে গান গোৱা আৰু সংগীত ৰচনা কৰাৰ বাহিৰে, তেওঁ চলচ্চিত্ৰ নিৰ্মাণত আগ্ৰহ দেখুৱাইছে। ২০০৬ চনত, তেওঁ তেওঁৰ প্ৰথম হিন্দী চলচ্চিত্ৰ "উথান " প্ৰযোজনা কৰে।
চানু হৈছে বিশ্ব বন্ধনৰ এজন ট্ৰাষ্টী আৰু ব্ৰেণ্ড এম্বেচেডৰ, চেৰিব্ৰেল পালচিৰ এক ভেটি।
চানুৱে দিল্লীৰ কৰোল বাগত দুখীয়া শিশুসকলৰ বাবে কুমাৰ চানু বিদ্যা নিকেতন নামৰ এখন প্ৰাথমিক বিদ্যালয় খুলিছিল। আৰু শিক্ষাৰ্থীসকলক বিনামূলীয়াকৈ ইউনিফৰ্ম আৰু কিতাপ দিয়া হয়।
আন গায়কৰ সৈতে কৰ্মৰাজি
গায়ক লতা মংগেশকাৰ, আশা ভোচলে, অনুৰাধা পাউদৱাল, অলকা য়াগনিম, কবিতা কৃষ্ণমূৰ্তি, সাধনা সৰ্গম, এলিশা চীনাই, সুনিধি চৌহান, স্বপ্না মুখাৰ্জী, পূৰ্ণিমা, স্বপ্না অৱস্থি, হেমা সৰদেশাই, শ্ৰেয়া ঘোষাল, আকৃতি কক্কৰ, মোনালী ঠাকুৰ, নেহা কক্কৰ,আৰু অন্যান্য ৰ সৈতে একাধিক হিট দ্বৈত কণ্ঠৰ গীত আছে। ২০১৭ চনত আমেৰিকা যুক্তৰাষ্ট্ৰত কেৰিয়াৰ আৰম্ভ কৰা পপ গায়িকা আৰু গীতিকাৰশ্যানন কেৰ সৈতে চানুৱে একাধিক দ্বৈত অনুষ্ঠানও কৰিছে।
ৰাজনীতি
তেওঁ ২০০৪ চনত তেতিয়াৰ দলৰ সভাপতি ভেংকায়া নাইডুৰ (Venkaiah Naidu) নেতৃত্বত এক অনুষ্ঠানত ভাৰতীয় জনতা পাৰ্টিত যোগদান কৰিছিল, কিন্তু পিছত তেওঁ গানত মনোনিবেশ কৰিবলৈ পদত্যাগ কৰিছিল। তেওঁ ২ ডিচেম্বৰ ২০১৪ তাৰিখে বিজেপিত পুনৰ যোগদান কৰে, তেওঁক অমিত শ্বাহে (Amit Shah) অন্তৰ্ভুক্ত কৰে।
প্ৰত্যাৱৰ্তন
কুমাৰ চানুৱে ২০১২ চনত প্লেবেক গান গাবলৈ উভতি আহিছিল। তেওঁ ৰচনাকাৰী চাজিদ-ৱাজিদ (Sajid-Wajid) ৰ আগ্ৰহত পুনৰ প্ৰত্যাৱৰ্তন কৰিছিল। চাজিদ-ৱাজিদে তেওঁক "চাম্মাক চললো ছাইল ছবিলি" - ৰাউডি ৰাঠৌৰ (Rowdy Rathore), "শ্ৰেয়া ঘোষাল"ৰ সৈতে এখন বিবাহৰ গান গাইছিল। ২০১৫ চনত, কুমাৰ চানুৱে দম লগা কে হাইছা (Dum Laga Ke Haisha) চলচ্চিত্ৰৰ বাবে যশ ৰাজ ফিল্মছৰ (Yash Raj Films) পৃষ্ঠভূমিৰ কণ্ঠস্বৰ হিচাপে লতা মংগেশকাৰৰ স্থান লয়। যশ ৰাজ ফিল্মছ (Yash Raj Films) ৰ 60 বছৰৰ ইতিহাসত এইটো প্ৰথম বাৰৰ বাবে আছিল যে লতা মংগেশকাৰৰ কণ্ঠস্বৰ সলনি কৰা হৈছিল।
তথ্য সংগ্ৰহ
শ্ৰেণী:হিন্দী চলচ্চিত্ৰৰ নেপথ্য কণ্ঠশিল্পী শ্ৰেণী:জীৱিত ব্যক্তি
পাৰিবাৰিক লোককথা
পৰিয়ালৰ লোককথাক দীৰ্ঘদিন ধৰি আঞ্চলিক, জাতিগত, ধৰ্মীয় বা বৃত্তিগত গোটৰ নথিপত্ৰত অন্তৰ্ভুক্ত কৰা হৈছে। ১৯৫৮ চনত মৌখিক ইতিহাসৰ পথ প্ৰদৰ্শক মডি ব'টাৰাইটে "পৰিয়ালৰ কাহিনী"ৰ নথিভুক্ত কৰিবলৈ কৰা আহ্বানৰ প্ৰতি সঁহাৰি জনাই লোককথাবিদসকলে নিজৰ পৰিয়ালত প্ৰচলিত গল্প আৰু পৰম্পৰাৰ প্ৰকাশিত বিৱৰণীৰে সমৰ্থন আগবঢ়ায় । ১৯৭০ চনত পৰিয়ালৰ লোককথাৰ গোটটো ক্ৰমাৎ সংজ্ঞায়িত উপাদান হিচাপে গণ্য হ’বলৈ আৰম্ভ কৰে। এল কেৰেন বাল্ডউইনৰ অপ্ৰকাশিত গৱেষণা পত্ৰখনে (১৯৭৫) পৰিয়ালৰ লোককথাৰ বাবে অধিক তাত্ত্বিক ভিত্তি স্থাপন কৰিছিল৷ তেওঁৰ মতে "...পৰিয়ালটো কেৱল লোকগোটেই নহয়, ই যিকোনো ব্যক্তিৰ অন্তৰ্গত প্ৰথম লোকগোট।"
ইয়াৰ পিছত এই ক্ষেত্ৰখন বহল হৈ পৰিয়ালৰ সম্প্ৰসাৰিত সংজ্ঞাটোকো সামৰি ল’লে। সন্তান আৰু ককা-আইতা থকা বিষমযৌন বিবাহিত দম্পতীৰে গঠিত গতানুগতিক বহল পৰিয়ালটোত এতিয়া সমকামী সংগী, অবিবাহিত প্ৰতিশ্ৰুতিবদ্ধ সম্পৰ্ক আৰু অগতানুগতিক পদ্ধতি আৰু পদ্ধতিৰ দ্বাৰা তুলি লোৱা বা জন্ম লোৱা সন্তানক অন্তৰ্ভুক্ত কৰা হৈছে। সেই অনুসৰি পাৰিবাৰিক পৰম্পৰা নিজেই সলনি হৈ আছে।
"এটা ব্যক্তিগত পৰিয়ালৰ বাবে লোককথা হৈছে ইয়াৰ এক উমৈহতীয়া অতীতৰ সৃষ্টিশীল প্ৰকাশ। কেঁচা অভিজ্ঞতাবোৰ পাৰিবাৰিক কাহিনী, প্ৰকাশ আৰু ফটোলৈ ৰূপান্তৰিত হোৱাৰ লগে লগে সেইবোৰক এনে ৰূপত সংহিতাভুক্ত কৰা হয় যিবোৰ সহজেই মনত পেলাব পাৰি, পুনৰ ক’ব পাৰি আৰু উপভোগ কৰিব পাৰি। তেওঁলোকৰ নাটক আৰু সৌন্দৰ্য উচ্চতৰ হৈ পৰে, আৰু পৰিয়ালৰ অতীতক প্ৰয়োজন আৰু ইচ্ছা অনুসৰি পুনৰ গঢ় দিয়াৰ লগে লগে সুলভ হৈ পৰে। ইয়াৰ কাহিনী, ফটোগ্ৰাফ আৰু পৰম্পৰা ব্যক্তিগতকৃত আৰু প্ৰায়ে অভিজ্ঞতাৰ সৃষ্টিশীল পাতন৷"
তথ্যসূত্ৰ
শ্ৰেণী:লোককথা
সংক্ৰমণ
সংক্ৰমণ বুলিলে জীৱৰ দেহত ৰোগ সৃষ্টিকাৰী বীজাণুৱে কৰা আক্ৰমণ, সংখ্যা বৃদ্ধি আৰু বীজাণু বা ইয়াৰ বিষাক্ত পদাৰ্থৰ প্ৰতি দেহৰ কলাৰ সঁহাৰিক বুজায়। সংক্ৰমণৰ পৰা হোৱা ৰোগক সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ বোলে।
ভাইৰাছ, ভিৰইড, প্ৰিয়ন, ৰোগ সৃষ্টিকাৰী বেক্টেৰিয়া, পৰজীৱী যেনে পেলু বা কৃমি, সন্ধিপদী প্ৰাণী যেনে চিকৰা, চাহী, ভেঁকুৰ যেনে খৰ আদিয়ে সংক্ৰমণ কৰে।
জীৱই নিজৰ প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালী ব্যৱহাৰ কৰি সংক্ৰমণ ৰোধ কৰিব পাৰে। স্তন্যপায়ী প্ৰাণীয়ে সহজাত প্ৰতিৰক্ষাৰে সংক্ৰমণ ৰোধ কৰিবলৈ চেষ্টা কৰে যাৰ ফলত প্ৰায়েই প্ৰদাহ হৈ পাছলৈ লব্ধ প্ৰতিৰক্ষা সক্ৰিয় হয়।
সংক্ৰমণৰ চিকিৎসাৰ বাবে নিৰ্দিষ্ট ঔষধ যেনে এণ্টিবায়'টিক, এণ্টিভাইৰেল, এণ্টিফাংগেল, এণ্টিপ্ৰট'জ'ৱেল আৰু এণ্টিহেল্মিন্‌থিক্‌ছ ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা হয়। ২০১৩ চনত সংক্ৰমণৰ ফলত প্ৰায় ৯২ লাখ মানুহৰ মৃত্যু হৈছিল (সকলো মৃত্যুৰ প্ৰয় ১৭%)। সংক্ৰমণক প্ৰাধান্য দিয়া চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞানৰ শাখাটোক সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ বোলে।
কম সময়ৰ বাবে হোৱা সংক্ৰমণক "একিউট" (acute) বা হস্ৰম্যাদী সংক্ৰমণ বোলে। বেছি দিনৰ বাবে হোৱা সংক্ৰমণক "ক্ৰ'নিক" (chronic) বা দীৰ্ঘম্যাদী সংক্ৰমণ বোলে। কাৰকৰ ওপৰত ভিত্তি কৰি (যেনে বেক্টেৰিয়া, ভাইৰাছ, ভেঁকুৰ, পৰজীৱী) আৰু প্ৰণালীগত লক্ষণ থকা-নথকাক লৈও সংক্ৰমণৰ শ্ৰেণীবিভাজন কৰিব পাৰি।
প্ৰাথমিক বনাম সুযোগ সন্ধানী
জীৱাণু অসংখ্য প্ৰকাৰ থাকিলেও সুস্থ মানুহৰ দেহত কেইটামানেহে ৰোগৰ সৃষ্টি কৰিব পাৰে। জীৱাণুবিধে দেহত কৰা আক্ৰমণ আৰু প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালীৰ প্ৰত্যাক্ৰমণৰ ওপৰত সংক্ৰমণৰ প্ৰাবল্য নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে। প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালীয়েও সংক্ৰমণ ৰোধ কৰিবলৈ গৈ দেহৰ ক্ষতি কৰিব পাৰে। সেয়েহে প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালীৰ স্থিতিলৈ চাই জীৱাণুবোৰক প্ৰাথমিক জীৱাণু আৰু সুযোগ সন্ধানী জীৱাণু বুলি ভাগ কৰা হয়।
সংক্ৰমণ হয় নে নহয়
One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro – however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic).
সোঁচৰা
Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted,
শৰীৰৰ স্থান অনুসৰি
Infections can be classified by the anatomic location or organ system infected, including: In addition, locations of inflammation where infection is the most common cause include pneumonia, meningitis and salpingitis.
লক্ষণ আৰু চিহ্ন
The symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes, coughing, or a runny nose.
In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.
Colonization
Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.
Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing. The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:
As an example, several staphylococcal species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum, multiply without resistance and cause harm.
An interesting fact that gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, 16S ribosomal RNA analysis, omics, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly sterile. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11–20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88).
Disease
Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.
Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.
Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries.
Transmission
For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes:
The relationship between virulence versus transmissibility is complex; if a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can be passed along to another host.
ৰোগ নিৰ্ণয়
Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.
Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by a prion.
Symptomatic diagnostics
The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called pathognomonic signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.
In children the presence of cyanosis, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a petechial rash increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.
Microbial culture
Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a bacterium, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses: the medium in this case being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.
In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi, an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut.
Microscopy
Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.
Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinobacterial genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia.
Biochemical tests
Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of metabolic or enzymatic products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment carbohydrates in patterns characteristic of their genus and species, the detection of fermentation products is commonly used in bacterial identification. Acids, alcohols and gases are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in selective liquid or solid media.
The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function.
Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.
Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost effective automated process for diagnosis of infectious disease.
PCR-based diagnostics
Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.
Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.
Metagenomic sequencing
Given the wide range of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illness, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of encephalitis, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed, despite extensive testing using state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. Metagenomics is currently being researched for clinical use, and shows promise as a sensitive and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, amplification of genetic material is unbiased rather than using primers for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by next-generation sequencing and alignment comparisons using large databases of thousands of organismic and viral genomes.
Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is immunocompromised. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A broad, sensitive test for pathogens that detects the presence of infectious material rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable.
Indication of tests
There is usually an indication for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large.
নিবাৰণ
Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. Aseptic technique was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.
Antimicrobial substances used to prevent transmission of infections include:
One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.
Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. [6] Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.
A general method to prevent transmission of vector-borne pathogens is pest control.
Immunity
Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned. This process requires immune mechanisms to kill or inactivate the inoculum of the pathogen. Specific acquired immunity against infectious diseases may be mediated by antibodies and/or T lymphocytes. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by:
The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high fever and inflammation, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe.
Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens. There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.
Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural serum antibodies to the surface polysaccharides of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are passively transmitted to newborns.
Host genetic factors
The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbors and agent in a mature, or sexually active stage phase called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction. The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from Nature demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.
চিকিৎসা
When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (antibiotic; including antitubercular), antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically. Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is resistance to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include penicillin, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, macrolides, quinolones and tetracyclines.
Not all infections require treatment, and for many self-limiting infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits. Antimicrobial stewardship is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.
ৰোগ বিতৰণ
In 2010 about 10 million people died of an infectious disease.
The World Health Organization collects information on global deaths by International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison.
The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.
Historic pandemics
A pandemic (or global epidemic) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area.
Emerging diseases
In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via mutual or commensal interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host.
Several human activities have led to the emergence of zoonotic human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of vector-borne diseases, see also globalization and disease and wildlife disease:
ইতিহাস
Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the Renaissance, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician Girolamo Fracastoro.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) advanced the science of microscopy by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria.
In the mid-19th century John Snow and William Budd did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water.
Louis Pasteur proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for rabies.
Robert Koch, provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as Koch's postulates.
Edward Jenner, Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin developed effective vaccines for smallpox and polio, which would later result in the eradication and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively.
Alexander Fleming discovered the world's first antibiotic, Penicillin, which Florey and Chain then developed.
Gerhard Domagk developed sulphonamides, the first broad spectrum synthetic antibacterial drugs.
Medical specialists
The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists.
An infectious disease team may be alerted when:
Society and culture
A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.
Fossil record
Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were afflicted by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another Herrerasaurus. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include Acrocanthosaurus, Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and a tyrannosaur from the Kirtland Formation. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen.
Outer space
A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.
আৰু চাওক
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বাহ্যিক সংযোগ
শ্ৰেণী:চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞান
প্ৰতিমা (কাব্য গ্ৰন্থ)
প্ৰতিমা (Pratima) হৈছে অসমৰ কবি, সাহিত্যিক আৰু অসমীয়া ভাষা উন্নতি সাধিনী সভাৰ প্ৰতিষ্ঠাপক সদস্য চন্দ্ৰকুমাৰ আগৰৱালাৰ এখন কাব্য গ্ৰন্থ। সংকলনটি ১৯১৩ চনত প্ৰকাশিত হৈছিল। সংকলনটিত সন্নিৱিষ্ট হোৱা প্ৰায়বোৰ কবিতাই জোনাকী আলোচনীত পূৰ্বতে প্ৰকাশিত হৈছিল।
কবিৰ চমু পৰিচয়
চন্দ্ৰকুমাৰ আগৰৱালা (১৮৬৭-১৯৩৮) এজন অসমীয়া কবি আৰু লেখক। অসমীয়া সাহিত্যত ৰোমাণ্টিকতাবাদৰ সূচনা কৰা লেখকসকলৰ তেখেত আছিল অন্যতম। জোনাকীৰ প্ৰথম সংখ্যাত প্ৰকাশ পোৱা 'বনকুঁৱৰী'য়েই আছিল প্ৰথম অসমীয়া ৰোমাণ্টিক কবিতা। আগৰৱালাক "প্ৰতিমাৰ খনিকৰ" বুলিও অভিহিত কৰা হয়। তেখেত জোনাকী আলোচনীৰ প্ৰথমজন সম্পাদক আৰু সাহিত্য সংগঠন অসমীয়া ভাষা উন্নতি সাধিনী সভাৰ প্ৰতিষ্ঠাপক সদস্য আছিল। 'জোনাকী' আলোচনীৰ জৰিয়তে আধুনিক অসমীয়া সাহিত্যলৈ আগবঢ়োৱা বৰঙনিৰ বাবে আগৰৱালাৰ লগত লক্ষ্মীনাথ বেজবৰুৱা আৰু হেমচন্দ্ৰ গোস্বামীক একেলগে 'জোনাকী যুগৰ ত্ৰিমূৰ্তি' বুলি কোৱা হয়। বনকুৱঁৰী, তেজীমলা, মাধুৰী, বীণবৰাগী, মহাত্মা আদি তেওঁৰ অনুপম কবিতা সমূহৰ অন্যতম কবিতা।
গ্ৰন্থৰ সংক্ষিপ্ত পৰিচয়
প্ৰতিমাত প্ৰকাশিত হোৱা কবিতাৰ মুখ্য চালিকা শক্তি হৈছে কবিৰ স্বাভাৱিক সৌন্দৰ্য-স্পৃহা আৰু প্ৰকৃতি প্ৰেম। ৰসৰাজ লক্ষ্মীনাথ বেজবৰুৱাই প্ৰতিমা সম্পৰ্কে কৈছে যে প্ৰতিমাখন সৰু, কিন্তু নিভাঁজ সোণৰ।  কাব্যগ্ৰন্থৰ নামটি চন্দ্ৰকুমাৰ আগৰৱালাৰ প্ৰথম কন্যা প্ৰতিমাৰ নামেৰে ৰখা হৈছিল। প্ৰতিমাই অকালতে মৃত্যুক সাবটি লৈছিল। প্ৰতিমাৰ কবিতাখিনিক আধুনিক অসমীয়া কাব্য সাহিত্যৰ গুৰুত্বপূৰ্ণ সম্পদ হিচাপে গণ্য কৰা হয়।
ফুলকোঁৱৰ-মণিকোঁৱৰৰ গীত
ফুলকোঁৱৰ-মণিকোঁৱৰৰ গীত হৈছে এক শ্ৰেণীৰ আখ্যানমূলক গীত। শঙ্কৰদেউ ৰজা কোনো কোনোৰ মতে শঙ্কৰদেউৰ পুত্ৰ মণিকোঁৱৰ আৰু মণিকোঁৱৰৰ পুত্ৰ ফুলকোঁৱৰক মূল চৰিত্ৰ হিচাপে লৈ আৰু মণিকোঁৱৰ আৰু ফুলকোঁৱৰৰ প্ৰেম কাহিনী দুটাক কেন্দ্ৰীয় বিষয়বস্তু হিচাপে লৈ ফুলকোঁৱৰ-মণিকোঁৱৰৰ গীত ৰচিত হৈছে। অসমীয়া লোক কবিতাসমূহৰ ভিতৰত ফুলকোঁৱৰ-মণিকোঁৱৰৰ গীতৰ যথেষ্ট গুৰুত্ব আছে।
অসমীয়া সাহিত্যৰ বুৰঞ্জী প্ৰণেতাসকলে এই গীতক অসমীয়াৰ উমৈহতীয়া সম্পদ হিচাপে স্থান দিলেও অসমৰ অন্যতম জাতি গোষ্ঠী সোণোৱাল কছাৰীসকলৰ সৈতে এই গীতৰ এৰাব নোৱৰা সম্পৰ্ক এটা দেখিবলৈ পোৱা যায়। গুণেশ্বৰ সোণোৱালে লিখিছে– ‘‘এই গীতবোৰ বৰ বিষাদৰ গীত। ফুলকোঁৱৰৰ গীত গালে বৰষুণ হয় বুলি সোণোৱালসকলে বিশ্বাস কৰে। খৰাং হ’লে এই গীত গাই বৰষুণ মতাৰ লোকবিশ্বাস এটা প্ৰচলিত আছে।
ৰচনা কাল
ফুলকোঁৱৰ-মণিকোঁৱৰৰ গীতৰ ৰচনাৰ সঠিক সময় নিৰ্ণয় কৰিব নোৱাৰি যদিও উল্লেখ থকা পদবী, আচাৰ-আচৰণ আদিলৈ লক্ষ্য কৰি এই গীত আহোম ৰাজত্বকালতে বা আহোম-ৰাজত্বকালৰ ওচৰে পাজৰে ৰচিত হোৱা বুলি ঠাৱৰ কৰা হৈছে।
বৈশিষ্ট্য
ফুলকোঁৱৰ-মণিকোঁৱৰৰ গীতৰ মূল বৈশিষ্ট্যসমূহ হৈছে–
তথ্যসূত্ৰ
শ্ৰেণী:অসমৰ সংগীত
৬ নৱেম্বৰ
এইদিনটোত ঘটা কেইটামান উল্লেখযোগ্য ঘটনা-
সামাজিক উপভাষা
সামাজিক উপভাষা (Social dialect) হৈছে সমাজৰ সৈতে জড়িত ভাষা৷ সমাজ একোখনত নানা জাতি-উপজাতি আৰু ভিন ভিন ধৰ্মীয় সম্প্ৰদায়ৰ লোকে বসবাস কৰে৷ ইয়াৰোপৰি সমাজ এখনত বিভিন্ন শ্ৰেণী আৰু গোষ্ঠীৰ লোকে বসবাস কৰে৷ এই ভিন ভিন তৰহৰ মানুহৰ আচাৰ-নীতিৰ ভিন্নতা আছে৷ তেওঁলোকৰ নৈতিক দৃষ্টিভংগীও ক্ষেত্ৰ বিশেষে সুকীয়া হয়৷ তেওঁলোকৰ সামাজিক চাল-চলনৰ বিভিন্নতা আৰু বৈচিত্ৰতা ভাষাত প্ৰতিফলিত হয়৷ একেটা ভাষাকে ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিলেও এনে সামাজিক ভিন্নতাৰ হেতুকে প্ৰত্যেকৰে ভাষাৰ ৰূপবোৰো সুকীয়া৷ এইদৰে কোনো সমাজক কেন্দ্ৰ কৰি গঢ়ি উঠা ভাষাৰ বিভিন্ন ৰূপবোৰকে সামাজিক উপভাষা বোলে৷ সামাজিক উপভাষাই সমাজৰ শ্ৰেণী আৰু গোষ্ঠীসমূহৰ অৰ্থনৈতিক, সামাজিক আদি অৱস্থাৰ ইংগিত বহন কৰে৷
সামাজিক উপভাষাৰ সংজ্ঞা
ভাষাবিজ্ঞানীসকলে বিভিন্ন সময়ত সামাজিক উপভাষাৰ বিভিন্ন সংজ্ঞা আগবঢ়াইছে৷ যেনে-
সামাজিক উপভাষা সৃষ্টিৰ কাৰণ
সামাজিক উপভাষা সৃষ্টিৰ অন্তৰালত বহুতো কাৰণ জড়িত হৈ থাকে৷ দীপঙ্কৰ মৰলে উপভাষা বিজ্ঞান নামৰ গ্ৰন্থত সামাজিক উপভাষাৰ উদ্ভৱ সম্পৰ্কে কৈছে–‘‘এটা ভাষাৰ যিকোনো দলে যেতিয়া একেধৰণৰ সামাজিক বান্ধোনত বান্ধ খাই একে ব্যৱস্থাপনাৰে বসবাস কৰি সেই দলৰ অন্তৰ্ভূক্ত নোহোৱাসকলৰ ভাষাতকৈ সুকীয়া ধৰণেৰে ভাব প্ৰকাশ কৰে বা তাৰ মাজেদি তেওঁলোকৰ স্বকীয়তা প্ৰকাশ কৰে, তেতিয়াই সামাজিক উপভাষাৰ উদ্ভৱ হয়৷’’ সামাজিক উপভাষা কোনো এটা ভৌগোলিক এলেকাত বা কেতিয়াবা ভৌগোলিক সীমা অতিক্ৰম কৰি গোষ্ঠীভেদে বা সামাজিক শ্ৰেণীভেদে সৃষ্টি হয়৷ সামাজিক উপভাষাৰ সৃষ্টিৰ অন্তৰালত কেইবাটাও কাৰণ জড়িত হৈ আছে৷ সেহবোৰ হৈছে–
মানুহৰ প্ৰব্ৰজন
মানুহে এঠাইৰ পৰা অন্য এটা অঞ্চললৈ প্ৰব্ৰজন কৰোঁতে পূৰ্বৰ ভাষাটো লগত লৈ যায়৷ সময় বাগৰাৰ লগে লগে মানুহবোৰে নতুন অঞ্চলটোৰ ভাষাও লাহে লাহে আয়ত্ব কৰি পূৰ্বৰ ভাষাটোৰ লগতে তাকো ক’বলৈ আৰম্ভ কৰে৷ সেইবাবে দুয়োটা ভাষাৰ সংমিশ্ৰণ ঘটাৰ ফলত ভাষাৰ এক সুকীয়া ৰূপ গঢ় লয়৷ এনেদৰেই মানুহৰ [প্ৰব্ৰজন]ৰ ফলত সামাজিক উপভাষা গঢ় লৈ উঠে৷