cssi/SciSciGPT-SciSciNet huggingface dataset:
The Design of Radio Telescope Array Configurations using Multiobjective Optimization: Imaging Performance versus Cable Length

The next generation of radio telescope interferometric arrays requires careful design of the array configuration to optimize the performance of the overall system. We have developed a framework, based on a genetic algorithm, for rapid exploration and optimization of the objective space pertaining to multiple objectives. We have evaluated a large space of possible designs for 27, 60, 100, and 160 station arrays. The 27 station optimizations can be compared to the well-known VLA case, and the larger array designs apply to arrays currently under design such as LOFAR, ATA, and the SKA. In the initial implementation of our framework we evaluate designs with respect to two metrics, array imaging performance and the length of cable necessary to connect the stations. Imaging performance is measured by the degree to which the sampling of the u-v plane is uniform. For the larger arrays we find that well-known geometric designs perform well and occupy the Pareto front of optimum solutions. For the 27 element case we find designs, combining features of the well-known designs, that are more optimal as measured by these two metrics. The results obtained by the multiobjective genetic optimization are corroborated by simulated annealing, which also reveals the role of entropy in array optimization. Our framework is general, and may be applied to other design goals and issues, such as particular schemes for sampling the u-v plane, array robustness, and phased deployment of arrays.
A quantum controlled quantum eraser

We show that the protocol known as quantum state separation can be used to transfer information between the phase and path of a particle in an interferometer. When applied to a quantum eraser, this allows us to erase some, but not all, of the path information. We can control how much path information we wish to erase.
EXCESS C/O AND C/H IN OUTER PROTOPLANETARY DISK GAS

The compositions of nascent planets depend on the compositions of their birth disks. In particular, the elemental compositions of gas giant gaseous envelopes depend on the elemental compositions of the disk gas from which the envelopes are accreted. Previous models have demonstrated that sequential freeze-out of O- and C-bearing volatiles in disks will result in supersolar C/O ratios and subsolar C/H ratios in the gas between water and CO snowlines. However, this result does not take into account the expected grain growth and radial drift of pebbles in disks, and the accompanying redistribution of volatiles from the outer to the inner disk. Using a toy model we demonstrate that when drift is considered, CO is enhanced between the water and CO snowline, resulting in both supersolar C/O and C/H ratios in the disk gas in the gas giant formation zone. This result appears to be robust for the disk model as long as there is substantial pebble drift across the CO snowline, and the efficiency of CO vapor diffusion is limited. Gas giants that accrete their gaseous envelopes exterior to the water snowline and do not experience substantial core-envelope mixing may thus feature both superstellar C/O and C/H ratios in their atmospheres. Pebble drift will also affect the nitrogen and noble gas abundances in the planet-forming zones, which may explain some of Jupiter's peculiar abundance patterns.
CASTRO: A NEW COMPRESSIBLE ASTROPHYSICAL SOLVER. III. MULTIGROUP RADIATION HYDRODYNAMICS

We present a formulation for multigroup radiation hydrodynamics that is correct to order O(v/c) using the comoving-frame approach and the flux-limited diffusion approximation. We describe a numerical algorithm for solving the system, implemented in the compressible astrophysics code, CASTRO. CASTRO uses a Eulerian grid with block-structured adaptive mesh refinement based on a nested hierarchy of logically rectangular variable-sized grids with simultaneous refinement in both space and time. In our multigroup radiation solver, the system is split into three parts: one part that couples the radiation and fluid in a hyperbolic subsystem, another part that advects the radiation in frequency space, and a parabolic part that evolves radiation diffusion and source-sink terms. The hyperbolic subsystem and the frequency space advection are solved explicitly with high-order Godunov schemes, whereas the parabolic part is solved implicitly with a first-order backward Euler method. Our multigroup radiation solver works for both neutrino and photon radiation.
Early Excitation of Spin-Orbit Misalignments in Close-in Planetary Systems

Continued observational characterization of transiting planets that reside in close proximity to their host stars has shown that a substantial fraction of such objects possess orbits that are inclined with respect to the spin axes of their stars. Mounting evidence for the wide-spread nature of this phenomenon has challenged the conventional notion that large-scale orbital transport occurs during the early epochs of planet formation and is accomplished via planet-disk interactions. However, recent work has shown that the excitation of spin-orbit misalignment between protoplanetary nebulae and their host stars can naturally arise from gravitational perturbations in multi-stellar systems as well as magnetic disk-star coupling. In this work, we examine these processes in tandem. We begin with a thorough exploration of the gravitationally facilitated acquisition of spin-orbit misalignment and analytically show that the entire possible range of misalignments can be trivially reproduced. Moreover, we demonstrate that the observable spin-orbit misalignment only depends on the primordial disk-binary orbit inclination. Subsequently, we augment our treatment by accounting for magnetic torques and show that more exotic dynamical evolution is possible, provided favorable conditions for magnetic tilting. Cumulatively, our results suggest that observed spin-orbit misalignments are fully consistent with disk-driven migration as a dominant mechanism for the origin of close-in planets.
Revealing the Milky Way’s Hidden Circumgalactic Medium with the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph Quasar Database for Galactic Absorption Lines

Every quasar (QSO) spectrum contains absorption-line signatures from the interstellar medium, disk-halo interface, and circumgalactic medium (CGM) of the Milky Way (MW). We analyze Hubble Space Telescope/Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) spectra of 132 QSOs to study the significance and origin of SiIV absorption at $|v_{\rm LSR}|\leq100$ km/s in the Galactic halo. The gas in the north predominantly falls in at $-50\lesssim v_{\rm LSR}\lesssim 0$ km/s, whereas in the south, no such pattern is observed. The SiIV column density has an average and a standard deviation of $\langle N_{\rm SiIV}\rangle=(3.8\pm1.4)\times10^{13}$ cm$^{-2}$. At $|b|\gtrsim 30$ degree, $N_{\rm SiIV}$ does not significantly correlate with $b$, which cannot be explained by a commonly adopted flat-slab geometry. We propose a two-component model to reconstruct the $N_{\rm SiIV}$-$b$ distribution: a plane-parallel component $N_{\rm DH}^{\perp}$ to account for the MW's disk-halo interface and a global component $N_{\rm G}$ to reproduce the weak dependence on $b$. We find $N_{\rm DH}^{\perp}=1.3^{+4.7}_{-0.7}\times10^{12}$ cm$^{-2}$ and $N_{\rm G}=(3.4\pm0.3)\times10^{13}$ cm$^{-2}$ on the basis of Bayesian analyses and block bootstrapping. The global component is most likely to have a Galactic origin, although its exact location is uncertain. If it were associated with the MW's CGM, we would find $M_{\rm gas, all}\gtrsim4.7\times10^9\ M_{\odot} (\frac{C_f}{1})(\frac{R}{75\ {\rm kpc}})^2 (\frac{f_{\rm SiIV}}{0.3})^{-1}(\frac{Z}{0.3\ Z_{\odot}})^{-1}$ for the cool gas at all velocities in the Galactic halo. Our analyses show that there is likely a considerable amount of gas at $|v_{\rm LSR}|\leq100$ km s$^{-1}$ hidden in the MW's CGM. Along with this work, we make our QSO dataset publicly available as the COS Quasar Database for Galactic Absorption Lines (COS-GAL).
A compact and versatile microfluidic probe for local processing of tissue sections and biological specimens.

The microfluidic probe (MFP) is a non-contact, scanning microfluidic technology for local (bio)chemical processing of surfaces based on hydrodynamically confining nanoliter volumes of liquids over tens of micrometers. We present here a compact MFP (cMFP) that can be used on a standard inverted microscope and assist in the local processing of tissue sections and biological specimens. The cMFP has a footprint of 175 × 100 × 140 mm3 and can scan an area of 45 × 45 mm2 on a surface with an accuracy of ±15 μm. The cMFP is compatible with standard surfaces used in life science laboratories such as microscope slides and Petri dishes. For ease of use, we developed self-aligned mounted MFP heads with standardized “chip-to-world” and “chip-to-platform” interfaces. Switching the processing liquid in the flow confinement is performed within 90 s using a selector valve with a dead-volume of approximately 5 μl. We further implemented height-compensation that allows a cMFP head to follow non-planar surfaces common in tissue and cellular ensembles. This was shown by patterning different macroscopic copper-coated topographies with height differences up to 750 μm. To illustrate the applicability to tissue processing, 5 μm thick M000921 BRAF V600E+ melanoma cell blocks were stained with hematoxylin to create contours, lines, spots, gradients of the chemicals, and multiple spots over larger areas. The local staining was performed in an interactive manner using a joystick and a scripting module. The compactness, user-friendliness, and functionality of the cMFP will enable it to be adapted as a standard tool in research, development and diagnostic laboratories, particularly for the interaction with tissues and cells.
Order and disorder in energy minimization

How can we understand the origins of highly symmetrical objects? One way is to characterize them as the solutions of natural optimization problems from discrete geometry or physics. In this paper, we explore how to prove that exceptional objects, such as regular polytopes or the E8 root system, are optimal solutions to packing and potential energy minimization problems. Mathematics Subject Classification (2010). Primary 05B40, 52C17; Secondary 11H31.
Jamming and tiling in aggregation of rectangles

We study a random aggregation process involving rectangular clusters. In each aggregation event, two rectangles are chosen at random and if they have a compatible side, either vertical or horizontal, they merge along that side to form a larger rectangle. Starting with $N$ identical squares, this elementary event is repeated until the system reaches a jammed state where each rectangle has two unique sides. The average number of frozen rectangles scales as $N^\alpha$ in the large-$N$ limit. The growth exponent $\alpha=0.229\pm 0.002$ characterizes statistical properties of the jammed state and the time-dependent evolution. We also study an aggregation process where rectangles are embedded in a plane and interact only with nearest neighbors. In the jammed state, neighboring rectangles are incompatible, and these frozen rectangles form a tiling of the two-dimensional domain. In this case, the final number of rectangles scales linearly with system size.
Quantum Signal Splitting that Avoids Initialization of the Targets

The classical signal splitting and copying are not possible in quantum mechanics. Specifically, one cannot copy the basis up and down states of the input (I) two-state system (qubit, spin) into the copy (C) and duplicate-copy (D) two-state systems if the latter systems are initially in an arbitrary state. We consider instead a quantum evolution in which the basis states of I at time t are duplicated in at least two of the systems I, C, D, at time t+Δt. In essence, the restriction on the initial target states is exchanged for uncertainty as to which two of the three qubits retain copies of the initial source state.
Two-Phase Anisotropic Free Boundary Problems and Applications to the Bellman Equation in 2D

We prove Lipschitz continuity of solutions to a class of rather general two-phase anisotropic free boundary problems in 2D and we classify global solutions. As a consequence, we obtain \({C^{2,1}}\) regularity of solutions to the Bellman equation in 2D.
Near-BPS-Saturated Rotating Electrically Charged Black Holes as String States

Abstract We construct generating solutions for general D-dimensional (4 ≤ D ≤ 9) rotating, electrically charged, black holes in the effective action of toroidally compactified heterotic (or Type IIA) string. The generating solution is parameterized by the ADM mass, two electric charges and [ D−1 2 ] angular momenta (as well as the asymptotic values of one toroidal modulus and the dilaton field). For D ≥ 6, those are generating solutions for general black holes in toroidally compactified heterotic (or type IIA) string. Since in the BPS-limit (extreme limit) these solutions have singular horizons or naked singularities, we address the near extreme solutions with all the angular momenta small enough. In this limit, the thermodynamic entropy can be cast in a suggestive form, which has a qualitative interpretation as microscopic entropy of (near)-BPS-saturated charged string states of toroidally compactified heterotic string, whose target-space angular momenta are identified as [ D−1 2 ] U(1) left-moving world-sheet currents.
Evidence for a Past Martian Ring from the Orbital Inclination of Deimos

We numerically explore the possibility that the large orbital inclination of the Martian satellite Deimos originated in an orbital resonance with an ancient inner satellite of Mars more massive than Phobos. We find that Deimos's inclination can be reliably generated by outward evolution of a Martian satellite that is about 20 times more massive than Phobos through the 3:1 mean-motion resonance with Deimos at 3.3 Mars radii. This outward migration, in the opposite direction from tidal evolution within the synchronous radius, requires interaction with a past massive ring of Mars. Our results therefore strongly support the cyclic Martian ring-satellite hypothesis of Hesselbrock & Minton. Our findings, combined with the model of Hesselbrock & Minton, suggest that the age of the surface of Deimos is about 3.5–4 Gyr, and require Phobos to be significantly younger.
Bayesian methods for genetic association analysis with heterogeneous subgroups: From meta-analyses to gene–environment interactions

Genetic association analyses often involve data from multiple potentially-heterogeneous subgroups. The expected amount of heterogeneity can vary from modest (e.g. a typical meta-analysis), to large (e.g. a strong gene-environment interaction). However, existing statistical tools are limited in their ability to address such heterogeneity. Indeed, most genetic association meta-analyses use a "fixed effects" analysis, which assumes no heterogeneity. Here we develop and apply Bayesian association methods to address this problem. These methods are easy to apply (in the simplest case, requiring only a point estimate for the genetic effect, and its standard error, from each subgroup), and effectively include standard frequentist meta-analysis methods, including the usual "fixed effects" analysis, as special cases. We apply these tools to two large genetic association studies: one a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies from the Global Lipids consortium, and the second a cross-population analysis for expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). In the Global Lipids data we find, perhaps surprisingly, that effects are generally quite homogeneous across studies. In the eQTL study we find that eQTLs are generally shared among different continental groups, and discuss consequences of this for study design.
Trapped, Two-Armed, Nearly Vertical Oscillations in Disks with Toroidal Magnetic Fields

We have examined the trapping of two-armed (m = 2) nearly vertical oscillations (vertical p-mode) in vertically isothermal (cs = const.) relativistic disks with toroidal magnetic fields. The magnetic fields are stratified so that the Alfven speed, cA, is constant in the vertical direction. The ratio c 2 A =c 2 in the vertical direction is taken to be a parameter that examines the effects of magnetic fields on wave trapping. We find that the two-armed nearly vertical oscillations are trapped in the inner region of the disks, and their frequencies decrease with an increase of c 2 A =c 2 s . The trapped regions of the fundamental (n = 1) and the first-overtone (n = 2) are narrow (less than the length of the Schwarzschild radius, rg), and their frequencies are relatively high (on the order of the angular frequency of disk rotation in the inner region). In contrast to this, the second overtone (n = 3) is trapped in a wide region (a few times rg), and the frequencies are low and tend to zero in the limit of c 2 A =c 2 s = 2.0.
Quantum Circuits for Functionally Controlled NOT Gates

We generalize quantum circuits for the Toffoli gate presented by Selinger [1] and Jones [2] for functionally controlled NOT gates, i.e., $X$ gates controlled by arbitrary n- variable Boolean functions. Our constructions target the gate set consisting of Clifford gates and single qubit rotations by arbitrary angles. Our constructions use the Walsh-Hadamard spectrum of Boolean functions and build on the work by Schuch and Siewert [3] and Welch et al [4]. We present quantum circuits for the case where the target qubit is in an arbitrary state as well as the special case where the target is in a known state. Additionally, we present constructions that require no auxiliary qubits and constructions that have a rotation depth of 1.
Cohomology jump loci of 3-manifolds

The cohomology jump loci of a space X are of two basic types: the characteristic varieties, defined in terms of homology with coefficients in rank one local systems, and the resonance varieties, constructed from information encoded in either the cohomology ring, or an algebraic model for X. We explore here the geometry of these varieties and the delicate interplay between them in the context of closed, orientable 3-dimensional manifolds and link complements. The classical multivariable Alexander polynomial plays an important role in this analysis. As an application, we derive some consequences regarding the formality and the existence of finite-dimensional models for such 3-manifolds.
Self-generated persistent random forces drive phase separation in growing tumors

A single solid tumor, composed of nearly identical cells, exhibits heterogeneous dynamics. Dynamics of cells in the core is glass-like, whereas those in the periphery undergoes diffusive or super-diffusive behavior. Quantification of heterogeneity using the mean square displacement or the self-intermediate scattering function, which involves averaging over the cell population, hides the complexity of the collective movement. Using the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE), a popular unsupervised machine learning dimensionality reduction technique, we show that the phase space structure of an evolving colony of cells, driven by cell division and apoptosis, partitions into nearly disjoint sets composed principally of the core and periphery cells. The non-equilibrium phase separation is driven by the differences in the persistence of self-generated active forces induced by cell division. Extensive heterogeneity revealed by t-SNE paves the way toward understanding the origins of intratumor heterogeneity using experimental imaging data.
Clean and sustainable technology innovation

Has patent law provided adequate incentives for environmental innovation? This Article provides a narrative review that describes (1) clean and sustainable technological inventions and (2) various environmental innovation approaches involving patents in some form and incentivizing technological development and diffusion. Clean, sustainable, or green inventions that lower pollution, use resources in a more sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes and products, or provide significant energy efficiency have garnered an incredible amount of attention. Scholars and other commentators have analysed the role of patents in facilitating technological development to mitigate climate change, including eco-patent commons, a fast track program, a patent rewards system, and a collaborative and cooperative platform. An analysis of the literature shows that patent law offers certain, though perhaps underutilized, opportunities to promote technological innovation that has environmental benefits.
An Aqueous Eutectic Electrolyte for Low-Cost, Safe Energy Storage with an Operational Temperature Range of 150 °C, from −70 to 80 °C

The performance of conventional energy storage devices greatly suffers at low temperatures. Here, we show that aqueous electrolytes represent an unexpectedly promising solution to this low-temperat...
Single-particle and collective excitations in quantum wires comprised of vertically stacked quantum dots: Finite magnetic field

A theoretical investigation has been made of the magnetoplasmon excitations in a quasi-one-dimensional electron system composed of vertically stacked, self-assembled InAs/GaAs quantum dots. The sma...
Will the "Legal Singularity" Hollow Out Law's Normative Core?

This Article undertakes a critical examination of the unintended consequences for the legal system if we arrive at the futurist dream of a legal singularity—the moment when predictive, mass-data technologies evolve to create a perfectly predictable, algorithmically expressed legal system bereft of all legal uncertainty. It argues that although the singularity would surely enhance the efficiency of the legal system in a narrow sense, it would also undermine the rule of law, a bedrock institution of any liberal legal order and a key source of the legal system’s legitimacy. It would do so by dissolving the normative content of the two core pillars of the rule of law: the predictability principle and the universality principle, each of which has traditionally been conceived as a bulwark against arbitrary government power. The futurists heralding the legal singularity privilege a weak-form predictability principle that emphasizes providing notice to legal subjects about the content of laws over a strong-form variant that also emphasizes the prevention of arbitrary governmental action. Hence, an inattentive and hurried embrace of predictive technologies in service of the (only weak-form) predictability principle will likely attenuate the rule of law’s connection to the deeper (strong-form) predictability principle. The legal singularity will also destabilize law’s universality principle, by reconceiving of legal subjects as aggregations of data points rather than as individual members of a polity. In so doing, it will undermine the universality principle’s premise that the differences among legal subjects are outweighed by what we—or, better still, “We the People” who are, as Blackstone put it, the “community in general”—have in common. A cautionary directive emerges from this analysis: that lawyers should avoid an uncritical embrace of predictive technologies in pursuit of a shrunken ideal of predictability that might ultimately require them to throw aside much of the normative ballast that has kept the liberal legal order stable and afloat.
Survival, Attrition and Biased Decision-Making

This paper considers the persistence of earnings differentials between wage earners and the self-employed through modeling overconfidence. The model examines challenges of limited information and its impact in the decision-making process. Using a Bayesian setting and concentrating specifically on the entrepreneur’s entry decision, the model shows how limited information can lead to substantial overestimation of potential profits and other outcomes even if the decision-maker has unbiased prior beliefs. The driving force behind the conclusion is the assumption that decision-makers, such as entrepreneurs, are not aware that available information is limited. For entrepreneurship, the resulting bias leads to overconfidence, excessive entry and the persistence of lower returns to entrepreneurship when compared to returns in the wage sector. This situation may arise wherever attrition is present, from military to business schools to medicine. Going the extra mile to gather and incorporate all relevant information into decision-making pays off in better quality decisions.
Personalized Ground Vehicle Collision Avoidance System: From a Computational Resource Re-allocation Perspective

Personalized driving assistance system for vehicle collision avoidance has recently received a considerable amount of attention. Consensus has been reached that both the overall driver-vehicle control performance and the driver acceptance can be increased by embedding individual driver preferences and characteristics into the assistance system design. However, the majority of the existing personalized controllers has not yet taken the available computational resource into account. Indeed, as stricter requirements on emissions, safety, and vehicle connectivity drastically complicate the automotive electronics, it becomes common to aggregate several functions inside one single computing unit. Function consolidation simplifies electronic architecture and saves costs. However, it aggravates the competition for computational resources among different applications. Therefore, this paper proposes a novel perspective for personalized driving assistance system design through computational resource re-allocation. For a driver inherently adept at longitudinal (or lateral) control and less capable of lateral (or longitudinal) control, a stronger support from the collision avoidance system and the underlying computational resource can be allocated towards steering (or braking) assistance by this design. Carsim-Simulink conjoint simulations demonstrate that the overall driver-vehicle control performance can be substantially improved with the same computational resource consumption.
Radial cutoffs and holographic entanglement

Tensor networks, $$ T\overline{T} $$ , and broader notions of a holographic principle all motivate the idea that some notion of gravitational holography should persist in the presence of a radial cutoff. But in the absence of time-reflection symmetry, the areas of Hubeny-Rangamani-Takayanagi surfaces anchored to the radial cutoff generally violate strong sub-additivity, even when the associated boundary regions are spacelike separated as defined by both bulk and boundary notions of causality. We thus propose an alternate definition of cutoff-holographic entropy using a restricted maximin prescription anchored to a codimension 2 cutoff surface. For bulk solutions that respect the null energy condition, we show that the resulting areas satisfy SSA, entanglement wedge nesting, and monogamy of mutual information in parallel with cutoff free results in AdS. These results hold even when the cutoff surface fails to be convex.
Variation in primate decision-making under uncertainty and the roots of human economic behaviour

Uncertainty is a ubiquitous component of human economic behaviour, yet people can vary in their preferences for risk across populations, individuals and different points in time. As uncertainty als...
Risk-Aware Safety Layer for AV Behavior Planning

On the path towards mass deployment of automated vehicles (AVs) several challenges still have to be resolved. One of these is the development of approaches that allow the safe operation of an AV within uncertain environments, while not imposing excessive safety margins. Existing proposals, such as the Responsibility Sensitive Safety (RSS) approach from Intel/Mobileye, are a good first step towards this goal. These approaches are based on parameterizable models, where the parameter choice is often a balancing process of safety and usefulness (e.g. traffic density). Hence, a proper selection of the parameters is crucial, which requires a proper situation understanding within the models. Therefore, we propose to consider the risk of a driving situation inside RSS. The result is a novel risk-aware RSS approach, which allows for significant reductions in safety margins (i.e. increased traffic density) in a situation-dependent manner, while risk limits are maintained, thus achieving the desired balance between safety and usefulness.
Market Structure and Performance

This article is a revision of the previous edition article by J. Sutton, volume 14, pp. 9211–9216, © 2001, Elsevier Ltd.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act and the Challenge of Population Aging

The author reviews evidence on age discrimination in U.S. labor markets and on the effects of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) in combating this discrimination, focusing on the chall...
Expectations, efficiency, and euphoria in the housing market

Abstract This paper studies expectations of capital appreciation in the housing market. We show that expectations impounded in the rent/price ratio at the beginning of the decade successfully predict appreciation rates, but only if we first control for cross-sectional differences in the quality of rental versus owner-occupied housing. We also demonstrate that observed rent/price ratios contain a disequilibrium component that also has power to forecast subsequent appreciation rates. Finally, we provide evidence consistent with euphoria: participants in housing markets appear to overreact to income growth.
Nonlinear impulse response functions

Abstract The standard linear technique of impulse response function analysis is extended to the nonlinear case by defining a generalized impulse response function. Measures of persistence and asymmetry in response are constructed for a wide class of time series.
The Right Not to Use in Property and Patent Law

In Continental Paper Bag Co. v. Eastern Paper Bag Co., the Supreme Court held (1) that patent owners have an absolute right not to practice their patent and (2) that even these nonpracticing patent owners are entitled to the liberal use of injunctive relief against infringers. Both of these holdings have been very important to the viability of patent assertion entities, the so-called patent trolls. In eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C., the Supreme Court softened the injunction rule. In this Article, we argue that Congress or the Court should reconsider Continental Paper Bag’s embrace of an absolute right not to use, not because patents are not property but because the considerations at work within both property and patent law do not support recognizing such an unbounded right not to use. The Court’s endorsement of a robust right not to use patents was based on an overly simplistic analogy to tangible property, which the Court characterized as recognizing “the privilege of any owner of property to use or not use it, without question of motive.”1 The Court’s reasoning was flawed in two respects. First, the law of tangible property distinguishes among nonusers, penalizing owners whose nonuse interferes with other owners’ use of their own property or induces others to waste time or effort appropriating the unused property. With respect to these derelict nonusers, the law employs numerous doctrines, such as nuisance, undue hardship, estoppel, abandonment, adverse possession, and permissive waste, to ensure that owners’ decision not to use their property does not inflict harm on others. Second, the Court in Continental Paper Bag failed to consider the ways in which the reasons for recognizing a right not to use might differ in the contexts of patent and tangible property. Although the same basic considerations are potentially at play in both contexts—efficiency, autonomy, and personhood—the implications of nonuse differ in the patent context because of information’s nonrivalrous nature and because of the particularly powerful way that patent law constrains the freedom of nonowners. Taking these factors into account suggests that the firstorder normative case for recognizing a robust right not to use a patent is weaker than in the domain of tangible property. This is especially true when nonusing owners attempt to enforce their patents against independent inven-
After Amnesties are Gone: Latin American National Courts and the New Contours of the Fight Against Impunity

Latin America is the one region that, in the wake of massive and systematic violations of human rights, has made inroads into trying such crimes in national courts. After decades in which cases were dismissed on grounds of amnesty, statutes of limitations, or other impediments to trial, these barriers have fallen in a majority of countries. This turnaround—while fragile and incomplete—is remarkable. It provides important and inspirational lessons for lawyers, judges, and advocates in other regions, and for international justice efforts. Cases involving international crimes in the courts of Latin American countries have experienced distinct phases. In the first phase, advocates confronted barriers to bringing the cases into court at all. In the second and current phase, courts are facing the challenges of organizing trials that involve hundreds of defendants and victims, or using the elements of crimes like genocide to show overall patterns of atrocity. A final, emerging phase shifts the focus from trial to punishment. This phase has led to creative—and controversial—propositions about reduced sentences, suspended sentences, and alternatives to imprisonment in cases involving international crimes.
Estimating the social return to higher education: evidence from longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional data

Abstract Economists have speculated for at least a century that the social return to education may exceed the private return. In this paper, I estimate spillovers from college education by comparing wages for otherwise similar individuals who work in cities with different shares of college graduates in the labor force. A key issue in this comparison is the presence of unobservable characteristics of individuals and cities that may raise wages and be correlated with college share. I use longitudinal data to estimate a model of non-random selection of workers among cities. I account for unobservable city-specific demand shocks by using two instrumental variables: the (lagged) city demographic structure and the presence of a land-grant college. I find that a percentage point increase in the supply of college graduates raises high school drop-outs’ wages by 1.9%, high school graduates’ wages by 1.6%, and college graduates wages by 0.4%. The effect is larger for less educated groups, as predicted by a conventional demand and supply model. But even for college graduates, an increase in the supply of college graduates increases wages, as predicted by a model that includes conventional demand and supply factors as well as spillovers.
Utilization of Infertility Treatments: The Effects of Insurance Mandates

Over the last several decades, both delay of childbearing and fertility problems have become increasingly common among women in developed countries. At the same time, technological changes have made many more options available to individuals experiencing fertility problems. However, these technologies are expensive, and only 25% of health insurance plans in the United States cover infertility treatment. As a result of these high costs, legislation has been passed in 15 states that mandates insurance coverage of infertility treatment in private insurance plans. In this article, we examine whether mandated insurance coverage for infertility treatment affects utilization. We allow utilization effects to differ by age and education, since previous research suggests that older, more-educated women should be more likely to be directly affected by the mandates than younger women and less-educated women, both because they are at higher risk of fertility problems and because they are more likely to have private health insurance, which is subject to the mandate. We find robust evidence that the mandates do have a significant effect on utilization for older, more-educated women that is larger than the effects found for other groups. These effects are largest for the use of ovulation-inducing drugs and artificial insemination.
Are Some Negotiators Better Than Others? Individual Differences in Bargaining Outcomes

Abstract The authors address the long-standing mystery of stable individual differences in negotiation performance, on which intuition and conventional wisdom have clashed with inconsistent empirical findings. The present study used the Social Relations Model to examine individual differences directly via consistency in performance across multiple negotiations and to disentangle the roles of both parties within these inherently dyadic interactions. Individual differences explained a substantial 46% of objective performance and 19% of subjective performance in a mixed-motive bargaining exercise. Previous work may have understated the influence of individual differences because conventional research designs require specific traits to be identified and measured. Exploratory analyses of a battery of traits revealed few reliable associations with consistent individual differences in objective performance—except for positive beliefs about negotiation, positive affect, and concern for one’s outcome, each of which predicted better performance. Findings suggest that the field has large untapped potential to explain substantial individual differences. Limitations, areas for future research, and practical implications are discussed.
Understanding Stock Price Volatility: The Role of Earnings

In an efficient capital market, asset prices vary when investors change their expectations about cash flows, discount rates, or both. Using dividends to measure cash flows, previous research shows that the aggregate dividend-price ratio varies due to changes in expected discount rates (returns) rather than expected cash flows. In contrast, using accounting earnings instead of dividends as a measure of cash flows, this paper shows that as much as 70% of the variation in the dividend-price ratio can be explained by changes in expected earnings. Moreover, the paper documents a significant negative correlation between expected returns and expected earnings, suggesting that variations in a common factor to both may generate significant price volatility. The results are consistent with the dividend-policy irrelevance hypothesis.
An Overview of the U.S. Retirement Income Security System and the Principles and Values It Reflects

This article is designed to provide an overview of the U.S. retirement income security system from a comparative law perspective. Like many countries, the U.S. has a three tier pension or retirement income system, with the three tiers consisting of (1) Social Security, (2) employment-based pensions, and (3) individual savings. Thus, superficially, the U.S. retirement income security system resembles that of many around the world. Yet, in other ways, such as its focus on individual rights and responsibility, the U.S. system is unique.The article begins by discussing the nine guiding principles of the U.S. Social Security system as identified by the late Robert Ball. It then describes the principal elements of employment-based pension plans in the U.S and provides a brief overview of individual savings. The article then turns to the values reflected in the U.S. retirement income security system. It discusses how the U.S. system does, and does not, reflect the European values of (1) responsibility, (2) protection, (3) solidarity, (4) nondiscrimination, and (5) participation.
Antidumping protection and R&D competition

In recent years antidumping protection has spread throughout the world. Evidence shows that antidumping often targets R&D-intensive sectors, raising a con- cern that it may adversely affect worldwide investments in R&D. We investigate this issue in a model of reciprocal dumping extended to a two-stage game, in which two firms first choose R&D levels and then compete in prices. We find that, when a single government institutes antidumping law, the protected firm decreases investment in R&D, while the constrained firm invests more. When both governments engage in antidumping actions, both firms invest more in R&D than under free trade. JEL classification: F12, F13
Optimism and economic choice.

Abstract We create a novel measure of optimism using the Survey of Consumer Finance by comparing self-reported life expectancy to that implied by statistical tables. This measure of optimism correlates with positive beliefs about future economic conditions and with psychometric tests of optimism. Optimism is related to numerous work/life choices: more optimistic people work harder, expect to retire later, are more likely to remarry, invest more in individual stocks, and save more. Interestingly, however, moderate optimists display reasonable financial behavior, whereas extreme optimists display financial habits and behavior that are generally not considered prudent.
Growth without Governance

Per capita incomes and the quality of governance are strongly positively correlated across countries. We propose an empirical strategy that allows us to separate this correlation into: i) a strong positive causal effect running from better governance to higher per capita incomes, and ii) a weak and even negative causal effect running in the opposite direction from per capita incomes to governance. The first result confirms existing evidence on the importance of good governance for economic development. The second result is new and suggests the absence of “virtuous circles” in which higher incomes lead to further improvements in governance. This motivates our choice of title, “Growth Without Governance”. We document this evidence using a newly-updated set of worldwide governance indicators covering 175 countries for the period 2000/01, and use the results to interpret the relationship between incomes and governance in the Latin America and the Caribbean region. Finally, we speculate as to the potential importance of elite influence and state capture in accounting for the surprising negative effects of per capita incomes on governance, present some evidence on such capture in some Latin American countries, and suggest priorities for actions to improve governance when such pernicious elite influence shapes public policy.
Apologies and Settlement Levers

This study uses experimental methods to explore the role of apologies in legal settlement negotiation. Specifically, the study examines the influences of apologies on disputants' perceptions, and the effects of apologies on a number of judgments that influence negotiation outcomes—settlement levers such as reservation, aspirations, and judgments of fair settlement amounts. Five-hundred-fifty-six participants were asked to take the role of potential plaintiffs, to provide their reactions to an experimental scenario, and to indicate the values they would set for each settlement lever. The nature of the communication with the offender and the description of the evidentiary rule governing the admissibility of the offender's statement were manipulated. The data suggest that apologies can promote settlement by altering the injured parties' perceptions of the situation and the offender so as to make them more amenable to settlement discussions and by altering the values of the injured parties' settlement levers in ways that are likely to increase the chances of settlement. The results suggest further, however, that the nature of the apology itself, as well as the factual circumstances surrounding the incident, may play important roles in how apologies are understood.
Unplanned Purchases and Retail Competition

I propose a framework in which consumers have biased beliefs about their future purchase probabilities, leading them to make unplanned purchases. Us- ing this framework, I examine the phenomenon of below-cost pricing and the welfare eects of banning it. When the market is covered, a ban on below-cost pricing raises social surplus, although consumers need not gain|they are only guaranteed to ben- et if the market is perfectly competitive. When the market is not covered, a ban always hurts at least some consumers. Also, there is a pro-competitive justica- tion for the observation that larger rms sometimes charge below cost on the core product lines of smaller rms|consumer bias is crucial for this justication. Multi-product retailers sometimes sell certain products beneath cost, with the hope of at- tracting additional customers who will also buy other, higher-margin items. This practice, often referred to as \loss leading," is controversial, with below-cost pricing having been banned in a number of countries, including Belgium, Germany, France, and Ireland, and in approximately half of all US states. 1 Many US cities also have such prohibitions. In this article I examine the welfare consequences of prohibitions on below-cost pricing, in a market where multi-product retailers compete for boundedly rational consumers who practice one-stop shopping (that is, visit at most one store). When rivals are symmetric and the market is covered (so that all consumers shop), a ban on loss leading raises social surplus. But when the market is not covered, a ban presents a social welfare tradeo: fewer consumers choose to shop, although those who do generate higher levels of social surplus. Perhaps surprisingly, for those consumers who shop both before and after a ban, a ban is guaranteed to make them better o if the market is perfectly competitive, but otherwise may harm them. Taken together, these results indicate that it is simplistic to argue that, by limiting the scope of competition, below-cost pricing bans must hurt consumers and society. But I also assess below-cost pricing laws in the presence of asymmetric competition, as when a \large" rm with a full product line competes against a \small" rm with a limited product
Two Models of Interest Arbitration

Most states prohibit public employees from striking and the federal government makes a strike by a federal employee a felony. Many public employee labor relations acts give organized employees a right to arbitrate when their union and employer are unable to reach agreement on the terms of a contract. Much discussion of such interest arbitration schemes has focused on whether the process inhibits bargaining (the chilling effect) or is habit forming (the narcotic effect). These discussions contrast the use of traditional interest arbitration, where the arbitrator may award any outcome that falls between the parties’ final offers, with final offer arbitration where the arbitrator must award one party’s final offer, either on a package or an issue-by-issue basis, and analyze each approach’s effect on the chilling and narcotic effects.This article focuses on another undesirable characteristic of interest arbitration – its ability to allow union and employer leaders to avoid accountability to their constituents. Using data from 2008-2012, the article finds support that, at least in hard times, parties negotiating in a right-to-strike legal regime tend to take responsibility for making the difficult decisions necessary to respond to the economic environment while parties negotiating under an interest arbitration legal regime are more likely to arbitrate and push responsibility off onto the arbitrator. The article contrasts legal regimes which approach interest arbitration as an extension of the collective bargaining process with those which approach interest arbitration as a quasi-judicial adjudication. It finds that the latter approach exacerbates the tendency of union and employer leaders to use interest arbitration as a means of avoiding accountability to their constituents.