Self-Determination: A Family Affair

For all adolescents, the process of individuation- the movement from being largely dependent on others to being largely dependent on oneself-and the movement toward autonomy constitute major steps toward adulthood (Wehmeyer, 2008). The support from families during adolescent development is critical in the development of greater self-determination, the emergence of which is an important aspect of becoming autonomous and self-governing. Selfdetermination is a general psychological construct within the organizing structure of theories of human agentic behavior. An agentic person is the ''origin of his or her actions, has high aspirations, perseveres in the face of obstacles, sees more and varied options for action, learns from failures, and overall, [and] has a greater sense ofwell being'' (Little,Hawley, Henrich,& Marsland, 2002, p. 390).Human agentic theories ''share the meta-theoretical view that organismic aspirations drive human behaviors'' (Little, Snyder, & Wehmeyer, 2006, p. 61). An organismic perspective views people as active contributors to, or ''authors'' of, their behavior, which is self-regulated and goal-directed ''action.'' Selfdetermined people are, in essence, actors in their own lives, rather than being acted upon.The movement from adolescence to adulthood is particularly difficult for young people with disabilities. Numerous studies document that people with disabilities experience higher rates of unemployment, greater social isolation, a reduced quality of life, and are more likely to live with their family (rather than independently) than are their peers without disabilities (Wehman, 2013). For their families and schools, promoting self-determination becomes even more important to ensure a successful transition to adulthood. The following section examines the application of self-determination to the context of the education of young people with disabilities, followed by a discussion of the role that families play in promoting self-determination.SELF-DETERMINATION AND YOUTH WITH DISABILITIESIn our work (Wehmeyer et al., 2007) to develop interventions and promote the self-determination of youth with disabilities, we have defined selfdetermined behavior as ''volitional actions that enable one to act as the primary causal agent in one's life and to maintain or improve one's quality of life'' (Wehmeyer, 2005, p. 117). An act or event is self-determined if the individual's action reflects four essential characteristics: (a) the individual acted autonomously, (b) the behaviors were self-regulated, (c) the person initiated and responded to event(s) in a ''psychologically empowered'' manner, and (d) the person acted in a self-realizing manner. Selfdetermination refers to self-caused (vs. other) action, to people acting volitionally, based on their own will. Volitional refers to the act or instance of making a conscious choice or decision, so volitional behavior implies that one acts consciously with intent. Self-determined behavior is volitional and intentional, not simply random and nonpurposeful.The concept of causal agency is central to our perspective. Broadly defined, causal agency implies that it is the person who makes or causes things to happen in his or her life. Wehmeyer et al. (2007) have argued that self-determination emerges across the life span as children and adolescents learn skills and develop attitudes and beliefs that enable them to be causal agents in their lives. These skills and attitudes are referred to in this model as ''component elements'' of self-determined behavior and include choice making, problem solving, decision making, goal setting and attainment, self-advocacy, and selfmanagement skills. For purposes of applying the construct of causal agency to the disability context, however, it is necessary to be clear that that does not mean that one does everything for oneself, which, of course, many young people with disabilities would have a difficult time doing, but instead refers to causing or making things happen in one's life, which everyone is able to do if given adequate supports and opportunities. …