Unique Influences on American Indian Relationship Quality: An American-Indian and Caucasian Comparison

INTRODUCTIONAmerican Indian families have unique strengths despite the discrimination and trauma that have weakened their cultural and familial structures. For example, American Indian traditions, such as strong respect for tribal elders, family, and community as well as their traditional beliefs about the sacred and essential nature of the conjugal relationship, have brought societal stability throughout their history (Day, 2007; Red Horse, 1997; Rivers, 2005). Today, when these traditional beliefs or practices are strong, many American Indians remain resilient against the risk factors more frequent in their ethnic group, such as higher violence rates (Greenfield and Smith, 1999), suicide (Olson and Wahab, 2006), and substance abuse (SAMHSA, 2010). However, these risk factors have over time corresponded with the weakening of their familial and cultural defenses. The familial and cultural bonds between parents and children were dramatically disrupted when the United States government institutionalized thousands of American Indian children in boarding schools and disciplined them into the Caucasian culture, extinguishing their own cultural birth heritage. Therefore, American Indian children have been culturally alienated not only from their birth parents and their communities, but from the Caucasian culture into which they were initiated (Campbell and Evans-Campbell, 2011). Consequently, American Indian resiliency has deteriorated as evidenced by having the their high rates of substance abuse (SAMHSA, 2010), violent victimization (Greenfield and Smith, 1999), and teenage pregnancies (Berry, Shillington, Hohman, Peak, and Hohman, 2000). Suicide, depression, and anxiety are also high among American Indians (Olson and Wahab, 2006).Since the elimination of the US practice of institutionalization on American Indian children, we have not seen the return of resiliency we have hoped. We have not seen the return of strong families which have been found to be a protective factor against individuals' maladaptive behaviors and broader societal ills (Holman and Birch, 2001; Walcott, 1999; Zimet and Jacob, 2001). Berlin (1987), Grobsmith (1989), and Whitbeck, Hoyt, Chen, and Stubben (2002) have found a continuing connection between risk factors and fragile American Indian families. Since American Indians continue to have higher rates of violence, drug use, and mental illnesses than do Caucasians, it is likely that their current family patterns may differ from those of the dominate, Caucasian group. Consequently, in this study we have focused our investigation on the differences in family patterns between American Indians and Caucasians. Additionally, because family patterns are often intergenerational, we have also investigated the influence of American Indian relationship patterns from one generation to the next, in light of historical events that have disrupted these families.In order to investigate American Indian relationship patterns as compared to Caucasians, we have reviewed pertinent theoretical, historical, and cultural contexts surrounding American Indian relationships. Then, we investigated the influence of American Indian family-oforigin quality on the child's later adult, romantic relationship quality (see Figure 1 for this model). Lastly, we investigated the differences and similarities of family-of-origin and couple relationship qualities and processes between American Indians and Caucasians.The Context: Historical Trauma and Family Well-BeingAmerican Indian history illustrates possible reasons to suspect differences in their family quality compared to Caucasians. For example, they have suffered familial, cultural, economic, and social degeneration caused by decades of assimilating and discriminatory practices and policies. For example, the United States government forced thousands to relocate into unfamiliar territories (e.g., Trail of Tears). Sickness, violence, death, hunger, and loneliness were common (Campbell and Evans-Campbell, 2011). …