Questions and answers at the interface of basic and applied ecology.

Most ecologists strive to conduct research that contributes to both basic (`pure') and applied ecology. We hope that our findings yield new insights into the structure and function of ecological systems and that these insights provide direction for more effective conservation or management. However, studies that simultaneously advance our understanding in basic and applied ecology are relatively rare. Despite our best efforts, most research ends up having a stronger impact in one area than the other.One reason that so few studies contribute equally to both areas of ecology is that they emphasize different aspects of the research process. In basic ecology, more emphasis is placed on the question. In particular, basic ecology progresses by posing new and imaginative questions that examine previously unconsidered processes. These questions typically ask whether a particular process plays a significant role in a given system. Ideally, the process examined is nonspecific and operates in a wide variety of systems. Answers to basic questions are still important, especially for testing the generality of an ecological paradigm. However, innovative questions that involve general principles are emphasized because they can change the way we think about the organization of ecological systems.In applied ecology, more emphasis is placed on finding answers to pressing environmental problems. Many of the questions in applied ecology are initially raised by managers or decision makers who require scientific input into a specific issue. Ecologists then spend their creative energy designing studies that will provide rigorous answers to allow managers or decision makers to make informed decisions. Answers to these questions are often very complicated and involve processes that operate across multiple spatial and temporal scales[1xLee, K. Ecol. Appl. 1993; 3: 560–564See all References[1].To conduct effective research at the interface of basic and applied ecology, we must recognize the importance of both the question and the answer. We should strive to ask original questions about concepts that are relevant to a range of ecological systems. As these questions are developed, attention should be paid to how the answers, even if unexpected, can be applied to important environmental issues. For example, effort should be made to address these questions in systems of particular management or conservation concern. Alternatively, questions can be examined in model systems that are directly applicable to other systems in which manipulation or sampling are not possible.Although rare, there are studies that have made significant contributions to both basic and applied ecology. Classic studies by Schindler[2xSchindler, D. Science. 1974; 184: 897–899Crossref | PubMedSee all References, 3xSchindler, D. Science. 1977; 195: 260–262Crossref | PubMedSee all References]were motivated by concerns about the cultural eutrophication of lakes. By asking questions about the factors that control lake productivity, these studies stimulated basic research on the effects of increasing productivity across a range of ecosystems. At the same time, results were critical for the development of effective nutrient-control policies for watershed management. More recently, Murdoch et al.[4xMurdoch, W.W. Ecology. 1994; 75: 271–287CrossrefSee all References[4]have used theoretical and empirical approaches to examine interactions between California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) and its parasitoid wasp (Aphytis melinus). Red scale is an important pest of citrus crops, but has been successfully controlled by Aphytis. Murdoch et al. asked general questions that centered on the dynamics of host–parasitoid (or predator–prey) interactions and the processes that enabled hosts to persist at low densities for long periods. Answers to these questions also provided valuable information for improving biological control strategies not only for red scale, but also for other pests.These studies[2xSchindler, D. Science. 1974; 184: 897–899Crossref | PubMedSee all References, 3xSchindler, D. Science. 1977; 195: 260–262Crossref | PubMedSee all References, 4xMurdoch, W.W. Ecology. 1994; 75: 271–287CrossrefSee all References]have demonstrated the importance of both the question and the answer in ecological research. In each case, questions were developed to address basic concepts that were not well understood or appreciated at the time. Because they were framed in the context of pressing environmental issues, the answers provided valuable information for the development of improved conservation or management practices. As these studies illustrate, the challenge for ecologists who wish to work at the interface of basic and applied ecology is to ask new and innovative questions that will provide answers to pressing issues in applied ecology.