Project: CockroachDB (App Definition and Development / Database)
File: 20180330_range_merges.md

Feature Name: Range merges Status: completed Start Date: 2018-03-30 Authors: Nikhil Benesch RFC PR: [#24394] Cockroach Issue: [#2433] *Disclaimer: As expected, the implementation encountered serious hurdles with the initial design proposed here. This document is preserved in its original form for posterity. The resulting implementation, as well as a the challenges that were encountered, are described in the [range merge tech note].* A range merge combines two adjacent ranges into one. Ranges are merged automatically to maintain target size and load, undoing the effects of automatic size- or load-based splitting. Ranges can also be merged manually to undo the effects of an `ALTER TABLE ... SPLIT AT` command. Splitting a range in a CockroachDB cluster today is irreversible. Once a range is created, it can never be destroyed, not even if it is emptied of all data. This causes several problems, ordered from least to most important: User confusion. Creating a table introduces new ranges, but dropping a table does not remove its ranges. Adjusting the maximum range size downwards will split existing ranges where necessary, but adjusting it upwards will not merge existing ranges where possible. These incongruencies violate the principle of least surprise. Bookkeeping overhead. Every range requires a fixed amount of metadata: addressing information must be stored in meta2, and at least three stores must maintain replicas of the range. A pileup of unnecessary ranges causes observable slowdowns, as even quiescent ranges are periodically scanned by the queues and the Raft ticker. Unnecessary caution. Users must be careful with range-creating operations, like partitioning and `ALTER TABLE ... SPLIT AT`. The effects of a mistyped command can never be undone. Internally, the cluster must be careful not to automatically split ranges too aggressively. So far, we've lived with the user confusion (1), and we've managed the bookkeeping overhead (2) via range quiescence, which minimizes the overhead of ranges that receive no traffic. The unnecessary caution (3) has proven to be a harder pill to swallow. Not only is it a nuisance for our users not to have an undo button, we're currently unwilling to introduce load-based splittingan important feature to unlock performance on skewed workloadsuntil we can clean up after ourselves when the load disappears. Queue-like workloads also suffer from performance problems without range merges, as they leave behind an ever-growing tail of empty ranges. Removing an item from the front of the queue in the obvious way (`SELECT * FROM queue ORDER BY id LIMIT 1`) results in a scan over all these empty ranges. Range merging will be largely invisible to users. Astute users will notice that the "Number of Ranges" graph in the UI can now trend downwards as ranges are merged; other users will, ideally, notice nothing but improved performance. Power users who have run `ALTER TABLE ... SPLIT AT` may be interested in the new `ALTER TABLE ... UNSPLIT AT` command. Specifically, the statement that forces a split of table `t` at primary key `x` ```sql ALTER TABLE t SPLIT AT VALUES (x) ``` can be undone by running: ```sql ALTER TABLE t UNSPLIT AT VALUES (x) ``` `UNSPLIT AT` does not guarantee that the two ranges on either side of `x` will merge; rather it lifts the restriction that they must be separate. For example, if those ranges, when combined, would exceed size or load thresholds, the split point will

`UNSPLIT AT` returns an error if any of the listed split points were not created by `SPLIT AT`. This is only a rough sketch of a design. It will be fleshed out via an iterative prototype. Please excuse the stream of conciousness in the meantime. The first step is introducing a merge queue that decides when to merge. (We may find that we actually want to repurpose the split queue.) The merge queue periodically scans every range for which the store holds the lease to decide whether it can be merged with its neighbor. For simplicity, merges always look leftward. That is, a range R will only ever consider merging into the range Q to its left. A merge of R and its right neighbor S will take place only when S considers merging to its left. When considering range R, the merge queue first checks for reasons not to merge R into Q. If the merged range would require a split, as indicated by `SystemConfig.NeedsSplit`, the merge is rejected. This handles the obvious cases, i.e., when the split point is static, a table boundary, or a partition boundary. It does not handle preserving split points created by `ALTER TABLE ... SPLIT AT`. To preserve these user-created split points, we need to store state. Every range to the right of a split point created by an `ALTER TABLE ... SPLIT AT` command will have a special range local key set that indicates it is not to be merged into the range to its left. I'll hereafter refer to this key as the "sticky" bit. So the merge queue will also reject a merge of R into Q if R's sticky bit is set. The sticky bit can be cleared with an `ALTER TABLE ... MERGE AT` command to allow the merge queue to proceed with its evaluation. XXX: We might want to run a migration in 2.1 to backfill the sticky bit. It's unfortunately impossible, I think, to back out which ranges were split due to a manual `SPLIT AT` and which ranges were split due to exceeding a size threshold that they no longer exceed. Maybe we take the conservative approach and give every existing range the sticky bit? If the merge queue discovers no reasons to reject the merge, it executes AdminMerge(Q): ```protobuf message RangeStats { int64 logical_bytes = 1; // Other information used by size-based splitting. float64 writespersecond = 2; // Other information used by load-based splitting. } message AdminMergeRequest { Span header = 1; RangeStats rhs_stats = 2; } ``` Merging ranges is simpler when we can write all of R's data to Q via a Raft command. This requires empty or nearly-empty ranges; pushing a full 32MiB write batch command through Raft is going to run into write amplification problems and will barely clear the max command size. So, to start, we'll limit merges to ranges that are small enough to avoid these concerns. Here's how it works: Q's leaseholder runs AdminMerge(_Q_). AdminMerge(Q) starts by ensuring that the hypothetical range Q + R will not be immediately split by the split queue. Ideally we'll just reuse the split queue's logic here, conjuring up a range to ask about by summing together Q and R's range statistics. (We have a local copy of Q and its stats, and a recent copy of R's stats were included in the AdminMerge request.) Then, AdminMerge(Q) launches a straightforward

First the transaction updates Q's local range descriptor to extend to R's end key. This ensures that the transaction record is located on Q. Second, the transaction deletes R's local range descriptor. (This leaves a deletion intent on the key.) Third, the transaction performs the equivalent updates to the meta addressing records. At some point while the transaction is open, L<sub>Q</sub> executes GetSnapshotForMerge(R). This request returns a consistent snapshot of R; it also guarantees that, when it returns, R has no pending commands and will not accept any pending commands until the transaction we have open either commits or aborts. See below for more details on how GetSnapshotForMerge works. Finally, the transaction commits, including the snapshot of R in the merge trigger and synchronously resolving any local intents. Merge trigger evaluation When the merge trigger is evaluated, R's snapshot is incorporated into the command's write batch and the MVCCStats are updated accordingly. Merge trigger application When the merge trigger applies, the local store checks to see whether it has a copy of both Q and R. If it only has Q, it does nothing. If it has both Q and R, it must somehow indicate in the store metadata that R no longer owns its user data. (XXX: how?) XXX: There might be synchronization issues to work out here. Replica garbage collection Some time later, the replica garbage collection queue notices that R has been subsumed by Q and removes it from the store. In the usual case, R's replicas will be listening for the merge transaction to commit and queue themselves for immediate garbage collection. XXX: There are synchronization issues to work out here. Above, we rely on capturing a consistent snapshot of R and including it in the merge trigger. If R were to process writes between when we captured its snapshot and when the merge transaction committed, those updates would be lost after the merge. Similarly, if R were to serve reads after the merge committed, it might return stale data. We also want to avoid permanently freezing R because, if the merge transaction aborts, we want to resume business as usual. GetSnapshotForMerge, coupled with the IsMerging flag described below, is the magic that holds R still for exactly the right amount of time. To the command queue, GetSnapshotForMerge appears as a read that touches all keys. By the time the command is evaluated, we're guaranteed that there are no other in-flight commands on the range. The command captures a snapshot of the range at this point in time using the existing code paths for generating preemptive/Raft snapshots. Before evaluation completes, the command sets an IsMerging flag on R's in-memory state. Future commands are held in limbo until the flag is cleared. XXX: There are synchronization issues to work out here. The IsMerging flag must be cleared when the merge transaction completes. At that point the replica must handle any pending commands that piled up while the merge transaction was in progress. If the transaction committed, the replica is no longer responsible for the data in this range. It responds to any pending commands with a RangeKeyMismatchError. Then it carefully removes itself from the store metadata and marks itself for garbage collection. XXX: There are synchronization issues to work out here. If the merge aborted, the replica still responsible for the data in the range, and it returns to processing commands as

To determine when the merge transaction has completed without repeatedly polling the transaction record, the replica enters the wait queue for the merge transaction, which sends it a notification when the transaction completes. We need to be careful that IsMerging state is not lost if the original leaseholder loses its lease while the merge transaction is in progress. The new leaseholder can derive whether IsMerging should be set by looking for an intent on its range descriptor. If this intent refers to an in-progress transaction, the new leaseholder sets the IsMerging flag on the replica. Note that this means that after every forced lease transfer the new leaseholder must check for an intent on its local range descriptor. This check is expected to be a very cheap read of a local key with a negligible effect on performance. If R's lease changes hands before the GetSnapshotForMerge request is sent, the new leaseholder will set the IsMerging flag before receiving the GetSnapshotForMerge request. As long as the R allows GetSnapshotForMerge to proceed even when the IsMerging flag is set, this isn't a problem, but it is somewhat odd. One last complication arises if a node with a replica of R reboots before the merge transaction has committed. When initializing its replicas, it will see an intent on R's range descriptor. If the merge has committed, we want to be sure that we resolve that intent as quickly as possible. We can use the pre-intent version of the range descriptor to initialize the replica in the meantime, though. XXX: What happens if a range merges then immediately splits at exactly the same key? The stores are likely to be very confused. In theory, since the second split can't start its transaction until the merge's intents are all resolved, and everything else happens synchronously in the commit triggers. This deserves lots of tests. What if a node with a replica of R goes down in the middle of the merge transaction, comes up back up with an intent on its local range descriptor, and then receives a snapshot of R' (because QR split at the same key) while it's trying to resolve the intent on R's descriptor? Meta ranges are never merged. Here be dragons. If a merge trigger for Q has been applied on a replica and that replica's store also has a replica of R, that replica of R will never again touch its user data. That data now belongs to Q. From the moment a snapshot of R is generated until the merge transaction commits or aborts, R will not process any commands. Q's local copy of its descriptor will never have an intent that refers to a committed or aborted transaction. To support the general case of merging large ranges, we need to avoid sending large write batches through Raft. The basic idea is to ensure that R and Q's replica sets are aligned before and during the merge. In other words, every replica of Q must be located on a store that also has a replica of R, and vice-versa. When the merge executes, only metadata needs to be updated; R's data will already be in the right place. The merge queue will be taught to perform this colocation before sending an AdminMerge request by coordinating with the replicate

In short, if L<sub>Q<sub> accepts a SuggestMergeRequest from L<sub>R<sub> it expects for R to align its replica set with Q's replica set, then transfer its lease to _L<sub>Q</sub>. During the execution of the merge transaction, L<sub>Q<sub> and L<sub>R<sub> need to prevent membership changes of either Q or R. Because all membership changes require updating the same range metadata that we'll be updating in the merge transaction, we don't need to do anything special as long as we verify that the replica sets are aligned within the merge transaction. The behavior of GetSnapshotForMerge also changes slightly. Instead of returning a consistent snapshot of R, it waits for all of R's followers to apply all prior commands. This will require an additional RPC to poll a follower's applied status. We can't use the leader's knowledge of each follower's commit index, as those commands may be sitting unapplied in the Raft log, and that Raft log will be thrown away after the merge. Once GetSnapshotForMerge returns, it's safe to commit the merge, as all replicas of R are up-to-date and the presence of the IsMerged flag will prevent L<sub>R</sub> from processing any commands until the merge completes. XXX: We need more magic to ensure that membership changes are not processed until after every replica has applied the merge trigger. Waiting for commit is not sufficient. This is a little scary. What if one of the replicas goes down after the merge is committed but before it applies the merge trigger? Then we need to very carefully upreplicate QR with a snapshot from a replica that is up-to-date. Or perhaps I'm missing something. XXX: We also need to be sure not to send any snapshots that contain an unapplied merge trigger. It sounds like this already happens. A few miscellaneous thoughts follow. Nodes will only perform one merge at a time, which should limit any disruption to the cluster when e.g. a table is dropped and many ranges become eligible for merging at once. Thrashing should be minimal, as L<sub>Q</sub> will reject any `SuggestMergeRequests` for Q and R received while attempting to merge Q and P. The merge queue will temporarily pause if the cluster is unbalanced to avoid further unbalancing the cluster. The replica GC queue will need to consider the case where looking up a replica's range descriptor returns a "range no longer exists" error. This is no longer indicative of programmer error but of a range that has been merged away. With support for range merges, we'll be able to merge dropped tables down to a single range, but we don't be able to merge a dropped table away completely until we change SystemConfig.ComputeSplitKey to only split for tables that exist. (At the moment, we introduce a split at every ID less than the maximum ID seen.) Range merges are complicated. They will introduce the three worst kind of bugs: performance bugs, stability bugs, and correctness bugs. On the bright side, range merges are a strict improvement for user experience. What if we could further reduce the per-range overhead? Could we put off range merges for another few releases if we made quiescent ranges sufficiently cheap? For example, the Raft ticker could avoid scanning over quiescent ranges if we stored quiescent ranges separately from active ranges. This boils down to: will we ever make ranges cheap enough that we'll be comfortable introducing load-based splitting? I suspect the answer is no. The specifics of the synchronization necessary to achieve the design. Whatever else the implementation uncovers.