Analyses of publicly available genomics resources define FGF-2-expressing bladder carcinomas as EMT-prone, proliferative tumors with low mutation rates and high expression of CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) is overexpressed in a subset of invasive bladder carcinomas and its overexpression correlates with poor prognosis. Analyses of publicly available databases addressing the molecular mechanisms that may be responsible for the poor prognosis of these tumors, revealed that FGF-2 expression correlates positively with the expression of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT)-promoting transcription factors and with changes in gene expression that are characteristic of EMT. The same analyses also revealed that FGF-2 correlates negatively with the expression, mutation and copy number variations of FGFR-3, all of which are associated with noninvasive bladder carcinomas. Finally, they showed that FGF-2 expression correlates with the expression of FGFR-1, the expression of the IIIc variant of FGFR-2 and with the expression of Akt3. The latter observation is significant because our earlier studies had shown that Akt3 regulates FGFR-2 alternative splicing, shifting the balance toward the IIIc relative to the IIIb FGFR-2 splice variant. As the IIIc variant is recognized by FGF-2, while the IIIb variant is not, we conclude that Akt3 may facilitate the FGF-2 response. FGF-2 is known to promote the expression of KDM2B, which functions in concert with EZH2 to repress the EZH2-targeting microRNA miR-101, activating a switch, which stably upregulates EZH2. The cancer genome atlas (TCGA) data showing a correlation between KDM2B and EZH2 expression and Oncomine data, showing a correlation between KDM2B and tumor progression, strongly support the role of the FGF-2/KDM2B/miR-101/EZH2 pathway in bladder cancer. These observations combined, suggest a model according to which FGF-2 induces EMT, cell proliferation and cancer stem cell self-renewal by coupling the Akt3 and KDM2B-controlled pathways outlined above, in bladder carcinomas. Further analyses of publicly available databases, revealed that FGF-2-expressing bladder carcinomas carry fewer genetic alterations and they tend to express high levels of CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1, which suggests immune blockade by checkpoint activation. EMT, enhanced proliferation and immune checkpoint activation combined, may be responsible for the poor prognosis of FGF-2-expressing bladder carcinomas. Superficial and invasive bladder cancer subtypes are genetically distinct. Interestingly, mutations in the FGF receptor genes FGFR1 and FGFR3 are common in superficial cancers. Based on the analysis of publicly-available databases, Philip Tsichlis and Elizabeth McNiel from Tufts Medical Center USA, show that basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) differs from FGFR1 and FGFR3 in that it tends to be expressed in invasive tumors with poor prognosis. By combining database information with their earlier data, they also provide evidence for a model which suggests that FGF-2 promotes tumor cell invasiveness, proliferation and cancer stem cell self-renewal by coupling two pathways, one of which regulates FGF-2 expression and the other FGF-2 signaling. Finally, they show that FGF-2 expression correlates with immune-checkpoint activation, another predictor of poor prognosis.