cssi/SciSciGPT-SciSciNet huggingface dataset:
Reconstruction of Solar Subsurfaces by Local Helioseismology

Local helioseismology has opened new frontiers in our quest for understanding of the internal dynamics and dynamo on the Sun. Local helioseismology reconstructs subsurface structures and flows by extracting coherent signals of acoustic waves traveling through the interior and carrying information about subsurface perturbations and flows, from stochastic oscillations observed on the surface. The initial analysis of the subsurface flow maps reconstructed from the 5 years of SDO/HMI data by time-distance helioseismology reveals the great potential for studying and understanding of the dynamics of the quiet Sun and active regions, and the evolution with the solar cycle. In particular, our results show that the emergence and evolution of active regions are accompanied by multi-scale flow patterns, and that the meridional flows display the North-South asymmetry closely correlating with the magnetic activity. The latitudinal variations of the meridional circulation speed, which are probably related to the large-scale converging flows, are mostly confined in shallow subsurface layers. Therefore, these variations do not necessarily affect the magnetic flux transport. The North-South asymmetry is also pronounced in the variations of the differential rotation (‘torsional oscillations’). The calculations of a proxy of the subsurface kinetic helicity density show that the helicity does not vary during the solar cycle, and that supergranulation is a likely source of the near-surface helicity.
Scalable Spectral Clustering With Nyström Approximation: Practical and Theoretical Aspects

Spectral clustering techniques are valuable tools in signal processing and machine learning for partitioning complex data sets. The effectiveness of spectral clustering stems from constructing a non-linear embedding based on creating a similarity graph and computing the spectral decomposition of the Laplacian matrix. However, spectral clustering methods fail to scale to large data sets because of high computational cost and memory usage. A popular approach for addressing these problems utilizes the Nystrom method, an efficient sampling-based algorithm for computing low-rank approximations to large positive semi-definite matrices. This paper demonstrates how the previously popular approach of Nystrom-based spectral clustering has severe limitations. Existing time-efficient methods ignore critical information by prematurely reducing the rank of the similarity matrix associated with sampled points. Also, current understanding is limited regarding how utilizing the Nystrom approximation will affect the quality of spectral embedding approximations. To address the limitations, this work presents a principled spectral clustering algorithm that exploits spectral properties of the similarity matrix associated with sampled points to regulate accuracy-efficiency trade-offs. We provide theoretical results to reduce the current gap and present numerical experiments with real and synthetic data. Empirical results demonstrate the efficacy and efficiency of the proposed method compared to existing spectral clustering techniques based on the Nystrom method and other efficient methods. The overarching goal of this work is to provide an improved baseline for future research directions to accelerate spectral clustering.
Fracton phases via exotic higher-form symmetry-breaking

Abstract We study p -string condensation mechanisms for fracton phases from the viewpoint of higher-form symmetry, focusing on the examples of the X-cube model and the rank-two symmetric-tensor U ( 1 ) scalar charge theory. This work is motivated by questions of the relationship between fracton phases and continuum quantum field theories, and also provides general principles to describe p -string condensation independent of specific lattice model constructions. We give a perspective on higher-form symmetry in lattice models in terms of cellular homology. Applying this perspective to the coupled-layer construction of the X-cube model, we identify a foliated 1-form symmetry that is broken in the X-cube phase, but preserved in the phase of decoupled toric code layers. Similar considerations for the scalar charge theory lead to a framed 1-form symmetry. These symmetries are distinct from standard 1-form symmetries that arise, for instance, in relativistic quantum field theory. We also give a general discussion on interpreting p -string condensation, and related constructions involving gauging of symmetry, in terms of higher-form symmetry.
Ultimate limits of approximate unambiguous discrimination

The author proposes an approximate unambiguous discrimination scenario and derive its ultimate performance limits for both states and channels.
Investigation of Relevant Distribution System Representation with DG for Voltage Stability Margin Assessment

This paper emphasizes the importance of including unbalanced distribution systems for voltage stability studies in power systems. The paper aims to: discuss the various simulation methods for power system analysis; highlight the need for modeling unbalanced distribution system for accurate load margin assessment; demonstrate the influence of net-load unbalance (NLU) on voltage stability margin (VSM). We also share a TD these are not guaranteed to proliferate in a balanced manner and uncertainty resulting due to these DERs is well acknowledged. These uncertainties cannot be captured or visualized without representing the distribution system in detail along with the transmission system. We show the impact of proliferation of DERs in various 3-phase proportions on voltage stability margin through T&D cosimulation. We also study the impact of volt/VAR control on voltage stability margin. This analysis is only possible by representing the distribution system in detail through T&D co-simulation. Higher percentage of net-load unbalance (NLU) in distribution system aggravates the voltage stability margin of the distribution system, which can further negatively influence the overall voltage stability margin of the system.
On the Effect of Magnetospheric Shielding on the Lunar Hydrogen Cycle

We examine how water is produced globally over the lunar surface as it orbits in/out of the magnetotail. Due to the interaction of the solar wind (SW) with Earth's magnetic field, upstream the magnetic field is compressed down to ~10 Earth radii. However, the diverted stream of SW around Earth's magnetic field results in an extended depleted region of SW protons (positively charged hydrogen) out to 1000's of Earth radii, referred to as the magnetotail. The Moon orbits at a distance of ~40 Earth radii; therefore, upstream it is within the SW, but downstream it is partially shielded while in the magnetotail during full Moon. SW protons penetrate lunar soil particles and some H atoms can chemical react with oxygen to form water-like molecules such as OH/H2O. Most of the H atoms bounce around within grains until finding another hydrogen atom, chemically combine, and then escape the grain as H2 into the thin atmosphere. We developed a model to calculate the global distribution of OH produced in the lunar surface and H2 released to the atmosphere as the Moon orbits in/out of Earth's magnetotail. The model results are in good agreement with available observations.
Control Barrier Functions for Sampled-Data Systems with Input Delays

This paper considers the general problem of transitioning theoretically safe controllers to hardware. Concretely, we explore the application of control barrier functions (CBFs) to sampled-data systems: systems that evolve continuously but whose control actions are computed in discrete time-steps. While this model formulation is less commonly used than its continuous counterpart, it more accurately models the reality of most control systems in practice, making the safety guarantees more impactful. In this context, we prove robust set invariance with respect to zero-order hold controllers as well as state uncertainty, without the need to explicitly compute any control invariant sets. It is then shown that this formulation can be exploited to address input delays in this system, with the result being CBF constraints that are affine in the input. The results are demonstrated in a high-fidelity simulation of an unstable Segway robotic system in real-time.
Targeting and the Concept of Intent

International law generally prohibits military forces from intentionally targeting civilians; this is the principle of distinction. In contrast, unintended collateral damage is permissible unless the anticipated civilian deaths outweigh the expected military advantage of the strike; this is the principle of proportionality. These cardinal targeting rules of international humanitarian law are generally assumed by military lawyers to be relatively well-settled. However, recent international tribunals applying this law in a string of littlenoticed decisions have completely upended this understanding. Armed with criminal law principles from their own domestic systems—often civil law jurisdictions—prosecutors, judges and even scholars have progressively redefined what it means to “intentionally” target a civilian population. In particular, these accounts rely on the civil law notion of dolus eventualis, a mental state akin to common law recklessness that differs in at least one crucial respect: it classifies risk-taking behavior as a species of intent. This problem represents a clash of legal cultures. International lawyers trained in civil law jurisdictions are nonplussed by this development, while the Anglo-American literature on targeting has all but ignored this conflict. But when told of these decisions, U.S. military lawyers view this “reinterpretation” of intent as conflating the principles of distinction and proportionality. If a military commander anticipates that attacking a building may result in civilian casualties, why bother analyzing whether the collateral damage is proportional? Under the dolus eventualis view, the commander is already guilty of violating the principle of distinction. The following Article voices skepticism about this vanguard application of dolus eventualis to the law of targeting, in particular by noting that dolus eventualis was excluded by the framers of the Rome Statute and was nowhere considered by negotiators of Additional Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. Finally, and most importantly, a dolus * Professor of Law, Cornell Law School, jdo43@cornell.edu. I received helpful suggestions from Janina Dill, Haider Hamoudi, Henry Shue, Kevin Heller, Robert Chesney, John Dehn, Claire Finkelstein, George Fletcher, Jeff McMahan, Richard Meyer, Marty Lederman, Sherry Colb, Alexander Greenawalt, Peggy McGuinness, Jeffrey Walker, and Steve Shiffrin. Patrick Wall provided invaluable research assistance.
Disease network delineates the disease progression profile of cardiovascular diseases.

Abstract Objective As Electronic Health Records (EHR) data accumulated explosively in recent years, the tremendous amount of patient clinical data provided opportunities to discover real world evidence. In this study, a graphical disease network, named progressive cardiovascular disease network (progCDN), was built to delineate the progression profiles of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Materials and Methods The EHR data of 14.3 million patients with CVD diagnoses were collected for building disease network and further analysis. We applied a new designed method, progression rates (PR), to calculate the progression relationship among different diagnoses. Based on the disease network outcome, 23 disease progression pair were selected to screen for salient features. Results The network depicted the dominant diseases in CVD development, such as the heart failure and coronary arteriosclerosis. Novel progression relationships were also discovered, such as the progression path from long QT syndrome to major depression. In addition, three age-group progCDNs identified a series of age-associated disease progression paths and important successor diseases with age bias. Furthermore, a list of important features with sufficient abundance and high correlation was extracted for building disease risk models. Discussion The PR method designed for identifying the progression relationship could be widely applied in any EHR database due to its flexibility and robust functionality. Meanwhile, researchers could use the progCDN network to validate or explore novel disease relationships in real world data. Conclusion The first-time interrogation of such a huge CVD patients cohort enabled us to explore the general and age-specific disease progression patterns in CVD development.
Motivation vs. relevance: Using strong ties to find a job in Urban China

Abstract While the idea that contacts matter in finding a job is intuitively appealing, we still do not know—after decades of research—how and why strong ties benefit job seekers. To resolve this confusion, we need to theorize how specific characteristics of ties are related to the mechanisms that make job search through contacts effective. We have reasons to expect that, while a contact’s motivation influences the likelihood that a job seeker receives an offer, her homophily with the job seeker on occupation and other job-relevant attributes influences the quality of the offer. The use of strong ties among university students to find jobs in China provides a unique opportunity to empirically isolate the relationship between contact characteristics and the mechanisms through which contacts benefit the job seeker. I tested my hypotheses with data on both the successful and unsuccessful job searches of 478 graduates of China’s flagship universities, who, as first-time job seekers, primarily used strong ties. Survey results are consistent with my hypotheses: job seekers who used strong ties to look for jobs had more offers—but not better offers—than those who used only formal methods.
Greening China's rural energy : new insights on the potential of smallholder biogas

Clean, safe energy for rural areas is an important component of green growth and sustainable development. Biogas could be an important contributor, if its record in reality lives up to its expected potential. This paper provides a preliminary assessment of biogas use by smallholder farmers in rural China, using data collected from 2,700 households in five provinces. The authors find that user satisfaction is high, and environmental and economic benefits appear tangible. There are strong indications of reduced use of wood and crop residues for fuel. Less time is spent on collecting fuel wood and cooking, which is especially beneficial to women. Adopters also save on fertilizers, because of the use of biogas residues. Moreover, problems with suspension of biogas use, whether due to technical or human factors, remained limited. However, few tangible benefits to respiratory health were detected. Overall, these findings are grounds for optimism about the potential for of smallholder biogas to contribute to more sustainable development, in China and beyond.
Improving the Targeting of Treatment Evidence From College Remediation

Remediation is one of the largest single interventions intended to improve outcomes for underprepared college students, yet little is known about the remedial screening process. Using administrative data and a rich predictive model, we find that severe mis-assignments are common using current test-score-cutoff-based policies, with “underplacement” in remediation much more common than “overplacement” college courses. Incorporating high school transcripts into the process could significantly reduce placement errors, but adding test scores to already available high school data often provides little marginal benefit. Moreover, the choice of screening policy has significant implications for the racial and gender composition of college-level courses. Finally, the use of more accurate screening tools would enable institutions to remediate substantially fewer students without compromising college success.
Cost efficiency estimations and the equity returns for the US public solar energy firms in 1990–2008

This paper provides a direct estimate of the cost efficiencies of firms in the US solar energy industry. It suggests that the cost efficiency in the industry is associated with the risk-bearing behaviour of firms. Less efficient firms maintain low price-cost margins and high labour–capital ratios in order to compete with their efficient peers. The study then establishes the linkage between cost efficiency and stock returns. It shows that the change in cost efficiency, rather than cost efficiency itself, possesses a stronger explanatory power for stock returns. A buy-and-hold strategy for stock portfolios of different efficiency levels is then analysed. The 3-year returns of the inefficient firm portfolios tend to outperform the efficient firm portfolios. The finding further shows that the improvement in cost efficiency of the inefficient firms is larger than that of the efficient firms. Previous literature has indicated that inefficient firms have higher failure rate, so they are forced to improve cost efficiency.
Of Rules and Standards: Reconciling Statutory Limitations on "Arising Under" Jurisdiction

The Supreme Court has imposed two significant filters on the invocation federal question jurisdiction: the well-pleaded complaint rule and the centrality requirement. Centrality seeks to determine whether the plaintiff's claim is federal enough to justify jurisdiction. The Court sent inconsistent signals on centrality in the first third of the twentieth century, and left the issue alone for fifty years. When it returned to it in 1986, the Court created great confusion, particularly regarding whether a state-created claim can invoke federal jurisdiction. The confusion reflected disagreement about whether to employ a rigid rule espoused by Justice Holmes or a flexible standard to assess centrality. In 2005, in Grable, the Court resolved several important issues left open by earlier cases. Still, a concurring opinion in Grable and scholarly commentary favor a return to the Holmes test. This Article suggests that confusion over centrality stems from divergent views of the purpose of federal question jurisdiction. The Holmes test reflects the view that jurisdiction serves only to provide a federal forum to vindicate federally-created rights. The more flexible approach reflects a broader view that jurisdiction also must provide access to a federal trial forum for the interpretation of federal law. The broader view is consistent with contemporary reality that caseload burdens make it impossible for the Supreme Court to discharge a unifying interpretive function through its appellate jurisdiction over state-court cases. Moreover, the Holmes test does not permit courts to assess litigation reality and thus replicates a shortcoming of the well-pleaded complaint rule. Grable properly brings clarity to the centrality inquiry by espousing a vision of why we have federal question jurisdiction.
Predicting Credit Losses: Loan Fair Values versus Historical Costs

ABSTRACT: Standard-setters and many investors argue that loan fair values provide more useful information about credit losses than historical cost information, while bankers and others generally disagree. We examine the ability of reported loan fair values to predict credit losses relative to the ability of net historical costs currently recognized under U.S. GAAP. Our analysis is important because credit losses in the banking sector can have severe and widespread economic effects, as the recent financial crisis demonstrates. Overall, we find that net historical loan costs are a better predictor of credit losses than reported loan fair values. Specifically, we find that historical cost information is more useful in predicting future net chargeoffs, non-performing loans, and bank failures over both short and long time horizons. Further tests indicate that the relative predictive ability of reported loan fair values improves in higher scrutiny environments, suggesting that a lack of scrutiny over reported l...
Business ethics and organizational architecture

Abstract We suggest that economics can complement traditional ethics discussions with the respect to at least three basic points. First, economics provides a theory of how individuals make choices; including choices that have potential ethical dimensions. Second business ethics and the internal structure of the organization are inextricably linked they establish important incentives for those individuals who compose the firm. Third, a company's reputation for ethical behavior is part of its brand-name capital. As such, it is reflected in the value of its securities.
Managing sales teams in a virtual environment

Abstract We investigate the linear and interactive influences of leader-empowering behaviors, team experience, and the degree of virtuality on team planning processes and performance among virtual sales teams. Collecting data across three separate time periods with 218 pharmaceutical sales teams, our results indicate that empowering leadership improves team planning processes and is moderated by the team's experience. Interestingly, it seems that, as teams gain more experience, they are less likely to engage in effective planning; however, these effects are attenuated as the team becomes more virtual in nature. Our findings have relevance for sales managers and salespeople in terms of leveraging team processes to influence performance as well as in terms of presenting the issues associated with virtual means of interaction.
Discriminating Among Alternative Theories of the Multinational Enterprise

Recent theoretical developments have incorporated endogenous multinational firms into the general–equilibrium model of trade. One simple taxonomy separates the theory into “vertical” models, in which firms geographically separate activities by stages of production, and “horizontal” models, in which multiplant firms duplicate roughly the same activities in many countries. The authors nest a horizontal and a vertical model within a hybrid (unrestricted) “knowledge–capital model” and estimate the specifications with data on US foreign direct investment activity. In the nested econometric tests, the data sample cannot distinguish statistically between the unrestricted model and the restricted horizontal model, indicating that the latter captures virtually all of the determinants of FDI. The tests overwhelmingly reject the vertical model.
What Do We Know About the Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction of Lawyers? A Meta-Analysis of Research on Lawyer Satisfaction and Well-Being

In the last two to three decades, there has been a great deal of scholarly and media attention placed on lawyer dissatisfaction, generating a certain “conventional wisdom” about the endemic dissatisfaction of lawyers. During this period, however, the empirical literature has fairly consistently suggested that lawyers generally experience a great deal of job and career satisfaction. Recent scholarship has recognized this dichotomy in the lawyer satisfaction/dissatisfaction literature. This article summarizes all of the empirical work on lawyer satisfaction/dissatisfaction and attempts to reconcile this seemingly conflicting data. The article begins with a chronological overview of the published research and of samples of the media descriptions of lawyers’ mental health, well-being, and satisfaction/dissatisfaction. It then analyzes this collective data set in an effort to reconcile and understand somewhat conflicting data, focusing on specific subsets of the legal profession: experience levels (senior lawyers versus junior lawyers), practice settings (large firm, small firm, government, and public interest), and demographic profiles (women and racial minorities). The article concludes with suggestions for further research and thoughts on what legal education can be doing to better frame students’ expectations for the practice of law.
Ethnonationalism and Liberal Democracy

Some scholars argue that liberal democracy precludes the state from adopting a particularistic ethnonational identity. In their view, Israel is unique among contemporary nation-states because it allows its particularistic Jewish identity to trump principles of universalism and equality upon which liberal democracy supposedly rests. This Article argues that ethnonationalism remains a common and accepted feature of liberal democracy that is consistent with current state practice and international law. Democratic states implement “laws of return” that privilege the immigration and citizenship of particular ethnic groups. Liberal democracies also promote the welfare of their co-ethnics living abroad and maintain political ties to diasporic ethnonational communities. Such practices are becoming more common as globalization disrupts the coincidence of ethnic demography and political boundaries. International law and practice confirm that a sovereign democratic government may represent a particular ethnonational community. Far from being unique, the experience of Israel exemplifies the character of liberal democracy by highlighting its dependence on particularistic nation-states.
Are Building Codes Effective at Saving Energy? Evidence from Residential Billing Data in Florida

We evaluate the effect of a change in the energy code applied to buildings using residential billing data on electricity and natural gas, combined with data on observable characteristics of each residence. The study is based on comparisons between residences constructed just before and after an increase in the stringency of Florida's energy code in 2002. We find that the code change is associated with a decrease in the consumption of electricity by 4% and natural gas by 6%. We estimate average social and private payback periods that range between 3.5 and 6.4 years.
Bio Family 2.0: Can the American Child Welfare System Finally Find Permanency for 'Legal Orphans' with a Statute to Reinstate Parental Rights?

The American child welfare system terminates parental rights for thousands of children each year even though adoptive families have not yet been identified for the children. Every year, there are more than 100,000 of these "legal orphans" waiting for new families. Given the lower rates of adoptions for children of color and older children, and the poor outcomes for most youth who age out of the foster care system, the American child welfare system must start to think differently about permanency options for children. This Article proposes a model statutory provision to reinstate parental rights under certain circumstances to give these "legal orphans" a second chance with their rehabilitated biological parents. Although several states have enacted reinstatement provisions, the criteria and processes for reinstating parental rights differ significantly among their statutory schemes. The model statute outlined in this Article uses child welfare data reported by each state to determine when and how reinstatement of parental rights should be evaluated by the courts.
Intellectual Property at the Intersection of Race and Gender: Lady Sings the Blues

I. The Emergence of Race in Legal Analysis 367 A. Intellectual Property, Innovation and African-Americans 368 B. Blacks and Copyright Law 370 C. Blacks and Trademark Law 374 II. The Emerging Feminist Critique of Intellecual Property 378 A. African-American Women and IP 380 III. Traditional Knowledge/Indigenous Peoples and Intellectual Property 382 IV. Conclusion 385
A Demonstrative Theory of Natural Law: Johannes Althusius and the Rise of Calvinist Jurisprudence

Early modern Calvinists produced a rich tradition of natural law and natural rights thought that shaped the law and politics of protestant lands. The German-born Calvinist jurist Johannes Althusius produced one of the most original Calvinist natural law theories at the turn of the seventeenth century. Althusius argued for the natural qualities of a number of basic legal norms and practices by demonstrating their near universal embrace by classical and biblical, catholic and protestant, theological and legal communities alike. On this foundation, he developed a complex theory of public, private, penal and procedural rights and duties for his day, to be embraced by everyone, particularly by those who were slaughtering each other in religious wars, persecutions and inquisitions. Althusius' theory of natural law and natural rights was Calvinist in inspiration but universal in aspiration, and it anticipated the political formulations of a number of later Western writers, including Locke, Rousseau and Madison
A simple model of project selection with strategic communication and uncertain motives

Abstract I analyze a problem of project selection where two agents, privately informed of both the true value and their bias in favor of their alternatives, make non-verifiable proposals to an uninformed decision-maker. The analysis makes two contributions. First, I examine the consequences of preference uncertainty for the information aggregation problem and show that the relative attractiveness of allowing a given agent to cast the decisive vote is increasing in the stability of his preferences. Second, I analyze the costs and benefits of pre-communication disclosure of the realized biases. I find that, conditional on the decision structure, disclosing the bias of the decisive agent is never optimal while disclosing the bias of the other agent is always optimal. This result makes an asymmetric treatment of the agents in terms of disclosure policies often optimal, despite the additional benefit of disclosure, which is the ability to condition the decision-making structure itself on the disclosed biases.
International Accounting Standards and Accounting Quality

We examine whether application of International Accounting Standards (IAS) is associated with higher accounting quality. The application of IAS reflects combined effects of features of the financial reporting system, including standards, their interpretation, enforcement, and litigation. We find that firms applying IAS from 21 countries generally evidence less earnings management, more timely loss recognition, and more value relevance of accounting amounts than do matched sample firms applying non-U.S. domestic standards. Differences in accounting quality between the two groups of firms in the period before the IAS firms adopt IAS do not account for the postadoption differences. Firms applying IAS generally evidence an improvement in accounting quality between the pre- and postadoption periods. Although we cannot be sure our findings are attributable to the change in the financial reporting system rather than to changes in firms' incentives and the economic environment, we include research design features to mitigate effects of both.
Extensive hybridization reveals multiple coloration genes underlying a complex plumage phenotype.

Coloration is an important target of both natural and sexual selection. Discovering the genetic basis of colour differences can help us to understand how this visually striking phenotype evolves. H...
Why are exchange rates so smooth? A household finance explanation

Abstract Empirical moments of asset prices and exchange rates imply that pricing kernels are almost perfectly correlated across countries. Otherwise, observed real exchange rates would be too smooth for high Sharpe ratios. However, the cross-country correlation among macro fundamentals is weak. We reconcile these facts in a two-country stochastic growth model with heterogeneous households and a home bias in consumption. In our model, only a small fraction of households trade domestic and foreign equities. We show that this mechanism can quantitatively account for the smoothness of exchange rates in the presence of volatile pricing kernels and weakly correlated macro fundamentals.
Management Compensation, Insider Trading and Lobbying Choice: The Case of R & D:

In this study we examine the consistency between lobbying choices and insider trading behaviour by managers before and after the issuance of the 1974 FASB Exposure Draft on R&D. The results, though not very strong, indicate that managers compensated by accounting-based schemes lobbied against the FASB 1974 Exposure Draft on R&D and sold the shares of their firms, while managers compensated by market-based schemes lobbied for and bought shares of their firms. These results provide additional evidence that managers' lobbying choice can act as a surrogate for their beliefs as reflected in their insider trading behaviour.
The Star Formation Relation in Nearby Galaxies

I review observational studies of the large-scale star formation process in nearby galaxies. A wealth of new multi-wavelength data provide an unprecedented view on the interplay of the interstellar medium and (young) stellar populations on a few hundred parsec scale in 100+ galaxies of all types. These observations enable us to relate detailed studies of star formation in the Milky Way to the zoo of galaxies in the distant universe. Within the disks of spiral galaxies, recent star formation strongly scales with the local amount of molecular gas (as traced by CO) with a molecular gas depletion time of ∼2 Gyr. This is consistent with the picture that stars form in giant molecular clouds that have about universal properties. Galaxy centers and star-bursting galaxies deviate from this normal trend as they show enhanced star formation per unit gas mass suggesting systematic changes in the molecular gas properties and especially the dense gas fraction. In the outer disks of spirals and in dwarf galaxies, the decreasing availability of atomic gas inevitably limits the amount of star formation, though with large local variations. The critical step for the gas-stars cycle seems therefore to be the formation of a molecular gas phase, a process that shows complex dependencies on various environmental properties and is being investigated by intensive simulational work.
Court reform in transitional states: Chile and the Philippines

Contrary to the conventional wisdom, we argue that democratic institutions are not a prerequisite to an independent judiciary. Rather, the need for foreign investment is a necessary and, in some cases, perhaps sufficient condition for the establishment of at least nominally independent judicial institutions. We consider Chile immediately after Pinochet and the Philippines at the outset of the Marcos regime. We consider the similarity of court reforms implemented by these two regimes. These cases illustrate two distinct points in the life span of an authoritarian government. The Chilean case features the time period that begins a transition to democracy prior to consolidation. The Philippine case features the time period of ascension of the authoritarian. Despite the different environments, both regimes implemented court reforms primarily designed to attract foreign direct investment into their troubled economies.
Another Word on the President's Statutory Authority Over Agency Action

“Directive” authority might be understood to cover the following situation: the President tells the agency head, “You have prepared materials indicating that options A, B, and C each satisfies statutory constraints and could be considered justified on the agency record. The Administration’s choice will be Option A.” The President could, of course, offer a reason— perhaps Option A is the least paternalistic, most protective, or most innovation-stimulating of the three. If the option preferred by the President otherwise complies with substantive statutory requirements on the record prepared by the agency, In particular, if the statute names an executive branch agency head as actor, can the President be understood to possess so-called “directive” authority?
Balancing Between Two Worlds: A Dakota Woman’s Reflections on Being a Law Professor

There were many paths I considered as a young woman and none of them included becoming a law professor. My journey to my present life as a Dakota woman law professor is about balancing between the worlds I travel back and forth in. There is my tribal world, where I feel replenished and part of an on-going community experience stretching back to time immemorial. I feel that I am part of an unfolding history of endurance, strong Native women, and a participant in sustaining our traditional Native ways. On the other hand, there is the non-Indian world, where I often feel that I am a long-term visitor balancing in a foreign political and historical system, serving as a translator from the tribal traditional and historical world. As a law professor, I also serve as a translator between both the U.S. legal world and the tribal world of values embodied in tribal laws and norms. In this article, I will discuss how I have balanced between these two worlds and found my way as a Dakota woman and law professor. The first sections of the article will describe my educational experiences, my sense of responsibility to my people, and my entry into the legal academy. In describing my experiences, it should be very apparent that I did not follow the usual trodden path to joining the legal academy. Rather, as a typical Dakota woman, I questioned academia as stemming from western civilization, struggled to assert my viewpoint as a tribal person, and dealt with real life experiences along the way. In the second section of the article, I offer my personal insights to my colleagues and those interested in joining the legal academy. This section reflects on the voices that resonated with me from the masterful and courageous work, Presumed Incompetent: The Intersections of Race and Class for Women in Academia. The final section concludes with my sense of commitment to continue balancing between two worlds to offer an example to the future generations of tribal peoples seeking legal educations and the fulfillment this brings.
Foreign Direct Investment and Exports with Growing Demand

We explore entry into a foreign market with uncertain demand growth. A multinational can serve the foreign demand by two modes, or by a combination thereof: it can export its products, or it can create productive capacityvia foreign direct investment (FDI). The advantage of FDI is that it allows for lower marginal cost than exporting does. The disadvantage is that FDI is irreversible and, hence, entails the risk of creating under-utilized capacity in the case that the market turns out to be small. The presence of demand uncertainty and irreversibility gives rise to an interior solution, where the multinational, under certain conditions, both exports its products and does FDI.
Faith, Justice, and the Teaching of Criminal Procedure

The American criminal justice system is marked by a culture of speedy, bureaucratized case processing, which is in tension with the dignitary interests of defendants. The Christian Gospels, however, mandate respect for the essential dignity of all people, even of criminals. Faith-based values may thereby provide a framework for critical perspectives on the criminal justice system. In a basic criminal procedure class, these perspectives may be conveniently developed through a discussion of leading right-to-counsel cases.
Class actions and executive power

Decisions about class certification and arbitration have depressed private-enforcement class actions, reducing deterrence and enforcement of important substantive rights. This fact has not escaped scholarly attention, but it is not the whole story. Less studied have been the consequences of these procedural decisions for the separation of powers. An aggressive Supreme Court and an inactive Congress have increased the importance of federal administrative law — for example, administrative attempts to regulate arbitration. Moreover, a reduction in private enforcement compounds the importance of public enforcement. State and federal enforcers may piggyback on (successful or unsuccessful) private suits, and they may employ new tactics to maintain deterrence. While proponents of a robust regulatory state may take solace in these executive rejoinders, they are not without costs. Specifically, executive action may be less transparent, less durable, and more susceptible to political pressures than its alternatives.
Over the borderline: How the characteristics of lines shape optimal tax policy

Using the example of geographic borders, I demonstrate how the permeability of lines in the tax system and the ability of the tax authority to reduce tax evasion across lines are essential determinants of the optimal commodity tax policy.
Inequality and Infant and Childhood Mortality in the United States in the Twentieth Century

Abstract This paper deals with the issue of using infant and childhood mortality as an indicator of inequality. The case is that of the United States in the 20th century. Using microdata from the 1900 and 1910 Integrated Public Use Microsamples (IPUMS), published data from the Birth Registration Area in the 1920s, results from a number of surveys, and the Linked Birth & Infant Death Files from the National Center for Health Statistics for 1991, infant and child mortality can be related to such other variables as occupation of father or mother, education of father or mother, family income, race, ethnicity, and residence. The evidence shows that, although there have been large absolute reductions in the level of infant and child mortality rates and also a reduction in the absolute levels of differences across socioeconomic groups, relative inequality has not diminished over the 20th century.
Arbitration and Renegotiation in Trade Agreements

What can parties to a trade agreement achieve by institutionalizing a rulesbased dispute settlement procedure? What types of renegotiation rules are implementable in an international setting like the WTO? What role can thirdparty arbitration play in dispute settlement? I study these questions within a mechanism design framework. The model generates predictions regarding the pattern of pre-trial and post-trial settlement negotiations, non-compliance with the result of arbitration, and retaliations under an optimal trade agreement. It is shown that an Arbitrated-Liability Regime, under which a defecting party � I am grateful to Helen Milner and Robert Staiger for discussing a previous version of this paper at the Conference on the Economics, Law and Politics of the GATT/WTO, Yale University, 2009. Also, for their useful comments, I am grateful to Kyle Bagwell, Eric Bond, Andrew Daughety, Johannes Horner, David Hummels, Nuno Limao, Giovanni Maggi, Roger Myerson, Jee-Hyeong Park, Jennifer Reinganum, and the seminar participants at Seoul National U., Vanderbilt, Purdue, U. New Hampshire, Midwest International Economics Meeting; Econometric Society’s North American Summer Meeting; and the Workshop on Game Theory in Trade and Development in the Game Theory Festival, Stony Brook U. y The …rst draft of this paper was circulated under the title “Third-Party-Assisted Renegotiation
Do the Advantages of Incumbency Advantage Incumbents

We develop a model that calls into question some longstanding presumptions about incumbency advantage. Our results show that increases in some of the ostensible benefits of incumbency frequently cited in the empirical and theoretical literature make it difficult for voters to differentiate incumbents of higher and lower quality. While this leads to an improvement in the electoral prospects of lower-quality incumbents, it is harmful to those of higher quality. Whether the net electoral consequence for high-quality incumbents is positive or negative depends on whether the source of incumbency advantage affects candidate entry and exit decisions directly or indirectly, as mediated through voters’ choices. Our findings suggest, further, that fundamental tensions may exist between different sources of incumbency advantage, and point to obstacles to disaggregating the sources of incumbency advantage empirically.
Hybrid Constitutionalism: The Israeli Case for Judicial Review and Why We Should Care

Fifteen years after the Israeli Supreme Court decided in Mizrahi that Israel's "Basic Laws" amount to Israel's formal Constitution and it enjoys the power of judicial review, the debate about Israel's constitutional development is far from over. This essay makes the following four propositions: First, the Israeli political branches have been debating the wrong question. Rather than lingering on the threshold question of whether or not Israel has a formal Constitution at all, they should be discussing what kind of Constitution is developing in Israel. Second, the consensus among scholars who recognize Israel’s formal Constitution is that its existence is best explained by the Constituent Authority theory. But they have adopted a myopic understanding of Israel’s constitutional development. Like so many other aspects of Israel’s national evolution, a single theory cannot adequately explain the existence of its formal constitution. Rather, this national rite of passage occurred incrementally, supported by four different, and at times conflicting, constitutional theories, each with its own strengths and weaknesses as suitable analytical frameworks. Third, depending on the theory one ascribes to Israel's constitutional development, present and future constitutional debates may be resolved differently. As examples, I illustrate how the theories diverge when applied to two contemporary constitutional matters: (1) whether referenda can be used to decide territorial concessions; and (2) whether Ultra-Orthodox Yeshiva students may be singled out for special financial treatment. Broader questions of judicial power are even more pressing, and I further explore how the various theories may affect the use of the legislative override power to overcome judicial review. Last, underlying my discussion is the assertion that there is a strong nexus between the process of enactment of a constitution and the kind of judicial review - whether strong or weak - that may emerge. This thesis deviates from the conventional view that the nature of judicial review is solely dependent on the mechanisms adopted in the constitutional document itself, rather than on the processes by which the constitution was adopted. I pursue this scheme in discussing the ramifications of the Israeli case study for Commonwealth constitutionalism in particular and comparative purposes more broadly.
The Common Law of Disability Discrimination

In many cases alleging race and sex discrimination, plaintiffs append common law claims to cases asserting federal or state statutory causes of action. In other race and sex cases, plaintiffs put forward these common law claims without making any federal or state statutory claims. Less frequent, and much less frequently discussed by scholars, are common law claims for conduct constituting disability discrimination. Nevertheless, there are sound theoretical and practical reasons to develop a common law of disability discrimination. On the theoretical side of the discussion, federal statutory disability discrimination claims are not exclusive, and the common law can both draw from and influence statutory developments. The evolution of the common law can be part of the adaptation of the social and legal environment that is needed to achieve equality for people with disabilities. Practically speaking, there are numerous obstacles to statutory disability discrimination claims; the common law may provide redress when statutory remedies are blocked. Common law claims may face difficulties of their own, however, and the law may need to be reformed to facilitate just results in common law cases. Existing scholarship includes several prominent discussions of disability and the law of torts, but there has been little development of the most important tort and contract remedies for disability discrimination. This article seeks to contribute to the scholarly discussion by considering common law remedies for disability discrimination in a systematic way and discussing how to align the remedies more closely with the goal of protecting civil rights of individuals with disabilities.