More Than Three Decades of Self-Directed Learning: From Whence Have We Come?:

Little did I know in the early seventies when I first read Allen Tough's work (1971) that I would be off on an almost 35-year involvement with self-directed learning (SDL). However, three things took place in 1972 triggering this career focus. Besides reading that book and hearing Tough present his research at a national conference, Malcolm Knowles came to the University of Nebraska (where I was a faculty member) to discuss andragogy with faculty and students (Knowles, 1970). This triggered self-examination of my teaching that soon resulted in several fundamental changes in how I worked with learners. Finally, as a new assistant professor, I was searching for an inquiry area to focus my research and facilitate a march toward promotion and tenure. That year I chose SDL. Thus began a long journey of personal scholarship and the guiding of graduate students' research that has resulted in several dissertations, published materials including involvement in three related book projects (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Hiemstra & Brockett, 1994; Hiemstra & Sisco, 1990), considerable knowledge about SDL, and related material in a Web page (Hiemstra, 2005b). The title of this article suggests a look at the roots and status of SDL. I provide such an assessment in the next two sections. However, my continuous years of experience with SDL also have given me several insights that may be of value. Thus, I conclude with a few thoughts about the future of SDL. The Influentials I almost hesitate to include this section, because describing a few influential people in SDL means that many others are left out. However, space limitations require some selectivity, so I describe only four specific individuals in this section. Cyril Houle deserves much credit for influencing the explosion of research, thought and literature in SDL. His Inquiring Mind (1961) and classification of adult learners into three distinct groups, the third of which he dubbed "learning-oriented" or those who participate for the sake of personal enjoyment, led many to rethink the way adults prefer to learn. I highly recommend reading this seminal book. Houle served as an inspiration to many people during his long life. He also served as dissertation advisor to Allen Tough and Malcolm Knowles, the next two influentials listed below. A recent paper by Brockett and Donaghy (2005) explored the connections between Houle, Tough, and Knowles. Tough's dissertation on adult self teachers resulted in his first two publications (1966, 1967). Subsequently, a research project in Toronto resulted in the 1971 book and a discovery that most learners prefer to plan and direct their own learning. His groundbreaking research and the interview protocol he developed led to many subsequent efforts to understand adults' learning projects and a growing awareness worldwide about self-directed learners. At about the same time, Knowles began his promotion of andragogy. Although there has been considerable debate since then about the concept, it quickly began to draw attention to the adult education field in a way not previously experienced. It also helped many teachers and trainers understand the importance of involving learners in the educational process. Subsequently, Knowles developed his ideas into a teaching and learning guide aimed directly at the SDL concept (1975). As the interest in SDL grew, over the next several years many of the most important publications were journal articles. They included the works of such scholars as Brockett (1985), Brookfield (1984), Caffarella and O'Donnell (1987), Garrison (1992), Gibbons and his colleagues (1980), Grow (1994), Spear and Mocker (1984), Tennant (1992), and Tough (1978). Beginning in the early nineties, the number of full book treatments on SDL began in earnest. Besides the International Symposia books noted in the next paragraph, a number of important resources were added to the growing SDL literature base (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Candy, 1991; Confessore & Confessore, 1992; Hiemstra & Sisco, 1990; Straka, 2000). …