Essentials of Human Physiology for Pharmacy

PHYSIOLOGY AND THE CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS Study Objectives Introduction Homeostasis Negative feedback Positive feedback Medical terminology Bibliography PLASMA MEMBRANE Study objectives Introduction Structure and function of the plasma membrane Membrane transport Passive diffusion through the membrane Osmosis Mediated transport Medical terminology Bibliography MEMBRANE POTENTIAL Study objectives Introduction Development of the resting membrane potential Medical terminology Bibliography ELECTRICAL SIGNALS Study objectives Introduction Graded potentials Action potentials Conduction of the action potential Medical terminology Bibliography SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION Study objectives Introduction Chemical synapses Summation Interconnections between neurons Factors affecting synaptic transmission Altered release Altered interaction of a neurotransmitter with its receptor Altered removal of a neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft Replacement of a deficient neurotransmitter Medical terminology Bibliography THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Classes of neurons Major levels of central nervous system (CNS) function The brain Cerebrum Functional regions of the cerebral cortex Basal ganglia Thalamus Hypothalamus Brainstem Cerebellum Glial cells Blood-brain barrier Cerebrospinal fluid Medical terminology Bibliography THE SPINAL CORD Study objectives Introduction Functions of the spinal cord Composition of the spinal cord Gray matter White matter Ascending tracts Descending tracts Spinal reflexes Withdrawal reflex Crossed-extensor reflex Medical terminology Bibliography PAIN Study objectives Introduction Nociceptors Fast pain and slow pain Hyperalgesia Neurotransmitters of the nociceptive afferent fibers Pain pathway Endogenous analgesic system Gate control theory Cutaneous pain Deep somatic pain Tissue ischemia Muscle spasm Visceral pain Referred pain Phantom pain Pharmacologic treatment of pain Nonnarcotic analgesics Opioid analgesics Adjuvant analgesics Medical terminology Bibliography The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Regulation of autonomic nervous system activity Efferent pathways of the autonomic nervous system Divisions of the autonomic nervous system Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system Termination of neurotransmitter activity Receptors for autonomic neurotransmitters Functions of the autonomic nervous system Adrenal medulla Medical terminology Bibliography THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Biochemical classification of hormones Transport of hormones Hormone elimination Functional classification of hormones Hormone interactions Mechanisms of hormone action The pituitary gland Relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland Negative feedback control of hormone release Hormones of the neurohypophysis Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Oxytocin Hormones of the adenohypophysis Gonadotropins Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Prolactin (PRL) Growth hormone (GH) Thyroid gland Thyroid hormones Calcitonin Parathyroid glands Adrenal glands Adrenal medulla Adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Adrenal androgens Pancreas Insulin Glucagon Medical terminology Bibliography THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Male reproductive system Testes Epididymides Vas deferens Ejaculatory ducts Penis Prostate Seminal vesicles Bulbourethral glands Testosterone Female reproductive system Ovaries Fallopian tubes Uterus Vagina Ovarian cycle Follicular phase Luteal phase Hormonal regulation of the ovarian cycle Medical terminology Bibliography SKELETAL MUSCLE Study objectives Introduction Muscle tension and movement Isometric versus isotonic contraction Structure of skeletal muscle Sarcomeres Thick filaments Thin filaments Neuromuscular junction Mechanism of contraction Sources of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for muscle contraction Muscle fatigue Oxygen debt Types of muscle fibers Muscle mechanics Number of muscle fibers contracting Amount of tension developed by each contracting muscle fiber Medical terminology Bibliography Smooth muscle Study objectives Introduction Structure of smooth muscle Calcium and the mechanism of contraction Smooth muscle contraction is slow and prolonged Types of smooth muscle Factors influencing the contractile activity of smooth muscle Length-tension relationship Hyperplasia Medical terminology Bibliography CARDIAC PHYSIOLOGY Study objectives Introduction Functional anatomy of the heart Myocardial wall Electrical activity of the heart Electrocardiogram Cardiac cycle Ventricular filling Isovolumetric contraction Ejection Isovolumetric relaxation Medical terminology Bibliography CARDIAC OUTPUT Study objectives Introduction Control of heart rate Control of stroke volume Effect of exercise on cardiac output Medical terminology Bibliography THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction The blood vessels Blood pressure throughout the systemic circulation Blood flow through a vessel Regulation of arterial pressure Autonomic nervous system Vasomotor center Baroreceptors Chemoreceptors Low-pressure receptors Vasoactive substances Vasoconstrictors Vasodilators Venous return Blood volume Sympathetic stimulation of the veins Skeletal muscle activity Respiratory activity Effects of gravity on the circulatory system Regulation of blood flow through tissues Active hyperemia Autoregulation Effects of acute exercise on the circulatory system Capillary exchange Medical terminology Bibliography BLOOD AND HEMOSTASIS Study objectives Introduction Plasma Erythrocytes Blood types Leukocytes Platelets Hemostasis Vascular constriction Formation of a platelet plug Blood coagulation Positive feedback nature of clot formation Clot dissolution Prevention of blood clotting and platelet aggregation in the normal vascular system Medical terminology Bibliography THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Agents of infectious disease Effector cells of the immune system Immune responses Innate immune system Inflammation Defense by tissue macrophages Localized vasodilation Increased capillary permeability Localized edema Walling off of the inflamed area Infiltration of phagocytes Opsonization Phagocytosis Interferon Natural killer cells Complement system Adaptive immune system Antibody-mediated immunity Classification of antibodies Structure of antibodies Actions of antibodies Clonal selection theory Primary versus secondary responses Active versus passive immunity Cell-mediated immunity Types of T cells Actions of T cells MHC molecules Medical terminology Bibliography THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Blood-gas interface Airways Epithelium Cartilage The pleura Mechanics of breathing Thoracic volume Inspiration Expiration Lung volume Pulmonary pressures Elastic behavior of the lungs Interdependence Airway resistance Lung volume Airway obstruction Bronchial smooth muscle tone Ventilation Standard lung volumes Total ventilation Alveolar ventilation Dead space Diffusion Partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide Ventilation-perfusion matching Gas transport in the blood Transport of oxygen Factors affecting the transport of oxygen Transport of carbon dioxide Regulation of ventilation Chemoreceptor response to decreased arterial PO Chemoreceptor response to increased arterial PCO Chemoreceptor response to increased arterial hydrogen ion concentration Ventilatory response to exercise Medical terminology Bibliography THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction The digestive tract wall Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa Regulation of gastrointestinal function Intrinsic nerve plexuses Extrinsic autonomic nerves Gastrointestinal hormones Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Gastric motility Gastric secretion Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Transport of bile and pancreatic juice to the small intestine Small intestine Motility of the small intestine Digestion and absorption in the small intestine Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Water and electrolytes Large intestine Motility of the large intestine Secretion of the large intestine Medical terminology Bibliography THE RENAL SYSTEM Study objectives Introduction Functional anatomy of the kidneys Vascular component Tubular component Basic renal processes Glomerular filtration Filtration barrier Determinants of filtration Tubular reabsorption Sodium reabsorption Chloride reabsorption Water reabsorption Production of urine of varying concentrations Vasa recta Tubular secretion Potassium ion secretion Hydrogen ion secretion Plasma clearance Renal blood flow Autoregulation Myogenic mechanism Tubuloglomerular feedback Resistance of the afferent arteriole Sympathetic nerves Angiotensin II Prostaglandins Control of sodium excretion: regulation of plasma volume Control of water excretion: regulation of plasma osmolarity Medical terminology Bibliography INDEX