The stage-based development of behavioral regulation within the context of physically active leisure.

IntroductionA considerable body of evidence suggests that engaging in regular physical activity decreases the risk of developing a number of chronic cardiovascular and metabolic diseases and mental health disorders (e.g., Miilunpalo, 2001; Paluska & Schwenk, 2000). Despite this knowledge, almost two thirds of the world's population fails to engage in enough physical activity to experience health benefits (World Health Organization, 2010). Numerous theories have been integrated into physical activity interventions that have been implemented with some reported success (Muller-Riemenschneider, Reinhold, Nocon, & Willich, 2008), yet no consistent progress in overall activity has been observed within the past decade (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Increasing levels of participation remains one of the biggest challenges facing recreation and health professionals. Due to disappointing results of interventions based on existing theory the development and empirical testing of frameworks for active participation is vital (Jackson, Howes, Gupta, Doyle, & Waters, 2005), and should be seen as a fundamental responsibility of scholars in this area.To this end, Funk and James (2001) proposed the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM), a four-stage model of attitude formation and change that accounts for the sociological and psychological processes that determine an individual's psychological connection to an object, issue, or activity. Previous literature has indicated that the PCM framework can differentiate between participants in physically active leisure based upon attitudinal and behavioral characteristics (Funk, Beaton, & Pritchard, 2011); however, no studies have explicitly examined how the framework's stages account for motivation. Beaton, Funk, and Alexandris (2009) provided a conceptual description of how motivation develops within the PCM, but differences between individuals within the different PCM stages have not been empirically tested.To explore the relationship between psychological connection and motivation, Self-determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) is integrated into the PCM framework. SDT is a beneficial perspective, as it differentiates between types of autonomous (e.g., intrinsic motivation) and nonautonomous (e.g., amotivation) types of behavioral regulation. Autonomous regulation of behavior has been identified as a key aspect of long-term behavior change (Williams, Niemiec, Patrick, Ryan, & Deci, 2009), and is therefore an important aspect of maintaining participation in active leisure.Baumann et al. (2002) suggested that participation in physical activity might be too complex a behavior to be addressed using a single theory; thus, putting complementary theories and conceptual frameworks in conversation with one another could provide a more comprehensive understanding. As such, the purpose of this study is to examine the development of different types of behavioral regulation within the PCM stages to empirically test the framework's ability account for participants' motivation. Furthermore, the study provides discussion of how the PCM framework can expand our understanding of motivation through behavioral regulation.Literature ReviewA number of prominent theories and conceptual frameworks have been used to investigate the adoption and maintenance of physical activity. Theories such as the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1974), the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991), Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1991), and the Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1982, 1986) have all contributed greatly to the current understanding of physically active behavior. These theories have resulted in the formulation of multi-component intervention programs, and im- portant advances in public health promotion, in addition to generating productive conversation between scholars and practitioners. Yet despite the enormous contribution of this scholarship, our understanding of physically active behavior is far from complete. …