Host immune response to intestinal amebiasis.

Entamoeba histolytica is an invasive enteric protozoan parasite that causes amebiasis. Globally, diarrheal disease is second only to pneumonia as a leading cause of death in children under five, and intestinal amebiasis is one of the top ten causes of severe diarrhea in the developing world. Amebiasis is more common in malnourished children, a state that afflicts approximately one-third of children in the developing world. In the critical first year of life, 11% of Bangladeshi infants living in poverty suffer from E. histolytica diarrhea [1], [2]. There is currently no vaccine for this devastating disease, thus an understanding of the human immune response toward the parasite would greatly enhance the ability to develop effective immunotherapies. The host deploys a series of immune defenses against the parasite as it invades the colon. The ameba, however, has developed complex strategies to evade host defenses and promote its own survival. Here, we summarize the dynamics of the interaction of parasite with host and its importance in the pathogenesis of amebiasis (Figure 1). Figure 1 A. Host Immune Response to Intestinal Amebiasis. Innate Immunity Stomach acid serves as an important first line of defense against enteropathogens through its ability to kill acid-sensitive microorganisms. However, infectious amebic cysts are highly resistant and survive passage through the acidic environment of the stomach. In the intestine, the next layer of innate defense may be the mucus layer, which is thought to act as a protective barrier, preventing E. histolytica from invading intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). Mucin, a major constituent of the intestinal mucus layer, is a glycoprotein secreted by goblet cells and submucosal glands. Mucin glycoproteins bind to and inhibit the Gal/GalNAc adherence lectin of the parasite, preventing in vitro adherence and killing of CHO cells [3]. Trophozoites, however, can disrupt the mucus layer and intestinal barrier by secreting cysteine proteases (CPs) and glycosidases to allow for penetration of the colonic mucosa. Specifically, E. histolytica cysteine protease-A5 (EhCP-A5) degrades mucin-2 (MUC2) and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins [4]. The importance of cysteine proteases was demonstrated by an ex vivo human intestinal model, where EhCP-A5–silenced parasites failed to penetrate into the colonic lamina propria [5]. IECs exposed to E. histolytica trophozoites secrete potent chemokines, such as IL-8, resulting in immune cell recruitment and infiltration of the lamina propria and intestinal epithelium [6]. Neutrophils are one of the first immune cells to respond to amebic invasion. Neutrophils activated by interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), or lipopolysaccharides (LPS) carry out amebicidal activity in vitro by releasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) [7], [8]. Depletion of neutrophils with anti-Gr-1 antibodies resulted in exacerbated intestinal disease in murine models, supporting the protective role of neutrophils in amebiasis [9]. It should be noted, however, that anti-Gr-1 antibodies can deplete other granulocytes such as eosinophils. Macrophages also play a crucial role in the host response against intestinal amebiasis. Macrophages are amebicidal after stimulation with IFN-γ or TNF-α [10], [11]. Several amebic antigens are known to activate these cells via pattern recognition receptors. Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 expression in macrophages is upregulated when exposed to the Gal/GalNAc lectin of E. histolytica, triggering pro-inflammatory cytokine production via NF-κB activation [12]. Macrophages that lack TLR-2 and TLR-4 displayed impaired response to E. histolytica lipopeptidophosphoglycan (LPPG), suggesting that pattern recognition is essential to the immune response [13]. Additionally, E. histolytica DNA can activate macrophages through interacting with TLR-9 [14]. Amebicidal activity of macrophages is contributed to by the production of nitric oxide (NO) from L-arginine, which is mediated by macrophage nitric oxide synthase. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)–deficient mice were more susceptible to amebic liver abscess and to E. histolytica–induced hepatocytic apoptosis, implicating a critical role for NO in the host defense against amebiasis [15].