Music, Musicians and Barroom Aggression

A growing body of evidence emanating from various fields of study and research methodologies suggests that music has a direct effect on human behavior. Much of the available research on music and behavior focuses on human interactions in social settings and consumer behaviors in bars, restaurants, and retail outlets. Findings from research conducted in liquor stores and restaurants show that music style can influence patrons' choice of drinks (Caldwell & Hibbert, 1999) and food (North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1999). Research also shows that "joyful" music elicits a better emotional response among customers in retail stores than does "sad" or "neutral" music (Lin & Wu, 2006). Furthermore, "soothing" music promotes more intense and more affective interactions (Mezzano & Prueter, 1974; Prueter & Mezzano, 1973) and induces more verbalizations (Stratton & Zalanowski, 1984) in social settings than does "stimulating" music. Studies of background music in restaurants have also shown that increased music volume (Sullivan, 2002) and tempo (Milliman, 1986) leads to decreased patron expenditure and duration of stay. Researchers have also linked increased music volume (Gueguen, Jacob, & Le Guellec, 2004; Gueguen, Jacob, Le Guellec, Morineau, & Lourel, 2008; Knibbe, Van De Goor, & Drop, 1993; Van De Goor, Knibbe, & Drop, 1990) and tempo (McElrea & Standing, 1992) in bars to more rapid alcohol consumption. In his review of available marketing literature, as well as relevant literature outside marketing, Bruner (1990) states that it is safe to conclude that "(1) human beings nonrandomly assign meaning to music; (2) human beings experience nonrandom affective reactions to music; and (3) music used in marketing-related contexts is capable of evoking nonrandom affective and behavioral responses in consumers" (p. 99). Within the literature and research on music and behavior, the relationship between music and aggressive thoughts and behavior has received a great deal of attention. There is compelling evidence that music reduces agitation, anger, negative thoughts, and aggression in some people (Bright, 1986; Caspy, Peleg, Schlam, & Goldberg, 1988; Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Montello & Coons, 1998; Sidorenko, 2000; Wiesenthal, Hennessy, & Totten, 2003). However, there is equally compelling research and evidence that shows that exposure to heavy metal and rap music may increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors (Ballard & Coates, 1995; Barongan & Hall, 1995; Chen, Miller, Grube, & Waiters, 2006; Gowensmith & Bloom, 1997; Took & Weiss, 1994). It is important to note that much of the available research on music and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior has involved laboratory manipulations that, according to Wiesenthal et al. (2003), "lack contextual elements that can impact aggression in applied settings" (p. 126). These researchers go on to state that "situational realism" is important in research examining the relationship between music and aggression. Licensed drinking establishments offer a unique environment for studying the effect of music on human behavior and, in particular, the relationship between music and aggression, since bars are known to be high-risk establishments for violence and aggression (Graham et al., 2004; Graham & Wells, 2001; Green & Plant, 2007; Homel & Clark, 1994; Homel, Tomsen, & Thommeny, 1992; Quigley, Leonard, & Collins, 2003; Stockwell, Lang, & Rydon, 1993; Tomsen, 1997) and, next to alcohol, music is recognized as the major driving force of the night-time economy (Forsyth & Cloonan, 2008). However, while marketing analysts, clinical psychologists, music therapists, and the like have long asserted a direct relationship between music and aggression, researchers studying aggression in barrooms have only recently begun to acknowledge the potential influence of music on the behaviors of bar patrons. …