Giving the Spoon Back: Higher Teacher Expectations of Achievement for Students Who Are Deaf

This single case study examined a Deaf teacher's behaviors and beliefs that reflect her expectations of her deaf students. Primary modes of communication used were American Sign Language and written English. Data were collected via videotaped observations and interviews. Analysis was done by coding utterances of the participants using a deductive framework and using an inductive approach to find patterns among the coded utterances. Teacher behavior and student reactions revealed high expectations for student achievement. The overarching factor that reflected teacher expectations was the positive classroom climate established by the teacher. Recommendations for further research to examine teacher expectations with other settings and participants are included. Key Words: Deaf, Teacher Expectations, Deaf Teacher, Case Study, and Deductive and Inductive Coding Introduction With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) there has been increased pressure nationwide on K-12 programs to meet the accountability standards set for student achievement. All states were required to develop standards of learning measurable by standardized testing (NCLB, 2001). Some states are also requiring their students to pass an exit examination to receive a high school diploma. Students who are disabled, including those who are deaf and hard of hearing, are not exempt from these standards. Only the 1% most severely cognitively disabled are not required to participate in these assessments. These mandates that are in effect require a higher standard of teaching. For some time now, standards in the education of the deaf have been impacted by lowered expectations for student achievement (Johnson, Liddell, & Erting, 1989; Lane, Hoffmeister, & Bahan, 1996; Marschark, Lang, & Albertini, 2002). Nevertheless there are teachers in the field who have high expectations for their students to meet current academic standards. It should be noted that these teachers who have high standards have students who succeed because they expect them to do well. To them, deafness is not seen as an excuse for poor performance or behavior. This is especially true for teachers who are Deaf (1) themselves (Compton 1997; Whitesell, 1991). Before discussing teacher expectations, a clear point of reference for what high and low expectations look like is needed. Studies of teachers who have higher expectations show the following patterns: a warm positive attitude toward students, the provision of ever more difficult coursework, frequent opportunities for students to respond, and positive feedback towards student's responses (Harris & Rosenthal, 1985; Rosenthal, 1974). They also have a tendency to make their students show effort to learn and to find the answers they need (Weinstein, 2002). Teachers with lowered expectations frequently exhibit differentiated behaviors towards perceived "low achievers" such as less waiting time for answers, giving answers without eliciting effort from students, rewarding incorrect answers, giving overt praise for marginal answers, giving overly critical feedback, demanding less effort from students, and exposing students to an impoverished curriculum (Good & Brophy, 2003). There have been numerous studies, including the ones above, done on the topic of teacher expectations in various educational settings during the past three decades. The idea that teacher expectations can affect student achievement was first suggested in a research project focused on experimentally induced self-fulfilling prophecy effects by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968). The results of this study popularly known as Pygmalion in the Classroom, while controversial, created wide interest and further studies on the topic. These studies lead to the consensus that while complex in nature, expectations can influence student outcomes (Brophy, 1998; Good & Brophy, 2003; Weinstein, 2002). …