Mothering while Imprisoned: The Effects of Family and Child Dynamics on Mothering Attitudes.

Since the early 1990s, the number of children with imprisoned mothers has increased 131%. A mother's imprisonment potentially exposes children to a concentrated disadvantage that undermines their cognitive, emotional, and intellectual abilities. Additionally, such experiences can have deleterious effects on mother-child relationships, stand-in caregivers, foster care caseloads, the penal system, and society. Less may be understood, however, about how imprisonment affects the ways in which women view themselves as mothers. This study examines mothering attitudes for a sample of 210 Black, White, and Hispanic imprisoned mothers. Nested modeling results suggest a positive relationship between favorable views about mothering and children's profiles and mothers' expectations about future custody. Regular contact with their children through letter writing and telephone calls foster the most favorable views.Key Words: identity theory, imprisoned mothers, mothering role.According to Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2.3% of the estimated 74 million minor-aged children in the U.S. resident population have an incarcerated parent. Since 1991, the number of children with an imprisoned mother has increased 131% (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). Though imprisoned men currently outnumber women, increases in mothers' imprisonment currently outpace that of fathers (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). The effects of mothers' imprisonment can be extensive, impacting foster care caseloads, stretching limited social service provisions, and altering the quality of life for caregivers who become responsible for such children (Bowers & Meyers, 1999; Mackintosh, Meyers, & Kennon, 2006; Young & Smith, 2000). Other challenges include strained mother-child relationships and potential emotional, intellectual, and cognitive delays for children (Poehlmann, 2005a). Children exposed to parental imprisonment, particularly Black children and those whose parents have little education, have an increased risk of concentrated childhood disadvantage that can have long-term deleterious effects for them, their communities, and the larger society (Wildeman, 2009). Nonetheless, many mothers retain parental rights, continue to facilitate the mother role while imprisoned (Clark, 1995; Enos, 2001), and plan to resume full-time mothering after their release from prison (Norton-Hawk, 2006; Pollack 2006). Imprisoned women who maintain close relationships with family are less likely to recidivate and have an increased likelihood of parole success (Hairston & Rollin, 2006; Mustin, 1994).Given the deleterious effects of parental imprisonment and parent-child separation, individual and community stakeholders may benefit when imprisoned women maintain positive views about mothering (Johnston, 1995). Though some imprisoned mothers do not value or desire maternal roles, the present study sheds light on the many women who do. Although existing research examines mothers' experiences during imprisonment, the maternal identities that are reciprocally shaped by these experiences have not been adequately examined. Therefore, continued inquiry is needed about how maternal imprisonment impacts the lives and identities of mothers and children (Dalley, 2002; Enos, 2001; Henriques, 1996) and how to best prepare women for life after prison with their children (Norton-Hawk, 2006). The current study addresses these important considerations. We considered the following questions: How do expectations about mothering bear out for imprisoned mothers who are physically separated from their children? Do they express positive sentiments about mothering despite their inability to exhibit many of the corresponding behavioral expectations? The present study relies on regression modeling to investigate whether a sample of 210 White, Black, and Hispanic imprisoned mothers view their mothering roles favorably and dynamics that can foster or undermine affirming views. Beyond its academic import, this study is potentially significant because of the implications for identifying and developing strategies and practices that may enhance relationships between imprisoned mothers and their children. …