cyanic-selkie/wikianc huggingface dataset:
Geskiedenis van Israel en Juda in die Bybelse tyd
Iron Age II (950–587 BCE)
Archaeological records indicate that the Kingdom of Israel was fairly prosperous. The late Iron Age saw an increase in urban development in Israel. Whereas previously the Israelites had lived mainly in small and unfortified settlements, the rise of the Kingdom of Israel saw the growth of cities and the construction of palaces, large royal enclosures, and fortifications with walls and gates. Israel initially had to invest significant resources into defense as it was subjected to regular Aramean incursions and attacks, but after the Arameans were subjugated by the Assyrians and Israel could afford to put less resources into defending its territory, its architectural infrastructure grew dramatically. Extensive fortifications were built around cities such as Dan, Megiddo, and Hazor, including monumental and multi-towered city walls and multi-gate entry systems. Israel's economy was based on multiple industries. It had the largest olive oil production centers in the region, using at least two different types of olive oil presses, and also had a significant wine industry, with wine presses constructed next to vineyards. By contrast, the Kingdom of Judah was significantly less advanced. Some scholars believe it was no more than a small tribal entity limited to Jerusalem and its immediate surroundings. In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small and mostly unfortified settlements. The status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate among scholars. Jerusalem does not show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity until the 9th century BCE. On the other hand, significant administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and Large Stone Structure, which originally formed part of one structure, contain material culture from earlier than that. The ruins of a significant Juhadite military fortress, Tel Arad, have also been found in the Negev, and a collection of military orders found there suggest literacy was present throughout the ranks of the Juhadite army. This suggests that literacy was not limited to a tiny elite, indicating the presence of a substantial educational infrastructure in Judah.
In the 7th century Jerusalem grew to contain a population many times greater than earlier and achieved clear dominance over its neighbours. This occurred at the same time that Israel was being destroyed by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was probably the result of a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian vassal state controlling the valuable olive industry. Judah prospered as a vassal state (despite a disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib), but in the last half of the 7th century BCE, Assyria suddenly collapsed, and the ensuing competition between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the land led to the destruction of Judah in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582.
Babylonian period
Babylonian Judah suffered a steep decline in both economy and population and lost the Negev, the Shephelah, and part of the Judean hill country, including Hebron, to encroachments from Edom and other neighbours. Jerusalem, while probably not totally abandoned, was much smaller than previously, and the town of Mizpah in Benjamin in the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud Medinata. (This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkalon was conquered in 604, the political, religious and economic elite [but not the bulk of the population] was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location). There is also a strong probability that for most or all of the period the temple at Bethel in Benjamin replaced that at Jerusalem, boosting the prestige of Bethel's priests (the Aaronites) against those of Jerusalem (the Zadokites), now in exile in Babylon.
The Babylonian conquest entailed not just the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, but the liquidation of the entire infrastructure which had sustained Judah for centuries. The most significant casualty was the state ideology of "Zion theology," the idea that the god of Israel had chosen Jerusalem for his dwelling-place and that the Davidic dynasty would reign there forever. The fall of the city and the end of Davidic kingship forced the leaders of the exile community – kings, priests, scribes and prophets –  to reformulate the concepts of community, faith and politics. The exile community in Babylon thus became the source of significant portions of the Hebrew Bible: Isaiah 40–55; Ezekiel; the final version of Jeremiah; the work of the hypothesized priestly source in the Pentateuch; and the final form of the history of Israel from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings. Theologically, the Babylonian exiles were responsible for the doctrines of individual responsibility and universalism (the concept that one god controls the entire world) and for the increased emphasis on purity and holiness. Most significantly, the trauma of the exile experience led to the development of a strong sense of Hebrew identity distinct from other peoples, with increased emphasis on symbols such as circumcision and Sabbath-observance to sustain that distinction.
The concentration of the biblical literature on the experience of the exiles in Babylon disguises the fact that the great majority of the population remained in Judah; for them, life after the fall of Jerusalem probably went on much as it had before. It may even have improved, as they were rewarded with the land and property of the deportees, much to the anger of the community of exiles remaining in Babylon. The assassination around 582 of the Babylonian governor by a disaffected member of the former royal House of David provoked a Babylonian crackdown, possibly reflected in the Book of Lamentations, but the situation seems to have soon stabilised again. Nevertheless, those unwalled cities and towns that remained were subject to slave raids by the Phoenicians and intervention in their internal affairs by Samaritans, Arabs, and Ammonites.
Persian period
When Babylon fell to the Persian Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE, Judah (or Yehud medinata, the "province of Yehud") became an administrative division within the Persian empire. Cyrus was succeeded as king by Cambyses, who added Egypt to the empire, incidentally transforming Yehud and the Philistine plain into an important frontier zone. His death in 522 was followed by a period of turmoil until Darius the Great seized the throne in about 521. Darius introduced a reform of the administrative arrangements of the empire including the collection, codification and administration of local law codes, and it is reasonable to suppose that this policy lay behind the redaction of the Jewish Torah. After 404 the Persians lost control of Egypt, which became Persia's main rival outside Europe, causing the Persian authorities to tighten their administrative control over Yehud and the rest of the Levant. Egypt was eventually reconquered, but soon afterward Persia fell to Alexander the Great, ushering in the Hellenistic period in the Levant.
Yehud's population over the entire period was probably never more than about 30,000 and that of Jerusalem no more than about 1,500, most of them connected in some way to the Temple. According to the biblical history, one of the first acts of Cyrus, the Persian conqueror of Babylon, was to commission Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple, a task which they are said to have completed c. 515. Yet it was probably not until the middle of the next century, at the earliest, that Jerusalem again became the capital of Judah. The Persians may have experimented initially with ruling Yehud as a Davidic client-kingdom under descendants of Jehoiachin, but by the mid–5th century BCE, Yehud had become, in practice, a theocracy, ruled by hereditary high priests, with a Persian-appointed governor, frequently Jewish, charged with keeping order and seeing that taxes (tribute) were collected and paid. According to the biblical history, Ezra and Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem in the middle of the 5th century BCE, the former empowered by the Persian king to enforce the Torah, the latter holding the status of governor with a royal commission to restore Jerusalem's walls. The biblical history mentions tension between the returnees and those who had remained in Yehud, the returnees rebuffing the attempt of the "peoples of the land" to participate in the rebuilding of the Temple; this attitude was based partly on the exclusivism that the exiles had developed while in Babylon and, probably, also partly on disputes over property. During the 5th century BCE, Ezra and Nehemiah attempted to re-integrate these rival factions into a united and ritually pure society, inspired by the prophecies of Ezekiel and his followers.
The Persian era, and especially the period between 538 and 400 BCE, laid the foundations for the unified Judaic religion and the beginning of a scriptural canon. Other important landmarks in this period include the replacement of Hebrew as the everyday language of Judah by Aramaic (although Hebrew continued to be used for religious and literary purposes) and Darius's reform of the empire's bureaucracy, which may have led to extensive revisions and reorganizations of the Jewish Torah. The Israel of the Persian period consisted of descendants of the inhabitants of the old kingdom of Judah, returnees from the Babylonian exile community, Mesopotamians who had joined them or had been exiled themselves to Samaria at a far earlier period, Samaritans, and others.
Ptolemaic rule
Ptolemy I took control of Egypt in 322 BCE after the death of Alexander the Great. He also took control of Yehud Medinata in 320 because he was very aware that it was a great place to attack Egypt from and was also a great defensive position. However, there were others who also had their eyes on that area. Another former general, Antigonus Monophthalmus, had driven out the satrap of Babylon, Seleucus, in 317 and continued on towards the Levant. Seleucus found refuge with Ptolemy and they both rallied troops against Antigonus' son Demetrius, since Antigonus had retreated back to Asia Minor. Demetrius was defeated at the battle of Gaza and Ptolemy regained control of Yehud Medinata. However, not soon after this Antigonus came back and forced Ptolemy to retreat back to Egypt. This went on until the Battle of Ipsus in 301 where Seleucus' armies defeated Antigonus. Seleucus was given the areas of Syria and Palestine, but Ptolemy would not give up those lands, causing the Syrian Wars between the Ptolemies and Seleucids. Not much is known about the happenings of those in Yehud Medinata from the time of Alexander's death until the Battle of Ipsus due to the frequent battles. At first, the Jews were content with Ptolemy's rule over them. His reign brought them peace and economic stability. He also allowed them to keep their religious practices, so long as they paid their taxes and didn't rebel. After Ptolemy I came Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who was able to keep the territory of Yehud Medinata and brought the dynasty to the peak of its power. He was victorious in both the first and second Syrian Wars, but after trying to end the conflict with the Seleucids by arranging a marriage between his daughter Berenice and the Seleucid king Antiochus II, he died. The arranged marriage did not work and Berenice, Antiochus, and their child were killed from an order of Antiochus' former wife. This was one of the reasons for the third Syrian War. Before all of this, Ptolemy II fought and defeated the Nabataeans. In order to enforce his hold on them, he reinforced many cities in Palestine and built new ones. As a result of this, more Greeks and Macedonians moved to those new cities and brought over their customs and culture, or Hellenism. The Ptolemaic Rule also gave rise to 'tax farmers'. These were the bigger farmers who collected the high taxes of the smaller farmers. These farmers made a lot of money off of this, but it also put a rift between the aristocracy and everyone else. During the end of the Third Syrian War, the high priest Onias II would not pay the tax to the Ptolemy III Euergetes. It is thought that this shows a turning point in the Jew's support of the Ptolemies. The Fourth and Fifth Syrian Wars marked the end of the Ptolemaic control of Palestine. Both of these wars hurt Palestine more than the previous three. That and the combination of the ineffective rulers Ptolemy IV Philopater and Ptolemy V and the might of the large Seleucid army ended the century-long rule of the Ptolemaic Dynasty over Palestine.
Seleucid rule and the Maccabean Revolt
According to the Book of Maccabees, many Jews were not happy with the way Hellenism had spread into Judea. Some of these Jews were Mattathias and his sons. Mattathias refused to offer sacrifice when the king told him to. He killed a Jew who was going to do so as well as the king's representative. Because of this, Mattathias and his sons had to flee. This marks the true beginning of the Maccabean Revolt. Judas Maccabeus became the leader of the rebels. He proved to be a successful general, defeating an army lead by Apollonius. They started to catch the attention of King Antiochus IV in 165, who told his chancellor to put an end to the revolt. The chancellor, Lysias, sent three generals to do just that, but they were all defeated by the Maccabees. Soon after, Lysias went himself but, according to 1 and 2 Maccabees he was defeated. There is evidence to show that it was not that simple and that there was negotiation, but Lysias still left. After the death of Antiochus IV in 164, his son, Antiochus V, gave the Jews religious freedom. Lysias claimed to be his regent. Around this time was the re-dedication of the temple. During the siege of the Acra, one of Judas' brothers, Eleazor, was killed. The Maccabees had to retreat back to Jerusalem, where they should have been beaten badly. However, Lysias had to pull out because of a contradiction of who was to be regent for Antiochus V. Shortly after, both were killed by Demetrius I Soter who became the new king. The new high priest, Alcimus, had come to Jerusalem with the company of an army lead by Bacchides. A group of scribes called the Hasideans asked him for his word that he would not harm anyone. He agreed, but killed sixty of them. Around this time Judas was able to make a treaty with the Romans. Soon after this, Judas was killed in Jerusalem fighting Bacchides' army. His brother Jonathan succeeded him. For eight years, Jonathan didn't do much. However, in 153 the Seleucid Empire started to face some problems. Jonathan used this chance to exchange his services of troops for Demetrius so that he could take back Jerusalem. He was appointed high priest by Alexander Balas for the same thing. When conflicts between Egypt and the Seleucids arose, Jonathan occupied the Acra. As conflicts over the throne arose, he completely took control of the Acra. But in 142 he was killed. His brother Simon took his place.
Die Hasmoniese Dinastie
Simon was nominated for the title of high priest, general, and leader by a "great assembly". He reached out to Rome to have them guarantee that Judea would be an independent land. Antiochus VII wanted the cities of Gadara, Joppa, and the Acra back. He also wanted a very large tribute. Simon only wanted to pay a fraction of that for only two of the cites, so Antiochus sent his general Cendebaeus to attack. The general was killed and the army fled. Simon and two of his sons were killed in a plot to overthrow the Hasmoneans. His last remaining son, John Hyrcanus, was supposed to be killed as well, but he was informed of the plan and rushed to Jerusalem to keep it safe. Hyrcanus had many issues to deal with as the new high priest. Antiochus invaded Judea and besieged Jerusalem in 134 BCE. Due to lack of food, Hyrcanus had to make a deal with Antiochus. He had to pay a large sum of money, tear down the walls of the city, acknowledge Seleucid power over Judea, and help the Seleucids fight against the Parthians. Hyrcanus agreed to this, but the war against the Parthians didn't work and Antiochus died in 128. Hyrcanus was able to take back Judea and keep his power. John Hyrcanus also kept good relations with the Roman and the Egyptians, owing to the large number of Jews living there, and conquered Transjordan, Samaria, and Idumea (also known as Edom). Aristobulus I was the first Hasmonean priest-king. He defied his father's wishes that his mother should take over the government and instead had her and all of his brothers except for one thrown in prison. The one not thrown in prison was later killed on his orders. The most significant thing he did during his one-year-reign was conquer most of Galilee. After his death, he was succeeded by his brother Alexander Jannaeus, who was only concerned with power and conquest. He also married his brother's widow, showing little respect for Jewish law. His first conquest was Ptolemais. The people called to Ptolemy IX for aid, as he was in Cyprus. However, it was his mother, Cleopatra III, who came to help Alexander and not her son. Alexander was not a popular ruler. This caused a civil war in Jerusalem that lasted for six years. After Alexander Jannaeus' death, his widow became ruler, but not high priest. The end of the Hasmonean Dynasty was in 63 when the Romans came at the request of the current priest-king Aristobulus II and his competitor Hyrcanus II. In 63 BCE the Roman general Pompey conquered Jerusalem and the Romans put Hyrcanus II up as high priest, but Judea became a client-kingdom of Rome. The dynasty came to an end in 40 BCE when Herod was crowned king of Judah by the Romans. With their help, Herod had seized Jerusalem by 37.
Kastilië en León
Kastilië en León (Spaans: Castilla y León, Leonees: Castiella y Llión) is die grootste outonome gewes van Spanje. Die gewes het 'n bevolking van 2 558 463 in 2010 gehad. Valladolid is die hoofstad en met ongeveer 300 duisend inwoners ook die grootste stad.
Geskiedenis van Israel en Juda in die Bybelse tyd
Henotheïsme
Henotheism is defined in the dictionary as adherence to one god out of several. Many scholars believe that before monotheism in ancient Israel came a transitional period in between polytheism and monotheism. In this transitional period many followers of the Israelite religion worshiped the god Yahweh but did not deny the existence of other deities accepted throughout the region. Some scholars attribute this henotheistic period to influences from Mesopotamia. There are strong arguments that Mesopotamia, particularly Assyria shared the concept of the cult of Ashur with Israel. This concept entailed adopting the gods of other cultures into their pantheon, with Ashur as the supreme god of all the others. This concept is believed to have influenced the transitional period in Israelite religion in which many people were henotheists. Israelite religion shares many characteristics with Canaanite religion, which itself was formed with influence from Mesopotamian religious traditions. Using Canaanite religion as a base was natural due to the fact that the Canaanite culture inhabited the same region prior to the emergence of Israelite culture. Canaanite religion was a polytheistic religion in which many gods represented unique concepts. Many scholars agree that the Israelite god of Yahweh was adopted from the Canaanite god El. El was the creation god and as such it makes sense for the Israelite supreme god to have El's characteristics. Monotheism in the region of ancient Israel and Judah did not take hold over night and during the intermediate stages most people are believed to have been henotheistic. Before the emergence of Yahweh as the patron god of the region of ancient Israel and Judah not all worshiped him alone, or even at all. The word "Israel" is based on the name El rather than Yahweh. During this intermediate period of henotheism many families worshiped different gods. Religion was very much centered around the family, as opposed to the community. People sparsely populated the region of Israel and Judah during the time of Moses. As such many different areas worshiped different gods, due to social isolation. It was not until later on in Israelite history that people started to worship Yahweh alone and fully convert to monotheistic values. That switch occurred with the growth of power and influence of the Israelite kingdom and its rulers and can be read about further in the Iron Age Yahwism section below. Evidence from the Bible suggests that henotheism did exist: "They [the Hebrews] went and served alien gods and paid homage to them, gods of whom they had no experience and whom he [Yahweh] did not allot to them" (Deut. 29.26). Many believe that this quote goes to show that the early Israelite kingdom followed similar traditions as ancient Mesopotamia, where each major urban center had a supreme god. Each culture then embraced their patron god but did not deny the existence of other cultures' patron gods. In Assyria, the patron god was Ashur, and in ancient Israel, it was Yahweh; however, both Israelite and Assyrian cultures recognized each other's deities during this period.
Some scholars have used the Bible as evidence to argue that most of the people alive during the events recounted in the Old Testament, including Moses, were most likely henotheists. There are many quotes from the Old Testament support this point of view. One quote from Jewish and Christian tradition that supports this claim is the first commandment which in its entirety reads "I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. You shall have no other gods before me." This quote does not deny the existence of other gods; it merely states that Jews and Christians should consider Yahweh or God the supreme god, incomparable to other supernatural beings. Some scholars attribute the concept of angels and demons found in Judaism and Christianity to the tradition of henotheism. Instead of completely getting rid of the concept of other supernatural beings, these religions changed former deities into angels and demons. Yahweh became the supreme god governing angels, demons and humans, with angels and demons considered more powerful than the average human. This tradition of believing in multiple forms of supernatural beings is attributed by many to the traditions of ancient Mesopotamia and Canaan and their pantheons of gods. Earlier influences from Mesopotamia and Canaan were important in creating the foundation of Israelite religion consistent with the Kingdoms of ancient Israel and Judah, and have since left lasting impacts on some of the biggest and most widespread religions in our world today.
Jahwisme in die Steentydperk
The religion of the Israelites of Iron Age I, like the Ancient Canaanite religion from which it evolved and other religions of the ancient Near East, was based on a cult of ancestors and worship of family gods (the "gods of the fathers"). With the emergence of the monarchy at the beginning of Iron Age II the kings promoted their family god, Jahweh, as the god of the kingdom, but beyond the royal court, religion continued to be both polytheistic and family-centered. The major deities were not numerous – El, Asherah, and Yahweh, with Baal as a fourth god, and perhaps Shamash (the sun) in the early period. At an early stage El and Yahweh became fused and Asherah did not continue as a separate state cult, although she continued to be popular at a community level until Persian times.
Yahweh, the national god of both Israel and Judah, seems to have originated in Edom and Midian in southern Canaan and may have been brought to Israel by the Kenites and Midianites at an early stage. There is a general consensus among scholars that the first formative event in the emergence of the distinctive religion described in the Bible was triggered by the destruction of Israel by Assyria in c. 722 BCE. Refugees from the northern kingdom fled to Judah, bringing with them laws and a prophetic tradition of Yahweh. This religion was subsequently adopted by the landowners of Judah, who in 640 BCE placed the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne. Judah at this time was a vassal state of Assyria, but Assyrian power collapsed in the 630s, and around 622 Josiah and his supporters launched a bid for independence expressed as loyalty to "Yahweh alone".
The Babylonian exile and Second Temple Judaism
According to the Deuteronomists, as scholars call these Judean nationalists, the treaty with Yahweh would enable Israel's god to preserve both the city and the king in return for the people's worship and obedience. The destruction of Jerusalem, its Temple, and the Davidic dynasty by Babylon in 587/586 BCE was deeply traumatic and led to revisions of the national mythos during the Babylonian exile. This revision was expressed in the Deuteronomistic history, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, which interpreted the Babylonian destruction as divinely-ordained punishment for the failure of Israel's kings to worship Yahweh to the exclusion of all other deities.
The Second Temple period (520 BCE – 70 CE) differed in significant ways from what had gone before. Strict monotheism emerged among the priests of the Temple establishment during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, as did beliefs regarding angels and demons. At this time, circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath-observance gained more significance as symbols of Jewish identity, and the institution of the synagogue became increasingly important, and most of the biblical literature, including the Torah, was written or substantially revised during this time. -->
Brackenhurst
Brackenhurst is 'n voorstad van Alberton, Gauteng. Volgens die 2011-sensus het Brackenhurst 'n bevolking van 12 738 inwoners, waarvan 74,9% Blankes is.
Laachermeer
Die Laachermeer is 'n kaldera met 'n deursnee van 2 km in Rynland-Palts, Duitsland, sowat 24 km noordwes van Koblenz en 37 km suid van Bonn. Dit is in die Eifelbergreeks geleë en is deel van die Oos-Eifelvulkaanveld in die groter Vulkaan-Eifel. Die meer is omstreeks 13000 v.C. deur 'n Pliniese uitbarsting geskep. Dit het 'n vulkaaneksplosiwiteitsindeks (VEI) van 6 gehad, soortgelyk aan dié van Pinatubo se uitbarsting van 1991.
Beskrywing
Die meer is ovaalvormig en omring deur hoë oewers. Die lawa was vir lank daarna 'n steengroef vir meulstene. Die meer het geen natuurlike uitvloei nie, maar word gedreineer deur 'n tonnel wat voor 1170 gegrawe en sedertdien verskeie kere herbou is.
Die aanvanklike uitbarsting van die Laachermeer, wat laat in die lente of vroeg in die somer plaasgevind het, het bome tot 4 km ver platgevee. Die magma het 'n pad na die oppervlak weggevee wat sowat 10 uur lank uitgebars het, met die pluim wat waarskynlik 'n hoogte van sowat 35 km bereik het. Aktiwiteit het verskeie weke of maande geduur, en het piroklastiese strome geskep wat valleie tot 10 km ver met taai tefra bedek het. Naby die krater was neerslae tot 50 m dik. Alle plante en diere vir sowat 60 km noordoos- en 40 km suidooswaarts is waarskynlik uitgewis.
Tefraneerslae van die uitbarsting het die Ryn geblokkeer en 'n meer van 140 km2 gevorm. Toe dié se walle breek, het water neergestroom wat neerslae tot by Bonn gelaat het.
Neil Diamond
Neil Leslie Diamond (gebore 24 Januarie 1941) is 'n Amerikaanse sanger, liedjieskrywer en akteur. Met 38 liedjies in die Top 10 op die Billboard Adult Contemporary treffersparade, het hy meer as 100 miljoen kopieë wêreldwyd verkoop, wat hom een van die bes-verkopermusikante van alle tye maak. Op die Hot 100 en Adult Contemporary treffersparades het hy tien no. 1-enkelsnitte gehad: Cracklin Rosie, Song Sung Blue, Longfellow Serenade, I've Been This Way Before, If You Know What I Mean, Desiree, You Don't Bring Me Flowers, America, Yesterday's Songs en Heartlight.
Brackendowns
Brackendowns is 'n voorstad van Alberton, Gauteng. Volgens die 2011-sensus het Brackendowns 'n bevolking van 15 201 inwoners, waarvan 66,9% Blankes is.
Molly Picon
Molly Picon (28 Februarie 1898 – 5 April 1992) was 'n Amerikaanse aktrise. Sy was bekend vir haar rolle in die rolprente Yidl mitn fidl (1936), Fiddler on the Roof (1971), For Pete's Sake (1974), en The Cannonball Run (1981).
Tim de Zarn
Tim de Zarn (gebore 11 Julie 1952) is 'n Amerikaanse akteur en vervaardiger. Hy is bekend vir sy rolle in die rolprente Fight Club (1999), Spider-Man (2002), The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning (2006), en The Cabin in the Woods (2012).
Octave Chanute
Octave Chanute (18 Februarie 1832 – 23 November 1910) was 'n Frans-Amerikaanse siviele ingenieur en lugvaartpionier. Hy het baie ontluikende entoesiaste, insluitend die Wright-broers, van hulp en raad voorsien, en gehelp om hul vlieënde eksperimente bekend te maak. By sy dood is hy beskou as die vader van lugvaart en die aanvanklike konsepte van die swaarder-as-lug-vlieënde masjien.
Biografie
Chanute is in Parys gebore as die seun van Elise en Joseph Chanut, professor aan die Collège de France. Hy het in 1838 saam met sy pa na die Verenigde State van Amerika geëmigreer, toe laasgenoemde as vise-president by Jefferson-kollege in Louisiana aangewys is. Octave het privaatskole in New York bygewoon.
Siviele ingenieur (spoorweë)
Octave Chanute het sy opleiding as 'n ontluikende siviele ingenieur in 1848 begin. Hy is algemeen beskou as briljant en innoverend in die ingenieursberoep. Gedurende sy loopbaan het hy die Verenigde State se twee grootste voerkrale ontwerp en gebou, Chicago Stock Yards (1865) en Kansas City Stockyards (1871). Hy het die Hannibal-brug saam met Joseph Tomlinson en George S. Morison ontwerp en gebou, wat die eerste brug was wat die Missouririvier in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1869 oorgesteek het en Kansas City as die dominante stad in die streek gevestig het. Hy het baie ander brûe tydens sy spoorwegloopbaan ontwerp, insluitend die Illinoisrivierspoorbrug by Chillicothe, Illinois, die Genesee-rivier Gorge spoorbrug naby Portageville, New York (nou in Letchworth State Park), die Sibley-spoorbrug oor die Missouririvier by Sibley, Missouri, oorkant die Mississippirivier by Fort Madison, Iowa, en die Kinzuabrug in Pennsilvanië.
Lugvaart pionier
Chanute het die eerste keer in lugvaart belanggestel nadat hy in 1856 'n ballonvertoning in Peoria, Illinois, bygewoon het. Toe hy in 1883 uit sy spoorwegloopbaan getree het, het hy besluit om 'n bietjie vrye tyd te bestee aan die bevordering van die nuwe wetenskap van die lugvaart. Deur sy ingenieursagtergrond toe te pas, het Chanute alle beskikbare data van vlugeksperimenteerders regoor die wêreld ingesamel en dit gekombineer met die kennis wat hy as siviele ingenieur in die verlede bekom het. Hy het sy bevindinge in 'n reeks artikels in The Railroad and Engineering Journal van 1891 tot 1893 gepubliseer, wat toe in 1894 in die invloedryke boek Progress in Flying Machines hergepubliseer is. Dit was die mees sistematiese globale opname van vastevlerk swaarder-as-lug-lugvaartnavorsing wat tot op daardie tydstip gepubliseer is.
By die World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 het Chanute in samewerking met Albert Zahm 'n uiters suksesvolle internasionale konferensie oor lugnavigasie georganiseer.
Chanute was te oud om self te vlieg, en daarom het hy saam met jonger eksperimenteerders, insluitend Augustus M. Herring en William Avery, saamgewerk. In 1896 het Chanute, Herring en Avery 'n ontwerp getoets gebaseer op die werk van die Duitse lugvaartpionier Otto Lilienthal, sowel as hangsweeftuie van hul eie ontwerp in die duine langs die oewer van die Michiganmeer naby die dorp Miller Beach, Indiana, net oos van wat die stad Gary geword het. Hierdie eksperimente het Chanute oortuig dat die beste manier om ekstra hefkrag te verkry sonder 'n astronomiese toename in gewig was om verskeie vlerke bo mekaar te stapel, 'n idee wat deur die Britse ingenieur Francis Wenham in 1866 voorgestel is en in vlug deur Lilienthal in die 1890's gerealiseer is. Chanute het die "stutdraad"-versterkte vlerkstruktuur bekendgestel wat gebruik sou word in enjinaangedrewe dubbeldekkers van die toekoms.
Chanute het met baie lugvaartpioniers gekorrespondeer, insluitend Otto Lilienthal, Louis Mouillard, Gabriel Voisin, John J. Montgomery, Louis Blériot, Ferdinand Ferber, Lawrence Hargrave en Alberto Santos-Dumont. In 1897 het hy 'n korrespondensie met die Britse vlieënier Percy Pilcher aangeknoop. Na aanleiding van Chanute se idees het Pilcher 'n driedekkervliegtuig gebou, maar hy is in Oktober 1899 in 'n sweeftuigongeluk dood voordat hy dit kon vlieg. Chanute was in kontak met die Wright-broers vanaf 1900 toe Wilbur aan hom geskryf het nadat hy Progress in Flying Machines gelees het. Chanute het gehelp om die Wright-broers se werk bekend te stel en het konstante aanmoediging verskaf deur hulle kamp naby Kitty Hawk, Noord-Carolina, in 1901, 1902 en 1903 te besoek. Die Wrights en Chanute het tussen 1900 en 1910 honderde briewe aan mekaar geskryf.
Chanute het sy kennis oor lugvaart vrylik gedeel met enigiemand wat belangstel en verwag het dat ander dieselfde moet doen, hoewel hy kollegas aangemoedig het om hul uitvindings te patenteer. Sy oop benadering het tot wrywing met die Wright-broers gelei, wat geglo het hul idees oor vliegtuigbeheer was uniek en het geweier om dit te deel. Chanute het nie geglo dat die Wright-vlieënde masjienpatent, gebaseer op vlerkskeeftrekking, afgedwing kan word nie en het dit in die openbaar gesê, insluitend 'n koerantonderhoud waarin hy gesê het: "Ek bewonder die Wrights. Ek voel vriendelik teenoor hulle vir die wonders wat hulle bereik het, maar jy kan maklik peil hoe ek tans voel oor hul houding deur die opmerking wat ek onlangs aan Wilbur Wright gemaak het. Ek het vir hom gesê ek is jammer om te sien dat hulle ander eksperimenteerders dagvaar en nie deelneem aan die kompetisies met ander mans is. Ek het vir hom gesê dat hulle na my mening waardevolle tyd mors met regsgedinge, terwyl hulle op hul werk behoort te konsentreer. Persoonlik dink ek nie dat die howe sal meen dat die beginsel onderliggend aan die kromtrekking gepatenteer kan word nie." Die vriendskap was steeds versuur toe Chanute gesterf het, maar Wilbur Wright het die geleentheid gebruik om Chanute se gedenkdiens by die gesin se huis by te woon. Wright het 'n lofrede geskryf wat tydens die Aero Club-vergadering in Januarie 1911 voorgelees is.
Fynnland
Fynnland is 'n woonbuurt van Durban. Hierdie gegoede voorstad in die suidooste van Durban en aan die westekant van die Bluff het 'n uitsig oor die baai en hawe. Dit is 16 km van die middestad geleë.
Octave Chanute
Lugvaart pionier
Toe die Aero Club van Illinois op 10 Februarie 1910 gestig is, het Chanute tot sy dood as sy eerste president gedien.
Fynnland
Dit dra die naam van Henry Francis Fynn (* Londen, Engeland, 29 Maart 1803 – † Durban, 20 September 1865). Hy was 'n vroeë Engelse reisiger in die gebied en in 1824 een van die eerste blanke setlaars in Natal. Hier word hy 'n sakeman en staatsamptenaar en ontwikkel tot 'n kenner van die Zoeloe-kultuur.
Octave Chanute
Afsterwe
Chanute is op 23 November 1910 in Chicago oorlede.
Anthony De Longis
Anthony De Longis (gebore 23 Maart 1950) is 'n Amerikaanse akteur. Hy is bekend vir sy rolle in die rolprente Masters of the Universe (1987), Road House (1989), Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), en Gangster Squad (2013).
Great Smoky Mountains
Die Great Smoky Mountains is 'n bergreeks wat in die suidoostelike Verenigde State langs die grens tussen die deelstate Tennessee en Noord-Carolina verrys. Hulle maak deel uit van die groter Appalachereeks en die fisiografiese Blue Ridge-provinsie. Na die reeks word soms verwys as die Smoky Mountains, algemeen afgekort as Smokies.
Die Great Smokies staan veral bekend vir die Great Smoky Mountains Nasionale Park wat oor die grootste deel van die reeks strek en in 1934 gevestig is. Met 11,6 miljoen besoekers in 2016 is dit die mees besoekte van die 59 nasionale parke in die Verenigde State.
Rosamond Pinchot
Rosamond Pinchot (26 Oktober 1904 – 24 Januarie 1938) was 'n Amerikaanse aktrise. Sy was bekend vir haar rol in die rolprent The Three Musketeers (1935).
Enigmatiese Boek van die Onderwêreld
Die Enigmatiese Boek van die Onderwêreld is ’n Antieke Egiptiese begrafnisteks in twee dele wat in die grafkelder van farao Toetankamen ontdek is. Daar word vermoed die boek dek die skepping en hergeboorte van die son. Die ware betekenis van die boek is egter onseker weens die gebruik van kriptografiese illustrasies om die inhoud geheim te hou.
Die Enigmatiese Boek van die Onderwêreld is in drie dele verdeel wat ander begrafnistekste insluit, soos die Boek van die Dooies en die Amdoeat. Ander enigmatiese boeke is ontdek in die graftombes van Ramses IX en Ramses V.
Nthabiseng Khunou
Nthabiseng Pauline Khunou is 'n lid van die Nasionale Vergadering van Suid-Afrika vir die African National Congress.
Swahili (volk)
Die Swahili (Swahili: Waswahili) is 'n etniese en kulturele groep inheems aan Oos-Afrika. Hulle bly veral langs die Swahilikus, 'n gebied wat oor die Zanzibarargipel, die kuslyn van beide Kenia en Tanzanië, asook die noordelike Mosambiek streek. Die naam Swahili is afgelei van Arabies سواحل Sawāhil wat "kuste" beteken en na die geografiese verspreiding verwys. Die Swahili besig Swahili, wat tot die Bantoetale van die Niger-Kongo-tale behoort.
]] Wêreldwyd leef sowat 1 772 000 Swahili, waarvan die meeste langs die Swahilikus. Die term "Swahilikus" is as 't ware 'n pleonasme, omdat dit letterlik "kustekus" beteken. Daarbenewens het in onlangse jare Swahili-migrante hulle in lande soos Saoedi-Arabië en Oman gevestig.
Die hedendaagse Swahili besig Swahili (Kiswahili), wat tot die Bantoetak van die Niger-Kongo-taalfamilie behoort, as moedertaal. Dié taal bevat leenwoorde uit Arabies en Persies. Naas die Swahilikus word Swahili nog in Burundi, die Comore-eilande, die Demokratiese Republiek van die Kongo, Madagaskar, Malawi, Mayotte, Somalië, Rwanda, Uganda en Zambië deur ander etniese groepe gepraat.
Boek van die Aarde
Die Boek van die Aarde is ’n Antieke Egiptiese begrafnisteks wat verskeie name genoem is, soos Die Skepping van die Sonskyf en die Boek van Aker. ” Die boek verskyn hoofsaaklik in die grafkelder van Merneptah, Twosret, Ramses III, Ramses VI en Ramses VII, en dien as teenvoeter van die Boek van Grotte.
Die sentrale elemente in die boek is Osiris, Ra en ba, terwyl die oorkoepelende storie handel oor die reis van die songod deur die aardgod, Aker. Geleerdes glo die boek bestaan uit twee dele, met die een helfte wat tonele van straf bevat. ’n Tema wat herhaaldelik voorkom, is die sonskyf.
Kwangali
Kwangali (RuKwangali) is 'n Bantoetaal in Suider-Afrika wat deur sowat 152 000 mense weerskante die Okavangorivier gepraat word. Dit word deur die Kawango's gepraat en is een van die nasionale tale van Namibië. Daarbenewens word Kwangali in die aangrensende land Angola gepraat.
Boek van die Aarde
Hoewel dit onseker is, word geglo die panele van die oorspronklike boek wat bewaar gebly het, is elk in drie registers verdeel. Dit maak dit onduidelik of tonele uit ander grafkelders deel van die boek is of nie.
Kwangali
Kwangali word veral in die voormalige Bantoestan Kavangoland van die destydse Suidwes-Afrika gepraat, dit sluit die Namibiese streke Kawango-Oos en Kawango-Wes in.
Dit is een van die verskeie tale van die Kawango's wat klikgeluide gebruik, hulle is die tandeklik c en gc, saam met prenasalisering en aspirasie. Dit bevat ook 'n nasale glottale benadering.
Ron Dean
Ron Dean is 'n Amerikaanse akteur. Hy is bekend vir sy rolle in die rolprente The Breakfast Club (1985), Above the Law (1988), The Fugitive (1993), en The Dark Knight (2008).
Minerva Pious
Minerva Pious (5 Maart 1903 – 16 Maart 1979) was 'n Amerikaanse aktrise. Sy was bekend vir haar rolle in die rolprente It's in the Bag! (1945) en Joe MacBeth (1955), en in die televisiereekse The Chevrolet Tele-Theatre (1948) en The Edge of Night (1956).
Margaret Phillips
Margaret Phillips (6 Julie 1923 – 9 September 1984) was 'n Walliese aktrise aktief op Broadway in die 1940s en in vroeë televisie in die 1950s en 1960s. Sy was bekend vir haar rolle in die rolprent The Nun's Story (1959) en in die televisiereekse Lights Out (1946), Fireside Theatre (1949), en Masterpiece Playhouse (1950).
Loopbaan
Margaret Phillips se teater loopbaan het geduur van die 1940s tot haar laaste vertoning in 1982. Sy het die Clarence Derwent Toekenning gewen in 1947 vir haar werk in Another Part of the Forest. Sy het `n ondersteunende rol gehad in Tennessee Williams se toneelstuk, Summer and Smoke wat in 1948 op Broadway geopen het. In 1950 vervang sy Irene Worth in T.S. Eliot se Cocktail Party. In 1960 vertolk sy Titania in A Midsummer Night's Dream.
In rolprente verskyn Phillips as Ray Milland se gestremde vrou in A Life of Her Own (1950), en in The Nun's Story (1959) met Audrey Hepburn. Phillips se televisie loopbaan was besig in die 1950s. In 1953 verskyn sy saam met Orson Welles in die regstreekse televisieproduksie van King Lear, as die koning se dogter Regan. Sy het die Rawhide episode Incident of the Dust Flower `n gasrol gespeel in 1960. In 1960 verskyn sy in die episode Call from Tomorrow van die reeks Alcoa Presents: One Step Beyond.
Phillips was in die eerste ledeklas van Actors Studio, met onder andere Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift en Maureen Stapleton.
Persoonlike lewe
Sy is aan kanker oorlede in New York Stad in die jaar 1984. Sy was 61.
Rolprente
Televisiereekse
Richard Kiel
As 2,18 m lange akteur het hy veral rolle as reus en boef vertolk. In Moonraker mag hy sy komiese talent wys. Ná 'n mislukte sluipmoordpoging op Bond in Rio de Janeiro word hy die slagoffer van 'n kabelspoor-ongeluk. Hy word deur 'n klein blonde vrou gered, raak verlief op haar en weier vervolgens om aan sy boosdoener-baas gehoorsaam te wees.''
Biografie
Richard Kiel is op 13 September 1939 in Detroit, Michigan in die Verenigde State van Amerika gebore.
Kiel trou in 1960 met Faye Daniels, maar hulle is in 1973 geskei. Daarna was hy vanaf 1974 tot sy dood met Diane Rogers getroud. Kiel en Rogers het vier kinders gehad.
Hy is op 10 September 2014 in Fresno, Kalifornië, slegs 3 dae voor sy 75ste verjaarsdag oorlede.
Oscar II van Swede
Oscar II (Oscar Fredrik, 21 Januarie 1829 - 8 Desember 1907) was van 1872 tot met sy dood in 1907 koning van Swede en van 1872 tot 1905 koning van Noorweë.
Oscar was die seun van koning Oscar I en sy vrou, Josephine van Leuchtenberg. Hy het die Sweedse en Noorweegse troon bestyg ná die dood van sy oudste broer, Charles, in 1872. Oscar II het regeer in 'n tyd toe albei lande industrialisasie en vinnige tegnologiese vooruitgang ondergaan het.
Die Unie van Swede en Noorweë het geleidelik agteruitgegaan, en dit het gelei tot die ontbinding daarvan in 1905. In 1905 het die Noorweegse troon gegaan aan prins Carl van Denemarke onder die troonnaam Haakon VII. Toe Oscar in 1907 sterf, is hy in Swede deur sy oudste seun, Gustaf V, opgevolg.
Oscar II is die grootoupagrootjie aan vaderskant van koning Carl XVI Gustaf van Swede. Koningin Margrethe II van Denemarke is 'n afstammeling van hom deur sy seun Gustaf V. Ook koning Harald V van Noorweë; Filip van België en Henri, groothertog van Luxemburg, is afstammelinge van Oscar II.
Gustaf V van Swede
Gustaf V (Oscar Gustaf Adolf; 16 Junie 1858 - 29 Oktober 1950) was van 1907 tot met sy dood in 1950 koning van Swede. Hy was die oudste seun van koning Oscar II van Swede en Sophia van Nassau, 'n halfsuster van Adolphe, groothertog van Luxemburg. Met sy bewind wat geduur het van sy vader se dood in 1907 tot met sy eie dood meer as 42 jaar later, hou hy die rekord vir die oudste monarg van Swede en die derde langste bewind, ná Magnus IV en Carl XVI Gustaf.
Bewind
thumb|links|180px|Die ontmoeting van drie konings, 18 Desember 1914: [[Haakon VII van Noorweë, Gustaf V en Christiaan X van Denemarke.]] Gustaf was die laaste Sweedse koning wat sy koninklike prerogatiewe uitgeoefen het. Hulle is basis saam met hom graf toe, hoewel hulle amptelik eers in 1974 afgeskaf is met destydse veranderings aan die Sweedse grondwet.
Gustaf was die eerste Sweedse koning sedert die hoë Middeleeue wat nie 'n kroning gehad het nie en het dus nooit die koning se kroon gedra nie, 'n praktyk wat sedertdien toegepas word.
Tydens Gustaf se vroeë bewind het die mag van die Sweedse parlement groter geword, en nadat die Liberale en Sosiale Demokrate ná die Tweede Wêreldoorlog 'n parlementêre meerderheid onder Nils Edén behaal het, is Edén toegelaat om 'n regering te vorm wat die monargie teen 1919 de facto van al sy mag gestroop het en algemene stemreg, ook vir vroue, ingestel het.
Hy het agteruitgetree voor die beginsels van 'n parlementêre demokrasie en vir die oorblywende 31 jaar van sy bewind 'n gewilde staatshoof gebly, maar nie heeltemal sonder invloed nie.
Hy is ná sy dood deur sy seun Gustaf VI Adolf opgevolg.
Persoonlike lewe
Gustaf was 'n geesdriftige jagter en sportman. Hy was gasheer van die Olimpiese Somerspele van 1912 en van 1897 tot 1907 voorsitter van die Sweedse Sportvereniging. Hy het Swede in tennis verteenwoordig (onder die naam "Mr G.") en het tot in sy 80's mededingende tennis gespeel, totdat sy sig vinnig agteruitgegaan het.
András Ligeti
András Ligeti (* 1953 in Pécs, Hongarye) is 'n Hongaarse klassieke violis en dirigent.
Biografie
Ligeti het viool en dirigering by die Franz Liszt Akademie van Musiek in Boedapest gestudeer. Hy het tydens die Leo Weiner Vioolkompetisie en ook in 1980 tydens die Bloomington VioolkompetisieEersteprys gewen. Hy het in 1979 as dirigent gegradueer. Die Sir Georg Solti Beurs is aan hom toegeken en hy het saam met Osterreicher in Wene en later saam met Igor Markevich gestudeer.
In 1985 het hy Assosiaat-Dirigent tot die Boedapest Simfonieorkes geword en in 1989 vir Gyorgy Lehel as hoofdirigent opgevolg, welke posisie hy tot 1993 gehou het toe hy Hoof gas-dirigent geword het. Hy het saam met die Boedapest Simfonieorkes toere onderneem na Groot-Brittanje, Japan en Korea. Die orkes se eerste besoek aan Australië het in 1994 plaasgevind. In 1987 het hy die Musikale Direkteur van die Hongaarse Simfonieorkes geword.
Hy het wêreldwyd 'n aantal groot orkeste gedirigeer, insluitende die Dresden Filharmoniese Orkes, Berlyn Radio Simfonieorkes (Oos-Berlyn), BBC Simfonieorkes, Oslo Filharmoniese Orkes, BBC Filharmoniese Orkes (insluitende 'n toer na Frankryk), Israel Filharmoniese Orkes, Bergen Simfonieorkes, BBC Skotse Simfonieorkes, Seoul Filharmoniese Orkes, Sapporo Filharmoniese Orkes, Nagoya Filharmoniese Orkes, Nouvelle Orchestre de Paris, Academia Santa Cecilia en die Orchestre de la Suisse Romande.
Hy het 'n noue verhouding met Claudio Abbado gehandhaaf, wat begin het toe hy saam met Abbado en die Mahler Jeugorkes gewerk het; hy het op Abbado se versoek konserte en operas by die Wien Modern in die negentigerjare gedirigeer.