Chapter 1 – Defining Dominance and Aggression

Using earlier literature, dominance and aggression in humans and other animals are defined in both biological and ecological sense. The first two sections are devoted to divulging features that characterize dominance and showing how they complement one another to establish a ranking system between competitors, which we call a dominance hierarchy. After discussing the difficulties that arise due to uncoordinated approaches from different fields in the scientific community, the assorted ways in which the terms are used, and the all-inclusive animals that demonstrate dominant and aggressive behavior, examples are provided that lead the reader into the second section. In the introductory comments, a point is made that since Homo sapiens arose about 200,000 years ago, they, as did their predecessors, have lived their lives mostly as social animals and that their existence as enlightened organisms did not emerge until the Neolithic Revolution and the rise of civilizations in the Middle East. As enlightened social animals with a new sedentary lifestyle, they, like other social species, faced new challengers. To maintain homeostasis within their social groups, they were forced to express themselves in intra- and extrafamilial agonistic confrontations to establish themselves in the ranking system. Expressions of dominance are found in their very evident social qualities and a wide array of technological accomplishments since the beginning of civilizations. Aggression is demonstrated in their inclination toward overpopulation, uninhibited destruction of ecosystems, overharvesting of resources, intolerance toward one another, alternate behavior, and expressions of warlike drives. In defining dominance in humans, we find that it is not enough to simply say we hold a position of dominance in the world, because the concept of dominance is an enormously complicated affair. In addition, dominance is expressed in a wide variety of ways, and it is influenced by a complex assortment of conditions, most of which involve aspects of aggression. In addition, we find that our current definitions often do not properly describe the functional mechanisms for developing a hierarchy, and they do not consider the behavioral variability of individuals within their populations and communities. Like anatomical variation, behavioral variation is expressed at both the individual and the group level, forming behavioral clines. To understand dominance in humans or any animals, it is important to realize that the features of being dominant are best expressed in social species. Their ranking system is one in which there is an alpha individual that dominates all others in the group, which forms what appears to be a linear progression of subordinates, and that ends in an omega individual which is the most subordinate. However, many social group rankings may not actually be linear. Behavioral variation in expressions of dominance cloud the issue in how dominance is expressed and how the rest of the group relates to them. While ecological dominance appears to be a different subject entirely, the point is made that dominant individuals in a population also influence environmental homeostasis. This chapter touches on the initial dispersal of humans around the world and how they became a force to contend with. As a dominant force in the world, humans have grown so populous that they threaten both local and global homeostasis. As an ever-changing planet, Earth naturally has gone through environmental changes over long periods of time, altering ecosystems in the process. Plant and animal dominants within these changing ecosystems change as well. While most ecological dominants lose their position as climax organisms, humans represent the first animal who could lose their dominant status because of a superior brain and technological expertise. Both dominance and aggression are animalistic traits, handed down to humans through a succession of predecessors as a means of survival. A brief look at the currently researched aggression models gives us some indication of the complexity of aggression in humans. Later sections in this chapter use this information to show that dominance and aggression play a significant role in defining human personality. Aggressive behavior is similar to other operant behavior because it is influenced by rewards and punishment. Much aggression in humans is influenced by cultural and social (environmental) factors. The recognition of regional subcultural differences in human aggression in the United States and other parts of the world is dependent upon different local norms for aggressive behavior. Aggressive behavior can most certainly be a function of national culture. Residents of some countries show a more pervasive tendency to think of violence as a means of solving problems than persons living in other nations, and when these people move from one country to another, they bring with them the behavior they are accustomed to. Based on our behavior (as a species acting toward the Earth and its inhabitants), we humans rank among the most violently aggressive species. At the same time, we (as a group) also rank among the most altruistic and empathetic. Later chapters point out that at the individual level, these opposing features in human traits are expressed in various ways in different individuals and in different cultures. Evolution did not haphazardly shape us to be violent or peaceful. As with all animals, it shaped us through natural selection, allowing us to respond flexibly and adaptively to different conditions and circumstances. Our species has changed considerably over time. Our cognitive capabilities have advanced far beyond those of our primate relatives. Our influences upon world ecosystems, national and international politics, religions, local communities and individuals within single populations, the workplace, and other social groups are influenced by the topics present in this chapter. This is equally true for the variation of interactions that affect dominant rank among individuals and groups, as well as the norms and aberrant nature of individuals who often make the rules which others of us must follow.