Cross-National Comparison of Consumer Attitudes toward Consumerism in Four Developing Countries.

In the last three decades, consumerism has received much attention in business and academic literature. Articles have commented on consumerism's importance, underlying consequences, implications, and future (e.g., Bloom and Greyser 1981; Buskirk and Rothe 1970; Evers 1983; Johnston 1985; Maynes 1990; McIlhenny 1990). However, consumerism has been primarily a concern of more developed countries (MDCs) where consumer protection is quite advanced (Kaynak 1986; Thorelli 1990; Thorelli and Sentell 1982). In less developed countries (LDCs), the situation differs greatly (for consumer and marketplace differences between MDCs and LDCs, see Thorelli 1988, 531). In these countries, the marketplace has been a seller's haven where consumers have little or no protection, education, or information about the market (Kerton 1980; Thorelli 1990). Thus, Thorelli (1988) has suggested that priorities for consumer policy for LDCs, i.e., consumer protection, education, and information, should be exactly the reverse of those in MDCs, i.e., consumer information, education, and protection. It is important to examine the extent of consumerism and to determine the degree to which consumer protection, education, and information (i.e., consumer emancipation) are available to various consumer groups. Only by assessing current state of development of these consumer issues and desires of consumers with regard to consumerism can these countries begin emancipating their citizens (Thorelli 1990). The study's purpose is to report on attitudes toward consumerism in four developing countries--Singapore, India, Nigeria, and Kenya. This study also examines and compares underlying dimensionality of consumerism responses in these four countries. These four countries represent two distinct areas (Africa and Asia) adding an interesting dimension to the comparison. Finally, the paper discusses directions for research. BACKGROUND Consumerism has been defined as "a social movement seeking to augment the rights and powers of buyers in relation to sellers" (Kotler 1972, 49). McIlhenny saw it as "a citizens' movement which will make broad-reaching social, ecological and political demands on suppliers of goods and services" (1990, 5). Maynes defined it as "the voicing of consumer discontent and the furtherance of corrective actions" (1990, 6). In a third-world perspective, it has been defined as "the efforts made either by the consumer himself, the government, and/or independent organizations to protect the consumer from the unscrupulous practices of businesses in their quest for profit" (Onah 1979, 126). A distinction worth noting is, while consumer interest in the LDCs is homogeneous but unarticulated, it is fragmented but well-articulated in MDCs. In addition, the consumer movement in the MDCs includes a diverse set of organizations with diverse concerns (Herrmann 1970, 1980; Herrmann, Walsh, and Warland 1988; Herrmann and Warland 1976; Thorelli 1988). With few exceptions (e.g., Arndt, Barksdale, and Perreault 1980; Kim 1985; Onah 1979; Perreault, Barksdale, and Rodner 1979; Stanton, Chandran, and Lowenhar 1981; Thorelli and Sentell 1982), consumerism literature has focused on the advanced, free market economies (United States, Germany, Denmark, France, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, and Canada) as well as a few other selected developed countries (Barker 1987; Straver 1977). As a result, most studies have focused on developed rather than less developed countries. Note that, according to Mayer (1989), consumerism in developing countries differs from that of developed countries in that two broad factors shape the LDC's consumers. The first factor is the indigenous characteristics of markets and consumers. This is reflected by (a) lack of adequate levels of quality control of locally manufactured products, (b) inadequate transportation and storage facilities, and (c) low importance placed on consumer satisfaction by sellers who willingly sell adulterated goods. …