Unraveling Probation Officers' Practices with Youths with Histories of Trauma and Stressful Life Events

This study examines how probation officers' (POs) knowledge of juveniles' trauma influences probation practices. The study was conducted with POs who responded to a Web-based survey (n = 308). The POs were directed to randomly select one juvenile from their caseload and to complete the Probation Practices Assessment Survey to assess their knowledge of the youth's lifetime trauma and past-year stressful life experience and their practice approaches. Nineteen percent of youths were reported as having had lifetime exposure to at least one type of trauma (for example, physical assault, sexual assault, witness violent death). The most common traumatic experience was sexual assault, with 11% of POs reporting this experience among the study youths. Structural equation modeling results indicated that POs' knowledge of cumulative exposure to trauma is associated with treatment-oriented probation and counseling approaches. Results of this study signal the importance of careful assessments of exposure to trauma and stressful life events among youths on probation. The use of specialized trauma-informed assessment strategies also are recommended to increase the sensitivity of juvenile justice programs to trauma. KEY WORDS: adolescents; juvenile justice; probation; stressful life events; trauma ********** Evidence suggests that youths who have been exposed to trauma and stressful life events are at an elevated risk of juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice involvement (Ford, Chapman, Mack, & Pearson, 2006; Widom, 1989). Traumatic experiences, such as being a victim of or witness to violence, have been linked to juvenile delinquency (Maschi, 2006; Widom, 1989). Traumatic experiences often are described as extreme stressors that involve the threat of or actual serious physical or psychological harm to oneself or significant others, such as family members or close friends (Piotrkowski & Brannen, 2002). Exposure to trauma may result in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) for some youths (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Arroyo, 2001). Studies have estimated up to 93% of youths in the juvenile justice system have histories of trauma, whereas upwards of 18% are diagnosed with PTSD (Abram et al., 2004; Crimmins, Cleary, Brownstein, Spunt, & Warley, 2000). Stressful life events, such as the death of a loved one and family and school problems, also have been linked to juvenile delinquency (Maschi, 2006; Thompson, Maccio, Desselle, & Zittel-Palamara, 2007). Compared with trauma, stressful life events more commonly tax the adaptive capacities of individuals and cause distress or concern in most people (Piotrkowski, 1998). In response to stressful life events, youths may manifest their distress in many ways, including psychological, emotional, and behavioral problems, including juvenile delinquency (Hoffman & Cerbone, 1999; Maschi, 2006). Youths who are exposed to traumatic or stressful experiences are at higher risk of developing adverse emotional and psychological consequences (for example, affect dysregulation and hyperarousal), which in turn interfere with problem solving and interpersonal functioning (Ford, Chapman, Hawke, & Albert, 2007; Potter & Jenson, 2007; Vermeiron, 2003). Moreover, exposure to trauma and stressful life events challenge youths' coping resources and are associated with a variety of negative developmental outcomes in addition to delinquency, including alcohol and drug abuse (Maschi, 2006; Thomberry, Ireland, & Smith, 2001; Vermeiron, 2003). The high rates of trauma exposure among youths in the juvenile justice system have led to calls for the development of trauma-informed juvenile justice interventions to improve the treatment of this high-risk population (Ford et al., 2007; Ko et al., 2008). Because a majority of youths legally considered delinquent have been sentenced to probation by a court (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006), probation programs are a key point of contact for many youths who have experienced trauma or stressful life events. …