Shutoff of RNA Polymerase II Transcription by Poliovirus Involves 3C Protease-Mediated Cleavage of the TATA-Binding Protein at an Alternative Site: Incomplete Shutoff of Transcription Interferes with Efficient Viral Replication

Poliovirus (PV) is the prototype virus of a large group of medically important viruses (picornaviruses) that include those inducing poliomyelitis (polioviruses), infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A virus), the common cold (rhinoviruses), and encephalitis and myocarditis (coxsackie viruses) (31). The single-stranded, plus-polarity RNA genome (∼7,500 nucleotides) of PV (18, 30) is translated into one large polyprotein, which is cotranslationally processed by virally encoded proteases 2Apro, 3Cpro, and 3CDpro into mature viral structural and nonstructural proteins (22). The viral proteases have been studied extensively and found to be very specific in polyprotein cleavage; 3Cpro and 3CDpro cleave the polyprotein at glutamine-glycine (Q-G) bonds while the 2Apro cleaves only at tyrosine-glycine (Y-G) bonds (20). The proteases do not cleave every potential cleavage site within the polyprotein; other determinants such as accessibility and context of the cleavage site are also important. Accurate initiation of transcription by RNA polymerase (Pol) II requires the assembly of a multiprotein complex on the core promoter around the mRNA start site (13). The multiprotein complex, consisting of at least seven to eight general transcription factors (GTFs) and RNA Pol II form a preinitiation complex at specific cis-acting elements (promoters) on the DNA template. The most common cis-acting element, the TATA box, is situated approximately 25 nucleotides upstream of the transcription start site. Among the GTFs in the complex, the TATA-binding protein (TBP) has been studied extensively (29). The TBP was first identified through its role in Pol II transcription, where it associates with 13 or 14 TBP-associated factors to form the TFIID complex (34). The unique aspect of TBP is its additional presence in complexes required for RNA Pol I (SL1) and RNA Pol III (TFIIIB) transcription. In both SL1 and TFIIIB complexes, TBP associates with a distinct set of TBP-associated factors (7, 33). Thus, TBP appears to be involved in all three RNA polymerase-mediated transcriptions. TBP has a bipartite structure with a highly conserved C-terminal core domain (amino acids 159 to 339), which folds as a molecular saddle, and is responsible for DNA binding via the concave underside. Additionally, the core also interacts with GTFs and other regulatory proteins via the solvent-exposed convex side. In contrast, the N-terminal region (amino acids 1 to 141) is variable in both length and sequence but is well conserved among vertebrates. It modulates DNA binding by interacting with the core domain and is characterized by a glutamine repeat region (Fig. ​(Fig.1).1). Recent studies have underscored the importance of the TBP N-terminal domain in transcriptional regulation both in yeast and mammalian systems (15, 21). Moreover, deletion of 55 and 96 amino acids from the N-terminal domain of TBP leads to inactivation of TATA-mediated transcription from the U6 small nuclear RNA promoter (24). FIG. 1. Shutoff of RNA polymerase II-mediated transcription does not correlate with 3Cpro-induced cleavage at the 18th glutamine-glycine site in TBP. (A) The domain structure of TBP consisting of the core, N-terminal with the glutamine stretch (Q), and acidic ... Infection of HeLa cells with PV causes a severe decrease in cellular transcription catalyzed by all three cellular RNA polymerases (10). Transcription mediated by RNA polymerase I (Pol I) is inhibited first, at 1 to 2 h postinfection, followed by inhibition of Pol II and Pol III transcription at approximately 3 and 4 h postinfection, respectively. Crawford et al. first showed that PV-induced inhibition of transcription observed in vivo could be recapitulated in vitro (8). Further studies showed that the viral protease 3Cpro alone was responsible for the shutoff of transcription by all three cellular RNA polymerases (36). Recent studies have shown that 3Cpro enters the nucleus in the form of its precursor 3CD (32), which presumably undergoes autocatalysis to generate 3Cpro in the nucleus of infected cells. A primary target of 3Cpro in PV-infected cells was previously identified to be the TATA-binding protein (6). Consistent with this observation, the TFIID complex isolated from PV-infected HeLa cells was transcriptionally inactive in an in vitro reconstituted transcription assay compared to the TFIID isolated from uninfected cells (19). Moreover, purified TBP could be directly cleaved by the purified 3Cpro in vitro, and the addition of purified TBP could completely restore both basal and activated transcription from the TATA and initiator promoters in HeLa cell extracts from PV-infected cells (37). Examination of the human TBP sequence revealed three Q-G sites at positions 12, 18, and 112 (Fig. ​(Fig.1).1). Subsequent in vitro studies using purified components showed that only the 18th Q-G site in TBP could be efficiently cleaved by 3Cpro both in vitro and in vivo (9). To determine if cleavage of TBP at the 18th Q-G bond is responsible for the shutoff of transcription in PV-infected cells, we expressed and purified a recombinant TBP that lacks the N-terminal 18 amino acids (called ΔN18 TBP). If cleavage at the 18th Q-G bond is the primary cause of transcriptional inactivation of TBP, then ΔN18 TBP should not be able to restore transcription in PV-infected cell extracts. We found that ΔN18 TBP was as active as the wild-type (wt) TBP in fully restoring Pol II transcription in PV-infected cell extracts from the adenovirus major late promoter (Ad MLP). We also found that the transcriptional activity of ΔN18 TBP was comparable to that of wt TBP in an in vitro transcription reconstitution assay. Since both genetic and biochemical evidence suggested that 3Cpro was involved in the shutoff of transcription and that TBP was the primary target of 3Cpro, we set out to determine if TBP was being cleaved by 3Cpro at sites other than the 18th Q-G bond. We report here identification of a Q-S site at position 104 to 105 of TBP, which appears to be cleaved by the viral protease 3Cpro. We also demonstrate that an alanine residue at P4 is critical for 3C-mediated cleavage of the 104th Q-S bond. A truncated form of TBP lacking the first 100 amino acids is significantly less active transcriptionally than the wt TBP in vitro. Finally, we demonstrate that a stable HeLa cell line expressing a recombinant TBP (rTBP) resistant to cleavage by the viral proteases is significantly refractive to the shutoff of transcription by poliovirus compared to the control cell line expressing wt TBP. Infection with poliovirus of the HeLa cell line expressing the noncleavable form of TBP shows small plaques and significantly reduced viral RNA synthesis compared to the control TBP cell line, suggesting that a defect in the shutoff of transcription can lead to inefficient replication of the virus.