The Use of Token Economies in Preschool Classrooms: Practical and Philosophical Concerns.

Behavior problems are increasing in frequency among preschool children. Thus, preschool teachers must be prepared to manage the increasing disruptive behaviors exhibited in their classrooms. Because positive behavioral management strategies are accepted by teachers and have been proven effective, token economies may be promising interventions to manage disruptive behavior in the classroom. However, little research has been conducted in this area. In addition, there are developmental, practical, and philosophical issues that should be considered before token economies are recommended for preschool classrooms. This paper reviews the relevant research in this area and addresses each of these concerns. THE USE OF TOKEN ECONOMIES IN PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: PRACTICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL CONCERNS The prevalence of behavior problems among preschool children (age 2-5) has been increasing in frequency, and current estimates range from 2% (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder; ADHD) to 17% (oppositional defiant disorder) (Campbell, 1990; Lavigne et al., 1998). In addition, the author stated that ADHD usually was comorbid with another disruptive behavior disorder. Consequently, it appears that teachers will have increasingly more children with behavior problems in their classrooms. Despite this possibility, 72% of teachers reported feeling insufficiently prepared to manage behavior problems in the classroom (Merrett & Wheldall, 1993). Thus, providing preschool teachers with skills and strategies to manage disruptive behavior effectively in the classroom is essential. Behavioral management strategies (e.g., positive reinforcement, time out, response cost) have proven effective in accomplishing this task (Martin & Pear, 1996; Miltenberger, 2000). Despite their effectiveness, ease of implementation and teacher acceptability of behavioral techniques must be considered when deciding which strategies to recommend. For example, several studies have found that time out is an effective way to manage problem behaviors in preschool children (e.g., Eisenstadt, Eyberg, McNeil, Newcomb, & Funderburk, 1993; Greene, Kamps, Wyble, & Ellis, 1999; Roberts, Hatzenbuehler, & Bean, 1981). However, extensive training in the use of time out is required to use the procedure effectively with aggressive and defiant children (Barkley, 1997; Hembree-Kigin & McNeil, 1995; Greene et al.), and it may not be feasible for teachers to obtain such training. A particular problem for preschool teachers is that children with behavior problems often refuse to stay in time out (McNeil, Clemens-Mowrer, Gurwitch, & Funderburk, 1994; Taylor & Miller, 1997). In addition to causing a major distraction, time out refusal also represents a safety risk for both children and teachers. Thus, a less confrontive, easier, and more positive means of managing disruptive behavior in the classroom, such as a token economy, should be considered for preschool teachers. A token economy (e.g., star chart) is a program in which individuals earn tokens (e.g., poker chips, stickers) for exhibiting targeted behaviors (e.g., compliance), and can exchange these tokens for rewards (e.g., activity, snack) (Martin & Pear, 1996; Miltenberger, 2000). Often, a response cost procedure is used in addition to a token economy. A response cost is characterized by the removal of a certain amount of tokens when an undesirable behavior is exhibited (Martin & Pear). For the purpose of this paper, token economies will be discussed without the addition of the response cost procedure, unless otherwise specified. Because preschool teachers have to manage children's behavior as well as teach academic readiness and social skills, a classroom behavioral management system should be simple to implement and use in order to allow the teacher to conduct his or her class without major disruptions. Miltenberger (2000) discussed the fact that token economies can require various degrees of effort depending upon their complexity. …