Using Interdependent Group-Oriented Reinforcement to Enhance Academic Performance in General Education Classrooms.

Abstract. In their meta-analysis, Stage and Quiroz (1997) found that group-oriented contingencies yielded the largest effect size of interventions designed to reduce inappropriate behaviors in public schools. However, such procedures may be underutilized for enhancing academic performance and learning. The current article describes how interdependent group-oriented reward procedures with randomly selected, indiscriminable, or unknown contingency components (i.e., target behaviors, rewards, and criteria for earning rewards) can be used to enhance student academic performance. Applied examples are interspersed throughout the article. Analysis focuses on how these procedures address philosophical, managerial, and social-emotional concerns associated with rewarding academic performance in general education classrooms. ********** The majority of students referred for school psychological services are experiencing problems related to academic skill development and academic achievement (Shapiro, 1996). Via consultation and other service-delivery models, school psychologists hope to prevent and remedy these problems using evidence-based interventions (Kratochwill & Shernoff, 2004). A plethora of researchers have conducted studies that provide more than sufficient evidence supporting the potential of contingent rewards to enhance the quantity (e.g., homework assignment completion) and quality (e.g., percent correct) of academic performance (e.g., Drew, Evans, Bostow, Geiger, & Drash, 1982; Kelley & McCain, 1995; Pavchinski, Evans, & Bostow, 1989; Truchlicka, McLaughlin, & Swain, 1998; Weiner, Sheridan, & Jenson, 1998). Reinforcement of academic behavior involves providing access to stimuli (e.g., tangible reinforcers, opportunity to engage in behaviors, letter grade) contingent upon performance of a target behavior (e.g., student homework performance) meeting a criterion (e.g., 80% correct). Educators who typically work with groups of students (i.e., their class) have several options for reinforcing academic performance. These options include the application of individual and group-oriented reinforcement or reward contingencies. Although reinforcement programs can enhance learning, many educators have concerns with reinforcing academic performance that may make them resistant to implementing such programs. In the current article, general concerns associated with providing contingent rewards for academic performance are described and analyzed. Next, four types of reward procedures are briefly described, followed by a comprehensive analysis of interdependent group-oriented reinforcement. This analysis includes recommendations that may allow school psychologists to work more effectively with educators who are resistant to using reinforcement to prevent and remedy academic skill deficits. General Concerns Associated With Reinforcing Academic Behavior Researchers, educators, and philosophers have argued that educators should avoid providing rewards for academic performance because such procedures (a) amount to bribing students, (b) reduce the inherent value of what is learned, and (c) reduce the probability that students will engage in academic behaviors when reinforcement is withdrawn or not offered for other academic behaviors (e.g., Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999, 2001; Kohn, 1993; see also Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Little, 2004). Although these perspectives and concerns are debatable, they may make educators, administrators, and parents resistant to using rewards to strengthen academic performance. Consequently, if school psychologists want consultees to consider implementing such programs, school psychologists must be able to address these concerns in a manner that will decrease consultees' resistance. Validation Versus Bribery for Academic Performance Although some (e.g., Kohn, 1993) may view rewards for academic behaviors as bribes, such rewards do not meet the standard definition of bribes. …