The Nuclei of Atoms and the new Periodic System

Structure of atomic nuclei; helium-hydrogen hypothesis. The present paper is a summary and extension of previous articles by the author on this subject. Besides the direct evidence afforded by radioactive transformation and by the disruption of atomic nuclei by alpha rays, the data upon which any theory of nuclear structure must be based are atomic masses, atomic numbers which are supposed equal to nuclear charges, and atomic stabilities which are supposed to be related to the relative abundance of the elements in nature. Now the fact that the atomic weights of the 27 lightest elements and of the radioactive elements are approximately integers and that the difference in atomic weight between elements whose atomic numbers differ by a multiple of 2 is usually a multiple of 4, suggests that the nuclei of these elements are built up of hydrogen and helium nuclei. Assuming (I) that the nuclei consist only of helium nuclei ($\ensuremath{\alpha}$), hydrogen nuclei ($\ensuremath{\eta}$) and electrons ($\ensuremath{\beta}$); (2) that the mass of a nucleus is very nearly equal to the sum of the masses of its constituents; and (3) that the number of hydrogen nuclei, except as combined to form helium nuclei, is never more than 3 (except when the the mu ($\ensuremath{\mu}$) group (${\ensuremath{\eta}}_{2}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$) characteristic of isotopes is also present), the formulae for the composition of each of the nuclei of the first 27 elements and of the radioactive elements may be determined from the atomic weights and the atomic numbers. These formulae are given in Tables II. and III. Remarkable regularities are found. With the exception of beryllium (${\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{2}\ensuremath{\eta}\ensuremath{\beta}$), all the atomic nuclei of the even-numbered light elements seem to consist merely of helium nuclei, with a pair of cementing electrons added in the case of the higher numbers; while the odd numbered light elements, except nitrogen (${\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{3}{\ensuremath{\eta}}_{2}\ensuremath{\beta}$) and scandium (${\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{11}\ensuremath{\beta}$ or more probably ${\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{11}\ensuremath{\eta}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$) differ from even elements only by each containing an additional group (${\ensuremath{\eta}}_{3}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$). The fact that the odd elements are much less abundant in nature than corresponding even elements suggests that odd light elements are less stable, due presumably to the added group ${\ensuremath{\eta}}_{3}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$. If this group exists as a separate atom, it is an isotope of hydrogen with an atomic weight 3 and may be the hypothetical nebulium. It is suggested that this group ${\ensuremath{\eta}}_{3}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$ and the helium nucleus, assumed to have the composition ${\ensuremath{\eta}}_{4}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$, each consist of two ring- or disk-shaped electrons with respectively three and four hydrogen nuclei arranged symmetrically between them. The stability of various atomic structures is discussed on the basis of the formulae. It is pointed out that binding and cementing electrons usually occur in pairs; there are, however, several exceptions. As for the radioactive elements, the corresponding elements of the thorium and uranium series differ in weight by 2 units and their formulae are alike except for the presence of the additional group ${\ensuremath{\eta}}_{2}{\ensuremath{\beta}}_{2}$ or $\ensuremath{\mu}$ group in each element of the uranium series. The latest determinations of the atomic weights of these elements indicate that they are all approximately integers and that the loss of mass due to packing in the nuclei is very small. Why the elements with numbers from 28 to 80 do not fall in with this scheme can be explained only by assuming that in most cases they consist of mixtures of isotopes. Chlorine, silicon, magnesium, and neon, among the light elements are also mixtures of isotopes. The conclusion from all of the above is that the hydrogen nucleus is the positive electron. In a note appended at the time of correcting the proof for this paper, the writer states that his latest atomic weight results seem to indicate that he has obtained an experimental separation of chlorine into isotopes. This is the first separation of an element into atomic species which has ever been obtained experimentally.