Parental Influence and the Attraction to Physical Activity for Youths Who Are Visually Impaired at a Residential-Day School

Staying physically active is important for the health of all people (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2000). The lack of attention to fitness has contributed to an obesity crisis in the United States that is so significant that obesity is now considered one of the most important public health problems of our time (Simons-Morton, Obarzanek, & Cutler, 2006). Less is known about obesity in low-incidence disability populations, such as people who are visually impaired (that is, those who are blind or have low vision), but the levels of reported physical activity for this population are alarmingly low (Brown et al., 2003; Capella-McDonnall, 2007; Holbrook, Caputo, Perry, Fuller, & Morgan, 2009; Lieberman, Stuart, Hand, & Robinson, 2006). It has been shown that youths who are visually impaired have significantly lower levels of physical fitness and activity than do youths who are sighted (Harrison, 2006; Kozub & Oh, 2004; Lieberman, Byrne, Mattern, Watt, & Fernandez-Vivio, 2010; Longmuir & Bar-Or, 2000). Youths with visual impairments also lag behind sighted youths in actual motor skills (Aki, Atasavun, Turan, & Kayihan, 2007; Lieberman, Schedlin, & Pierce, 2009). Physical activity levels of youths have also been linked to parental influences (Dempsey, Kimiecik, & Horn, 1993). Ayanvazoglu, Oh, and Kozub (2006) found this to be true for participants who were visually impaired and reported that the parents of youths with the highest rates of participation in physical activities were the most involved with their children. Conversely, overprotectiveness and lower expectations of parents and teachers contributed to the formation of sedentary tendencies among children with visual impairments (Bishop, 2000; Fiorini, Stanton, & Reid, 1996; Kiavina & Roswal, 2003; Lieberman, Houston-Wilson, & Kozub, 2002). The study reported here investigated social influences on the attraction to physical activity and perceptions of physical competence among youths with visual impairments. Specifically, what is the perceived influence that parents and peers have on attraction to physical activity among children who are visually impaired? Various predictors of children's physical activity-related beliefs and involvement were examined among children with visual impairments with particular reference to parental and peer forms of influence. Research has supported the view that parental and peer beliefs and behaviors are related to the interests of sighted children in physical activity (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brustad, 1993, 1996), but little research has examined predictors and patterns of interest and involvement in physical activity among children who are visually impaired. METHOD Study design The study was a qualitative case study of a residential-day school in a western state. Eight youths (5 boys and 3 girls) aged 10-18 were interviewed. The participants were chosen from all available students with visual impairments who had no other physical or mental impairments and could respond appropriately to the questions. All the participants had medically documented evidence of a corrected visual acuity of 20/70 or worse. Four of the eight participants were braille readers, and the other four used large print. The study was approved by the institutional review board of the University of Northern Colorado before we contacted the school. Permission from the parents and the school was received prior to contacting potential participants for this study. Consent forms were obtained from the parents, and assent forms were obtained from the students. Measures During the interviews, the youths were asked questions that were derived from the Children's Attraction to Physical Activity (CAPA) survey (Brustad, 1993, 1996). The CAPA survey was developed from Hatter's (1983) competence motivation theory that children are essentially attracted to (have intrinsic motivation for) activities in which they feel competent. …