Facilitation of Formative Assessments Using Clickers in a University Physics Course

Introduction Faculty in the science education community are being charged to replace traditional methods of teaching in the large lecture hall with more learner-centered, student-engaged, interactive strategies informed by what is now known about how many students learn (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). While the traditional methods of teaching have long been associated with disconnecting the students from both the instructor and course material, causing students to assume a more passive role in the learning process, encouraging memorization over conceptual understanding of course material, and treating students as if they learn course material at the same time and in the same way, these methods are common in many of today's lecture halls (Mintzes & Leonard, 2006; Sunal, Wright, & Day, 2004). In better preparing students for the skills needed for success in the 21st century (Floden, Gallagher, Wong, & Roseman, 1995; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2010), using new technologies during instruction that are interactive have shown to assist faculty in creating active learning environments whereby students learn by doing, receive feedback during the learning trajectory, construct new knowledge and improve skills, and continually refine their understandings of course material (Bereiter & Scardamalai, 1993; Hmelo & Williams, 1998; Mintzes & Leonard, 2006). While supporting research has shown increased student achievement and improved behavioral outcomes for students who are actively engaged with the course content and increased dialogue and interaction with the instructor and peers (Crouch & Mazur, 2001; Mintzes & Leonard, 2006; Slater, Prather, & Zeilik, 2006), "a key instructional implication from the research on learning is that students need multiple opportunities to think deeply and purposefully about the content and to gain feedback on their learning" (Ueckert & Gess-Newsome, 2006, p. 147). Options available to instructors that have been used to engage students and promote an active learning environment in the large lecture hall are Audience Paced Feedback, Classroom Communication Systems, Personal Response Systems, Electronic Voting Systems, Student Response Systems, Audience Response Systems, voting-machines, and zappers (MacArthur & Jones, 2008). Each of these systems has also been referred to as 'clickers' (Duncan, 2005; MacArthur & Jones, 2008). In the most fundamental sense, clickers are radio-frequency, battery powered, hand-held devices that are part of an electronic polling system. The predominant research about the clicker use has been shown to promote student discussion, increase engagement and feedback, and improve attitudes toward science (Cutts, 2004: Draper & Brown, 2004; Duncan, 2005; Latessa & Mouw, 2005). However, an extensive 2009 review of the literature revealed a paucity of empirical peer-reviewed evidence to support the claims that the technique can be used to improve student achievement (Mayer, et al., 2009). Although several research efforts report positive effects of clicker use on students' achievement (Addison, Wright, & Milner, 2009; Hoffman & Goodwin, 2006; Kennedy & Cutts, 2005; Watkins & Sabella, 2008), the empirical evidence suggested by Mayer et al. (2009) that is needed to corroborate existing results and substantiate any claims for using clickers requires additional studies. This study aims to provide evidence from university physics classes. Review of Related Literature General Clicker Device Features and Uses In general, clicker devices have a keypad (alpha, numeric, or alpha/numeric buttons) resembling a television remote control device or small electronic calculator. Using presentation software, the instructor poses a question (multiple choice or true-false formats). Students respond by selecting their answer choice and using the corresponding button on their devices. …