Burning Bridges: Defining the Interverse in the Music of U2

[1] The word "bridge" suggests connecting or transitional function, as in the statement "bridging the gap between point A and point B." A physical bridge links two otherwise separate entities. For example, travelers use the Golden Gate Bridge in California to get from one side of the San Francisco Bay to the other. Essentially, the Bridge connects the two sides. While it is a visual wonder and an architectural phenomenon, its primary function is not to serve as a destination, but rather as an agent of transition.[2] Formal analysis of popular music has centered on large-scale formal types, but comparatively little discussion has focused on the individual sections themselves that comprise these designs. In particular, analyses of rock music have not devoted much attention to "bridge" sections. Within musical contexts, a "bridge" is... a passage in which a formal transition is made. In popular music, [the term refers to] the penultimate section in the refrain of a popular song, leading to the final repeat of the opening section (section b in the form aaba); the bridge provides contrasts, often tonal as well as harmonic and melodic, with the opening section ... Rock musicians may call any different section that appears once within an otherwise repeating form the bridge. ("Bridge (ii)," Grove Music Online)This section in modern rock songs, however, often is not transitional in nature. In other words, the "bridge" section does not necessarily connect two other sections. The material of the "bridge" section frequently does not contrast that of the surrounding sections. Additionally, there are "bridge" sections in which the material is melodically, harmonically, and grammatically closed, effectively nullifying any transitional function. In many examples, therefore, the label "bridge" inadequately describes the function of the section. Using melodic, harmonic, lyric, and reductive analyses of "bridge" sections in the music of Irish rock group U2, this article defines and illustrates the interverse, which replaces the misnomer "bridge."(1) Inconsistent use has led to the misapplication of the descriptor "bridge," likely because there are no definitive criteria for what constitutes the section I now call an interverse. This article will provide such criteria.[3] According to Ken Stephenson,[T]he first problem in the analysis of form (and the fundamental problem for a [project] on general stylistic characteristics) is the discovery of features that delineate sections ... In a musical piece, we must look for formalized musical cues concerning form ... In rock the relevant cues most often appear in the areas of text, instrumentation, rhythm, and harmony. In many cases, the patterns in these areas work together to create a clear form; in many others, changes in one or more areas work against a backdrop of stability in the other areas to create a subtler form. And in yet other cases, lack of alignment in the patterns of change of various areas makes for ambiguity (2005, 122).In analyzing the music of U2, I take into account all four areas Stephenson lists. There are three aspects of the lyrics that help define a song's form: 1) Repetition: the statement and subsequent return of specific text is perhaps the clearest and most readily identifiable formal characteristic. Other elements, such as melodic contour and rhythm, are linked to textual repetition, helping the listener make real-time delineations of form, in addition to retrospective judgments; 2) Location: where and when a particular textual passage is used helps determine both its local relationship to surrounding sections and its place within the song's global formal structure; and 3) Grammar: the ordering of words, the construction of phrases and sentences, and the particular emphases placed on certain lyrics contribute to the textual definition of a song's overall formal scheme.[4] Several musical factors contribute to formal section boundaries, namely changes in instrumentation, melodic motive, and harmonic pattern. …