Development of Ego-resiliency: Relations to Observed Parenting and Polymorphisms in the Serotonin Transporter Gene During Early Childhood

Ego-resiliency is an individual characteristic that reflects adaptability to environmental stress and change (Block & Block, 1980). In general, children who have higher levels of ego-resiliency are better able to adapt to changing or stressful circumstances, shift behaviors as needed, and use problem-solving strategies flexibly. In contrast, children with relatively low ego-resiliency display little adaptive flexibility, are disquieted by new and changing circumstances, have the tendency to perseverate or become disorganized when dealing with stress, and have difficulty recouping after traumatic experiences (Block & Block, 2006). Block and Block (1980) suggested that individual differences in ego-resiliency can be observed early in life through examining how infants respond to environmental changes, how they can be comforted, and how they equilibrate physiological responses. At age 2, characteristics such as, such as having a warm and positive relationship with caregivers, being effective at finding comfort when needed, confronting problems persistently and enthusiastically, and finding pleasure in mastery are considered reflective of children’s ego-resiliency (Arend, Gove, & Sroufe, 1979). As children reach preschool age, ego-resiliency is evident in how a child is able to express affect in a situationally appropriate manner, and whether they are organized, persistent, and flexible when encountering challenges and stressors (Arend, Gove, & Sroufe, 1979; Block & Block, 1980). Ego-resiliency has been associated with a range of positive developmental outcomes across childhood including social competence (Block & Block, 1980; Cumberland-Li, Eisenberg, & Reiser, 2004), low externalizing and internalizing symptoms (e.g. Chuang, Lamb, & Hwang, 2006; Hofer, Eisenberg, & Reiser, 2010), and cognitive functioning and attentiveness (e.g. Martel et al., 2007). Given these demonstrated associations with positive development and emotional adjustment, it is important to examine factors that contribute to individual differences in children’s ego-resiliency. The Blocks (1980, 2006) hypothesized that both genetic and experiential influences contribute to children’s ego-resiliency. In terms of environmental factors, it is believed that nurturant, supportive parenting fosters ego-resiliency in children (Block & Block, 1980). Supporting this assertion, Stams, Juffer, Van IJzendoorn, and Hoksbergen (2001) found that an intervention to improve maternal sensitivity and responsiveness when children were six and nine months of age predicted higher levels of ego-resiliency at age seven. In contrast, controlling, intrusive parenting has been negatively associated with ego-resiliency during early childhood (Taylor, Eisenberg, Spinrad & Widaman, in press). Lower levels of ego-resiliency have also been found in toddlers who display contradictory attachment behaviors when under stress (Smeekens, Riksen-Walraven, & Van-Bakel, 2009) and in maltreated school-age children (Shonk & Cicchetti, 2001). Sensitive parents most likely foster ego-resiliency by assisting their children in coping with stressful situations, modeling effective coping strategies, providing appropriate support when children are overwhelmed, and exposing them to manageable, age-appropriate stressors. In contrast, overprotective, intrusive or harsh parents are more likely to discourage children’s independent behaviors and undermine the development of independent coping skills (Eisenberg, Cumberland, & Spinrad, 1998; Power, 2004). Genetic influences are also likely to contribute to individual differences in children’s ego-resiliency (Block & Block, 2006; Lemery-Chalfant, 2010). Some of the first sources of individual differences in personality are the result of biologically based temperamental characteristics (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997). Genetic variation can be viewed as contributing to positive adaptation or to maladjustment (Rutter, 2006) and can also affect an individual’s sensitivity to components of the environment (Shanahan & Hofer, 2005). In particular, it has been hypothesized that some individuals, for genetic or temperamental reasons, are more reactive than others to variation in both positive and negative environmental contexts, a concept referred to as differential susceptibility (Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Ellis, Boyce, Belsky, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2011). However, although researchers are increasingly examining the role of genetic mechanisms in the development of successful adaptation to challenge and adversity (e.g. Kim-Cohen, & Gold, 2009; Lemery-Chalfant, 2010), thus far genetic contributions to the construct of ego-resiliency have not been examined in children. The present study, therefore, examined the relations of children’s ego-resiliency with the serotonin transporter (SLC6A4, or 5HTT) gene. It was plausible that this gene is linked to children’s ego-resiliency because variation in SLC6A4 has been associated with differential reactivity to environmental stress exposure and, in turn, with psychological health such as elevated stress sensitivity, depression, and neurotism (for a review, see Caspi, et al., 2010). Thus, this gene appears linked to constructs that could be viewed as the inverse of ego-resiliency.