The Effects of Computer-Administered Choice on Students with and without Characteristics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

This study assessed differences between students with and without attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in response to computer-presented math tasks that were designed to offer students choice over type of positive feedback. Math tasks were selected because students with ADHD perform poorly on math tasks-completing fewer problems at slower speeds and with more errors and greater variability than their peers, even when their scores are adjusted for IQ and slower fine motor skills (Zentall, 1990; Zentall & Shaw, 1980). Students with ADHD appear to have difficulty maintaining attention to repetition, the outcome of which is failure to automatize rote tasks. Although it is possible to debate the relative importance of rote skills, it has been demonstrated that rapid fact retrieval is (a) the only significant predictor of math problemsolving from among reading comprehension, IQ, and behavioral scores (Zentall, 1990); and (b) the single strongest predictor of reading recognition achievement (Ackerman, Anhalt, Holcomb, & Dykman, 1986).Students with ADHD, in particular, appear to need more stimulation to remain engaged with repetitive tasks (for theory and review see Zentall, 2006; Zentall & Zentall, 1983). In the absence of optimally stimulating tasks or setting conditions, such students are more likely to (a) demonstrate sensation-seeking verbal and motor activity, (b) attend to novel stimulation in their internal and external environments (i.e., engage in selective attention to salient cues and subsequently demonstrate poor sustained attention), and (c) have difficulty delaying active responses (i.e., present impulsivity) (Zentall, 1985; 1986; Zentall, Falkenberg, & Smith, 1985).Choice is an antecedent task variable that can regulate a student's effective level of stimulation (alertness or arousal) in much the same way as providing active physical responses during rote-task performance (Zentall & Meyer, 1987). When a student makes an active cognitive response to indicate a preference, this "choice" can be conceptualized as a "cognitive-energetic" variable (Sonuga-Barke, 2002). With a sustained attention task, such as solving easy math calculations, the opportunity to make choices could increase task engagement.The effects of choice have been studied in a single-subject design with a 13-year-old student with ADHD and cognitive disabilities (Cole, Davenport, Bambara, & Ager, 1997). Findings were that task engagement and work productivity were higher when performing a chosen task. However, there were no greater gains from choice than from assigning preferred tasks for this student. Stronger behavioral effects (reduced noncompliance, out-of-seat, disturbing others, staring off, not doing work) have been demonstrated with a choice of assignment (e.g., spelling, silent reading, grammar) for a 7-year-old student with ADHD (Powell & Nelson, 1997). However, in this study, choice involved task content and 4% more teacher interaction than the no-choice condition. Similarly, choice of type of math worksheet was provided to 3 students with emotional/behavioral disabilities (i.e., with a history of inappropriate social behavior and low math accuracy; Jolivette, Wehby, Canale, & Massey, 2001 ). Because improved behavioral outcome in the Powell and Nelson (1997) study could be attributed to student selection of a task within his/her abilities and in the Jolivette et al. (2001 ) study to worksheet difficulty, further research was necessary to examine the effects of choice unconfounded by the content or difficulty level of the assignment. Jolivette et al. (2001) also challenged researchers to conduct a more formal analysis of these variables and assess generality beyond specific setting- and student-events (e.g., one classroom, one teacher, one student with illness and one student with tardiness).In the current study, we selected choice of positive feedback (verbal or written statements) as an intervention because this variable was unconfounded by task interest, task difficulty, or task method. …