“Corrective” Actions in the Public Sphere: How Perceptions of Media and Media Effects Shape Political Behaviors

This study examines whether perceptions of media influence and perceptions of media hostility towards one’s views predict taking ‘‘corrective’’ actions to ensure that one’s views are ‘‘heard’’ in the public sphere. Controlling for demographics, political interest, efficacy, knowledge, ideological extremity, and Internet use, this study provides evidence that both third-person perceptions and hostile media perceptions are consistently related to a series of offline and online behaviors that seek to enrich public debate and ‘‘correct’’ what are seen as potential biases in the public sphere. Based on a national probability sample collected in Colombia, these results offer a strong case of behavioral consequences for third-person perceptions outside the realm of willingness to censor. Since Davison (1983) proposed a discrepancy between the perceived effects of media on others versus the perceived effects on self, and the potential behavioral consequences that this discrepancy might have, a growing body of literature has developed under the rubric of third-person effects that has tried to account for: (a) the extent of self-other discrepancies; (b) whether these discrepancies occur due to overestimations of effects on others, underestimation of effects on self, or both; (c) the contingent conditions under which these discrepancies are maximized; and (d) the behavioral consequences of such discrepancies. Corresponding author: Hernando Rojas, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; e-mail: hrojas@wisc.edu at U nirsity of W isnsin M adson, G eeral Lrary S ytem on S etem er 9, 2010 ijpor.oxjournals.org D ow nladed fom This robust body of literature has been very successful in replicating the third-person perception in a variety of topics and media (e.g., Paul, Salwen, & Dupagne, 2000; Sun, Pan, & Shen, 2008). It has been quite successful in laying out some of the contingent conditions that increase or decrease the discrepancy (e.g., the social distance and exposure likelihood corollaries); it has provided a range of explanations as to why the phenomena occurs; and, it has been somewhat successful in relating perceived effects with certain behavioral outcomes. In relating behavioral outcomes to perceived media effects, researchers have for the most part focused on relating effect gaps, or presumed influences, to censorship as a response to content deemed socially harmful. More recently, certain strands of the literature have begun to show behavioral consequences beyond pro-censorship orientations in areas such as teen smoking, adolescent sexuality, forced evacuation, and Y2K preparedness. This study seeks to expand the boundaries of perceived media influences, relating third-person perceptions of influence, as well as perceptions of media hostility, to a series of offline and online political behaviors such as expressing political views, trying to persuade others to vote for a specific candidate, posting to discussion forums, commenting online news articles, participating in rallies, attending public protests, and signing petitions. This study contends that citizens who perceive that mass media exert a disproportionate influence on public opinion, as well as those who see media content as biased against their views, will be more likely to use both conventional and emerging communication technologies to communicate their positions and compensate for these perceived biases. In order to make sure their own views are heard, they will use communication tools at their disposal to ‘‘correct’’ for the ‘‘powerful’’ effects of traditional media that would otherwise sway public opinion. Thus, it is argued that citizens ‘‘suffering’’ from third-person perceptions or hostile media perceptions will take action aimed at ‘‘correcting’’ those potential effects of media on others by engaging in a series of expressive behaviors that ultimately have the potential to enhance the public sphere.