Situating Math Instruction in Rich Problem-Solving Contexts: Effects on Adolescents with Challenging Behaviors

Previous research has revealed the strong and persistent relationship between low academic performance and problem behaviors (e.g., Anderson, 2001; Greenbaum & Dedrick, 1996; McEvoy & Welker, 2000; Scruggs, Mastropieri, Cook, & Escobar, 1986). According to the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2; Wagner & Cameto, 2004), the academic outcomes of adolescents with challenging behaviors, in particular, have remained poor. Although the report showed that course schedules of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities (EBD) were similar to those of students in the general population, two thirds were not keeping up with their peers, and 14% received mostly Ds or Fs in their classes. These statistics are also reflected in other research (e.g., Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith, 2004), which cited an effect size discrepancy of 0.94 for students with EBD compared to the norm group across all the content areas of reading, math, and written language. For mathematics, deficits either stabilize or worsen with age, which may explain why more than half (56%) of adolescents with EBD are at least three grade levels behind (Blackorby, Chorost, Carza, & Guzman, 2003).The reciprocal nature of academic performance and behavior is also reflected in social outcomes. The NLTS-2 reported that 42% of students with EBD were involved in fights during the year and 44% had been suspended from school (compared to 19% of all youth with disabilities). These externalizing behaviors (e.g., aggression, delinquency) have been linked directly to students' academic achievement deficits (Mattison, Spitznagel, & Felix, 1998; Nelson et al., 2004). The combination of weak academic performance and poor social skills poses considerable problems for students with EBD as they transition from school to the workplace. Although about half of these students (53%) hold a regular paying job, they are more likely to take jobs that pay less money than their peers without disabilities. The combination of these factors often leads to other consequences such as sexual promiscuity and substance abuse (Kauffman, 2001).Despite the link between behavior and achievement, almost no math intervention research has been conducted involving adolescents with challenging behaviors (Mooney, Epstein, Reid, & Nelson, 2003; Pierce, Reid, & Epstein, 2004). During the past seven years, only four studies attempted to improve the math skills of students with EBD, and all of them focused on computation skills. In fact, only one study published since 1975 attempted to increase students' higher order reasoning skills, which is surprising given the emphasis on problem solving by content organizations (e.g., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000) and government groups (e.g., Preparing Students for the 21st Century, Uchida, Cetron, & McKenzie, 1996; What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000, U.S. Department of Labor, 1991).One promising method for developing the math skills of low-achieving students is called enhanced anchored instruction (EAI). EAI is based on the concept of anchored instruction (AI), popularized by the Cognition and Technology Group atVanderbilt University (1990). AI uses video-based problems situated in authentic-like contexts that support student' learning in generative rather than passive learning environments (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt University, 1990; Goldman, Hasselbring, & the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997). EAI extends Al by affording students additional opportunities to practice their skills as they solve new but analogous problems in applied contexts (e.g., designing and manufacturing hovercrafts).An unusual quality of EAI problems is that they motivate students who have shown a dislike for mathematics. Previous research with EAI has revealed that most students, regardless of ability level, have been genuinely interested in solving the problems, thereby helping to confirm the notion of notable scholars (e. …