The Influence of Individual Factors on the Effectiveness of Message Content in Antismoking Advertisements Aimed at Adolescents

An estimated 440,000 Americans die each year from smoking-related diseases. Almost 90% of smokers begin smoking before the age of 21. Each day, nearly 6,000 children under the age of 18 start smoking; of these, nearly 2,000 will become regular smokers. Currently, approximately 4.5 million U.S. adolescents are cigarette smokers, and if current tobacco use patterns persist, an estimated 6.4 million children will die prematurely from a smoking-related disease (American Lung Association 2003). If one considers the detrimental health, economic, and social effects of smoking, it becomes increasingly important to develop effective antismoking campaigns that encourage adolescents to stop using tobacco and to deter future smokers from beginning. Adolescents generally include children in junior high (JH) or high school (HS) and are between the ages of 12 and 18. In an effort to encourage adolescents not to smoke, one of the national health objectives for 2010 is to reduce the prevalence of cigarette use among HS students to 16% or less (CDC 2004b). Increased sales tax on tobacco products, along with money from lawsuits with tobacco companies, has resulted in antismoking advertising campaigns in some states (as part of overall tobacco prevention programs) that have reduced smoking among adolescents. Signs that antismoking advertising efforts appear to be working include a reduction in cigarette use among HS students from a high of 36.4% in 1997 to 21.9% in 2003 (CDC 2004b) and a reduction among JH/middle school students, Grades 6-8, from 11% to 10.1% from 2000 to 2002 (CDC 2003). While tobacco control programs include antismoking ads, as well as educational materials, the focus of the current study is antismoking ads. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of individual factors (grade level, gender, and ethnicity) on the effectiveness of antismoking message content in reducing adolescents' smoking behavior and intentions. Results of this study have implications that may help improve the effectiveness of antismoking ads. The current study extends prior research by (1) using an experimental setting to test actual ads used in state antismoking campaigns, (2) delivering test ads in a realistic setting (i.e., Channel One), (3) using pre- and post-measures over time, (4) assessing the effectiveness of ads for both JH and HS students, and (5) measuring actual self-reported smoking behavior, as well as intentions to start and quit smoking. BACKGROUND LITERATURE Research studies in the area of adolescent smoking have examined self-reported smoking behavior among adolescents of different grade level, gender, and ethnicity but often without exposure to actual antismoking ads or in an unnatural setting in a short time span. What is lacking is research that examines the interaction between individual factors and message content, using experimental conditions (e.g., exposure to actual antismoking ads delivered in a realistic setting over time). This type of research is important because it can help those responsible for developing antismoking ads and measuring the effectiveness of these ads in reducing smoking among adolescents. The literature review will first address the effectiveness of select state antismoking ads, followed by types of message content, with a particular focus on long-term (LT) health and short-term (ST) cosmetic. Next, individual factors that affect smoking and predictor variables of smoking behavior will be addressed. Antismoking Ads State antismoking ads that appear to be working in terms of reducing smoking among adolescents, as well as among adults, include those of Florida, California, Massachusetts, Oregon, and Arizona. For example, Florida's advertisements featured teenagers who seek the truth about tobacco marketing practices and uncover manipulative and immoral practices (Pechmann and Reibling 2000). As a result, Florida saw current smoking decline from 18. …