Chapter 8 – Human Nature

As we would expect from a highly evolved, very cognizant animal in an extremely stressful contemporary environment, human behavior is quite complex, its expressions differing widely in individuals with different personality traits and different stresses. This chapter focuses on the basic features of anatomy and behavior as it relates to humans and other animals and elaborates on certain expressions of human nature. Concepts discussed here prepare the reader for Chapter 9 on alternate human behavior. While the mind of humans is capable of retrospective and predictive thinking and has been a driving force in the development of extraordinary technological achievements in the contemporary world, it appears that rising signs of intelligence have been accompanied by both the retention of old survival traits and a vast array of new anatomical, behavioral, and emotional changes. All such traits combined define the nature of the dominant contemporary human. To understand the human animal, a brief taxonomical sketch is provided, followed by an explanation of the rise of advanced hominines, including the hardships they faced, as well as the anatomical and behavioral similarities and differences, as compared to other mammals. Some of the predecessor traits that humans have carried along with them as they developed through the throws of human evolution are as follows: Humans have retained an animalistic propensity for living up to their biotic potential. As with other organisms, this is and always has been a survival strategy against food deprivation, predation, and parasitism. Under natural conditions, animals that overproduce have their population reduced by inadequate food supplies, parasitism, and predation. Since food supplies have been adequate (primarily in industrialized countries) for many members of a thriving human population, contemporary humans do not have predators to keep their population in check (other than themselves), and parasites have been eliminated or severely cut back in many parts of the developed world, the human population is increasing almost at an exponential rate and growing to a dangerous level. Actually, there are many signs indicating that we have long surpassed the environmental (ecological) carrying capacity. Further, we are stretching the limits of our food production by creating new, larger, and more abundant supplies of seeds, fruits, and vegetables, using pesticides and genetically modified approaches to keep insects from feeding on our food plants, taking increasing amounts of forest for developing pastures and feeding most of our water and grain to grow food animals, using fossil fuels to make plant fertilizers, and paying little attention to decreasing our populations. And while we are in the process of engulfing genetically designed foods, we are putting ourselves in an extremely vulnerable position, since we are not aware of what these foods are doing to us. Like other social creatures, humans have retained a propensity for developing agonistic behaviors and dominance hierarchies that affect every part of human life. Also, as with other social species, such hierarchies tend to give structure to human society, facilitating the development of a societal division of labor. At the same time, they contribute to a waning tolerance and intrahuman conflict, for example, aggression and wartime behavior, at many levels of human society. Paradoxically, humans, like other social animals, express territorial behavior, another survival strategy that provides dominant individuals and populations with adequate food, mates, status, and protection from predators and conspecific intruders. However, territoriality, combined with an enlarged brain, a dominant status, technological skills, a noncaring attitude toward our cohabitants, and an overpopulated world is resulting in an imbalance in species diversity and increased tension among different groups of humans. To avoid conflict within their various subpopulations, humans have established a system of world trade, a social mechanism that helps distribute resources to individuals who are unable to provide such resources for themselves and those at the edge of human existence. Humans and other social animals often express altruistic behavior in terms of relatedness. Thus, as with other animals, humans are usually more altruistic toward related individuals and the groups they belong to than toward individuals and groups they do not know or belong to. Humans and other social creatures share a reciprocally altruistic nature, allowing them to engage in social endeavors that provide the most abundant advantages to more than one party. This has become especially important in business and politics where individuals or companies can benefit one another, and it is best demonstrated in humans because of their cognizant brain and ability to contemplate such actions. Selfishness is a behavior that has been absolutely necessary for survival throughout the four billion years of evolution for all organisms. Strangely, selfishness and an extremely dominant attitude seem to counter acts of altruism and reciprocity. However, all of these behaviors can be selfish in certain respects. Altruism and reciprocity, for instance, are ways for a species or an individual to acquire the most for its colony and species. And since they are directed more toward close relatives, they benefit their own family unit and species but possibly ignore or destroy the benefits of other groups or species. Deception, another selfish survival strategy, provides the needs of individuals who require them. There are many examples of deceit in all animal populations, and they are used for many reasons. Deception appears to be especially valuable in the trials of life and conflict. Toleration is a behavior that tends to detoxify overly expressed dominance in social groups of animals. As with expressions of dominance, toleration varies considerably within a population of social animals, including humans. Unfortunately, toleration is a behavioral expression that is often lacking in human society unless it benefits the person or group that expresses it.