Environment and Development in the Former South African Bantustans

outh outh Africa's first fully democratic elections of 1994 were typified by a wave of optimism that its social and spatial history would be transformed to redress the inequities of the apartheid era. The rigid imposition of apartheid spatial planning deeply scarred South Africa's rural spaces, particularly those set aside for the majority African population. This was evident in the bantustans, or homelands, which were geographic territories utilized to segregate the population by the national government. Through an elaborate system of racial classification, the bantustans became pivotal to grand apartheid's vision of separate development and, as such, had significant impacts upon social and ecological landscapes. Although the bantustan system was abolished prior to the democratic transition, a sizable body of academic scholarship has asserted that this geography has left a lasting imprint upon rural areas (Levin and Weiner 1997; Weiner et al. 1997; Ramutsindela and Simon 1999; Ntsebeza 2000; Ramutsindela 2001; Ramutsindela and Donaldson 2001). Levin and Weiner (1997, 6) represented this view shortly after the democratic elections by provocatively asserting: 'South Africa's former homelands four "independent states" and six "self-governing territories" have now been officially reincorporated, but they continue to exist de facto. For most people living in these grand apartheid territories, political freedom has not changed their dire economic circumstances. They remain bantustans'. Similarly, Ramutsindela (2001, 180) argued that the bantustans 'had tremendous impact upon identity constructions, the socialization of people into space and the persistence of traditional authorities. All these have a direct bearing on the transformation to a non-racial and democratic South Africa'. The intention of this special edition is to present case studies from the former South African bantustans to examine how these geographies remain relevant in the contemporary era. Although it is increasingly common to assert the importance of the legacy of the bantustans to current issues, ranging from land reform, rural development, agrarian change and environmental degradation, the specific links between these processes and spaces have been under explored. The contributors to this volume work to address this oversight by presenting detailed research from the former bantustans of Lebowa, Gazankulu and KaNgwane to understand the trajectories of social and environmental change that accompanied the democratic transition. The papers in this special issue cover a diverse set of conceptual questions and methodological approaches; however, they share a commitment to examining livelihood systems, development processes, and environmental change within these territories. While it is readily apparent that the geography of the bantustans remains persistent, it is also clear from these papers that there are political, economic and spatial transformations occurring that have implications for the future of rural change and development. This special issue contributes to understanding these changes by assessing how new opportunities and systems are shaping and reshaping environmental and development processes in the post-apartheid era.