Predicting Expectations About Counseling: Psychological Factors and Gender Implications.

Counselors are continually exploring ways to improve the effectiveness of counseling. One way is to better understand clients' motivations for seeking out counseling services and their expectations about the counseling process. Two theories related to these issues are the Stages of Change model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1986, 1992) and the Expectations About Counseling model by H. E. A. Tinsley and colleagues (H. E. A. Tinsley & Harris, 1976; H. E. A. Tinsley, Workman, & Kass, 1980). Research has examined clients' expectations about counseling from multiple perspectives, including descriptions and measurement of different types of expectations about counseling (e.g., D. J. Tinsley, Holt, Hinson, & Tinsley, 1991; H. E. A. Tinsley et al., 1980), implications of expectations about counseling for counseling process and outcomes (e.g., Heppner & Dixon, 1981; H. E. A. Tinsley, Bowman, & Barich, 1993), and consideration of factors that might predict or influence these expectations (e.g., Leong, Leong, & Hoffman, 1987; Pecnik & Epperson, 1985; Satterfield, Buelow, Lyddon, & Johnson, 1995). This last domain is the subject of this article. Some predictive factors for clients' expectations about counseling that have been studied include year in college (H. E. A. Tinsley & Harris, 1976); status as a college student or client (Subich & Coursol, 1985); level of psychosocial development (D. J. Tinsley, Hinson, Holt, & Tinsley, 1990); stages of the change process (Satterfield et al., 1995); gender (H. E. A. Tinsley & Harris, 1976); cultural factors, such as ethnicity (Kenney, 1994; Yuen & Tinsley, 1981); religious beliefs (Pecnik & Epperson, 1985); the Five-Factor model of personality (Schaub & Tokar, 1999); and decision-making style (Leong et al., 1987). Prior experience with counseling has also been related to expectations about counseling (Gladstein, 1969; Kermey, 1994). Our study replicates and extends the work of Satterfield et al. (1995), who examined the relations among stages of change and expectations about counseling. Satterfield et al. argued that given the impact of clients' expectations about counseling on the process and outcome of counseling (e.g., Heppner & Dixon, 1981) and people's decisions about whether to enter counseling (e.g., H. E. A. Tinsley, Brown, de St. Aubin, & Lucek, 1984), it is important to understand what factors might lead clients to hold differing expectations about counseling. Although Satterfield et al. offered no specific hypotheses, the potential connection between stages of change and expectations about counseling is evident. Prochaska and DiClemente (1986, 1992) identified four stages of change. In Precontemplation, the individual does not perceive a need to change and, therefore, has no intention to change. In the Contemplation stage, the individual is aware that there is a problem and is considering alternative strategies to solve the problem. In the Action stage, the individual acts on a plan to which they have committed in an effort to solve the problem. In the final stage, called Maintenance, individuals work to solidify the gains they have made in the Action stage and to prevent setbacks in their resolution of the problem. H. E. A. Tinsley et al. (1980) developed the Expectations About Counseling Questionnaire and identified four components of clients' expectations about counseling. One component is Personal Commitment, which describes how individuals expect to behave in counseling, including their openness to the counseling process and their motivation to work hard to change. Facilitative Conditions are people's expectations of the counseling environment, including the trustworthiness and genuineness of the counselor. Counselor Expertise addresses clients' expectations about the extent to which the counselor behaves as an "expert," including directiveness and empathy. Finally, Nurturance encompasses the warmth and comfort level of the counseling environment, including the client's acceptance by the counselor. …