cssi/SciSciGPT-SciSciNet huggingface dataset:
Engagement for progress: applied philosophy of science in context

Philosophy of science was once a much more socially engaged endeavor, and can be so again. After a look back at philosophy of science in the 1930s–1950s, I turn to discuss the current potential for returning to a more engaged philosophy of science. Although philosophers of science have much to offer scientists and the public, I am skeptical that much can be gained by philosophers importing off-the-shelf discussions from philosophy of science to science and society. Such efforts will likely look like efforts to do applied ethics by merely applying ethical theories to particular contexts and problems. While some insight can be gained by these kinds of endeavors, the most interesting and pressing problems for the actual practitioners and users of science are rarely addressed. Instead, I recommend that philosophers of science engage seriously and regularly with scientists and/or the users of science in order to gain an understanding of the conceptual issues on the ground. From such engagement, flaws in the traditional philosophical frameworks, and how such flaws can be remedied, become apparent. Serious engagement with the contexts of science thus provides the most fruit for philosophy of science per se and for the practitioners whom the philosophers aim to assist. And if one focuses on contexts where science has its most social relevance, these efforts can help to provide the thing that philosophy of science now lacks: a full-bodied philosophy of science in society.
PATHOGENESIS AND TREATMENT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS

OA represents the final common pathway of a number of pathologic processes. The challenge is to define and classify the subsets of OA to understand the causes and to devise specific therapies. Effective chondroprotective therapies will be most useful when applied to high-risk individuals before the emergence of symptomatic OA. This will be feasible only with an improved understanding of the complex interaction of genes and environment in the OA disease process. Moreover, identifying the heritable bases of this disease will provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of the complex pathway that results in OA. Clinicians who encounter and treat OA patients can look forward to the development of more effective and innovative therapies based on a rapidly improving understanding of OA.
Atypical Measles and Enhanced Respiratory Syncytial Virus Disease (ERD) Made Simple

Atypical measles and enhanced respiratory syncytial virus disease (ERD) were serious diseases that resulted from exposure of children immunized with inactivated vaccines against measles virus (MV) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) to the respective wild-type agents in the 1960s. Although the clinical manifestations of both illnesses were different, the immune responses elicited and primed for by the vaccines shared important similarities. Both vaccines failed to elicit long-lived protective antibody and to promote cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses. In both cases, postvaccination exposure to wild type virus during community outbreaks was associated with immune complex deposition in affected tissues, vigorous CD4+ T lymphocyte proliferative responses, and a Th2 bias of the immune response. No relapses of atypical measles or ERD were ever reported. In this manuscript, the pathogeneses of both enhanced diseases and the requirements for the generation of protective antibodies against MV and RSV are discussed, to contribute to the development of newer safe and effective vaccines against these important pathogens.
Profile analysis: Detecting dynamic spectral changes

Abstract This paper explores how amplitude modulation influences the detection of changes in spectral shape. We generally used a complex of 21 equal-amplitude components, the lowest frequency was 200 Hz, the highest 5000 Hz, with equal logarithmic spacing between components. The signal was an increase in level of one or more components of the complex. The overall level of the sound varied randomly over a 20-dB range. Three experiments are reported. In the first, we determined how the modulation of a single-frequency component influenced the detection of amplitude change at that region. In the second experiment, the signal was an alteration of the entire spectrum and that alteration was subjected to various forms of amplitude modulation. In neither experiment did modulation generally increase the detectability of the signal. Finally, in the third experiment, we determined the effects of modulating the ‘signal’ and ‘nonsignal’ parts of the spectrum in different relative phases. The results of this experiment showed that the relative phase is important only for modulation rates slower than about 40 Hz. For faster rates, the temporal structure of the spectrum is unimportant. Thus, for modulation rates above 40 Hz, only the power spectrum of the stimulus is critical.
SPATIAL DENSITY DEPENDENCE SCALES UP BUT DOES NOT PRODUCE TEMPORAL DENSITY DEPENDENCE IN A REEF FISH

Field experiments provide rigorous tests of ecological hypotheses but are typically of short duration and use small spatial replicates. We assessed empirically whether the results of experiments testing for density dependence applied at larger spatial domains and explained temporal population dynamics. We studied a small coral reef fish, the goldspot goby (Gnatholepis thompsoni), in the Bahamas. We assessed the effects of interactions with conspecifics and with an ecologically similar species, the bridled goby (Coryphopterus glaucofraenum). Two density manipulations on small reef patches revealed that goldspot goby mortality over one month increased as conspecifics became crowded. On five large natural reefs, we correlated the initial year-class density of both species (annual larval settlement) with the subsequent decline of goldspot goby year-classes for five years. Mortality was correlated with conspecific density among reefs for all years, but not among years for all reefs. Thus, spatial density dependence in mortality scaled up qualitatively from small patches to entire reefs but was not associated with temporal density dependence. Our results support the conclusion that field experiments may be extrapolated to larger spatial domains with care, but that using small spatial comparisons to predict temporal responses is difficult without knowing the underlying biological mechanisms.
An Enantioselective Ring Expansion Route Leading to Furanose and Pyranose Nucleosides Featuring Spirodiketopiperazines at the Anomeric Position

A study directed at the enantioselective synthesis of spirodiketopiperazine homologues of hydantocidin is described. Furanoid glycals, systems that are amenable to C-5 metalation in the presence of tert-butyllithium, are readily coupled to N-protected 2,3-azetidinediones provided that at least 1 equiv of BF3·OEt2 is present to curb enolization. The resulting 1:1 mixtures of carbinols undergo smooth ring expansion to spirocyclic keto amides when heated with pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate in benzene. 1,2-Acyl shifts operate exclusively. Since attempts to engage these products in Beckmann rearrangement proved singularly unsuccessful, recourse was alternatively made to new methodology based upon sequential Baeyer−Villiger oxidation and ammonolysis. The data show that the first of these steps occurs with exclusive migration of the quaternary carbon. Furthermore, nucleophilic attack by NH3 can be directed regioselectively to the anomeric region. If heating is supplied during acid-promoted cyclization to the spir...
Microfluidic Device for Transport and Observation of Single Cells

A fluidic device capable of aspirating microparticles in aqueous medium and transporting them under controlled conditions to a chosen destination is reported. The device is fabricated through repeated stacking of aligned, laser cut acrylic, mylar and adhesive layers. The rectangular cross-section of the primary flow chamber within the device follows a specific mathematical function to achieve a desired velocity profile for improved particle tracking. Flow is controlled into and out of the chamber by three-way solenoid valves to allow changes in flow direction and to minimize capacitance in the fluidic circuit. The valves are connected to syringe pumps which generate positive and negative pressures within the device. Aspirated microparticles can be accurately transported by controlling the ON/OFF state of the solenoid valves. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD ) models are employed to compare the theoretically derived velocity field and pressure distributions with analytical solutions and observations. Processed imagery showed the positions versus time of microparticle flowing through the chamber channel.Copyright © 2009 by ASME
Influence of premorbid risk factors on neuropsychological performance in alcoholics

This report provides new evidence that neuromedical risk factors influence levels of behavioral impairment in alcoholics. Using a factorial model, the effects of age, neuromedical risk history, and duration of sobriety were studied in relation to neuropsychological performance. The data showed a consistent interaction between duration of abstinence and risk status: Recently detoxified alcoholics (sober 1 month) with a positive premorbid risk history had worse neuropsychological performance than did those without such historical risk events. By contrast, long-term abstinent alcoholics (sober 4 years) did not demonstrate the interaction between alcohol history and positive premorbid risk history. The present results are held to mean that neuromedical risk factors may exert a differential influence on test scores of recently detoxified men, suggesting a source of variance in neurobehavioral studies of alcoholism requiring attention by investigators.
Deviation from Matthiessen's rule in electron-irradiated copper

Deviations from Matthiessen's rule (which states that the electrical- resistivity contributions of two different types of scatterers in a metal are additive) occur generally. The deviations arising from relatively simple scatterers: by point defects created by electron irradiation and by phonons are examined. Deviations from Mattiessen's rule in pure copper were studied over as wide a temperature range as possible. The deviations were studied as effected by recovery in the first three major defect annealing stages. When analyzing effects due to stage-I annealing, damage was produced by irradiation at 4$sup 0$K; in stages II and III, damage was produced at 4 and at 80$sup 0$K. In all cases, the electron energy was 1.5 MeV. The deviations were analyzed by considering two mechanisms: the two-band model and changes in the temperature- dependent part of the electrical resistivity. At low temperatures (below 35$sup 0$K) the two-band form explains the data when separate temperature dependences for scattering of neck and belly electrons are taken into account. Contributions due to changes in the temperature-dependent part of the electrical resistivity appeared to play no substantial part. In the stage-II region the deviations arising from irradiation at 4$sup 0$K and irradiation at 80$sup 0$K were ofmore » a similar form, indicating that the nature of the irradiation-induced scatterers in both cases were essentially the same. In the stage-III region, contributions to the deviation from changes in the temperature-dependent part of the electrical resistivity were quite large. Similarities between the deviations here and those arising in the neutron-irradiated copper without stage-III annealing give support to the model that the mobile defect in stage III is the vacancy. (auth)« less
An empirical investigation into DSS structures and environments

Abstract In order to insure that a decision support system meets the needs of the user, it is necessary to understand the environment in which the DSS operates and the factors that make up the environment. This research identifies specific DSS structures and their relationship with key environmental factors. Five specific DSS structures were identified and tested against ten environmental factors identified in literature as impacting DSS structures. All five of the DSS structures were significantly influenced by different combinations of the ten environmental factors tested. A framework for DSS development is also presented.
Effect of Delivery Devices on Nasal Deposition and Mucociliary Clearance in Rhesus Monkeys

Gamma camera scintigraphy studies were carried out to determine the differences in deposition pattern and clearance with the use of four nasal delivery methods: a compressed air nebulizer, a nasal pump sprayer, drops from an instillation catheter, and a dry powder insufflator. Six rhesus monkeys were studied while anesthetized with ketamine. 99m Tc-labeled sulfur colloid particles were used as the test markers and gamma camera scintigraphy was used to measure deposition patterns and clearance rates. Deposition patterns were qualitatively similar for all four devices despite the fact that particle size distributions differed considerably. Clearance, when measured 30 min after initial deposition, was also similar for all four devices with a mean retention value (±SE) for all four methods of 30 ± 3%. Choice of device in these controlled laboratory studies did not markedly affect nasal deposition or clearance in monkeys. The compressed air nebulizer would be the device of choice for delivery of therapeutic ma...
Hyperspectral band selection based on the aggregation of proximity measures for automated target detection

Band selection is an important unsolved challenge in hyperspectral image processing that has been used for dimensionality reduction and classification improvement. To date, numerous researchers have investigated the unsupervised selection of band groups using measures such as correlation and Kullback-Leibler divergence. However, no clear winner has emerged across data sets and detection tasks. Herein, we investigate the utility of aggregating different proximity measures for band group selection. Specifically, we employ the Choquet integral with respect to different measures (capacities) as it is able to yield a variety of aggregation functions like t-norms, t-conorms and averaging operators. We explore the utility of aggregation in the context of single band, single band group, band group dimensionality reduction and multiple band group combinations in conjunction with support vector machine (SVM) based classification. Our preliminary experiments indicate there is value in aggregating different proximity measures. In some instances an intersection operator works well while in other cases a union operator is best. As may be expected, this can, and does vary per detection task. We also see that depending on the difficulty of the target detection problem, different aggregation, band grouping and combination strategies prevail. Advantages of our approach include; flexibility, the aggregation operator can be learned, and the method can default to a single proximity measure if needed and result, in the worst case, in no performance loss. Experiments are performed on three hyperspectral benchmark data sets to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed concepts.
Regeneration dynamics and life history differences in southern Chilean Nothofagus forests: a synthesis

Large, infrequent natural disturbances have been proposed as a key component in determining the distribution and abundance of Nothofagus in southern Andean temperate forests. In this study, a comparison of influences of small-to-intermediate-sized natural disturbances and effects of selective logging on the establishment and growth of Nothofagus forests in south-central Chile are synthesized with the results of other forest studies to develop general hypotheses on the regeneration dynamics of southern Chilean Nothofagus alpina forests. A synthesis is given for regeneration pattern in the abundance of 18 temperate rain forests in the Andean Range, Chile. The study aimed to determine the role of life history differences in promoting coexistence of the five main tree species (N. alpina, N. dombeyi, N. pumilio, N. macrocarpa and Laurelia philippiana) in N. alpina-dominated forests. Age data reported for N. alpina, a shade mid-tolerant emergent tree in the temperate rain forests of southern Chile, indicate maximum lifespans > 650 years, figures unprecedented for N. alpina. In low elevation stands, N. alpina coexists with broad-leaved evergreen tree species, such as L. philippiana, L. sempervirens, Persea lingue, and in these stands an intermittent establishment of Nothofagus occurred and appeared to be most dependent on small-to-intermediate disturbances. In high-elevation stands, in contrast, Nothofagus establishment was less dependent on disturbance, regeneration being much more continuous even in the absence of canopy openings. The forests studied provide another example of the general pattern of increasing dependence of Nothofagus on disturbance towards the more productive end of the environmental gradients. As a long-lived pioneer and despite its dependence on disturbance in lowland sites, N. alpina has been subject to selection for complementary growth, adult survivorship, and mid-tolerance to shade. Thus, interspecific differences in juvenile and adult life history characteristics of N. alpina and its competitors may be sufficient to maintain its persistence in the landscape. In conclusion, this study of population structures and replacement patterns provides a comprehensive picture on our understanding of regeneration dynamics and trait differentiation in southern temperate forests by recognizing both the influences of environmental gradients (i.e., altitude) on competing species and the disturbance regimes.
Effect of osmolality and anion channel inhibitors on myo-inositol efflux in cultured astrocytes.

Recent studies have shown that swelling-activated myo-inositol efflux from rat C6 glioma cells is mediated by a single transport mechanism and most likely by a volume-sensitive anion channel. In those studies, cells were acclimated in hypertonic medium and then swollen by returning the cells to isotonic medium. In the present study, myo-inositol efflux was determined in primary cultures of astrocytes by first incubating the cells in isotonic radiolabelled medium for 2 hr and then placing the cells in either unlabelled isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic medium and measuring release with time. Computer analyses of efflux data indicated a two-component system of myo-inositol efflux. The rate constants for the initial fast component for isotonic and hypotonic cells were 0.0398 ± 0.005 and 0.0631 ± 0.0288 min-1, respectively. The efflux rates of the slow component, while quite small, were severalfold greater with increasing hypotonic media as compared to the cells in isotonic medium. Several anion membrane transport inhibitors were tested to explore the swelling activated efflux mechanism of myo-inositol. Furosemide (0.5 mM), 1,9 dideoxyforskolin (0.1 mM), NPPB (0.1 mM), niflumic acid (0.5 mM), and SITS (0.5 mM) blocked the fast component of myo-inositol efflux by 17, 49, 55, 75, and 93%, respectively. Our results suggest that the fast component of myo-inositol efflux in primary cultures of astrocytes is mediated by anion transporters or channels and that myo-inositol flux contributes to cell volume regulation in cultures of primary astrocytes. J. Neurosci. Res. 57:866–871, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Patterns of lymphoid infiltrate in the canine cutaneous histiocytoma.

Abstract Ninety-three cases of canine cutaneous histiocytoma were examined histologically for relative amounts and patterns of intratumoural lymphocytic infiltrates. Eighteen cases (19 per cent) had a minimal, diffuse infiltrate limited to the peripheral tumour margin at the junction with normal dermis. Forty-eight cases (52 per cent) had a moderate, nodular, peripheral lymphocytic infiltrate. A marked nodular infiltrate was seen in both peripheral and central portions of the tumour in 19 cases (20 per cent), and extended from the deep tumour margin to the epithelial surface in an additional 8 cases (9 per cent). The progressive lymphocytic infiltrate was accompanied by progressive intratumoural foci of acute coagulation necrosis and other morphologically visible degenerative changes in tumour cells. It is proposed that these patterns of lymphoid infiltrate represent a morphological expression of an immune-mediated anti-tumour host response which correlate with in vivo observations of the spontaneous regression of this naturally occurring tumour in the skin of the dog.
Initiation of apoptosis and autophagy by the Bcl-2 antagonist HA14-1

L1210 murine leukemia cells exposed to an LD90 concentration of the Bcl-2/Bcl-xL antagonist HA14-1 rapidly undergo apoptosis but also develop numerous intracellular vacuoles with double membranes, exhibit enhanced labeling by monodansylcadaverine, and convert the cytosolic protein LC3-I to LC3-II. These are hallmarks or autophagy. Autophagic vacuoles develop rapidly, preceding the appearance of an apoptotic nuclear morphology and can be observed in both non-apoptotic and apoptotic cells. Inhibition of autophagy by the PI 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin promoted apoptosis; conversely inhibition of caspase-3/7 with zDEVD-fmk promoted autophagy. Neither process was dependent on calcium translocation. These results indicate that pharmacological suppression of Bcl-2 function can mimic the induction of autophagy that can occur following the down-regulation of Bcl-2 expression by molecular approaches.
Photon-catalyzed bound—continuum processes: Post-saturation fluorescence quenching and huge enhancement of fragments in I2

Abstract With accurate experimental values of energies, transition moments and decay rates as input, our calculated results show that photon-catalyzed bound-continuum processes can be observed for the first time using I 2 in a cell or a molecular-beam experiment at laser intensifies as low as 10 7 W/cm 2 and 10 5 W/cm 2 , respectively. Two new features, post-saturation quenching of fluorescence and huge (>150-fold) enhancement of fragments, are shown.
Quantum corrections to simulations of hot nuclear matter

Abstract We evaluate lowest-order quantum corrections to the classical description of highly excited nuclear matter using a semiclassical expansion of the canonical partition function. In so doing we establish regions of density and temperature where quantum effects are small. These regions overlap with those that are of interest in astrophysics and heavy ion collisions.
Think Now—Write Later: The Triumphs and Traumas of a New Teacher of Technical Writing

Teachers are recruited from the technical professions and from advanced composition courses to instruct the new discipline: technical writing. Students in a single class major and work in diverse fields. As a common denominator, organization, research, and writing a major paper are emphasized. Classroom discussion, specialized workshops, and individual conferences are utilized. Quality is the key.
The Political Economy of City Formation in California: Limits to Tiebout Sorting

Objective. This paper analyzes the extent to which voter behavior in city formation elections supports Tiebout's (1956) hypothesis that residential sorting facilitates efficiency of local service provision. It develops a two-stage model of city formation to distinguish agenda setting from voter outcomes on city formation proposals. Methods. Logit analysis is used to analyze voting in 71 city formation elections, incorporating Heckman's two-stage procedure to correct for self-selection of local referenda. Results. Community fiscal and demographic factors influence agenda setting more than voting behavior. Wealthier communities in high-growth counties are more likely to propose formation of a city. In contrast, community characteristics have little influence on electoral outcomes, suggesting that boundedly rational voters rely on information heuristics. Conclusions. Although reduction of diversity did not appear to motivate city formation, sorting around residential income, land use preferences, and other demographic variables may facilitate relative efficiency of service provision.
Viability of Nonclassical Carbocations Proposed as Intermediates in the Biosynthesis of Atiserene, Beyerene, Kaurene, and Trachylobane Diterpenes

The results of quantum-chemical calculations aimed at assessing the viability of nonclassical carbocations proposed to be involved in the biosynthesis of atiserne, beyerene, kaurene, and trachylobane diterpenes are presented. While the proposed edge-protonated structure is much lower in energy than the proposed face-protonated structure, neither is predicted to be a viable intermediate energetically.
Regulation of NADPH Oxidase Gene Expression with PKA and Cytokine IL-4 in Neurons and Microglia

Neuronal excitation is mediated by the activation of NMDA receptor and associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species due to the activation of NADPH oxidase complex proteins. The activation of Gs protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) induces neuronal activation in the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated signal cascade and regulates NADPH oxidase activity. However, it is unknown whether PKA regulates NADPH oxidase gene expression in neurons and microglia. In the present research, the NADPH oxidase gene expression was studied in rat cortical neurons and microglia in vitro. Purified microglial cells were identified with OX-42 antibody and they also expressed apolipoprotein E (ApoE). The time-dependent effect of cytokine interleukin-4 (IL-4) (20 ng/ml) in NADPH oxidase gene expression was studied in microglial cells. The levels of mRNA were determined by quantitative RT-PCR. The expression of NOX1, NOX2, and NCF2 was upregulated after IL-4 treatment for 4 h, but it was downregulated after 8-24 h. The expression of NCF1 was suppressed during any time of cytokine effect. IL-4 upregulated arginase1 (Arg1) and serine racemase1 (SRR1) gene expressions in microglia. Amyloid beta (Ab) suppressed NOX2, NCF1, and NCF2 gene expressions and upregulated glutamate cystine transporter (xCT), although IL-4 attenuated the effect of Ab (500 μM) in the upregulation of xCT gene expression. The activation of PKA with agonist dibutyryl cAMP (dbcAMP) (100 μM) induced the upregulation of Arg1 gene expression in microglia involving in the process of microglial activation. The transcription of NOX1, NOX2, and NCF1 was suppressed in microglial cells after dbcAMP treatment within 24 h. Neurons were identified with the microtubule-associated protein tau. The uniform distribution of tau along axons was established in normal neurons. Tau protein was redistributed after PKA agonist dbcAMP treatment for 24 h. l-glutamate (50 μM) caused the apoptotic processes and the accumulation of tau in the soma of neurons and along axons. The activation of PKA for 24 h induced the transcriptional upregulation of NOX1 and NCF1 in cortical neurons. However, l-glutamate suppressed NOX1 gene expression in neurons. These data demonstrate that the effects of IL-4 and dbcAMP are similar in the regulation of SRR1, Arg1, and NADPH oxidase complex gene expressions in neurons and microglia. IL-4 prevents glutamate release from microglia suppressing xCT expression induced by Ab. These findings suggest that the activation of GPCR in PKA-mediated pathway leads to transcriptional regulation of NADPH oxidase complex. The modulation of GPCR activation may inhibit the oxidative stress in neurons.
Stress and Crack Extension in Multi-Layered Ceramic Composites

It has been demonstrated, through theory and experiments, that compressive layers arrest large surface and internal cracks to produce a stress below which the material will not fail. This enables the materials to have a Threshold Strength. The stress intensity function, K, was derived for a crack sandwiched between two compressive layers. This function suggests that the threshold strength is proportional to the magnitude of the residual, compressive stress, the thickness of the compressive region, and inversely proportional to the distance between the compressive regions. All of these factors have been experimentally examined for laminar composites containing thin, compressive layers. Cracks that propagate straight though the layer obey the K function used to model this behavior. Crack bifurcation, which occurs at high compressive stresses, produces a larger threshold strength than predicted. Crack bifurcation is not fully understood. During the initial studies, differential thermal contraction during cooling from the densification temperature was used to develop the compressive stresses. A molar volume change to induce the compressive stress was also used to develop the compressive stresses. In one case, it was shown that the compressive stresses could arise when the compressive layer contained a material that underwent a structural phase transformation during cooling. In another, ion exchanged glass plates that are subsequently bonded together also produce a threshold strength. Factors that affect the threshold strength are reviewed.
Revolution and Rebellion: State and Society in England in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

This iconoclastic and satirical book provides a radical reconstruction of the recent historiography of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It creates an alliance between those revisionist historians who have rewritten the received account of the origins of the English Civil War and those historians who have been rethinking the Hanoverian era. Revolution and Rebellion is thus a companion volume to the author's English Society 1688–1832. The book counters the Marxist interpretation of the 1640s and the 'English Revolution' by developing our new understanding of the non-revolutionary nature of the world after 1660: it challenges the appropriateness of 'revolution' as a description of events like those of 1688, 1715, 1745, the American Revolution, the Industrial Revolution or the Reform Bill, drawing attention instead to the idea of 'rebellion'. This is the first book so to link English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and it will be required reading for students and teachers of both eras.
MO‐A‐224A‐01: Treatment Planning Optimization Parameters ‐ MD

Three‐dimensional radiation therapy (RT) planning tools provide detailed information regarding the degree of radiation exposure to different volumes of organs. Presently, we have incomplete knowledge regarding the tolerance doses for different normal tissue organs. The classic “Emami paper” (IJROBP 1991) provided broad dose/volume guidelines for 3D RT planning, based on somewhat limited clinical data. More recently, there has been dramatic increase in the number and quality of clinical studies that attempt to relate dose/volume parameters to normal tissue risks. Presently, dosimetric parameters predictive for injury are available for several organs (e.g. the lung,heart, esophagus, parotid, and brain), and additional/better data is rapidly accumulating. However, for most organs, the presently‐available predictive models are suboptimal. The continued challenges include: non‐uniform definitions of toxicity (e.g. radiologic vs. analytic vs. symptomatic), clinical comorbidities that make the diagnosis of RT‐induced toxicity uncertain, the confounding effects of concurrent chemotherapy (that is being used with increasing frequency), and multiorgan nature of some clinical endpoints. Further, it is not clear if the dose/volume guidelines developed in the “3D era” are applicable in the hypofractionated/radiosurgery/IMRT era. Extreme caution is warranted to the extrapolation of dose/volume guidelines beyond the scope within which they were defined. For example, the variable fraction size delivered to the surrounding normal tissues with IMRT/radiosurgery is fundamentally different than the relatively‐uniform fraction sizes received by the normal tissues in the 3D era. Since most normal tissue effects are very sensitive to fraction size, this variable needs to be considered. IMRT actually makes the decision‐making process more complex for the physician, as we now have greater flexibility regarding where to deposit the “extraneous/incidental” RT dose. Thus, the need for better dose/volume guidelines, that include consideration of fraction size, has increased with IMRT. When normal tissue dose/volume data becomes more robust, we will be better able to exploit the full potential of 3D/IMRT to minimize radiation‐induced normal tissue injury.
Ni isotopic compositions in Allende and other meteorites

A new technique for high-precision isotopic analyses of Ni is applied to terrestrial samples, Allende inclusions, and materials from other meteorites. It is noted that most of the Allende inclusions analyzed here were previously reported to contain isotopically anomalous Ti. In contrast, the Ni isotopic abundances are found to be indistinguishable from normal within presently obtainable precision, with only one possible exception. The latter inclusion has been shown by others to contain a significantly fractionated magnesium isotopic pattern of 9 parts per thousand/amu. A normal Ni isotopic pattern has also been observed for the chromite/carbon fraction of an Allende acid residue, which is known to have heavy noble gases of highly anomalous isotopic composition. All other meteoritic samples analyzed reveal normal isotopic compositions of Ni; no evidence for effects from now extinct Fe-60 could be detected. Despite ubiquitous isotopic anomalies in Ti from normal Allende inclusions there is no signature of isotopic variations in Ni from the same samples.
Comment on Cheney's list-compaction algorithm

C.J. Cheney [2] implicitly assumes that cells of list storage are self-identifying. Cheney needs this assumption so that his algorithm, when linearly scanning the memory containing a copy of a list, can determine whether particular bit patterns within that memory are pointers to other list structure. The assumption is strong, and its effect is contrary to that of the list compaction which is his algorithm's purpose.
The roles of tobacco, alcohol, and diet in the etiology of upper alimentary and respiratory tract cancers.

Abstract This paper reviews the epidemiological evidence associating alcohol and tobacco consumption as well as diet as risk factors for upper alimentary and respiratory tract cancer. The possible association of alcohol-related nutritional deficiencies (especially zinc and vitamin A) in this process is discussed. Experimental studies on the metabolism and carcinogenicity of N -nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR) and N ′-nitrosonornicotine (NNN), two cyclic nitrosamines which are potential environmental carcinogens, are presented, and it is shown that microsomes isolated from hamsters consuming ethanol are able to perform the initial metabolic step (α-hydroxylation) at greater rates than similar preparations from control animals. We conclude that increased attention should be paid to the possibility that alcohol-related deficiencies in micronutrients are a contributing factor in the etiology of upper alimentary and respiratory tract cancers.
Sex differences in the uptake and disposition of perfluorooctanoic acid in fathead minnows after oral dosing.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) among other perfluorinated acids is becoming recognized as a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. PFOA is resistant to environmental degradation and appears to undergo no biotransformation in animals. Previous toxicokinetic studies in rodents have indicated that urinary excretion is the most important elimination pathway once PFOA has been absorbed. In some species such as rats, large sex-related differences in urinary excretion have been reported, with females having a much shorter blood or plasma elimination half-life than that of males. It is unknown whether this phenomenon occurs in fish. Therefore, this study determined the disposition of PFOA in male and female fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) after a single oral dose of PFOA. After dosing, minnows were subsequently euthanized at various times until 336 h postdosing and the PFOA concentration was measured in plasma, gonads, and fish carcass. The concentration−time profiles of PFOA were then analyzed using toxicoki...
Teaching for the Test: Validity, Fairness, and Moral Action

In response to heightened levels of assessment activity at the K-12 level to meet requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, measurement professionals are called to focus greater attention on four fundamental areas of measurement research and practice: (a) improving the research infrastructure for validation methods involving judgments of test content; (b) expanding the psychometric definition of fairness in achievement testing; (c) developing guidelines for validation studies of test use consequences; and (d) preparing teachers for new roles in instruction and assessment practice. Illustrative strategies for accomplishing these goals are outlined.
Electronic communications and collaboration: the emerging model for computer aided communications in science and medicine

Abstract In the industrial northern hemisphere, the advent of computer-aided communications (CAC) and office automation has provided physicians and scientists with the tools to quickly and accurately obtain information, computer resources, communications, and administrative support. Databases such as those offered by the National Library of Medicine and commercial vendors, once available only through librarian services, are now routinely accessed by individuals, greatly increasing the rapidity and accuracy of literature searches. Formal computer networks such as ARPANET and the emerging university system, BITNET, are being supplemented by a spectrum of host facilities available at reasonable cost via packet-switching utilities. This has greatly facilitated the exchange of information and data among and between individuals and institutions in North America and Western Europe. The enhanced sophistication and declining cost of mid- and micro-hardware and software, has led to the emergence of local, regional, and national networking and sharing of facilities. The promise for the future is that of a global network of interconnected communities provided that certain intractable technical and fiscal problems can be solved.
Identification of Nonhydrocarbon Aromatic Compounds in the Gas Oil Fraction of Kuwait Petroleum

Abstract The amounts of individual components in the nonhydrocarbon aromatic portion of a Kuwait gas oil boiling in the range from 218 to 345°C are reported. Twenty-eight nonhydrocarbon aromatic components were isolated and identified from their separated fractions. The majority are C1-C5 benzo- and dibenzothiophenes. The compounds were isolated principally by using preparative scale high performance liquid chromatography, and identified by nuclear magnetic resonance and gas chromatography supplemented by mass spectrometry.
Low bias flow oscillation with heliox in oleic acid-induced lung injury.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate Co(2) clearance in oleic acid-induced lung injury in rabbits receiving high-frequency oscillatory ventilation with helium-oxygen mixtures through a low bias flow oscillation system designed to conserve expensive gases. DESIGN A prospective, controlled, interventional, in vivo animal laboratory study. SETTING Research laboratory of a health sciences university. SUBJECTS Eight New Zealand White Rabbits. INTERVENTIONS Lung injury (Pao(2)/Fio(2) of <250) was induced by intravenous infusion of oleic acid. Low bias flow oscillation was performed with a modified high-frequency oscillatory ventilation circuit that uses low bias flow (100 mL/kg/min) and a soda lime canister to clear CO(2). Low bias flow oscillation-heliox trials were performed with 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% helium (balanced with oxygen) for 20 mins. Each heliox trial was preceded by a 20-min paired control trial with 40% oxygen/60% nitrogen. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Helium concentrations of 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% decreased Paco(2) by 13% (47 +/- 7 to 41 +/- 8 torr), 17% (50 +/- 7 to 41 +/- 6 torr), 22% (49 +/- 5 to 38 +/- 7 torr), and 26% (48 +/- 7 to 35 +/- 9 torr), respectively. The gradient between partial pressure of alveolar oxygen and Pao(2) was not affected by 60% helium; however, absolute Pao(2) increased by 15%. Fluid and inotropic requirements were similar in both control and heliox low bias flow oscillation trials. CONCLUSION Helium concentrations greater than 40% increase Co(2) clearance from oleic acid-injured lungs of rabbits during low bias flow oscillation. The low bias flow oscillation system makes this possible using 1% of the gas volume required during high-frequency oscillatory ventilation.
D and D* Meson Production Near 4-GeV in e+ e- Annihilation

Abstract We have studied momentum spectra for D0 ( D 0) and D± mesons produced near 4 GeV in e+e− annihilation and find that production is dominated by two-body reactions involving D and D∗ states where the D∗ (charged and neutral) have masses near 2.01 GeV/c2. A detailed study of D momentum spectra near Ecm = 4.028 GeV allows determination of masses and branching ratios of D and D∗ states. Lastly we find that events containing a D0 meson conserve strangeness, thus establishing upper limits on D0- D 0 mixing and on the effects of charm changing neutral currents.
Conversion of profile difference quotients to true gradients at the geometric mean height in the surface layer

Theoretical profiles of wind speed and air temperature can provide ‘synthetic measurements’ at discrete levels which may be compared with actual field measurements. In addition to wind and temperature gradients at any height, profile theory permits us to determine the difference quotients from measurements at discrete levels. It is shown that corrections are required to obtain the gradients at the geometric mean height of the two discrete levels of measurement. The correction factor depends on the measurement height and spacing, profile structure, surface roughness and the measured Richardson number. The correction can be reduced by close spacing of the measurement levels.
Production of excited metal atoms by UV multiphoton dissociation of metal alkyl and metal carbonyl compounds

Abstract A general method is presented for the production of excited metal atoms by the photodissociation of metal alkyl and metal carbonyl compounds using the ArF or KrF laser. The process occurs collisionlessly by the sequential absorption of UV photons. Only specific fine structure components ( J levels) are populated initially.
Scheduling of cargo containers

Containerization of both military and commercial cargo is being undertaken on a large scale. However, many problems have yet to be solved. An important me is the determination of optimum assignments of containers where less than 100 percent containerization of the ship's cargo must be considered. Mathematical models have been developed which relate possible economic advantages with the number of containers and their allocation to ports and commodities.
SU‐FF‐J‐45: A Comparison of Daily Megavoltage CT and Ultrasound Imaging Guided Radiation Therapy for Prostate Cancer

Purpose: To compare the prostate localization capabilities of ultrasound imaging and megavoltage CT (MVCT) for on‐line daily image‐guidedradiotherapy(IGRT) of the prostate cancer.Method and Materials: Daily shifts were analyzed to account for inter‐fractional variations collected from a total of 129 prostate cancer patients, 106 with ultrasound‐based imaging (BAT, B‐mode Acquisition and Targeting) and 23 with MVCT of a TomoTherapy (HiArt) unit. The shifts indicated by the two systems were compared statistically along the right/left (R/L), superior/inferior (S/I), and anterior/posterior (A/P) directions. The systematic and random variations among the daily alignments were calculated. Margins to account for these shifts were estimated. The daily shifts from the first 25 treatment fractions and from the remaining fractions were compared for both systems to examine whether a difference in the prostate motion pattern exists between the first 25 fractions and the rest. Results: The mean shifts and standard deviations along the R/L, S/I, and A/P directions were −0.11±3.80mm, 0.67±4.67mm, and 2.71±6.31mm for BAT localizations and −0.88±5.36mm, 0.41±3.38mm, and 0.91±3.33mm for MVCT localizations, respectively. It is clear that the systematic and random variations in daily shifts based on MVCT were generally smaller than those based on BAT, especially along the A/P direction. A t‐test showed this difference to be statistically significant. The PTV margins estimated to account for daily variations were 6.69 mm and 14.66 mm based on MVCT and BAT data, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in the daily prostate movement pattern between the first 25 fractions and the remaining. Conclusion: The MVCT technique results in smaller variations in daily shifts than ultrasound imaging, indicating that MVCT is more reliable and precise for prostate localization. Ultrasound‐based localization may overestimate the daily prostate motion, particularly in the A/P direction. This work is supported partially by MCW Cancer Center Fotsch Foundation.
Preliminary investigations of the Chelechol ra Orrak Cemetery, Republic of Palau: I, skeletal biology and paleopathology

The Pacific Islands were the last major geographic region settled by humans. The physical remains of these settlers, who probably arrived within the last 4500 years, are rare. At the Chelechol ra Orrak site in the Palau archipelago of Micronesia, the discovery of a cemetery dating to near 3000 BP presents an opportunity to examine what portends to be a large sample of the earliest peoples to inhabit the western Pacific. This report is intended as an introduction to the human skeletal remains recovered to date and a preliminary analysis of the skeletal biology and paleopathology. Although quite fragmentary, analysis reveals a mortuary sample that includes neonates through aged adults and a pathology profile with examples of degenerative joint disease, porotic hyperostosis, and spondylolysis. Though in the early stages of investigation, the cemetery at Chelechol ra Orrak has great potential to aid our understanding of the biological relationships and health of the early inhabitants of Palau.
Single unit responses in the inferior colliculus of the awake and performing rhesus monkey.

1. The activity of single units in the inferior colliculus of unanesthetized monkeys was recorded during performance in an auditory reaction time task. Stimulus intensity and frequency were varied. 2. Spontaneous rate of unit discharge varied from 0 to 78.2 discharges per second, with a mean of 14.7 discharges/sec. 3. Both broadly and narrowly tuned units were encountered in the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus. The temporal discharge pattern of most units varied with changes in stimulus frequency; onset bursts and/or sustained discharge suppression dominated the unit discharge at the edges of receptive fields. 4. Half of the units examined at several intensity levels displayed nonmonotonic relationships between evoked discharge rate and stimulus intensity, with most nonmonotonic units showing a distinct “best intensity”. The temporal response pattern of almost all units varied with changes in stimulus intensity, with onset bursts and discharge suppression increasing in occurrence with increasing intensity. 5. Units recorded in the external nucleus of the inferior colliculus displayed spontaneous rates which were similar to those of central nucleus units, and were affected by variation in stimulus intensity in the same fashion. However, the average initial latency of such units to intense stimuli was longer than the latency of central nucleus units. 6. Variations in unit discharge with changes in stimulus frequency and intensity are consistent with an interaction of excitatory and inhibitory inputs with different initial latencies, dynamic ranges and receptive fields. In particular, our data suggest that inhibitory inputs have longer initial latencies and higher thresholds. Inhibition is stronger at the edges of a unit's receptive field, and dominates at high frequencies in units with low characteristic frequency. 7. Our data are not consistent with previous reports that single units in the unanesthetized animal display uniformly monotonic intensity functions and uniformly broad frequency responses.