Collaborative Models of Instruction: The Empirical Foundations of Inclusion and Co-Teaching.

Asummaryofinclusionandco-teachingsyntheseswasconductedtobetterunderstandtheevidence base associated with collaborative models of instruction. Six syntheses were identified: four investigated inclusion, and two investigated co-teaching. Collectively, the syntheses represented 146 studies. The syntheses investigated research on collaborative models; student outcomes; teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions; and students’ perceptions. Common themes of collaborative models were identified across the six syntheses, which included collaborative models; student outcomes; teacher support issues; and attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of collaborative models. Findings provide an empirical foundation to assist school psychologists in evidence-based decision making. C � 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Over the past 20 years, a convergence of legislative pressures has challenged educators to find efficient yet effective ways to provide high-quality instruction for students with disabilities. In 1994, the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) made explicit the expectation that students with disabilities would receive their education (to the maximum extent possible) with nondisabled peers, in the general education classroom, and with appropriate supplemental aids and services, otherwise known as the least restrictive environment mandate. Under this mandate, school personnel must determine what supports are necessary to ensure that students are educated in the general education setting to the greatest extent possible. More recently, both No Child Left Behind and IDEA 2004 challenge school personnel to provide evidence-based interventions to students who display inadequate performance in the school setting. School psychologists often serve in key roles to adequately address both the least restrictive environment mandate and the provisionofevidence-basedpractices.Thepurposeofthisarticleistoprovideasummaryofresearch conducted to determine the efficacy and use of inclusion and co-teaching as a means to inform school psychologists’ recommendations during the special education referral and identification process. The complexities of providing meaningful education to students with disabilities within appropriate educational contexts require a high degree of cooperation between teachers and other school personnel, particularly school psychologists. To ensure that decision making is aligned with evidence-based practices, understanding the research on collaboration in school settings related to inclusion and co-teaching provides an empirical foundation for decision making. Inclusion refers to educational programming wherein students with disabilities learn with their peers in general education classrooms (Gilhool, 1989). Under the inclusion model, students may leave the classroom to receive supplementary services (e.g., speech therapy or individualized instruction from a specialist) but receive their core instruction within the general education classroom (Community Alliance for Special Education and Protection and Advocacy & Protection and Advocacy, Inc., 1992). Inclusion can take place with or without additional support from a special education teacher during core instruction. However, within the inclusion setting, a co-teaching arrangement is often