Engagement, enjoyment, and energy expenditure during active video game play

Physical inactivity is a major and pervasive public health problem with impacts on diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and a host of other negative health outcomes (Dunstan et al., 2010; Hu, Li, Colditz, Willett, & Manson, 2003). Exercise-themed video games are popular, and the addition of physical activity to video gaming has been suggested as a method for increasing physical activity during leisure time (Lanningham-Foster et al., 2006; Maloney et al., 2008). There is mixed evidence as to whether video game-enhanced exercise produces greater energy expenditure and activity intensity than traditional exercise (Annesi & Mazas, 1997; L. Graves, Stratton, Ridgers, & Cable, 2007; Haddock, Siegel, & Wikin, 2009; Warburton et al., 2007). Also, while little is known about the mechanisms by which video games may affect energy expenditure, several psychosocial variables may exert influence. One such psychosocial variable that has been shown to be highly associated with physical activity is enjoyment (Rhodes, Fiala, & Conner, 2009). Previous studies have found effects of body motion on enjoyment (Aymerich-Franch, 2010; Limperos, Schmierbach, Kegerise, & Dardis, 2011; Skalski, Tamborini, Shelton, Buncher, & Lindmark, 2011) and differences in enjoyment across video games and game types (Bailey & McInnis, 2011; L. E. Graves, Ridgers, Williams, et al., 2010; Lyons et al., 2011; Penko & Barkley, 2010). Studies of video game-enhanced stationary bicycles have found that these bicycles produced higher intensity physical activity than traditional stationary cycles (Rhodes, Warburton, & Bredin, 2009; Warburton et al., 2009), and have also found positive effects of enjoyment on adherence (Rhodes, Warburton, et al., 2009). Studies of motion-controlled music games, such as Guitar Hero and Donkey Konga, have found that enjoyment can produce (and be produced by) movements in addition to those required by the game (Bianchi-Berthouze, 2009; Bianchi-Berthouze, Kim, & Patel, 2007). For example, players may engage in task-facilitating actions (those not required but that facilitate control of the game, such as standing to play guitar), role-related actions (those related to their role in the game, such as dancing like a rock star while playing guitar), emotional expressions (such as jumping with excitement during an especially enjoyable song), and social behavior (such as motioning to a friend while playing) (Bianchi-Berthouze, 2009). Though greater game skill likely affects energy expenditure in music games due to increased amounts of dancing and jumping, additional non-required movements may increase energy expenditure even in those with lower skill. These results suggest that enjoyment likely has a positive effect on energy expended during play of active video games, but the extent of this effect is not clear. Recently, increasing emphasis has been placed on defining media enjoyment as the satisfaction of psychological needs (Przybylski, Rigby, & Ryan, 2010; Tamborini, Bowman, Eden, Grizzard, & Organ, 2010). Several variables may affect energy expenditure due to their effects on enjoyment. Distraction from fatigue and/or pain associated with physical activity by diverting attention from bodily sensations likely impacts enjoyment. Distraction via other media has been found to increase activity intensity during exercise (Annesi, 2001; De Bourdeaudhuij et al., 2002). The similar concepts of presence and engagement are often used as a measure of distraction from the real world in a technologically mediated virtual environment, such as exists in many video games (Skalski, Denny, & Shelton, 2010). Higher levels of presence/engagement in a video game have been associated with greater decreases in pain perception (Hoffman et al., 2004), and preliminary data show that movement-based gaming, such as playing a dance simulation game, can increase presence as compared to other media (Aymerich-Franch, 2010; Bianchi-Berthouze et al., 2007). Though many use the terms interchangeably, presence and engagement are typically defined as different but highly related concepts. Engagement specifically refers to attentional distraction and feelings of mental immersion rather than feelings of being “in the game” (International Society for Presence Research, 2000). Engagement may be a more appropriate measure for media-based distraction than the more general concept of presence. Little is known about the effects of distraction from the real world via use of an active video game, or how this distraction may relate to enjoyment and energy expenditure. Perceptions of competence have consistently been found to affect enjoyment of video gaming (Przybylski et al., 2010), and objective measures of competence (i.e., skill level) appear to affect activity intensity during dance simulation game play (Sell, Lillie, & Taylor, 2008). Perceptions of control over the game may also affect enjoyment (Klimmt, Hartmann, & Frey, 2007; Limperos et al., 2011). Without adequate control, games can feel less interactive and more frustrating. Control has been conceptualized as necessary but not sufficient for video game enjoyment (Przybylski et al., 2010). The literature on gaming and physical activity suggests that enjoyment is likely associated with energy expended during active game play. Additionally, several psychological variables may have indirect effects on energy expenditure via their effects on enjoyment. Dance simulation games have been studied for the purposes of estimating energy expenditure (Tan, Aziz, Chua, & Teh, 2002; Thin & Poole, 2010; Unnithan, Houser, & Fernhall, 2006), but participants’ affective and cognitive reactions to these popular games are rarely explored. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of engagement, perceived competence, and perceived control with enjoyment and energy expenditure. We hypothesized that the relationships of engagement, perceived competence, and perceived control with energy expenditure would be mediated by enjoyment.