Aspects of Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory

The Dirac variation-of-constants method has long provided a basis for perturbative solution of the time-dependent Schr\"odinger equation. In spite of its widespread utilization, certain aspects of the method have been discussed only superficially and remain somewhat obscure. The present review attempts to clarify some of these points, particularly those related to secular and normalization terms. Secular terms arise from an over-all time-dependent phase in the wave function, while normalization terms preserve the norm of the wave function. A proper treatment of the secular terms is essential in the presence of a physically significant level shift that can produce secular divergences in the time-dependent perturbation functions. The normalization terms are always important, although the formulation of a simple method for including them is of greatest utility in applications requiring higher-order perturbation theory (e.g., nonlinear optical phenomena), where difficulties have arisen in previous treatments. Although the Dirac perturbation technique includes the correct secular and normalization terms when properly executed, it is convenient to reinterpret the perturbation problem so that the secular and normalization terms can be factored from the wave function to all orders. It is shown that an appropriate over-all multiplicative, time-dependent normalization and phase factor can be obtained, and that it is simply the amplitude for finding the system in the unperturbed eigenstate at any time $t$. The regular part of the wave function remaining after this factorization provides a complete description of the physical properties of the system of interest and determines the over-all normalization and phase, as well. Most important, the regular function and its perturbation expansion satisfy equations which are more convenient for computational applications than are the customary Dirac equations, and, in contrast to the latter, they reduce directly to the familiar time-independent perturbation equations in the static limit. To illustrate the general development, the model problem of a linearly perturbed harmonic oscillator and the static, harmonic, and electromagnetic perturbations of arbitrary quantum-mechanical systems are treated explicitly. In the case of an adiabatically applied static perturbation, the familiar adiabatic theorem is recovered with the over-all phase factor giving the perturbed eigenvalue, while in the case of an harmonic perturbation, the overall phase factor obtained includes the system level shift appropriate for a quasiperiodic state. For an electromagnetic perturbation, compact expressions are obtained for various nonlinear optical susceptibilities in forms suitable for computations. Time-dependent Hartree-Fock approximations are treated explicity to demonstrate that difficulties can arise when normalization and secular terms are not extracted prior to application of the perturbation formalism. Connection is also made with other methods which can be employed to eliminate secular and normalization terms from the wave function; these include a projection procedure and multiple-time-scales perturbation theory. The elimination of secular divergences from the perturbation functions is shown to be important for the construction of a valid Fourier transform. Secular and normalization terms also arise in connection with variational principles for the time-dependent Schr\"odinger equation. By employing the Frenkel variational principle and an ansatz for the total wave function that explicitly isolates the secular and normalization terms, a computationally convenient variational functional is obtained. This form of the Frenkel principle provides a bound to the system level shift induced by an oscillatory perturbation and is equivalent to the Ritz variational principle in the static limit. Explicit expressions for the variational functional in the Hartree-Fock approximations are derived in forms suitable for computational applications to the interactions of radiation and matter.