Perfectionism and Self-Development: Implications for College Adjustment.

As constructs, perfectionism and narcissism have rich conceptual histories. Although the tenor in the literature has been a decided emphasis on the maladaptive aspects of these constructs, both lend themselves to relatively healthy as well as unhealthy implications for adjustment and both seem to influence developmental mental health trajectories. For example, in Kohut's description of self-development (Kohut, 1971, 1977), perfectionism and self-development seem to be intertwined very early in development. The ways in which children's perfectionistic and narcissistic needs are met by parents play a crucial role in the cohesiveness of the child's self-development and in the management of self-esteem. Healthy narcissism, the cohesive self according to Kohut and Wolf (1978), emerges as a result of what he described as "good-enough" parental responsiveness to children's mirroring and idealizing needs. Specifically, children need to experience admiration of their "vigour [sic], greatness, and perfection" (Kohut & Wolf, 1978, p. 414) by parent figures ("I am perfect, you must admire me"). Children also need to view parent figures as terrific and all-powerful ("You are perfect, and I am a part of you"). According to Kohut, mild disruptions of admiration or idealization are necessary for healthy self-development. When grandiose needs are adequately met, the child, and later the adult, can be expected to develop assertiveness and a healthy expression of ambitions. Moreover, when idealization needs are met, realistic admiration of others and a clear sense of goals and ideals ensue. These characteristics help ensure subsequent adjustment outcomes when the child or adult is confronted with challenging experiences or disappointments. Chronic disruptions in meeting grandiose and idealization needs result in stagnated self-development and pathological narcissism. For example, children who do not experience reasonable empathic resonance from parents have limited capacity to manage self-esteem as adults, expect others to admire them, and are vulnerable to shame and embarrassment (Patton & Robbins, 1982). These individuals may be exceedingly sensitive to critical feedback, to the point that they respond aggressively to ego threats (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998). According to Kohut and Wolf (1978), children (then adults) who have unavailable or unsuitable targets for idealization continually seek out others (or ideas, religious conversions, political movements) to provide ideals and soothing caretaking functions that were absent or disappointed in parent--child interactions. In sum, then, healthy narcissism or healthy self-development denotes authentic self-confidence, capacity for empathy, assertiveness, ambitions, and intact self-esteem. Unhealthy narcissism denotes a veneer of self-confidence housing an otherwise fragile sense of self, with unclear ambitions other than needing to feel superior to, and admired by, others. The development of perfectionism has also been framed within models emphasizing self-development, parental responsiveness, and the regulation of self-esteem. For example, Hamachek (1978) linked the development of what he called "normal" perfectionism to observing a parent experiencing enjoyment and satisfaction from flexible adherence to high standards, or from observing disorganized parents and then wanting to impose order or organization on an otherwise disorganized system. The self-esteem of normal perfectionists was not expected to be irreparably damaged when standards were not met or failures were experienced. On the other hand, "neurotic" perfectionists were described as experiencing something of a self-esteem bind. According to Hamachek, neurotic perfectionists experience considerable concern regarding their performance and meeting high standards, but even when standards are met or projects impeccably completed, self-esteem remains low, absent, or vulnerable. …