Elementary students' physical activity and enjoyment during active video gaming and a modified tennis activity

IntroductionCurrent recommendations suggest that children and adolescents should engage in 60 minutes or more of daily, moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) to achieve optimal health, wellness, fitness, and performance benefits (Carlson, Fulton, Schoenborn, & Loustalot, 2010; Martinez-Gomez et al., 2011). Physical activity benefits include but are not limited to the prevention of chronic disease, support of a healthy immune system, improved glucose metabolism, improved strength, self-esteem, and body image (Sothern, Loftin, Suskind, Udall, & Blecker, 1999). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 2.6 million deaths are due to individuals being overweight or obese and approximately 1.9 million deaths can be attributed to lack of physical activity (Dobbins, Husson, DeCorby, & LaRocca, 2013). Therefore, it is extremely important for young children to participate in physical activity for both disease prevention and health promotion. Although benefits of physical activity have been established, data from the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) International Report indicate sufficient physical activity is reached by fewer than two-thirds of children (Zanotti et al., 2012).The school environment can play a critical role in physical activity promotion through physical education programs, recess periods, and other physical activity/wellness policies (Chotibang, Fongkaew, Mo- suwan, Meininger, & Klunklin, 2013). Recommendations state that elementary school children should participate in at least 150 minutes per week of physical education (NASPE, 2011). Physical education can significantly increase activity during the school day and promote physical activity outside of school (Dale & Corbin, 2000; Morgan, Beighie, Pangrazi, 2007). Sallis, Prochaska, Taylor, Hill and Geraci (1999) examined potential determinants of physical activity in children grades 4-12 and found that enjoyment of physical activity and participation in physical education classes were among the strongest determinants for participation in physical activity. For decades Emmons (1986) and others have noted that the affect experienced during an activity is a good predictor of future physical activity involvement. Specifically, individuals are not likely to continue an activity that does not bring enjoyment or is not fun. Therefore an obvious dilemma in the effort to encourage children to be more physically active is that many sedentary activities are perceived as immediately reinforcing and enjoyable, whereas many physical activities capable of improving health and fitness are perceived as less enjoyable and less immediately reinforcing (Motl et al., 2001). Therefore, physical activities that provide reinforcement and enjoyment will support optimal physical education environments, and potentially influence physical activity participation. Playing computer and video games are a very popular free time activity among children and adolescents. In fact, 63% of school-age children between ages 11 - 15 years reported a preference for playing computer or video games during free time (Nippold, Duthie, & Larsen, 2005). Recent reports from the Kaiser Family Foundation suggest that the typical American youth between 8 and 18 years of age spends approximately 2 hours a day playing video games (Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2005). According to Nippold et al. (2005) traditional video game play is associated with sedentary activities; however the current generation of video gaming requires interactive movement and is called "Active Video Gaming" (AVG). Mears and Hansen (2009) define AVG as "video games that provide physical activity or exercise through interactive play, these games go beyond simple hand/finger movements" (p. 26). Graf, Pratt, Hester, and Short (2009) explain the purpose of AVG as getting players to directly interface their physical or sport-based movements so they control or coincide with movement activity within the video game, thereby eliciting physical activity from the gamer in a fun environment. …