Plastics, General Survey

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 1.1. Polymers 1.1.1. Fundamental Terms 1.1.2. Nomenclature 1.2. Plastics 1.2.1. Fundamental Terms 1.2.2. Designations 1.3. History of Plastics 1.4. Economic Importance 2. Molecular Structure of Polymers 2.1. Constitution 2.1.1. Homopolymers 2.1.2. Copolymers 2.1.3. Branched Polymers 2.1.4. Ordered Chain Assemblies 2.1.5. Unordered Networks 2.2. Molar Masses and Molar Mass Distributions 2.2.1. Molar Mass Average 2.2.2. Determination of Molar Mass 2.2.3. Molar Mass Distributions 2.2.4. Determination of Molar Mass Distributions 2.3. Configurations 2.4. Conformations 2.4.1. Microconformations 2.4.2. Conformations in Ideal Polymer Crystals 2.4.3. Conformations in Polymer Solutions 2.4.4. Unperturbed Coils 2.4.5. Perturbed Coils 2.4.6. Wormlike Chains 3. Polymer Manufacture 3.1. Raw Materials 3.1.1. Wood 3.1.2. Coal 3.1.3. Natural Gas 3.1.4. Petroleum 3.1.5. Other Natural Raw Materials 3.2. Polymer Syntheses: Overview 3.2.1. Classifications 3.2.2. Functionality 3.2.3. Cyclopolymerizations 3.3. Chain Polymerizations and Polyeliminations 3.3.1. Thermodynamics 3.3.2. Free-Radical Polymerizations 3.3.3. Anionic Polymerizations 3.3.4. Cationic Polymerizations 3.3.5. Ziegler–Natta Polymerizations 3.3.6. Copolymerizations 3.4. Polycondensations and Polyadditions 3.4.1. Bifunctional Polycondensations 3.4.2. Multifunctional Polycondensations 3.4.3. Polyaddition 3.5. Polymer Reactions 3.5.1. Polymer Transformations 3.5.2. Block and Graft Formations 3.5.3. Cross-Linking Reactions 3.5.4. Degradation Reactions 4. Plastics Manufacture 4.1. Homogenization and Compounding 4.2. Additives 4.2.1. Overview 4.2.2. Chemofunctional Additives 4.2.3. Processing Aids 4.2.4. Extending and Reinforcing Fillers 4.2.5. Plasticizers 4.2.6. Colorants 4.2.7. Blowing Agents 4.3. Processing 5. Supermolecular Structures 5.1. Noncrystalline States 5.1.1. Structure 5.1.2. Orientation 5.2. Polymer Crystals 5.2.1. Introduction 5.2.2. Crystal Structures 5.2.3. Crystallinity 5.2.4. Morphology 5.3. Mesophases 5.3.1. Introduction 5.3.2. Types of Liquid Crystals 5.3.3. Mesogens 5.3.4. Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Polymers 5.3.5. Thermotropic Liquid Crystal Polymers 5.3.6. Block Copolymers 5.3.7. Ionomers 5.4. Gels 5.5. Polymer Surfaces 5.5.1. Structure 5.5.2. Interfacial Tension 5.5.3. Adsorption 6. Thermal Properties 6.1. Molecular Motion 6.1.1. Thermal Expansion 6.1.2. Heat Capacity 6.1.3. Heat Conductivity 6.2. Thermal Transitions and Relaxations 6.2.1. Overview 6.2.2. Crystallization 6.2.3. Melting 6.2.4. Liquid Crystal Transitions 6.2.5. Glass Transitions 6.2.6. Other Transitions and Relaxations 6.2.7. Technical Methods 6.3. Transport 6.3.1. Self-Diffusion 6.3.2. Permeation 7. Rheological Properties 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Shear Viscosities at Rest 7.2.1. Fundamentals 7.2.2. Molar Mass Dependence 7.2.3. Concentrated Solutions 7.3. Non-Newtonian Shear Viscosities 7.3.1. Overview 7.3.2. Flow Curves 7.3.3. Melt Viscosities 7.4. Extensional Viscosities 7.4.1. Fundamentals 7.4.2. Melts 7.4.3. Solutions 8. Mechanical Properties 8.1. Introduction 8.1.1. Deformation of Polymers 8.1.2. Tensile Tests 8.1.3. Moduli and Poisson Ratios 8.2. Energy Elasticity 8.2.1. Theoretical Moduli 8.2.2. Real Moduli 8.2.3. Temperature Dependence 8.3. Entropy Elasticity 8.4. Viscoelasticity 8.4.1. Fundamentals 8.4.2. Time–Temperature Superposition 8.5. Dynamic Behavior 8.5.1. Fundamentals 8.5.2. Molecular Interpretations 8.6. Fracture 8.6.1. Overview 8.6.2. Theoretical Fracture Strength 8.6.3. Real Fracture Strength 8.6.4. Impact Resistance 8.6.5. Stress Cracking 8.6.6. Fatigue 8.7. Surface Mechanics 8.7.1. Hardness 8.7.2. Friction 8.7.3. Abrasion and Wear 9. Electric Properties 9.1. Dielectric Properties 9.1.1. Relative Permittivity 9.1.2. Dielectric Loss 9.1.3. Dielectric Strength and Tracking Resistance 9.1.4. Electrostatic Charging 9.2. Electrical Conductivity 9.3. Photoconductivity 10. Optical Properties 11. Polymer Composites 11.1. Introduction 11.1.1. Overview 11.1.2. Mixture Rules 11.2. Filled Polymers 11.2.1. Microcomposites 11.2.2. Molecular Composites 11.2.3. Macrocomposites 11.3. Homogeneous Blends 11.3.1. Thermodynamics 11.3.2. Plastification 11.3.3. Rubber Blends 11.3.4. Plastic Blends 11.4. Heterogeneous Blends 11.4.1. Compatible Polymers 11.4.2. Blend Formation 11.4.3. Toughened Plastics 11.4.4. Thermoplastic Elastomers 11.5. Expanded Plastics 12. Waste Disposal