Educating Muslim American Youth in a Post-9/11 Era: A Critical Review of Policy and Practice

Through a review of educational research literature this piece explores how federal politics and policies have trickled down into secondary schools, and what the effects of these policies have been on secondary schools, paying particular attention to the effects on Muslim American youth. The main research questions are: What federal and state policies, specifically those constructed as measures of ensuring national security, have affected secondary schools? What are the effects of this policy on Muslim American youth? What pedagogical practices can be changed to engage these youth in active citizenship--in a post 9/11 context- for meaningful inclusion and participation in their societies? This review will critically examine the USA PATRIOT Act, a federal law designed and implemented after the terrorist attacked of 9/11, with the aim of understanding how the law has contributed to the growing national anti-Muslim sentiment. Findings suggest that this law has contributed to the over-targeting of Arabs and Arab-American families and students, and has had damaging effects on their educational outcomes, psychosocial well-being and sense of nation and belonging. Additionally, findings suggest that laws framed around securitization are constructed around problematic ideologies that lie beneath dominant and main-stream discourses around Islam. ********** Introduction: Living in a post 9/11 America The terrorist attacks of September 11th on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, though nearly a decade ago, are still indelibly marked in the lasting consciousness of Americans and people worldwide. The literature suggests that living in a post 9/11 America has been an increasing challenge for Arabs, Arab Americans, and Muslims as they are often seen as the "other," a threat to the nation, and inherently linked to terrorism and violence (Ajrouch, 2004; Akram & Johnson, 2004; Jamal & Naber, 2008). This challenge appears to be especially demanding for Arab American youth as they navigate education in this post-9/11 context (Abu El-Haj, 2006, 2007, 2009; Abu El-Haj & Bonet, 2011; Bayoumi, 2008; Wingfield, 2006; Zaal, Salah & Fine, 2007). As the most visible hand of the state and oftentimes the first one that students encounter, public schools have profound effects on the ability of students to negotiate their sense of nation, belonging and citizenship (Banks 2004, 2008; Suarez-Orosco, 2001; Wingfield, 2006). It is in light of the growing anti-Arab and anti-Muslim sentiment, (as evidenced by incidents such the backlash against building of an Islamic youth center "near" Ground Zero in New York City and the Floridian pastor who gained attention worldwide after threatening to burn dozens of Qurans) that I situate this literature review. (1) Through this review of educational research, I pose a few key questions: What federal and state policies, specifically those constructed as measures of ensuring national security, have found their ways into public secondary schools? What are the effects of those policies on Muslim American youth (2)? And finally, what pedagogical practices can be changed to engage these youth in active citizenship--in a post 9/11 context- for meaningful inclusion and participation in their societies? The Patriot Act: From Federal Courts to Public Schools The Patriot Act is arguably the most pervasive of securitization policies issued soon after 9/11-one that indubitably had the most negative impact on Arab and Muslim American youth. The USA PATRIOT Act, an acronym for "Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism," was submitted several days after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. It was drafted by the Department of Justice to increase the powers of federal agencies to conduct searches, use electronic surveillance to intercept communications both nationally and internationally, and detain suspected terrorists. …